Contents

Manual for K-Notes ................................................................................. 2

Diodes ..................................................................................................... 3
Transistor Biasing .................................................................................. 11
Transistor Amplifier .............................................................................. 19
Feedback Amplifiers .............................................................................. 25
Operational Amplifiers (OP-AMP) ......................................................... 29

2015 Kreatryx. All Rights Reserved.

Manual for K-Notes

Why K-Notes?
Towards the end of preparation, a student has lost the time to revise all the chapters
from his / her class notes / standard text books. This is the reason why K-Notes is
specifically intended for Quick Revision and should not be considered as comprehensive
study material.
What are K-Notes?
A 40 page or less notebook for each subject which contains all concepts covered in GATE
Curriculum in a concise manner to aid a student in final stages of his/her preparation. It
is highly useful for both the students as well as working professionals who are preparing
for GATE as it comes handy while traveling long distances.
When do I start using K-Notes?
It is highly recommended to use K-Notes in the last 2 months before GATE Exam
(November end onwards).
How do I use K-Notes?
Once you finish the entire K-Notes for a particular subject, you should practice the
respective Subject Test / Mixed Question Bag containing questions from all the Chapters
to make best use of it.

2015 Kreatryx. All Rights Reserved.

2

Diodes
Representation:
A: Anode

K : Cathode

The voltage at which the charged particles start crossing the junction is called as cut in voltage
or Threshold voltage.
It is represented as VAK V .

When VAK V , depletion region exists and no charge carriers cross the junction, therefore

I 0
D
When VAK V , number of charged particles crossing the junction increases & the current

through the diode increase, non linearly or exponentially.

Diode in the condition is said to be forward biased.
VAK

VT
ID IS e
1

I = reverse saturation current

S
KT
V = Thermal voltage =
T
q
K = Boltzmann constant
T = Temp. in k
q = charge of one e
V = 26mv at room temperature
T

= intrinsic factor

When V
0 , diode is said to be in reverse biased condition & no majority carriers cross the
AK
depletion region, hence I 0
D

Characteristics of Diode

Equivalent circuit of diode

Forward Bias

Reverse Bias

Diode Resistance
1) State or DC Resistance
V
R
AK
DC
I
D

2) Dynamic or AC Resistance
dV
V
T
R
D
AC dI
I
D
D
Diode Applications
Clippers
It is a transmission circuit which transmits a part of i/p voltage either above the reference
voltage or below the reference voltage or b/w the two reference voltages.

Series Clippers
i) Positive Clippers
V V sin t
i
m
V V
m
R

: When V V => V V
O
i
R
R
When V V => V V
O
i
R
i

ii) Negative Clipper

V V sin t :
i
m

When V V => V V
o
R
i
R

V V
m
R

When V V => V V
i
o
R
i

Shunt Clipper
i) Positive Clipper
When V V , D is ON
i
R
V V
o
R
When V V , D is OFF
i
R
V V
o
i

ii) Negative Clipper

When V V , D is ON
i
R
V V
o
R
When V V , D is OFF
i
R
V V
o
i

Two level Clipper

When V V , D is OFF & D is ON
i
2 1
2
V V
0
2
When V V & V V , D is OFF & D is OFF
i
2
i
1 2
1
V V
o
i
When V V , D is OFF D is ON
i
1 2
l
V V
o
1

CLAMPERS
These circuits are used to shift the signal either up words or down words.

Negative Clampers

When V 0
R
+ve peak is shifted to 0
-ve peak is shifted to 2V
m
When V 0
R
+ve peak is shifted to V
R
-ve peak is shifted to -2 V V
m
R

Positive Clampers

When V 0
R
-ve peak is shifted to 0
+ve peak is shifted to 2V
m
When V 0
R
-Ve peak is shifted to V
R
+ve peak is shifted to 2V V
m
R
Rectifier
It converts AC signal into pulsating DC.
1) Half wave rectifier
During positive half wave cycle
R

L
V V sin t
0
m
R R
L
f
R = diode resistance
f

During negative half cycle

V 0
0

V
V
m
0 avg

4 RL

100%
2 R f RL
V
V
m
0 RMS
2
V
Form Factor = RMS 2
V
avg

Ripple factor =
PIV V
m

FF2 1

Bridge full wave rectifier

When +ve half wave cycle

R
L
V V t
o
R 2R
L
f
When ve half wave cycle

R
L
V V t
o
R 2R
L
f

Vo avg

2V
m

8
1

R
2
f
1

R
L

V
V
m
o RMS
2

FF
2 2

100%

PIV V
m

Zener Diode

A heavily doped a si diode which has sharp breakdown characteristics is called Zener Diode.

When Zener Diode is forward biased, it acts as a normal PN junction diode.

For an ideal zener diode, voltage across diode remains constant in breakdown region.

If I

z(min)

is not given, then consider I

z(min)

Voltage Regulator
Regulators maintains constant output voltage irrespective of input voltage variation.

Zener must operate in breakdown region so V V

i
z
I I I
z L

V
I z
L R
L
I
I
I
max
z max L
I
I
I
min
z min L
I

z max

z min

max

I
L

I
I
min L

10

Transistor Biasing
Bipolar Junction Transistor

Current conduction due to both e- & holes

It is a current controlled current source.

NPN Transistor

PNP Transistor

Region of Operation
Junctions

Region of operations

Applications

i)

J RB
E
J RB
C

cut off

Switch

ii)

J FB
E
J RB
C

active

amplifier

iii)

J FB
E
J FB
C

saturation

Switch

iv)

J RB
E
J FB
C

reverse active

Attenuation

11

Current gain () (common base)

I I I
C
nc o
: injected majority carrier current in collector
I
nc
I
nc
I
E
I I
I
1
I B o ; I B
I
C
E
1
1
1 o

Current gain (common emitter)

I I 1 I
c
B
o

;
1
1

These relations are valid for active region of operations.

Characteristics of BJT

Common Base characteristics

input V , I
BE E
output V , I
CB C

Input characteristics
V vs I when V
cons tant
CB
BE
E

12

Output characteristics

Common emitter characteristics

inputs V , I
BE B

outputs V , I
CE C

Input characteristics

13

Output characteristics

Transistor Biasing
1) Fixed Bias method
V I R V 0
cc B B
BE

V V
BE
I cc
B
R
B
Assuming active region of operation
I I
c
B
V V
I R
CE
CC C C

Verification

V V
Active Re gion
If V
CE
CC
CE sat

If not ; then saturation region

For saturation region , V V

CE
CE sat
I
C

V V
CC
CE sat
R

I
In saturation region , I C
B
min
14

2) Feedback Resistor Bias Method

By KVL

V I I R I R V I R 0
cc
c B c B B
BE E E

V I I R I R V I I R 0
cc
c B c B B
BE
C B B

Assuming active region

I I
c
B

I
B

V V
cc
BE

R 1 R R
B
C
E

; I I
c
B

V V I I R R
CE
CC
C B
C
E

3) Voltage divider bias or self-bias

By thevenins theorem across R

2
V
V
TH
CC R R
1
2
R R
R
2 1
TH R R
1
2
Apply KVL

V V I R
I I R
TH
BE B TH
B C E

Assuming active region I I

C
B
V V
TH
BE
I
B R
1 R
TH
E
V V
I R I R
CE
CC C C E E

15

FET Biasing
JFET

When V
is negative, depletion layer is created between two P region and that pinches the
GS
channel between drain & source.
The voltage at which drain current is reduce to zero is called as pinch off voltage.
Transfer characteristics of JFET is inverted parabola

GS
I I
1

D DSS
V

GS OFF

When V
0, I I
GS
D DSS
V
, I 0
When V
GS
GS OFF D

Pinch of voltage, V V
p
GS OFF

For a N channel JFET, pinch off voltage is always positive

V 0 & V
0
p
GS

16

JFET Parameters
1) Drain Resistance

V
r DS
d I
DS
It is very high, of the order of M .
2) Trans conductance

I
dI
D
D
g
m V
dV
GS
GS

GS
I I
1

D DSS
V
GS OFF

2I
dI
DSS
D g
m
dV
V
GS
GS OFF

V
1

GS

V
GS OFF

3) Amplification factor

V
DS g r
md
V
GS

MOSFET (Metal Oxide Semi-conductor FET)

17

Enhancement Type MOSFET

No physical channel between source & drain

To induce a channel Gate source voltage is applied.

Depletion MOSFET

Physical channel present between source & drain.

Types of MOSFET

Operating characteristics
1. For n channel MOSFET

cut off region

I 0 for V V
D
GS
T

V2
W
I C
V V V DS
D
n ox L GS
T DS
2

V
V and V
V V
GS
T
DS
GS
T

W VGS VT
I C
D
n ox L
2

(linear region)

V
V and V
V V
GS
T
DS
GS
T

(saturation region)

18

2. For p channel MOSFET

(cut off region)

I 0 for V
V
D
GS
T

V2
W
I C
V V V DS
D
n ox L GS
T DS
2

V
V and V
V
V
GS
T
DS
GS
T
2
W VGS VT
I C
D
n ox L
2
V
V and V
V
V
GS
T
DS
GS
T

(linear region)

(saturation region)

Transistor Amplifier
Small signal analysis for BJT

h parameter model of BJT

V hI h V
1
i1
r 2
I h I h V
2
o 2
f1

I
current gain, A 2
I
I
1
h R
f L
A
I 1h R
o L

Input Impedance,

V
Z 1 h h A R
i
i
r I L
I
I
19

Voltage gain, A

Output impedance,

AR
I L
Z
i
Z

hh
h f r
o h R
i
s

Common Emitter (CE) Amplifier

Small signal model

h e
V
Voltage gain A o f R R
v
c
L
V
he
i
i

20

High frequency Analysis of BST

= base spreading resistance.

r
bb'
= input resistance.
r
b'e
= feedback resistance.
r
b'c
r = output resistance.
ce

= diffraction capacitance.
C
b' e
= Transition capacitance.
C
b'c
g = Transconductance.
m

Hybrid - parameters

Ic Q

1) g
m
V
T

KT
,
; V
T
q

= dc bias point collector current.

I
CQ
h
2) r
fe
b'e g
m

21

High Frequency Model

= open circuited.
r
b'c

Low Frequency Model

22

Voltage gain as frequency

Low Frequency Range

External capacitor C and C are short circuited.

E
C

Internal capacitor C
are open circuited.
and C
b'c
b'e

Circuit becomes like.

= acts as high pass filter.

23

High frequency range

External capacitors C ,C and C are short circuited.

b c
E

is open circuited.
C
b'c

Equivalent circuit behaves as a low pass filter with cut-off frequency fL.
Mid band range

All internal and external capacitance are neglected, so gain is independent of frequency.
FET Small Signal parameters

I
Trans conductance, g D
m V
GS
In non saturation region

I
W
g D C
.V
m V
n ox L DS
GS
In saturation region

W
g
C
V V
ms
n ox L GS
T

Small Signal equivalent circuit

24

For low frequency

For high frequency

Feedback Amplifiers
Ideal Amplifier
Z
in
Z 0
o
Positive feedback : V V V
i
s
f
Negative Feedback : V V V
i
s
f
V
A
For negative feedback, o
V
1 A
s
V
A
For positive feedback, o
V
1 A
s

Positive feedback is used for unstable system like oscillators.

25

Effects of Negative Feedback

i) Sensitivity

A
A

Without feedback =
With feedback =

A
A

1
A
f
A
1 A A
f

ii) Input Impedance

Without feedback = Z

With feedback = Z
if
Z

if

Z 1 A
i

iii) Output impedance

Without feedback = Z
With feedback = Z
Z

of

of

1 A

Negative feedback also leads to increase in band width

.
Topologies of Negative feedback
Output
Voltage
Voltage
Current
Current

Input
Series
Shunt
Series
Shunt

26

1) Voltage Series Topologies

V V
o
f

It is called as series shunt feedback or voltage - voltage feedback.

In this case, input impedance increases & output impedance decreases.
2) Voltage shunt topologies
I V
o
f

= Trans conductance

It is called as shunt-shunt or voltage current feedback.

3) Current series Topologies
V I
o
f

= resistance

It is called as shunt shunt or voltage current feedback.

4) Current shunt Topologies
I I
o
f

It is also called as shunt series or current current feedback.

27

Circuit Topologies
1) Voltage series

2) Voltage shunt

3) Current series

28

4) Current shunt

Operational Amplifiers (OP-AMP)

+ Non inverting terminal
- inverting terminal
Parameters of OPAMP
1) Input offset voltage
Voltage applied between input terminals of OP AMP to null or zero the output.
2) Input offset current
Difference between current into inverting and non inverting terminals of OP AMP.
3) Input Bias Current
Average of current entering the input terminals of OP AMP.
4) Common mode Rejection Ratio (CMRR)

Defined as ratio of differential voltage gain A to common mode gain A

.
d
cm

CMRR

A
A

cm

29

5) Slew Rate
Maximum rate of change of output voltage per unit time under large signal conditions.
SR

dV
o
dt max

V s

Concept of Virtual ground

In an OP AMP with negative feedback, the potential at non inserting terminals is same as the
potential at inverting terminal.
Applications of OP AMP
1) Inverting Amplifier

R
V f V
o R
in
1

2) Inverting Summer

V
V
V
V R a b c
o
f R
R
R
b
c
a

3) Non inverting Amplifier

R
V 1 f V
o
R in
1

30

4) Non inverting summer

If R R R R
a
b
c

V R2
V R2
V R2
V a
b
c
1 R R
R R2
R R2
2

V
1

Va Vb Vc
3

R V V V
b
c
V 1 f a
o

R
3

5) Differential Amplifier
By Super position

R
V
1 f
ob
R
1

R
3 V

R R b
3
2

R
f V
V
oa R
a
1
V V V
o
oa
ob

6) Integrator

1 t
V
V dc
o RC o in

31

7) Differentiator

dV
V RC in
o
dt

8) Voltage to current converter

V
I in
L
R

9) Current to voltage Converter

V
R I
out
p IN

32

10) Butter worth Low Pass Filter

R
V 1 f
o
R
1

V
o
V
in 1

V
in

1 j2fRC

f
f
j
f
H

1
A 1 f R ; f
H 2RC
f
1

11) Butter worth High Pass Filter

R
V
o 1 f

V
R
in
1

j2fRc

1 j2fRC

j f f
L
A
f
f
1 j

R
A 1 f
f
R
1

1
f
L 2RC

33

12) Active Half wave rectifier

In this circuit, diode voltage drop between
V
input & output is not V but rather D ,
D
A

where A = open loop gain of OP AMP.

V V
in
o

13) Active Full wave Rectifier

This circuit provides full wave rectification with a gain of R R

1

R
V
V
m R m
1

34

14) Active Clipper

V V , Diode conducts and V V
IN
R
o

And when V V Diode is OFF

IN
R
V V
o
IN

15) Active Clamper

V V V
o
IN
p
V = peak value of V
p
IN

35

16) Comparators

36

17) Schmitt Trigger

Inverting Schmitt Trigger

When output is V , then V

V
sat
sat
ref

When output is V , then V V

sat
sat
ref
R
2
When
R R
1
2

Upper triggering point utp V

sat
Lower triggering point Ltp V
sat

Hystersis voltage = UTP LTP 2V

sat

R1
UTP V

V
sat R1 R 2 R
R1
LTP V

V
sat R1 R 2 R

37

Non Inverting Schmitt Trigger

R
R
Upper trigger Point UTP 2 V , Lower triggering point LTP 2 V
sat
R
R sat
1
1

Hysteric voltage = UTP LTP 2V

sat

18) Relaxation Oscillator

38

R
, 2
R
1

 R
2

R R
2
1

1
T 2RCln

1
f

1
1
2RCln

555 Timer
Pin Diagram

39

Bistable multi vibrator acts as a FF.

Monostable Multi vibrator produces pulse output.

Bistable Multi vibrator acts as free running oscillator.

A stable Multi vibrator

T 0.69 R R c
c
1
2
T 0.69R c
d
2

T T T 0.69 R 2R C
c
d
1
2
f

1
1

T 0.69 R 2R C
1
2

40