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Objectives
To grasp basic theory related to textile fibers

Textile Materials

To understand the properties of textile fibers

To enlarge vocabulary of textile fibers
To keep up with the advance in textile fibers
To improve four skills of scientific English
and of presentation in English

University of Textiles and Clothing

Jiangnan University
1

Course Syllabus
Textbook
Zhang haiquan, Textile Materials, 2007
Reference book
Yao, M. et. al. Textile Materials (in
Chinese), 2nd ed., Textile Industry
Publishing House, 1990

Topical Outline
Chapter 1 Introduction to Textile Fibers
1.1 Fiber Classification
1.2 Fiber Polymer
1.3 Fiber Theory and Fiber Properties
Chapter 2 Natural Cellulosic Fibers
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Cotton
2.3 Bast Fibers

Grading
Grades for this course are determined by
Homework (10%),
Final exam (90%).
The final grade will be from A to F
corresponding to the total score
according to the student handbook.

Topical Outline
Chapter 3 Natural Protein Fibers
3.1 Introduction of Natural Protein Fibers
3.2 Wool
3.3 Specialty Hairs
3.4 Silk
Chapter 4 Regenerated Fibers
4.1 Viscose
4.2 Acetate and Triacetate

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Topical Outline
Chapter 5 Synthetic Fibers
5.1 Nylon
5.2 Polyester
5.3 Acrylic
5.4 Elastomeric

Topical Outline
Chapter 7 Thermal, Optical, and Electric
Properties of Textile Fibers
7.1 Thermal properties
7.2 Optical Properties
7.3 Electric Properties

1.1 Fiber Classification

Natural cellulosic fibers
Natural fiber

Man-made fiber

Topical Outline
Chapter 6 Absorption of Water on Textile
Fibers
6.1 Introduction of Absorption
6.2 Equilibrium
6.3 Regain and Relative Humidity
6.4 Theories of Moisture Sorption

1 Introduction to Textile Fibers

What is a fiber?
Large length to width ratio
Small enough to be flexible

Textile fibers
Minimum length: 12.5 mm, desirable: >20
mm.
Strong enough to be processed

1.1.1 Natural cellulosic fibers

Seed fibers: cotton, kapok

Protein fibers
Mineral fibers

Bast fibers: jute, hemp, ramie, flax

Regenerated fibers

Leaf fibers: agave (sisal) , pineapple, abaca

Synthetic fibers

Nut fibers:coir (coconut)

Mineral fibers

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1.1.2 Protein fibers

Animal secretion: wool, specialty hair, fur
fibers

1.1.3 Mineral fiber

Asbestos

Animal-hair fibers: silk, spider silk

1.1.4 Regenerated fibers

Regenerated cellulosic fibers
Tencel
Modal
PLA
Regenerated protein fibers
Soybean fiber
Milk fiber

1.1.5 Synthetic fibers

Name

1938

Du pont

Acrylic fiber

1950

E.I. Du Pont

Polyolefin/
polypropylene

1959

Hercules
Incorporated

Spandex

1961

E. I. Du Pont

1.2 Fiber polymer

Polymerization
Degree of polymerization
=

Metric count Ne : The number of meters

per gram. (Indirect system)

Company

Nylon

1.1.6 Fineness of fiber

Gravimetric (Direct system)
Tex: Mass in grams of 1000 m of fiber
Denier: Mass in grams of 9000 m of fiber

Year

Average molecular weight of polymer

Molecular weight of thr repeating unit in the polymer

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1.2.1 Types of polymer

Homopolymer: Polymerized from the
same or only one kind of monomer.
Copolymer: Polymerized from two or
more different monomers.
Alternating copolymer: Two monomers
polymerize in an alternating sequence
Random copolymer: Monomers are
polymerized in no particular order.

1.3 Fiber Theory and Fiber Properties

Fibers, which are primary materials from
which most textile products are made, can
be defined as units of matter of hair-like
dimension, with a length at least one
hundred times greater than the width.
Many substances found in nature can be
classified as fibers according to this
definition; however, only a limited
number of these materials are useful in the
production of yarns or fabrics.

1.3.2 Mechanical Properties

Strength or Tenacity
Tensile strength
Flexibility
Resiliency
Abrasion Resistance
Pilling

1.2.2 Inter-polymer forces of attraction

Van der Waals forces
Hydrogen bonds
Alt linkages
Cross-links

1.3.1 Physical Properties

Color: White or colorless fibers and
filaments are preferred.
Luster: Luster may be desirable in some
products and undesirable in others.
Shape: Shape of a fiber can be examined
both in cross section and in its longitudinal form.

1.3.3 Chemical Properties

Absorbency
Effect of Heat
Flammability
Chemical Reactivity and Resistance

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2 Natural Cellulosic fibers

Natural fibers obtained from plants,
animals and minerals. Plant or vegetable
fibers may come from the stem(flax, hemp,
jute and ramie), from the leaves(sisal or
abaca) or from the seed(cotton and kapok).

2.2 Cotton
Cotton is the most widely used natural
fiber. It is almost pure cellulose. It has a
number of qualities making it ideal for
making textiles and clothing.
It is generally recognized that most
consumers prefer cotton personal care
items to those containing synthetic fibers.
Today, cotton is grown in more than 80
countries worldwide.

2.2.2 Cotton Fiber morphology

Cross-section of
cotton fiber: kidney-shaped

2.1 Introduction
Relatively high density
Good conductors of heat and electricity
Tend to burn easily
Good resistance to alkalis
Most insects do not attack cellulosic fibers.
(Except for silverfish)

2.2.1 Cotton Species

Upland cotton
Egyptian cotton
Asian and African cottons

2.2.3 Structure of cotton fiber

Cotton fiber is
composed of cuticle,
primary wall,
secondary cell wall,
lumen.

Longitudinal section
of cotton fiber: convolution

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2.2.4 Polymer system

2.2.5 Chemical properties

Cotton polymer is a linear, cellulose

Cotton fibers are weakened and destroyed

polymer. (C6H10O5)n

by acids.

Degree of polymerization is about 5000

Cotton fibers are resistant to alkalis and

Cotton is a crystalline fiber, about 65 to 70

are relatively unaffected by normal

percent crystalline

laundering.

2.2.6 Physical properties

Elastic-Plastic Nature
Relatively inelastic
Hygroscopic Nature
Very absorbent
Thermal Properties
Conduct heat energy

2.3 Bast fibers

Bast fiber or skin fiber is fiber collected
from the Phloem (the "inner bark" or the
skin) or bast surrounding the stem of a
certain, mainly dicotyledonic plants.
Bast fiber includes flax, ramie, jute and
hemp

2.2.7 Growth and Production

Field
Preparation
Planting
Irrigation
Fertilization
Crop
Harvesting
Ginning

2.3.1 Fiber classification and morphology

Flax fiber is classified as a natural,
cellulose, bast, multi-cellular fiber.
It has a fiber density of 1.50 g/cm3.
Cross-section: polygonal
Longitudinal section: nodes

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2.3.2 Polymer system

Chemically
The flax polymer is a cellulose one.
Physically
The flax polymer differs from the cotton
polymer. It has a DP of about 18000.
The flax system is more crystalline than
that of cotton.

2.3.4 Chemical Properties

Owing to the similar chemical constitution

of cotton and flax, the explanations offered
for the chemical properties of cotton may
also be applied to flax.
However, it needs to remembered that
linen textile materials are not mercerized.

3 .1 Introduction of Natural Protein Fibers

Natural protein fibers are obtained from
animal sources. Most fibers in this group
are the hair from animals; the rest are
animal secretions.
They have excellent moisture absorbency.
Natural protein fibers have poor resistance
to alkalies
Fibers in this group have good resiliency
and elastic recovery.

2.3.3 Physical Properties

Tenacity: Flax is a very strong fiber.

Elastic-plastic nature: Very inelastic nature is
due to its very crystalline polymer system.
Hygroscopic nature: The reasons given above
to explain the hygroscopic nature of cotton
apply also to flax.
Thermal properties: The best heat resistance
and conductively of commonly used fibers.

2.3.5 Processing of flax

Pulling and rippling
Retting
Breaking and scutching
Hackling
Spinning

3.2 Wool
The word wool was wull in old English,
wullo in teutonic, and wlna in pre-teutonic
days.
Wool is the fiber from the fleece of
domesticated sheep. It is a natural,
protein, multi-cellular, staple fiber. The
fiber density of wool is 1.31 g/cm3, which
tends to make wool a medium weight
fiber.

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3.2.1 Fiber morphology

3.2.2 Felting of wool

Longitudinal appearance of wool is overlapping surface cell structure.

Cross-section of wool is usually oval in
shape.

Felting of wool is the irreversible shrinkage of the material.

Wet and heat

Scales

3.2.3 The polymer system

The wool polymer is linear,
keratin polymer, with some
very short side groups and it
normally has a helical
configuration. The repeating
unit of the wool polymer is
the amino acid which has the
general formula.

Directional
friction

Felting

3.2.4 Structure of wool

Wool fiber is composed of surface scale,
cortex and medulla layer.

3.2.5 Chemical properties

3.2.6 Physical Properties

Effect of acids: Wool is more resistant to

acids than to alkalis.
Effect of alkalis: Wool dissolves readily in
alkaline solutions.
Effect of sunlight and weather: Exposure
to sun light and weather tends to yellow
white wool textile materials.
Color-fastness: Wool is easy to dye.

Tenacity: Wool is a weak fibre.

Elastic-plastic nature: Wool has very good
elastic recovery and excellent resilience.
Hygroscopic nature: very absorbent
Thermal properties: Poor heat conductivity of wool and its low heat resistance.

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3.3 Specialty hairs

Mohair
Cashmere
Camel Hair
Alpaca
Llama
Vicuna

3.3.1 Mohair
Mohair refers to the hair of
Angora goat.
Mohair fiber is approximately
25-45 in diameter. It is both
durable and resilient. It is
notable for its high luster.
Italso takes dye exceptionally
well.

3.3.2 Cashmere
Cashmere is a type of fiber
obtained from the Cashmere
goat, or Pashmina.
cashmere fiber is highly
adaptable.
Cashmere is similar to wool
in most properties.

3.3.4 Alpaca
Alpaca offers excellent warmth and
insulation. The fibres are strong and glossy
and make fabrics similar in appearance to
mohair.

3.3.3 Camel Hair

Camel-hair are both light in
weight and warm; they have a
distinctive golden brown colour
with a pleasing lustre. The
fabrics are soft, comfortable, and
good wearing, and they drape
attractively.

3.3.6 Llama
Llama fibre is soft, strong,
and relatively uniform in
length and diameter but
somewhat weaker than
alpaca or camel hair.

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3.3.7 Vicuna
Vicuna is one of the
softest fibres in the world.
It is fine and lustrous, has
a lovely cinnamon brown
or light tan colour, and is
strong enough to make
very desirable fabrics. It is
also very light in weight
and very warm.

3.4.1 Fiber morphology

The rounded triangular cross-section of
the silk filament can be used to identify
silk. This is due to the slit-like opening of
the silk secreting glands, one each being
located on either side within the mouth of
the silk moth larvae.

3.4 Silk
Silk is a natural, protein filament. Its filament density is 1.34 g/cm3, which makes it
a medium weight fiber. However, very
light weight silk textile materials may be
man uf ac tur ed f r om silk f il am en ts.

3.4.2 Polymer system

Silk polymer is a linear, fibroin one. It
differs from the wool polymers as follows:
Silk is composed of sixteen different
ami-no acids compared with the twenty
amino acids of the wool polymer .
Silk polymers are not composed of any
amino acids containing sulphur.
Silk polymer occurs only in the betaconfiguration.

3.4.3 Chemical properties

3.4.4 Physical properties

Effect of acids: Silk is regarded more

readily by acids than is wool.
Effect of alkalis: Alkaline solutions cause
the silk filament to swell.
Effect of bleaches: What has been stated
for wool also applies to silk.
Effect of sunlight and weather: The resistance of silk to the environment is not as
good as that of wool.

Tenacity: The silk filament is strong.

Elastic-plastic nature: Silk is considered to
be more plastic than elastic.
Thermal properties: Silk is more sensitive
to heat than wool.

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3.4.5 Silk Production

Laying of the eggs by
the silk moth.
Hatching of the eggs
into caterpillars.
Spinning of a cocoon
by the caterpillar.
Emerging of the silk
moth from the cocoon.

Fiber produced by dissolving a natural

material (such as cellulose), then
regenerating it by extrusion and
precipitation, such as viscose, acetate and
triacetate, etc.

4.1 Viscose fibres

Viscose is a viscous organic liquid used to
make rayon and cellophane. Cellulose
from wood or cotton fibers is treated with
sodium hydroxide, then mixed with
carbon disulfide to form cellulose
xanthate. The resulting viscose is extruded
into an acid bath a spinneret to make
rayon. The acid converts the viscose back
into cellulose.

4.1.2 Manufacture
Pulp

Alkali cellulose

Xanthate cellulose

Viscose

4 Regenerated fibers

Viscose filaments

4.1.1 Historical review

Major breakthrough in production of manmade fibers occurred in 1862 when Ozanam
invented spinnerette.
Viscose process was discovered in 1891 by
English scientists C. F. Cross and E. J. Bevan.
Process for manufacturing viscose was
patented by British scientists, Charles
Frederick Cross, Edward John Bevan and
Clayton Beadle, in 1891.

4.1.3 Modified viscose fibres

Modified viscose fibers differ from the
regular rayon fibers in both strength and
elongation properties.
High-wet-modulus rayon: They have
better dimensional stability, better
strength, and better elongation than
regular rayon.
Cuprammonium rayon

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4.1.4 Polymer system

It is a linear, cellulose polymer, similar to
that of cotton. However, the viscose
polymer does not have the spiral
configuration of the cotton polymer.
The viscose polymer system is very
amorphous, being about 35 - 40 percent
crystalline and about 65 60 percent
amorphous.

4.1.5 Physical properties

Tenacity: Viscose is weaker than cotton.
Elastic-plastic nature: Viscose is limp
because its amorphous system.
Hygroscopic nature: The most absorbent
fiber in common use.
Thermal properties: Viscose has somewhat
similar thermal properties to cotton.

4.1.6 Chemical properties

4.2 Acetate and Triacetate

Chemical properties of cotton and viscose

are similar.
Shorter polymers and very amorphous
nature of viscose are responsible for the
much greater sensitivity to acids, alkalis,
bleaches, sunlight and weather, when
compared with cotton.
Viscose can color more brightly.

Fibers in which forming substance is cellulose

acetate where not less than 92% of hydroxyl
groups are acetylated: replacing -OH groups
with -COCH3.
Acetate: 2 of 3 -OH groups in each 6-member
ring are acetylated.
Triacetate: Nearly all -OH groups are replaced
2.91~2.96.
Major use: lining fabrics for suits, coats.

4.2.1 Structures
Surface: straited
Cross-section: lobed
Skin-core structure
DP: 250-300
Much less H-bond than in rayon

4.2.2 Properties
Acetate: hydrophilic, thermoplastic
Triacetate: hydrophobic, higher melting
and softening temperature, high
crystallinity
Wrinkle easily in hot water: dry cleaning
only
Swells in water, mechanical properties
change in water
Resist to weak alkali and acids

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4.2.2 Properties
Soluble in acetone
Degrade in UV light
Burns, melts, forms black beads with
vinegar like odder

5 Synthetic Fibers
Synthetic fibers are generally made from
coal, petroleum or natural gas.
In general, synthetic (man-made) fibers
are created by forcing, usually through
extrusion, fiber forming materials through
spinnerets into the air,
forming a thread.

4.2.3 Production
Similar to cellulose rayon for the first a
few steps
Cellulose mixed with acetic acid and acetic
anhydride, a sulfuric acid catalyst is added
Degradation of the polymer making DP
low
Triacetate is made first
When water added, some acetyl groups
are removed

5.0 Types of spinning methods

Melt Spinning: Using heat to melt polymer
to a viscosity suitable for extrusion.
Dry Solvent Spinning: This type of
spinning is used for easily dissolved
polymers. polymer solution is extruded
through a spinnerette into gas or vapor.
Wet Solvent Spinning: Polymer solution is
extruded into a precipitation bath.

5.1 Nylon
Man-made fibers in which fiber forming
substance is any long-chain synthetic polyamide
in which less than 85% of the amide linkages are
attached to 2 aromatic rings.
Invented in 1938 in Du Pont

5.1.1 Types
Types:

Mostly: Nylon 6 and Nylon 6,6

Small amount: nylon 3, nylon 4, nylon
5, nylon 7, nylon 8, nylon 12, nylon
4,6, nylon 6,10

Market: carpet fiber 80%, tire cord and ropes

14%, apparel 11% .

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5.1.2 Structure

5.1.3 Properties

Polymerization: condensation, eliminating a H2O

molecule

Tenacity: high due to high orientation and

crystallinity

Functional group: amide group

Elongation: high due to zigzag structure

Molecular configuration: linear zigzag molecules

forming well closely packed pleated sheets

Recovery: high due to zigzag

IMF: H-bond

Energy of rupture: high due to high tenacity and

high elongation.

Crystallinity: High 65~86%

Abrasion resistance: high

Cross-sectional and longitudinal shape: can be

any type

Water absorption: highest among all synthetic

fibers

5.1.3 Properties

5.2 Polyester

Smooth round cross-section and uniformity

permit close packing
Swells when absorbing moisture
Static: not enough water absorption
Low specific gravity: 1.14g/cc
Resilience: high: wrinkle free
Can be laundered but not easy to clean
Vulnerable to degradation in acids

Manufactured fibers in which fiber

forming substance is any long-chain
polymer composed of at least 85% by
weight of a substituted aromatic
c ar b oxylic ac id , inc lud ing b ut no t
restricted to substituted terephthalic units.
Generic group members:
PET (polyethylene terephthalate) ~95%

Low resistance to sunlight

5.2.2 Types
PCDT: poly(1,4-cyclohexylene
dimethylene), Eastman Kodak
PEB: poly(ehtylene oxybenzoate),
produced in Japan, 70s and 80s

5.2.3 Structure
Smooth, even diameter
Diameter generally 12-25 mm
White or off-white colors
Intermolecular forces:
Dipole-dipole between benzene rings
Linear polymer: DP 115-140
Crystallinity: 35%
Orientation: very oriented

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5.2.4 Properties

5.2.4 Properties

High tenacity due to high orientation

Very low moisture regain

High failure elongation

Low level of wicking due to hydrophobic surface

Elastic recovery

High electrical resistivity: static charge likely at

low humidity

High with low stress: 97% at 2% strain.

Low with high stress because dipoledipole bonding is not strong enough to
hold, leading to intermolecular
slippage

Medium specific gravity

Pilling
High dimensional stability
High Tm 450~500 degree F

Low compressional resilience: not good for

carpet fiber

5.2.4 Properties

5.2.4 Properties

Resistant to acids, potentially degrades in

concentrated alkalies
No UV degradation
Flammable with black smoke
Melt drip
Best thermal resistant among all general
use synthetics

PCDT
Lower tenacity and elongation
Superior elastic recovery
Better compressional resilience: good for
end uses such as carpets, rugs, knitwear
and fiberfill
Less pilling due to lower tenacity

5.2.5 Production

5.2.6 Modification

Polymerization
Form chips
melt spinning
drawing
heat setting to increase crystallinity and
orientation, reduce elongation and
shrinkage

High tenacity for tire cord (higher DP and

crystallinity)
Wicking
Sheath-core: polyester core, low melt
polymer sheath
Du Pont Coolmax: 20% more surface area
and maybe hydrophilic treated for
wicking

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5.3 Acrylic
Invented in conceptually in 1893
Produced initially in 1944 and full scale in
1950
End uses:
75% in apparel
18% household
7% Industrial and consumer textiles

5.3.2 Structure
Microscopic
Cross-section:
dog-bone shaped
kidney-bean shaped
round
Longitudinal
uniform diameter
rod-like shape

5.3.3 Properties
Mechanical properties similar to wool but
stronger
Medium tenacity, better than wool
Failure strain: medium
High elastic recovery at low strain level 90
- 95% at 1 % strain
Moderate abrasion resistance

5.3.1 Polymerization
Addition or chain growth
Homopolymer: polyarylonitrile strong but
compact and highly oriented
virtually impossible to dye
Copolymers: other types of monomers are
included for a dyeable fiber and easier to
process:
e.g. acrylic acid and vinylpyrrolidone
most acrylic fibers are copolymers

5.3.2 Structure
Molecular
DP = 1000
IMF: dipole-dipole interaction between
nitrile groups -CN
Crystallinity is not well-defined

5.3.3Properties
Bulky: tend to crimp
Wick but do not absorb water
Low specific density: 1.12 - 1.19 g/cm3
Static electricity built up

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5.4 Elastomeric
Elastomeric is polyurethane-based fibre.
Elastomeric consists of polymers which
are at least 85 % segmented polyurethanes.
Polyurethane is synthesised from urea:
H2NCONH2.
Elastomeric has a fibre density of 1 g/cm,
the lightest apparel fibre in common use.

5.4.1 Fibre morphology

Longitudinal appearance has distinct
striations and specks.
Cross-section of fiber has the dump-bell or
dog-bone shape

5.4.2 The polymer system

5.4.3 Physical properties

Two types of elastomeric polymers are

synthesized. Each is extruded into
filaments with excellent elastic properties
but differing in their resistance to alkalis.
The polyether type (for example Lycra)
resistant to alkalis
The polymer type (for example,
Vyrene)

Tenacity: Elastomeric are weak.

Elastic-plastic nature: Excellent recovery
Hygroscopic nature: Elastomeric are
hydrophobic
Thermal properties: Elastomeric are
thermo-plastic.

5.4.4 Chemical properties

6.1 Introduction of absorption

Effect of acids: Elastomeric textile material

in general are resistant to acids.
Effect of alkalis: The elastomeric is
sensitive to alkalis.
Colour-fastness: Elastomeric textile
material tend to be difficult to dye owing
to the hydrophobic and very crystalline
nature of their polymer system.

Adsorption in a non-swelling medium, for

example, the adsorption of gases on
charcoal, is a comparatively simple
process, but the absorption of water by
fibers is an example of a process that
comes midway between these two and
partakes of some features of each.

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6.2 Equilibrium

6.3 Regain and relative humidity

When a textile material is placed in a

given atmosphere, it takes up or loses
water at a gradually decreasing rate until
it reaches equilibrium, when no further
change takes place. This is a dynamic
equilibrium.

p(H 2 O)

Relative humidity(RH)= p* (H

2 O)

100%

p(H2O) Partial pressure of water vapor

p*(H2O)Saturation vapor pressure

Regain
G

W=

G G0
100%
G0

Mass of undried specimen

Mass of dried specimen

G0

6.4 Theories of moisture sorption

Sorption refers to the action of either
absorption or adsorption. As such it is the
effect of gases or liquids being
incorporated into a material of a different
state and adhering to the surface of
another molecule.

6.4.2 Directly and indirectly attached water

The first water molecules are absorbed
directly onto hydrophilic groups, but, for
the others: They may be attracted to other
hydrophilic groups, or they may form
further layers on top of water molecules.
Fiber
H 2O

H2O

H2O

Direct

H2O

H2O

H2O

Indirect

H2O

6.4.1 The effect of hydrophilic groups

As absorption, we take account of interaction between water molecules and molecules of the fiber. All the natural animal
and vegetable fibers have groups in their
molecules that attract water, such as NH2,
CONH, OH, COOH.

6.4.3 Absorption in crystalline regions

In crystalline region, the fiber molecules
are closely packed together in a regular
pattern. Thus it will not be easy for water
molecules to penetrate into a crystalline
region, and, for absorption to take place,
the active groups would have to be freed
by the breaking of cross-links.

H2O

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7 Other properties of textile fibers

Thermal, optical and electric are important
properties of textile fibers, which decide
the performance of the processing and
usage of textile fibers.

7.2 Optical properties

7.1 Thermal properties

Thermal conductivity: Thermal conductivity is a property of materials that
express the heat flux(W/m2) that will flow
through the material if a certain
temperature gradient DT(K/m) exists over
the material.
Fiber material

Thermal conductivity[mW/(m.k]

Cotton

71

Wool
Silk

54
50

7.3 Electric properties

When light falls on a fiber, it may be partly

transmitted, absorbed or reflected.
Refractive index niso of an isotropic fiber is
given by the mean of the refractive indices
of an oriented fiber in 3 directions:
niso = 1/ 3(n + 2n )
n Polarized parallel to fiber axis

The electronic properties of fibers are of

less obvious technical importance than the
mechanical properties, the electronic
properties are interrelated.
Resistance can be defined: R = Rs l 105

n Polarized perpendicular to fiber axis

N Number of ends of yarn or fiber

T Linear density of yarn or fiber, tex

NT

lDistance between the ends of

specimen, cm

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