1+GROUNDED BASE 2—GROUNDED COLLECTOR 3—GROUNDED EMITTER: Low emitter; impedance from collector. Cl acts as short circuit to a.c. impedance to high output input while blocking d.c. There- fore, the base is grounded to ac, and common to both inpue and output signal circuits. Used for matching low impedance source to amplifier stages. Phase shift zero; 2.c. current gain <1; a.c, voltage gain high. Transistor: OC7I(G) 2 High input impedance; low output impedance. Often called an emitter follower. Decoupling capacitor issome- times connected across supply lines to reduce power line _ impedance. Collector is common to input and output circuits Used to match amplifier to low impedance load. Phase shift zero; a,c. current gain high; a.c. voltage gain ~< |. Transistor: OC35(C) Medium input impedance. Medium output impedance. Battery positive supply line is commen to both input and) output circuits. Decoupline capacitor C2 short circuits, emitter to positive supply line as far as a.c. is concerned. Therefore, _ emitter Jas) common to both input and output circuits. Phase _ 180°; a,c. current gain high; a.c. voltage gain high. Transistor: OCTI(G)Low input impedance; source can be coupled in series with base instead of in the emitter circuit, where high current gain is required and where the normal common base circuit is unsuitable. Transformer can be used to match almost any impedance tothe base. A.C. signal is superimposed on very small base bias current, determined by values of RI and R2. Values of com- Ponents not given because they depend on the characteristics of the transformer and signal source impedance. Transistors: OC7I(G), NKT2I4(A), _ ACI55(E) lianas ev ourPuT Common emitter stage with a collector Current of about 3mA. The collector load is the transformer Primary coupled to a class B push-pull pair, Special’ packages containing all three transistors (matched) can be obtained. If the characteristics are dissimilar, severe distortion is likely. Ideally the two halves of TI secondary should be bifilar wound, i.e. both halves wound at the same time'so that the wires lay side-by-side. Commercial types’ are available (e.g. Repanco 1145). Transistors: _2G381(H), NKT271(A), ACI54(E) 0C81(G), 36—465k Hz 1.F. AMPLIFIER Tuned amplifier with transformer primaries tuned to the if. High frequency transistors essential. Base voltage is determined by potential divider (R2 and R3) in con- junction with a.g.c. voltage. Base of TRI is current driven by TI; primary is connected to the rf. mixer (not shawn), Second 4 a.g.c. LINE To DETECTOR stage is similar but with higher current drain. Feedback is provided by Rl, C4, R7, and C8. The transformers shown can be Repanco type XT26 for TI and 72; XT27 for T3. Transistors: NKT142(B), 2G301(H), OC45(G)J—DIRECT COUPLED SMALL SIGNAL AMPLIFIER | Grounded emitter configuration; base bias is taken from TR2 emitter to TRI base. The bias on TRI base is directly controlled by TR2 collector current, which automatic ally sets the working point of TRI, and hence TR2 through the potential divider RI, R6. The bias point of TR2 is set by the con- trolled current through TRI collector load. Direct coupling between TRI collector and TR2 base is essential for this operation. The input impedance is Ik@ for a 50dB gain. Decoupling of the supply line by R7 and C5 enables this circuit to be used in front of that shown in Fig. 8. RB indicates decoupling resistor value for —9V supply. Transistors: OC7I(G), NKT2I4(A), ACI55(E)8—DIRECT COUPLED DRIVER Same principle as applied in Fig. 7 but handles larger signal prior to the push-pull output stage. Can be coupled to circuit shown in Fig. 7 if used with 27k resistor and 0:005F capacitor in parallel connected in series with the input. Transformer details: Bobbin gin x gin bore: Primary 1,900 turns 42 s.w.g. enam. L = 82H, D.C.R, = 2170. Secondary two bifilar windings 950 turns each 40 s.w.g. SH, D.GR. = 1050 for each half, Laminations 15 mil mumetal. Transistors: OC7I(G), NKT214(A), ACIS5(E), OC8ID(G), NKT272(A) (ine any % a OUTPUT to push pull stage9—CLASS B PUSH-PU:L OUTPUT The bases are 180° out of phase (determined by driver transformer connections). Bias is provided by R7 and R8. Crossover distortion can result from the slight non- linearity at very low base currents, so transistors are given a small bias to partly offset this. Each transistor conducts on alternate half cycles which are recombined in the output transformer. Transformer details: Bobbin in x gin bore; Primary two bifilar windings 178 turns each 31 s.w.g. enam. L=190mH, D.C.R. = 3:39 for each half, Secondary 29 turns 20 s.w. enam. 525mH, — D.GR. =< 10, Laminations 15 mil mumetal, Power output 500mW into 32 loudspeaker when coupled to circuit in Fig, 8. Heat sinks must be used, 35sq cm 18 s.w.g. aluminium. Transistor: OC8I(G) IwPuT trom driver transt mr @ onoosoodd10—SINGLE ENDED PUSH-PULL OUTPUT TRI and TR2 can be considered as two separate class B operated stages. Bias is provided by RI and R2 for TRI, and R3 and Driver R4 for TR2. Since the negative and Reghatore positive supply lines are common to a.c., TRI conducts for one half-cycle while TR2 conducts for alternate half-cyeles. The output is taken across the two stages which are in parallel for a.c, No output trans- former is needed. Output 200mW into. 75Q with 27kQ2 feedback resistor from output back to emitter of driver, Driver transformer (Fortiphone L442), turns ratio Ti+ 1; Primary L=5H at |'5mA d.c., D.C.R. = <7500, Secondary d.c.r < 100 per winding. Transistors: OC72(G), NKT212(A)1I—COMPLEMENTARY SYMMETRY No output transformer is used in this circuit as the two transistors are operated under similar conditions to that shown in Fig. 10. No driver transformer is used as the signal is provided direct from TRI. Notice TR3 is an npn type so thac it can operate in opposite phase to the con- ventional stage without transformers. The output is taken from the emitter circuits. Both TR2 and TR3 act as emitter followers, D.C. stabilisation is provided by RI, 2, 6, 7 for all three transistors. Heat sinks are recommended—35sq cm 18 s.w.g. alu- minium. Transistors: TRI 2G371(H), TR2 2G381(H), TR3 2G339(H)12—DUAL TONE CONTROL C3 0-047pF ct SOpF ot INPUT. BASS VR 500. TREBLE <—| 2 0-005yF R2 RS ATK O ATK BV 10 -9V C6 SOpF Fok OUTPUT With any form of tone contro! the signal level will be reduced at pre-determined frequencies. If bass boost is required, the high frequencies are cut. Then the audio spectrum is amplified to bring them up to, normal, while the bass frequencies will be higher than the treble. Similarly for treble boost the bass frequencies are cut. The reactance of a capacitor (Xe) is inversely proportional to frequency. When the 10 frequency is such that Xc is equal to the associated resistor, the frequency response will be 3dB down. It will continue to go down at 6dB per octave as frequency increases for a parallel capacitor, and as frequency decreases for a series capacitor. The © and R form a frequency sensitive potentiometer. Transistors: almost any small signal type such as OCTI(G), NKT214(A)13—TUNED COLLECTOR OSCILLATOR Current changes through the transistor are reflected back through the transformer to the base, A continuous oscillation is produced and is tuned to the required frequency by the inductance of TI primary and the value of C3, R4 acts as the load across the output. Frequency of gscillation is 1/(2mvLC) where L is the inductance of collector winding, and C is the parallel cuning capacitance. Transistor: OC84(F), NKT211(A) 14—TAPE RECORDER BIAS OSCILLATOR This circuit is based on similar principles to those in Fig. 13. Provides ImA bias current at 42kHz for a tape record head but is unsuitable for erase. Frequency of oscillation is much higher than the highest audible recorded frequency. Oscillator frequency should be about five times this recorded frequency. Output voltage is about 32V peak into a 250mH record head, Transformer details: Ferroxcube pot core assembly LAI. Output winding 1-2, 150 curns 34 s.w.g. Secondary winding 3-4, 8 turns 30 s.w.g. Primary winding: (a) 5-6,25 turns 34s.w.g.; (b) 6-7, 125 turns 34 s.w.g. Transistor: OC72(G), 2G381(H) TO REC HEAD 250mHI5—PHASE SHIFT OSCILLATOR Convenient way of producing 2 signal without using transformers. At low fre- quencies, where internal phase shift of the transistor is minimal, an artificial phase shift is obtained by inserting a CR ladder net- work between the collector and base. At least three CR “‘rungs’” are needed to get 180°. Impedance of the ladder will be much higher than that of the transistor. Attenuation over the ladder is 29 using three equal resistances and three equal capacitances. Frequency I /(2aCR/6)Hz. Where C —O-OlnF and R= l0kQ this es a frequency of 650Hz but is modified by transistor impedances to 800Hz, Output impedance is high. High gain transistor is required such as~ OC75(G) or ACIS6(E) 216é—WIEN BRIDGE OSCILLATOR Audio frequency sine wave generator, or parallel pair of the Wien_bridge will Frequency determining components are cause the feedback signal to TRI base to contained in bridge network R6, C3, RB, become out of phase with the bridge input, and C4. Regenerative positive feedback preventing oscillation. If resistors R6 and from point "X”’ to TRI base occurs only at RB are made into a twin ganged potencio- this frequency. Frequency = 1/(27RC). meter, the frequency can be varied, Here R=4-7kQ and C = 0-01. Oscil- lator is frequency selective. Anychangeor Transistors: OCTI(G), ACIS5(E), mismatch in component values in the series NKT2I4(A) 13Free running square wave -generator. Unbalance between two stages causes TRI (or TR2) to conduct while TR2 (or TRI) is cut off. Cross-coupled capacitors Cl and C2 are alternately charged through’ base emitter junctions; discharged through VRI and VR2._ When C2 is discharged through VR2, TRI base voltage falls exponentially to zero, when TRI starts to conduct. TR2 is cut off. When Cl is discharged through VRI, TR2 base falls to zero, when TR2 will conduct. The small negative pips on the 4 +6V Yoet ' +6 Yoe2 im itz base waveforms are due to rapid initial recharge of capacitors. Waveform at both collectors approximate to a square wave. Frequency is adjusted by VRi and VR2. f= I/(I-4CR) where C is single coupling capacitance (farads) and R is base bias resistance (ohms), and where Cl = C2 and VRI = VR2. Mark/space ratio is altered by varying the value of one capacitor. NKT218(A), OC83(G), Transistors: ACIS6(E)Used for pulse shaping or to provide a calculable delay period in the output pulse which is independent of the input trigger pulse period. May be employed for frequency division, With no trigger pulse applied in the circuit shown, TR2 would normally be switched on. Base bias is provided by R3. TRI is off-as a positive bias potential is applicd via R4 and R5, C2 is charged to —3V. When trigger pulse is applied via the diode shaping circuit to the base of TRI, this transistor starts to switch collector + d (es Yy t TRI au % | ao 5 ue ov 0 ve pet aint voltage switches off TR2. This cumulative elfely on the base voltages is'shown at time t, With TRI bottomed, C2 retains its original charge with +-3V applied to TR2 base. C2 discharges through R3 and TRI, bringing TR2 base towards OV, and the point where TR2 switches on again. The output pulse period is determined by C2 and R3. An approximation of this period is 0-7C,R, seconds. Transistors: OC7I(G), ACI55(E), NKT214(A) 15‘Commonly used for counting and generating square waves from pulse inputs. When the supply is applied the circuit assumes a stable state with one transistor bottomed and one cut off. When a positive pulse is applied via the differentiator CI-DI, the transistors reverse their switched state and the circuit assumes 16 +6 its second stable condition. D2 and D3 route the pulses for the correct switching sequence each diode being reverse biased when its connecting transistor is cut off. ‘Outputs may be taken from either collector. Transistors: NKT224(B), ACII3(E)20—SCHMITT TRIGGER The Schmitt or emitter coupled bistable, can be considered as a fast acting switch, the action of which is precipitated by a pre- arranged dic. level, the trip voltage (see waveforms). Often employed as a voltage level detector. When the input is below the triggering level TR2 is switched on by its base divider net- work R2 and R4, with TRI switched off. If the input voltage is made to exceed the emitter voltage (neglecting the small base- ouTPUT emitter drop at TRI) this transistor begins to switch on and TR2 switches off. Since there are no coupling capacitors in this circuit, reversion to its original condition of TR2 on can only be achieved by reducing the amplitude of the input signal below the trip voltage. The switch on and switch off voltages differ in level and this property is ‘often used to square, or clip, waveshapes. Transistors: NKT274(A), ACIS4(E)2I—MILLER SAWTOOTH GENERATOR R2 RG 43k 50k.0. =30V Alternatively known as the Miller integrator or linear sweep generator, this circuit is often encountered where sawtooth wave- forms are required. Cl, Dl, and Ri clamp the input positive peaks to OV. When the input goes negative TRI is switched on and almost all the supply voltage is applied to TR2 the emitter load. Since the base is almost at zero volts, C2 charges to this Potential. As the pulse input goes positive, TRI is cut off and C2 commences to dis- charge via TR2 and the base bias resistors R2 and VRI. The discharge of the Miller capacitor C2 characterised by an initial small step in the output, after which the base voltage of TR2 remains constant and C2 continues discharging linearly on a long time constant producing a sawtooth output. Transistors: 2S321(H), OC203(F) 22—SUPER-ALPHA PAIR Alpha is the term originally used to indicate transistor current gain. Super-alpha pair derives its name from the combined gain of two transistors, these being multiplied. Otherwise the characteristics are as in a grounded emitter stage. Transistor: npn type—2N2926(1)23—DARLINGTON PAIR Has a very low output impedance and high input impedance. Input impedance is approximately equal to the combined current gains of the transistors multiplied by the output impedance, Otherwise the characteristics are as in a grounded collector (emitter follower) stage. Transistor: npn type—2N2926(1) 24—BOOTSTRAP AMPLIFIER A technique used to achieve high input impedance where base bias resistors are likely to shunt the input, is known as bootstrapping. Here almost equal and in. phase voltages are applied to cither end of resistor R3. The impedance of this isolation resistor can be considered as very large, as only a small current flows. TR2 is the emitter load of TRI which acts as an emitter follower. As is usual with this type of circuit, the input impedance is high, but the bias divider RI-R2 would reduce the impedance “'seen’’ by the signal if the bootstrapped resistor R3 was not included. Cl couples negative feedback from the emitter load to implement this boot- strapping, Transistors: TRI ACI07(G), TR2 OC7I(G)25 & 26—D.C. CLAMPS TO A REFERENCE VOLTAGE Clamping is the technique of shifting a wave- form so that either its positive or negative peaks are fixed at some reference level. Ifa train of pulses is passed through a capacitor the mean d.c. level is blocked. In the clamp 25—D.C. CLAMP TO POSITIVE VOLTAGE circuits the diodes DI restores the d.c. level so that the peaks are clamped to the reference voltage. In the examples given below these peaks are negative. 26—D.C. CLAMP TO ZERO VOLTAGE27—SERIES DIODE LIMITER Normal output +4). | ev OE V Es +4V BIAS. | Output with diode reversed Clipper or limiter circuits are used when a particular waveform, not necessarily sinu- soidal, is required which lies above or below some reference level. Since the forward resistance of a diode is low, and its reverse resistance high, when the input voleage Faises the cathode level above the bis Potential, DI does not conduct and the output remains at the bias potencial. During the remainder of the cycle, the diode conducts and the Output voltage almost equals the input. With the diode reversed, conduction ‘only occurs when the Positive peaks exceed the bias potential. 28—SHUNT DIODE LIMITER Normal output +L - Output diode reversed The shunt diode clipper uses the diode to short-circuit the output above the 4V bias, When the input voltage is less than the bias potential the output waveform. is almost identical since the diode is not conducting, When the input voltage exceeds the bias potential the diode conducts and shunts the load resistance so that the output voltage only slightly exceeds the bias potential. With the diode reversed, the peaks are clipped at the bias voltage. 2129—DOUBLE PARALLEL CLIPPER OR SLICER In the slicer the two biased diodes combine to trim the input peaks alternately when the positive and negative half cycles exceed the respective diode bias potentials. The diodes act as shunts for the peaks above AY (bias voleage), 30—TRIGGER PULSE SHAPER 2 Most switching sources produce rectangular waveforms which generally have to be shaped to provide an effective trigger for other pulse circuits. In the shaper shown, Cl and RI form a differentiator which converts the rectangular wave input into positive and negative going spikes, the width of each being dependent on the time constant C,R,, The diode effectively removes the lower spike so that the output provides one positive going narrow pulse for one input cycle. Almost any small signal diode can be used. The remaining small negative pip is due to the reverse diode resistance,31—STABILISED TRANSISTOR POWER SUPPLY Of the three main vypes of rectification, the bridge rectifier shown here (Dl, 2, 3, 4) Offers che lowest impedance source for d Supplies, an important factor when amplifier circuits to achieve ac, stability. ideal source impedance is zero but is not practicable. Very high values of smoothing Capacitor are used to reduce impedance to Towest figure. Mf a voltage stabiliser is connected to the output from the bridge Circuit, any fluctuation of load resistance {R:) is used to control the voltage output from TRI. If Ri, falls, the output voltage tends to drop. A dic: voltage is picked off = 8V 10 ~15V Hs2075 OR 2U75 by the potential divider R3, VRI, R4 to control the current through TR2 and hence TRI. TR2 base goes more negative, TRI emitter voltage rises thus restoring the output voltage. Cl reduces the impedance across the bridge and smooths the d.c. C2 reduces the impedance at the output terminals and reduces the ripple to less than SmV at |OV output. Maximum current capacity 150mA, D5 is a Zener diode to fix TR2 emitter voltage at 7°5V. Transistors: TRI NKT217(A) NKT304(D), TR2 23INDEX PAGE Amplifiers Base current drive ” 3 Boorstrap 19 Class B push-pull 7 Complementary symmetry 9 Darlington pair A Direct coupled (small signal) 4 5 Direct coupled driver € Driver (single stage) 3 Grounded base 2 Grounded collector (emitter follower) 2 Grounded emitter 2) LF. amplifier (465kHz) 4 8 8 Pushepull, class B 279 > 7 Pushepull, single ended» 2 Small signal Ly, 3, Super-alpha pair Tone control Clamps B.C camp to positive voltage 20 D.C. damp co Zero voltage 2 Clippers Series diode jimicer 21 Double parsilel clipper (slicer) 2 Parallel or shune diode limiter 21 Connecrions, transistor 4 Dalington pair 19 Dual tone control 10 Emitter follower Ua 2 Power supply, stabilised 23 Pulse shaper, trigger 22 Saweooth generator (Miller) 18 a Signal Generators Astable multivibrator Bias oscillacor (tape recorder) Bistable multivibracor Morostable multivibrator Phase shift oscillator Sawtooth generator (Miller) Tape recorder bias oscillarar Tuned collector oscillater Wien bridge oscillator Schmitt trigger Ster-alpha pair Tone control TRANSISTOR CONNECTIONS Code letter after each type number gi in text refers to appropriate key diag} below. For example: 2N2926 (I) is number 2N2926, connections in key diag| I below (looking atthe underside wire e e =emitter, ¢—collector, b -- bl s = shield, ‘ev — envelope mn seor/B bee Tt SOHE TvPES HAVE sHleUD | 9°07 XS 8 6: