HEAT TRANSFER A Basic Approach M. NECATI OZISIK Profesor, Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering "North Carolina State Untersity McGraw-Hill Book Company [New York St. Louis San Francisco Avekland Bogoté Hamburg [London Madrid Mexico Montreal New Debt Panama Paris Sto Paulo Singrpore Sydney Tokyo Toronto pp NeHEAT TRANSFER ‘A Basle Approach INTERNATIONAL EDITION Copyright © 1985 Exclusive rights by McGraw-Hill Book Co — Singapore for ‘manufacture and export. This book cannot be reexported from the country to which itis consigned by McGraw-Hill. 567890KHL 943210 Copyright® 1985 by McGraw-Hill, Inc. All ighs reserve. Except as permitted under the United States Copyright Act of 1976, no part of this publication may be reproduced or distributed in any form or by any means, or stored Ina data base or retrieval system, without the prior written permission of the publisher. ‘This book was set in Times Roman. ‘The editors were Anne Murphy and Madelsine Eichberg. ‘The production supervisor was Leroy A. Young. Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data zisk, M. Necat. Heat transfer. Includes bibliographical references and indexes. 1. Heat—Transmission. I. Title. 1y260.096 1985 @2i.aa2'2 83-2069 ISBN 0-07-047982-8 © ‘When ordering this tie use ISBN 0-07-Y66460-9 Printed in Singapore.To GUL and HAKANChapter 2 a 22 CONTENTS Preface Introduction and Concepts ‘Conduction Convection Radiation ‘Combined Heat Transfer Mechanism Units, Dimensions, and Conversion Factors Summary of Basic Relations Problems References Shor jography of Textbooks in Heat Transfer Conduction—Basic Equations One-Dimensional Heat Conduction Equation Three-Dimensional Heat Conduction Equation Boundary Conditions Summary of Basie Equations Problems References One-Dimensional, Steady-State Heat Conduction The Slab The Cylinder The Sphere Composite Medium “Thermal Contact Resistance Ciel Thickress of Fslationsilk cones 3s 3 39) Chapter 4 4 3 45 “1 48 sa 32 33 4 ss 56 3} Chapter 6 Fined Surfaces ‘Temperature Dependent K(7) Summary of Basic Relations Problems References Transient Conduction and Use of ‘Temperature Charts, LLumped-System Analysis lab Use of Transent-Temperature Charts Long Cylinder and Sphere—Use of Transient:Temperature Chars ‘Semi-infnte Solid Use of Transent-Temperature Charts Product Solution Use of Transient-Temperature Charts ‘Two-Dimensional, Steady-State Heat Conduction — Use of Conduction Shape Factors “Transient Heat Conduction ina Stab — Analytic Solution Transient Heat Conduction ina Siab—Use of Tabutated Solutions Problems References Finite-Difference Methods for Solving Heat Conduction Problems ‘One-Dimensional, Steady-State Heat Conduction Boundary Conditions ‘Two-Dimensional, Steady-State Heat Conduction “Methods of Solving Simultaneous Algebraic Equations Cylindrical and Spherical Symmetry Unsteady Heat Conduction Explicit Method Unsteady Heat Conduction Implicit Method Problems References Convection—Concepts and Basic Relations Flow over a Body Flow inside a Duet Concepts on Turbulence Equations of Motion Equation of Energy Dimensionless Parameters Boundary-Layer Equations Problems References 1 a as 100 101 101 us 20 6 130 4 1 146 1s6 226 2 238 2s 253 261 261 270 mChapter 8 81 82 83 85 87 Chapter 9 4 93 4 9s 37 99) 9.10 on 912 Chapter 10 wor 102 Forced Convection for Flow inside Ducts Hydrodynamicallyand Thermally Developed Laminar Flow Thermally Developing, Hydrodynamically Developed Laminar Flow Simultaneously Developing Laminar Flow Turbulent Flow inside Ducts ‘eat Transfer to Liquid Metals ‘Analogies between Heat and Momentum Transfer in ‘Turbulent Flow Heat Transfer Augmentation ‘Summary of Correlations Problems References Forced Convection for Flow over Bodies Drag Coeficient for Flow over a Fat Pate Heat Transfer Coefficient for Flow over a Flat Pate Flow acrogs a Single Circular Cylinder Flow across a Single Noncircular Cylinder Flow across a Single Sphere Flow across Tube Bundles Heat Transfer in High-Speed Flow over a Flat Plate ‘Summary of Correlations Problems References Notes Free Convection Dimensionless Parameters of Free Convection ‘An Approximate Analysis of Laminar Free Convection on 8 Vertical late Correlations of Free Convection on a Vertical late Free Convection on a Horizontal Pate Free Convection on an Toclined Pate ‘Free Convection on a Long Cylinder Free Convection on a Sphere ‘Simplified Equations for Air “Mechanism of Free Convection in Enclosed Spaces Correlations of Free Coavestion in Enclosed Spaces Combined Free and Forced Convection ‘Samumary of Correlations for Heat Transfer in Free Convection Problems References Boiling and Condensation Film Condensation Theory ‘Comparison of Film Condensation Theory with Experiments 231 22, 9 30s 310 a 38 332 336 39 37 382 382 361 416 418 6 nm 83 inane nner103 104 los 104 107 108 109 Chapter 11 M1 2 13 4 ins 116 9 18 Chapter 12 Ba 122 123 24 iim Condensation inside Horizontal Tubes Dropwise Condensation ‘Condensation in the Presence of Noncondensable Gas Poo! Boling Regimes Pool Boiling Correlations Forced-Convecton Boiling inside Tubes Summary of Equations Problems References Heat Exchangers Classification of Heat Exchangers ‘Temperature Distribution in Heat Exchangers Overall Heat Transfer Coeicient ‘The LMTD Method for Heat Exchanger Analysis Correction for LMTD for Use with Cross-Flow and Multipass Exchangers e-NTU Method for Heat Exchanger Analysis ‘Compact Heat Exchangers Heat Exchanger Optimization Problems References Radiation among Surfaces in a Nonparticipating Medium ature of Thermal Radiation Blackbody Radiation Radiation from Real Surfaces Radiation Incident on a Surface Radiation Properties of Surfaces Solar Radiation Concept of View Factor Methods of Determining View Factors Network Method for Radiation Exchang in an Enclosure ‘Radiosity Matrix Method for Radiation Exchange in an Enclosure ‘Correction for Radiation Effects in Temperature Measurements ‘Summary of Equations Problems References Radiation in Absorbing, Emitting Media Equation of Radiative Transfer Transmisivity, Absorptivity, and Emissivity Radiation Exchange between a Gas Body and Its Black Enclosure 393, 593 585 67 oy I co 657 67 om 68s oss 6904 Chapter 14 m1 42 43 144 Ms “7 Radiation Flux from an Absorbing, Emiting Slab at Uniform Temperature—An Analytic Solution Problems References, Mass Transfer Definitions of Mass Flux Steady State Equimodal Counterdifusion in Gases Steady State Unidirectional Diffusion in Gases Steady-State Diffesion in Liquids Unsteady Diffusion Mass Diffusivity Mass Transfer in Laminar and Turbulent Flow Problems References Appendixes ‘A. Conversion Factors Physical Properties © Radiation Properties D__ Error Function, Root of Transcendental Equations, and Exponential Integral Function E Dimensional Data for Tubes and Stel Pipes Indexes ‘Name Index Subject Index 238 702 73 m 73 16 m9 To ™ nm 6 156 168 169PREFACE ‘The field of heat transfer is so wide and diversified that an orderly presentation of scientific facts is essential for effective teaching of this subject, In our teaching, we should place emphasis not only to the transmission of the knowledge but also to the laying of a strong foundation on which future knowledge can readily be ‘accumulated and the acquired knowledge can be fully utilized for useful purposes. This book, although based on my 1977 book entitled Basic Heat Transfer, is actually completely rewritten and reorganized, first by pedagogical considera- tions, and second by providing a large number of fully worked out illustrative ‘examples, a large number of problems at the end of each chapter, summary tables for ready reference, improved heat transfer charts and correlations, and com- prehensive physical property tables to help to increase its usefulness in practical applications. ‘The role of an introductory text on the subject isto establish the guidelines for the transmission of the knowledge and serve as the catalizer in the interaction between the teaching and learning processes. Therefore, it isnot only the knowledge contained in a book but also its organization which influences the effectiveness of teaching. These principles have been the basic guidelines in the preparation ofthis ‘undergraduate text for the teaching of heat transfer in engineering schools for the mechanical, chemical, and nuclear engineering students. ‘Our primary goal is not only to transmit the knowledge effectively but also to ‘provide a good understanding of the physical aspects of the subject matter and t0 develop the necessary skills and background for the handling of related heat transfer problems to be encountered later in the professional career. To achieve ‘such an objective, the fundamentals are systematically developed, the physical significance of the developments are emphasized, and applications to the solution of practical problems are illustrated with ample examples in each chapter. There is sufficient material in this book to meet individual course objectives at different levels, in both the junior and senior years. The spectrum of its possible ‘uses may range from a one-semester basic heat transfer course to a sequence of oy‘two-quarter or two-semester courses spread over the junior and/or senior years. ‘When used in a sequence course, conduction, finite differences, and radiation should preferably be covered first, followed by convection, boiling and condensa- tion, and heat exchangers. ‘The book can also serve as a source of ready reference for engineering graduates and industry. A background in differential equations at the sophomore level and some familiarity with fluid mechanics are all needed for following this book. Chapter 1 introduces the basic concepts and gives a bird’seye view of the ‘mechanisms of heat transfer. A discussion of units and conversion factors is also presented. Chapter 2 builds up the necessary background for the understanding of the physical significance of the heat conduction equation and its boundary con- ditions. Emphasis is placed on the development of necessary skills needed for the ‘mathematical formulation of practical heat conduction problems. This matter is iMlustrated with numerous representative examples. Chapter 3 provides an intro- duction to the solving of heat conduction problems and developing analytic ‘expressions for the determination of temperature distribution and heat flow in solids. Only the one-dimensional steady-state heat conduction problems are con- sidered. The thermal-resistance concept is introduced for use in the determination Of heat transfer through composite layers. The analysis and application of heat flow through fins are presented. In Chapter 4 the concept of transient heat flow is introduced through the use ofthe lumped system analysis because of its simplicity Todevelopabetter understanding of the significance of temperature transients with time and position, the temperature response and heat transfer charts are introduced before presenting an analysis of transient conduction. The use of these charts for predicting temperature transients in solids having shapes such as a slab, cylinder, and sphere sillustrated with numerous examples. As.a follow-up to this approach, the use of conduction shape factors is also discussed to predict steady-state heat flow in solids having complicated configurations. To give some idea of the analytic ‘methods of solving transient heat conduction problems, the method of separation of variables is considered for the solution of one-dimensional transient heat con- duction in a slab geometry. Chapter 5 presents the fundamentals of finitediffer- ‘ence methods forthe solution of both steady and time-dependent heat conduction problems. The application is illustrated with numerous examples and a computer program is given for solving the resulting finite-difference equations. Chapters 6 through 9 are devoted to heat transfer in forced and free con- vection. Chapter 6 prepares the necessary background for the understanding of the physical significance of various conceptsand fundamental definitionsassociated with the study of convection. The equations of motion and energy are introduced for the case of two-dimensional constant-property incompressible flow. The physical significance of various terms in these equations is discussed, and the use Of these equations in the formulation of forced-convection problems is illustrated with examples. Chapter 7 presents forced-convection inside ducts. To illustrate the use of the equations of motion and energy in the determination of friction factor and heat transfer coeflicients, simple forced-convection problems are solved and temperature and velocity distributions are established. Such elementaryanalysis of forced convection provides a good insight into the role of fluid flow in heat transfer. In addition, it helps toward better understanding of the physical significance of analytic and empirical correlations of friction factor and heat transfer coefficient for complicated situations. Chapter 8 deals with forced con- ‘ection over bodies. To illustrate the use of boundary layer equations in the pr diction of drag and heat transfer coefficients, the integral method of analysis ‘applied to develop analytic expressions for the drag and heat transfer coefficients for laminar flow over a flat plate. Various correlations are then presented for flow lover bodies having other geometries. In Chapter 9 the principles of free convection are discussed. An approximate boundary layer analysis is presented to illustrate the use of the energy equation to predict the heat transfer coefficient for free con- ‘vection from a vertical plate. Correlations of free convection for other configura- tions are then presented and their application is illustrated with examples. ‘Chapter 10 presents the fundamentals of boiling and condensation. Various regimes of boiling and condensation are discussed and the heat transfer correla tions associated with them are presented. ‘Chapter 11 is devoted tothe thermal analysis of heat exchangers. Various types of heat exchangers are discussed, and the use of LMTD and E-NTU methods for the sizing of heat exchangers are illustrated with representative examples. Heat transfer by radiation is covered in Chapters 12 and 13. Chapter 12 deals ‘with radiation exchange among surfaces separated by a nonparticipating medium. ‘The absorption, emission, and reflection of radiation by real surfaces are dis- ‘cussed and the concept of blackbody radiation is developed. The analysis of radiation exchange among surfaces is introduced first by using the network ‘method, because it provides a good insight into the physical nature of the problem. However, the method is not s0 practicable when the system involves more than two arbitrarily oriented surfaces. Therefore, a relatively straightforward radiosity- matrix method, capable of handling radiation problems involving any aumber of ‘surfaces with no additional complexity, is then presented. Chapter 13 considers radiation transfer inside @ semitransparent, absorbing, emitting medium, and radiation from hot gases. Finally, in Chapter 14 the analysis of mass transfer is presented with an analogy of heat transfer by diffusion and forced convection. ‘The SI (Systéme Internationale) system of units is used throughout this book. ‘Comprehensive conversion factors and physical property tables are presented in the Appendix. To provide some feel for the relative magnitude of physical properties in the SI and Btu units, some property tables are also included in both system of units ‘There are more than 170 fully worked-out examples to illustrate the applica tion of the basic theory and concepts. Over 800 problems, arranged in the same order as the material presented in the text, are included at the ends of the chapters. “with answers provided for some of the representative ones. A summary of funda ‘mental equations are tabulated at the end of each chapter for ready reference. This book is the outcome of many years of experience in teaching and writing of textbooks in heat transfer at various levels. Its hoped that it will be helpful toimprove the effectiveness of teaching and learning of the subject of heat transfer. am indebted to many of my colleagues and students for theit valuable suggestions toward achieving the objectives stated previously. I wish to thank Dr. 8. Kakag for providing useful comments on the text and Y, Cengel for thoroughly reading the manuscript. M, NECATI OzISIK\ HEAT TRANSFER | A Basic Approach‘CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION AND CONCEPTS. ‘The concept of energy is used in thermodynamics to specify the state ofa system. It is a well-known fact that energy is neither created nor destroyed but only changed from one form to another. The science of thermodynamics deals with the relation between heat and other forms of energy, but the science of heat transfer is concerned with the analysis of the rate of heat transfer taking place in a system. The energy transfer by heat flow cannot be measured directly, but the concept has physical meaning because it is related to the measurable quantity called temperature. It has long been established by observations that when there is temperature diference ina system, heat flows ftom the region of high temp ture to that of low temperature. Since heat flow takes place whenever there is & temperature gradient in a system, a knowledge of the temperature distribution ina system is essential in heat transfer studies. Once the temperature distribution isknown, a quantity of practical interest, the hea flux, which is the amount of heat transfer per unit area per unit time, i readily determined from the law relating the heat flux to the temperature gradient. The problem of determining temperature distribution and heat flow is of interes in many branches of science and engineering. In the design of heat ex- changers such as boilers, condensers, radiators, etc, for example, heat transfer analysis is essential for sizing such equipment. In the design of nuclear-reactor cores, a thorough heat transfer analysis of fuel elements is important for proper sizing of fuel elements to prevent burnout. In aerospace technology, the temper ‘ure distribution and heat transfer problems are crucial because of weight limita- tions and safety considerations. In heating and air conditioning applications for buildings, a proper heat transfer analysis is necessary to estimate the amount of insulation needed to prevent excessive heat losses or guns. In the studies of heat transfer, it is customary to consider thre dstinet modes ‘of heat transfer: conduction, convection, and radiation. In reality, temperature distribution in a medium is controlled by the combined effects of these three modes of heat transfer; therefore, itis not actually possible to isolate entirely ‘one mode from interactions with the other modes. However, for simplicity in2 mar TeansreR the analysis, one can consider, for example, conduction separately whenever heat transfer by convection and radiation is negligible. With this qualification, we present below a brief qualitative description of these three distinct modes of heat transfer; they are studied in great detail inthe following chapters. 1-1 CONDUCTION Conduction is the mode of heat transfer in which energy exchange takes place from the region of high temperature to that of low temperature by the kinetic motion or direct impact of molecules as inthe case of fluid at rest, and by the drift of electrons, as in the case of metals, Ina solid which is a good electric conductor, a large numberof free electrans move about in the lattice; hence materials that are ‘good electric conductors are generally good heat conductors (i.e, copper, silver, etc). ‘The empirical law of heat conduction based on experimental observations. originates: from Biot but is generally named after the French mathematical physicist Joseph Fourier [1]* who used it in his analytic theory of heat. This law states that the rate of heat flow by conduction in a given direction is pro- portional to the area normal to the direction of heat flow and to the gradient of temperature in that direction. For heat flow in the x direction, for example, the Fourier law is given as w (tay W/m? (tb) ax ‘where Q, is the rate of heat flow through area A in the positive x direction and quis called the heat flux in the positive x direction, The proportionality constant ‘kis called the thermal conductivity of the material and is a positive quantity. I temperature decreases inthe positive x direction, then dT dx is negative; hence 4 (oF Q,) becomes a positive quantity because of the presence of the negative sign in Eqs. (I-1a) and (1-16). Therefore, the minus sign is included in Eqs. (1-1a) and (1-1b) to ensure that q, (or Q,) is @ positive quantity when the heat flow is-in the positive x direction. Conversely, when the right-hand side of Eqs. (1-ia) and (1-15) {is negative, the heat flow is in the negative x direction. “The thermal conductivity k in Eqs. (1-1a) and (1-16) must have the dimensions ‘Wym-"C) oF J/(m-s-°C) if the equations are dimensionally correct. There 18 a wide difference in the range of thermal conductivities of various engineering * bracketed mumbers indicate references atthe end of he chapter‘eTRODUCTION AND CONCEPTS 3 i i Figure 1-4 Typicarange of thermal oo. conductivity of various material ‘materials, as illustrated in Fig, 1-1. Between gases and highly conducting metals, such as copper or silver, k varies by a factor of about 10*. Thus, in Fig. 1-1 the highest value i for highly conducting pure metals, and the lowest value is for gases and vapors, excluding the evacuated insulating systems, The nonmetallic solids and liquids have thermal conductivities that lie between them. Metallic single crystals are exceptions, which may have very high thermal conductivities; for example, with copper erystals, values of 8000 W/m -°C) and even higher are possible. ‘Thermal conductivity also varies with temperature. This variation, for some materials over certain temperature ranges, is small enough to be neglected; but for many cases the variation of k with temperature is significant. Especially at very low temperatures k varies rapidly with temperature; for example, the thermal conductivities of copper, aluminum, oF silver reach values $0 to 100 times those that occur at room temperature. Figure 1-2 illustrates how the thermal conductivity of some engineering materials varies with temperature. Actual values of thermal conductivity of various materials are given in App. B, and a compre- hensive compilation of thermal conductivities of materials can be found in Refs. 205. Example 1-1 Determine the heat lux q and the heat transfer rate across an iron platewitharea A = 0.5 m? and thickness L = 002 m[k ~ 70 Wim :°C)] when one ofits surfaces is maintained a T, = °C and the other at T, = 20°C:4 moar reansren t000f [ I Sra boom) | Goer I 7 veo Romane | s | | = wi + Auminues oxidp : io 5 sgt doses gern T | Frecay brick turned 1530 °C) Ez suet 01 Rar Simm ae al oor . — foie oot | {859 S HS 300 5052S THT BOT HT Figure 1-2 Efecto ermperatureon thermal conductivity of materia Souution In this problem the temperature gradient dT/dx is constant hence the temperature distribution T(x) through the plate is linear, as illus trated in Fig. 1-3. Then the heat flux qis determined by applying Eq. (I-16) as 20-60 > = 7078 140 kW/m “Thus the heat flow is inthe positive x direction since the result is a positive quantity. The heat flow rate Q through an area A = 0.5 mis computed by applying Eq, (1-10: Q = Aq =05 x 140 = 10kW Example 1-2 The heat flow rate through a wood board L = 2 cm thick for a temperature difference of AT = 25°C between the two surfaces is 150 W/m? Calculate the thermal conductivity of the wood.[ReTRODUCTION AND CONCERTS § Figure 1-3 Heat conduction through aab Souution Equation (1-16) is applied as follows: ar iets 25 150 = kos k = 0.12 Wim °C) 1-2 CONVECTION ‘When fiuid flows over a solid body or inside a channel while temperatures of the fluid and the solid surface are different, heat transfer between the fluid and the solid surface takes place as a consequence of the motion of fluid relative to the surface; this mechanism of heat transfer is called convection. Ifthe fluid mo- tion is artificially induced, say with a pump or a fan that forces the fluid flow over the surface, the heat transler is said to be by forced convection. If the iuid motion is set up by buoyancy effects resulting from density difference caused by tempera ture difference in the fluid, the heat transfer is said to be by free (or natural) con- ‘ection. For example, a hot plate vertically suspended in stagnant cool air causes ‘2 motion in the air layer adjacent to the plate surface because the temperature sradient in the air gives rise to a density gradient, which in tur sets up the ait ‘motion. As the temperature field in the fluid is influenced by the fluid motion, the deterinination of temperature distribution and of heat transfer in convection for most practical situations is a complicated matter. In engineering applications, to simplify the heat transfer calculations between a hot surface at T, and a cold6 wear meaNsean wit wn ht Figure 14 Heat transfer byconvection from aot nr sallat 7, toa cold us, uid flowing over it at a bulk temperature 7, as illustrated in Fig. 1-4, a heat transfer coeflicient his defined as WT, ~ 7) (1-24) where q is the heat flux (in watts per square meter) from the hot wall to the cold fluid. Alternatively, for heat transfer from the hot fuid to the cold wall, Eq. (1-22) is written as a= MI; ~ To 125) where q represents the heat flux from the hot fluid to the cold wall. Historically, the form given by Eq, (1-2a) was first used as a law of cooling as heat is removed from a body to a liquid flowing over it, and itis generally referred to as “Newton's law of cooling,” Ifthe heat flux in Eqs. (1-2a) and (1-26) is given in watts per square meter and the temperatures are in degrees Celsius (or kelvins). then the heat transfer coefficient hin Eqs. (1-2a)and (I-25) must have the dimensions W/(m? °C) if the equations are dimensionally correct. "The heat transfer coefficient h varies with the type of flow (ie, laminar or turbulent), the geometry of the body and flow passage area, the physical properties Of the fluid, the average temperature, and the position along the surface of the ‘body. It also depends on whether the mechanism of heat transfer is by forced convection (ie, the fluid motion is caused by a pump of a blower) or by natural ‘convection (.e, the fluid motion is caused by the buoyancy). When h varies with the ‘position along the surface of the body, for convenience in engineering applications, its average value h, over the surface is considered instead of its local value fh. Equations (1-2a) and (1-26) are also applicable for such cases by merely replacing A by hy; then q represents the average value of the heat flux over the region con- sidered. The heat transfer coefficient can be determined analytically for How over bodies having a simple geometry such as a flat plate or flow inside a circular tube.[RSTRODUCTION AND CONCEPTS 7 Table 1-1 Typical values of the convective heat transfer coefficient & ‘Type offlow Wile Free convecion AT = 28°C + 025m verti plat in: Aunespherie ait s | Engine ei 7 Water “0 + 002-m-OD* horizontal tinder in [Atmospheric air ‘ Engine oi a Water a + 002-m-diameter sphere in: ‘Atmospheric air 9 Engine of @ wate, 606 Forced conection ‘+ Atmospheric air at 2°C with U. = 10 mis over a tpt: Lroim » L=0sm 0 + Flow at 5 ms across -em-OD cylinder of ‘Aumosphene air as Engine oi! 1300 1+ Water at 1 kg inside 25-cm-4Dt tobe 10.00 Bolling of water at aim i + Poo! boiling in contain 3000 ! + Poo! boing at peak heat fu 350 1 Fil boiling 300 Condensation of seam o | tm «+ Film condensation on horizontal tubes 93000-25000 ‘Film condensation on vertical surfaces 4000-11000 + Dropwisecondensstion a00- 120000 + OD = outer diameter, ‘HID = inner diameter. For flow over bodies having complex configurations, the experimental approach is used to determine h. There is a wide difference in the range of the values of the ‘heat transfer coefficient for various applications. Table I-1 lists typical values of k encountered in some applications. Example 1-3 An electrically heated plate dissipates heat by convection at a zate of q = 8000 W/m? into the ambient air at T; = 25°C. Ifthe surface of the hot plate is at 7, = 125°C, calculate the heat transfer coefficient for con vection between the plate and the air.‘Souurion Heat is being transferred from the plate to the fluid, so Eq. (1-2a) is ‘applied: s0 Wim? °C) Example 1-4 Hot air at T; = 150°C flows over a flat plate maintained at T, = 50°C. The forced convection heat transfer coefficient ish = 75 W/(m?-*C). Calculate the heat transfer rate into the plate through an area of A = 2m? Sovumion Forheat transfer from the hot fuid to the plate, Eq(1-2a)is applied: 1-3 RADIATION All bodies continuously emit energy because of their temperature, and the energy thus emitted is called thermal radiation. The radiation energy emitted by a body is. transmitted in the space in the form of electromagnetic waves according to Maxwell's classic electromagnetic wave theory or in the form of discrete photons according to Planck's hypothesis. Both concepts have been utilized in the in- vestigation of radiative-heat transfer, The emission or absorption of radiation energy by a body is a bulk process; that is, radiation originating from the interior of the body is emitted through the surface. Conversely, radiation incident on the surface of a body penetrates to the depths of the medium where itis attenuated. ‘When a large proportion of the incident radiation is attenuated within a very short distance from the surface, we may speak of radiation as being absorbed or emitted by the surface. For example, thermal radiation incident on a metal surface is attenuated within a distance of a few angstroms from the surface; hence metals are opaque to thermal radiation, ‘The solar radiation incident on a body of water is gradually attenuated by water as the beam penetrates to the depths of water. Similarly the solar radiation incident on a sheet of glass is partially absorbed and partially reflected, and the remaining is transmitted. Therefore, water and glass are considered semitrans- parent to the solar radiation. Tt is only in a vacuum that radiation propagates with no attenuation at all ‘Also the atmospheric air contained in a room is considered transparent to thermal radiation for all practical purposes, because the attenuation of radiation by air is insignificant unless the air layer is several kilometers thick. However, gases such as ‘carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, water vapor, and ammonia absorb thermalradiation over certain wavelength bands; therefore they are semitransparent to thermal radiation, It is apparent from the previous discussion that a body at a temperature T. emits radiation owing to its temperature; also a body absorbs radiation incident ‘ont, Here we briefly discuss the emission and absorption of radiation by a body. Emission of Radiation ‘The maximum radiation flux emitted by a body at temperature T is given by the ‘Stefan-Boltzmann law Ey=oT* | Wim? (13) ‘where T is the absolute temperature in kelvin, «is the Stefan-Boltzmann constant [eo = 5.6697 x 10°* W/(m* -K*)], and E, is called the blackbody emissive power. Only an ideal radiator oF the so-called blackbody’ can emit radiation fux according to Eq. (1-3). The radiation flux emitted by a real body at an absolute temperature T is always less than that of the blackbody emissive power Ey; itis given by = 08, = eo a4) where the emissivity ¢ lies between zero and unity; forall real bodies its always less than unity. Figure 1-5 shows a plot of the blackbody emissive power E, defined by Eq. (1-3) versus the absolute temperature. The radiation flux emitted rapidly increases with rising temperature. For example, the emissive power increases from E, = 461 W/m? at room temperature T = 300K to E, = 3562 W/m? at T = 500 K and E, = 56,100 W/m? at T = 1000 K. Absorption of Radiation Ifa radiation flux gia is incident on a blackbody. it is completely absorbed by the blackbody. However, if the radiation flux qigc is incident on a real body, then the energy absorbed duu by the body is given by ane = ine as) where the absorptivity 2 lies between zero and unity; for all real bodies it is always less than unity. ‘The absorptivity «ofa body is generally different from itsemissivity«. However, in many practical applications, to simplify the analysis, «is assumed to equal « Such matters are discussed in depth and actual values of emissivity of various surfaces given in Chap. 12,10 wear rmanseen 10 5 4 2 vol to? Se Soret nk Figre 18 Blackbody emisve power = oT Radiation Exchange When two bodies at diferent temperatures “see” each other, heat is exchanged between them by radiation If the intervening medium is filed witha substance such as air which is transparent to radiation, the radiation emitted from one body travels through the intervening medium with no atenuation and reaches the other body, and vie versa. Then the hot body experiences a net heat loss and the cold body’a net heat gain, asa result ofthe radiation heat exchange. The analysis of radiation heat exchange among surfaces is generally a complicated matter and is dealt within Chap. 12. Here we examine some very special cases with illustrative examples. Figure 1-6 shows smal, hot, opaque plate of surface area A, and emissivity e, thatis maintained atan absolte temperature T, and exposed toa large surrounding area A; (ity Ai/Ay +0) at an absolute temperature 7. The space between them contains ait which is transparent to thermal radiation, The radiation energy emitted by the surface A, is given by ‘AwaTtFigure 16 Radiation exchange between surface Ayand its sutroudings, ‘The large surrounding area can be approximated as a blackbody in relation to the small surface Ay. Then the radiation flux emitted by the surrounding area is o7$ which is also the radiation flux incident on the surface 4. Hence, the radiation energy absorbed by the surface A, is AyayoTy ‘The net radiation loss atthe surface A, is the difference between the energy emitted and the energy absorbed: Qs = AyoT} - AyayoT$ (1-64) 4, this result simplifies to Aio(T$ ~ TD, (1-66) which provides the expression for calculating the radiation heat exchange between ‘small surface element A, and its surroundings at T;, Clearly. the positive value of implies heat loss from the surface A, and the negative value implies heat gain, We now consider two finite surfaces 4, and A; as illustrated in Fig. 1-7. The surfaces are maintained at absolute temperatures 7, and T,, respectively, and have ‘emissivitiesc, and ¢,. The physical situation implies that part ofthe radiation leav- ing surface A, reaches surface 4, while the remaining is lost to the surroundings. ‘Similar considerations apply for the radiation leaving surface A, The analysis of radiation heat exchange between the two surfaces for such a case should include Figure 1-7 Raciaton xchange between surfaces 4, and Athe effects ofthe orientation of the surfaces, the contribution of radiation from the surroundings, and the reflection of radiation at the surfaces. For the arrangement shown in Fig. 1-7, if we assume that tne radiation flux from the surroundings is negligible compared to those from surfaces A, and A;, then the net radiation heat transfer Q, at the surface A, can be expressed in the form Q, = FrAo(T$ - TD an where F, isa factor that includes the effects of the orientation of the surfaces and their emissvitis. The determination of this factor is a complicated matter, and the analysis of radiation problems of this type is the subject of Chap. 12 Radiation Heat Transfer Coefficient ‘To simplify the heat transfer calculations it may be possible, under very restrictive conditions, o define a radiation heat transfer coefficient h,, analogous to the con- veetion heat transfer coefficient, as = MT - (a8) “This concept can be applied to the result given by Eq, (I-6b) as now described. ‘Equation (1-66) is written as Q= Aera(T} + TMT + GT ~ 7) (1-92) If|T, = T| < Ty this result is linearized as eT KT, — 7) (1-98) GT }e,0XT, — T) (10) ‘A comparison of Eqs. (1-8) and (1-10) reveals that for the specific ease given by Eq, (1-66), a radiation heat transfer coefficient h, can be defined as he 4Tiee ay Example 1-5 A heated plate of D = 0.2.m diameter has one of its surfaces insulated, and the other is maintained at T, = 550 K. Ifthe hot surface has an ‘emissivity ¢, = 09 and is exposed (0 a surrounding area at T, ~ 300 K with ‘atmospheric air being the intervening medium, calculate the heat loss by radiation from the hot plate to the surroundings.en SOLUTION Assuming e, = a,, we can apply Eq. (1-66): Qy = Avt.o(TS ~ T?) [f02°osxser«0-y055" 99 1 onus Dos A son hot st tape = Kt ‘T, = 400 K. If this radiation transfer process is characterized by a radiation heat transfer coefficient h, calculate the value off, SouvTION For this particular case, the requirement T, — T; < T; is satisfied. ‘Then Eq. (1-11) is applied as follows: h, = 4T}ey0 [(4.3)? x 10°}(0.8X5.67 x 10 144 Wim? -°C) 1-4 COMBINED HEAT TRANSFER MECHANISM So far we have considered the heat transfer mechanism, conduction, convection, and radiation separately. In many practical situations heat transfer from a surface takes place simultaneously by convection to the ambient air and by radiation to the surroundings. Figure 1-8 illustrates a small plate of area A and emissivity ¢ that is ‘maintained at T, and exchanges energy by convection with a fluid at T,, with a hheat transfer coefficient h, and by radiation with the surroundings at T;. The heat Joss per unit area of the plate, by the combined mechanism of convection and radiation, is given by Ge = AAT, ~ Te) + 0o(TS ~ TY (112) wh Convection rounding Figure 1-8 Simultaneous convection and radiation fom a plate14 Hear massren If|T, ~ T,] < Ts the second term can be linearized. We obtain Ge = HAT ~ Te) + M(Ta~ T) (130) b= deo TS (04136) where Example 1-7 A small, thin metal plate of area A m? is kept insulated on one side and exposed to the sun on the other side. The plate absorbs solar energy at a rate of 500 W/m? and dissipates it by convection into the ambient air at T, = 300 K with a convection heat transfer coefficient h, = 20 W/m? -°C) and by radiation into a surrounding area which may be assumed to be a blackbody at T,, = 280 K. The emissivity of the surface is ¢ = 0.9. Determine the equilibrium temperature of the plate. SOLUTION The energy balance per unit area ofthe exposed surface is written as t sox =a, 30) +09 307 « (3) — ont 25 = T, — 300 + 0.255| La — 15.68 oo 109, sass -008(%) The solution of this equa by trial and error yields the plate temperature as. T,=3SSK 1-5 UNITS, DIMENSIONS, AND CONVERSION FACTORS In the field of heat transfer, the physical quantities such as specific heat, thermal conductivity, heat transfer coefficient, heat flux, etc. are expressed in terms of 1 few fundamental dimensions which include length, time, mass, and temperature, and each of these dimensions is associated with a unit when it is to be expressed ‘numerically. For example, length is the dimension of a distance, and to express it numerically one may use units of feet or meters or centimeters, ete. Time may be measured in hours or seconds, mass in pounds or kilograms, temperature in degrees Fahrenheit or Celsius, energy in British thermal units or joules, and so on. ‘When the dimensions of a physical quantity are to be expressed numerically, a consistent system of units is generally preferred. In engineering the two most ‘commonly used systems of units are the International System of units (SI) and the English engineering system. The basic units for length, mass, time, and tempera- ture for each system are listed in Table 1-2. Here the symbol “Ibt™ is used forIReTRODUCTION AND CONCERTS 15 Table 1-2 Systems of units English engineering Quantity stem Lent = ®t Mass ks ® Time : ‘ Temperature K R Foree N we Enerey JorNsm Btw or f-Ibe ound-force to distinguish it from the symbol “Ib” commonly used for pound-mass, but there is no such misunderstanding in SI because the kilogram is the unit of ‘mass and the newton is the unit of force. The physical significance of the force units newton and Ibf is better envisioned by considering Newton's second law of ‘motion, written as Foree = mass « acleration (14) where 4, is the gravitational conversionfactor constant. The pound fore It is defined asthe fore that acts onthe mass of one pound at‘ point on the earth Where the magnitude ofthe gravitational aceleration is g = 32.174 fs. Then, in the English engineering system, Eq (1-4) bocomes tbr = 4 1b x 32176 ys? (ts) According to this relation, one pound of force (that is, 11h) will accelerate one pound of mass (that is, 1 1b) 32.174 ft/s*; or 1 Ibf is equal to 32.174 ft - Ib/s*. The Conversion factor gin the English engineering system is obtained from this r- lation as 9¢ = 32.174 Ib ft/(bf-s2) (1-16) Note that the gravitational acceleration g and the gravitational conversion factor 4 are not similar quantities, isconstant, but g depends on the locaton and on the atitode In Si, Eq, (1-14) becomes IN = 4x kg x tis? 417) Clearly, in SI, 1 is a force that will accelerate a t-kg mass 1 m/s?, or a 1-N force is equal to 1 kg -my/s?. The conversion factor g, in SI becomes a= Lkg-m/N-s?) =1 (18)16 wear TRANsrER since IN ‘Therefore, in SI, 9, is not needed. Energy is measured in Btu or ft-Ibf in the English engineering system whereas it is measured in joules (J) oF newion-meters (N -m) in SI. Note that 1J = 1N-m and 1J = 1 kg-m")s? since 1 N = 1 kg- m/s? Power is measured in Btujh or ft-Ibf|s inthe English engineering system and in watts (W) or kilowatts (KW) or Jjs in ST. Note that TKW = 1000W and 1 W=1 Js = 1 N-mf kg: mis? (1-19) 1 kg-m?/s? (1-20) Pressure is measured in lbfjin? in the English engineering system and in bars or Nim? in SI. Note that 1 bar = 10° N/m? = 10° kgm s*) and 1 atm = 0.98066 bar In SI, when the size of units becomes too large or too small, multiples in powers, of 10 are formed with certain prefixes. The important ones are listed in Table 1-3. For example, 1000 W = 1 KW (kilowatt) 1,000,000 W = 1 MW (megawatt) 1,000,000 N = 1 MN (meganewton) 1000 m = 1 km (kilometer) 10°? m = 1 em (centimeter) and so forth. ‘A comprehensive table of conversion factors useful in heat transfer calculations is presented in App. A. Example 1-8 Convert the heat transfer coefficient h = 20 Btu/(h-ft? °F) to the units of J,(s-m? °C) or Wim? -°C), Table 1-3 Prefixes for multiplyingINTRODUCTION AND CONCERTS 17 Souunion From Table Al. #9. App. A we have I Btu/(h-f-°F) = 5.677 W/m? -°C), which is written as Wim? -°C) Brun Then the conversion is performed as 5677 Wm? -°O) Bru - hm 20 Blu/(h 2 -F) (Bou i0-0*-Py[ sor © 1136 Wim? -°C) = 113.6 J)(s-m? °C) since IWets 1-6 SUMMARY OF BASIC RELATIONS We summarize in Table 1-4 the basic relations given in this chapter. ‘Table 1-4 Summary of basic relations Equation ‘number Relation Remarks Conduetion: ir ge eT wnt Conduction hea ux inthe x direction Convection: (126) g= T=) Wit ‘Convection beat fu rom the wall surface 1 the aid Radiation 3) eer wim Blackbody emisive power ay a= oT! Wim Radiation fx emitted by areal boxy (1-66) = AocTt— TW Net rai ge medium 4, aT, Joss rom surface Ay at T; toa very for4t 0 (re) ae BATT.) Wm? nergy tranfr by rantion for JT, ~ TT, where h, = dT? (413) gee TT) Eneray transfer by combined convection ad +h. ~T) Wim? radiation for To Te T, where h, = de?18 nearreansren PROBLEMS Conduction 14 A temperature diference of IO°C applied across a fecay brick 10 cm thik with thermal ‘onducty 10 Wim °C) Determine the hea transer rate per square meter are answer: Wn? or Ke) 1.2 A temperature diference of 100°C is applied across a corkboard $m thick with thermal eon Tietag Ube Wien “C), Determine th het transfer rate acrosta bn? area per hour 1.3 A ler hss nclating boetdof thermal conduciity 005 W)(n-“C) isto Be used to imi the Hest one! to 80'W)i? fora temperature diferenoeof 160°C across the board Determine the thickness of ‘the inslaing board. “answer 01m 144 Glas woot of thermal conductivity 0038 W/m °C)isto be wed to inslate an ce box. he ma TW Tou should not enced 45 Wim for’ temperature of 40°C aon the wall of thes bon ‘Getermine the tickbess of he insulation, “Anower: 34.00 15 A brick wall 15 om thick with thermal conductivity 1.2 Wymn-°C) 8 maintained 43°C atone Fee S'c atthe aber face Determine the eat anf rate across the 4m? surface rea of the wall. Amover: 64 1-6 two large plats onc a 80°C andthe oer at 200°C are 8 em apart. I the space betwee them ‘hued by tvnay park rock woo! of thermal conductivity 008 Wifon °C) caleulte the heat transfer ‘rate across the plates pr lem? ae {L7 The heat flow rite across an insulting materi of thickness 3 cm with thermal condctvity 01 ‘Wotan 20) 250 Wr If the hot sue temperature is 175°C, mba is the temperature ofthe cold surface? “Anomer: 100°C 1.8 A -cmthick concrete wal has a srice aa of 40 m?. The jane surface ofthe wal iat 20°; ws fhe outer erase at "10°C. Determine the rate of eat lose through the wal ifthe thermal Conductivity 78 Witm-°C) Mdnawer! LOEW oF fs 1.9 The het flow ate tough a emis wood board fora temperature diferenceof 25°C between the inner outer surfaces 875 Worn?. What the thermal conductivity ofthe wood? vAnomers 012 Wil °C) ‘The inde and outside srtce temperatures of window glass ae 20 and — 12°C, respectively Tithe Bases BO cm by 4 ei 16cm tk. and has thermal conductivity 0.78 Wien °C) determine the heat los through the las ver 3h Anoner: S391 KS 1-11 Two plates, one at «uniform temperature of 300°C and the other at 10°C, ae separated by 3 {eck asbestonsement board of thermal condociity 070 W)(m-“C), Determine the rate of eat tramfr across the layer pet Im! srtce. 2 By conduction 2000 W is trasfrred throuph 20S? section ofa emetic insulating materi ‘Buerein the temperate diference across the insulating layer ifthe thermal conductivity #8 0.2 Wa"0). ‘Anse: 800°C Coarction 1413 Watecat mean temperature of 20°C Rows over at plate at 80°: Ifthe heat transfer cefcent {ato Wyte, determine the bea transer per square meter ofthe plate over Sh “Ansner: 216 MIINTRODUCTION AND CONCEPTS 19 1-44 large surface st SO‘Cis exposed to air at 20°C the heat transfer coeficent between the surface and the ars 15 Wim -°C) determine the heat tanfrred rom 3 mo the surge over 7 148 Airat 190°C flows over a at plate whichis maintained at 50°C: Ifthe het transfer coefkent for forced convection is 300 Wi(m? "°C, determine the hea anser tthe plate though 2 one Wh Anower: 48 MI 146 A 25.cm-diameter sphere at 120°C is suspended in at at °C Ifthe natural convection heat ‘transfer between the sphere and tears 15 Wjtm?-C) determine the rate of het lows fom the sphere, Answer: 2945 W 4447 A fd at 10°C Rows over a2.5-cm-OD and 2-4 long tube whose surfaces maintained a 10. the hea transfer coetcient between the tube andthe sir is 300 Wim? C), determine the rte af heat transfer rom the abet the ai 1-48 Pressried water at SO'Cfows inside a S.c-diamete, Im Jong tube wih surface temperature Iaintained at 130°C: Ifthe heat transfer coeticient between the water ard the tube he 30) Wil °C), determine the beat aster rate from the tbe othe water, ‘Anoner:2513KW 1-19 Heats supplied toa plate fom its back surface a a rate of $00 Win ands removed from its front surface by ait ow at 20°. Ihe beat transfer cocffcent between the ar and te plat race a ‘r= 20 Wm"), what i the emperatue ofthe front surface ofthe plate? 1-20 The inside surface ofan insulating layer is at 20°C and the outside surface is disipatig beat by ‘onvection into air at 20°C. The insulation layer i 4 em thick and has thermal conductivity 12 ‘Woe-°C), What i the minimum value ofthe heat tense ceficent atthe ovside sua the ‘outs surtice temperature should not exceed 10°C? ‘Answer: 120 Wim “C). 121 A tO-cniameter sphere is heated internally wih s100-W clectic heater The sphere dissipates ‘eat by convection fom is outer surface to the ambient ai Cakalate the heat tramsor coeticiet for convection fom the sphere if the temperature difeence between the sphere surface andthe abit rie sO: 1.22 A thin meal plate is insulated a the back surface and is exposed othe sun at the ron surface. ‘The front surfoce absorbs the ol radiation ef 10 W/m and dissptesit mainly by convection tthe ambient air at 25°C the heat trnser coefficient between the plate nd the irs 13 Wim’ °C) what is the temperature ofthe plate? Answer: 85°C 1.25 A thin meal plate0.1 m by 0.1 mis placed ina large evacuated conainet whose wal are Kept at 300 K. The bottom surface of he plat insulated, and the top surface is mamtined at SOD Kas ‘esut of electric heating. I the emissivity ofthe surface ofthe plate ise = O8 whats the rate of heat ‘xchange between the plate and the walls ofthe container? Take = 387 10"® Witar KSy “anouer 24) W 424 Two larg paratel platesone at 2 uniform temperature SOO K andthe other at 1000 K, ae separ sted byw nonpartcipating gas Assuming thatthe surfaces ofthe plates are prec emitrs ad that th ‘convection i negligible, determine the eate of heat exchange between the srfaces pot square met 1428 A spre 10cm in diameter is suspended inside a large evacuted chamber whose walls are kept at 300K. If the surtace ofthe sphere as emissivity = OM und Is maintained at 300 K determine the "ate of heat los trom the sphere othe walls ofthe chamber. ‘Ansmer: 77.52 W 1-36 Two very larg, petty back parallel plates. one maiatined at 120 K and the other at 60 K, exchange heat by radiation (1, convection is negipible. Determine the heat transfer rate per 1m? Surface20 ear mmansren 127 One surface of hin plate is exposed a uniflorm heat ux of $00 W/m andthe ober side dis. ‘iptes heat by radiation toa environment at ~ 10°C. Determine the temperature ofthe pits ASRumE blackbody conditions fr eaiation Aner Ty = 313K a8 A thin mctal sheet separates two large parallel plates one ata uniform temperature of 1000 K tin the other a 00 K. Blackbody conditions can be asumat for al surfaces, and heat transfer can be “hsumed tobe by redinton only, Determine the temperature ofthe separating shot. ‘Combined beat trmeter mechanism 129 A fat plate has one surface insulated andthe othe surface exposed othe sun. The exposed surface beets the solar radiation at ate of 800 Wm? and spats it by both convection and radiation {te ambient aia 300 KI the emissivity ofthe surface is = 09 and the convertion heat transfer often betwen he plate and ai 12 Win? °C). determine the temperature ofthe plate, ‘Anomer! 23 K 1-30 A thin plat is expose to an infrared radiation flux of 100 W ® on one surface while he other farface it Lop inslated. The exposed surface absorbs 90 percent of the incident radiation fx and ‘Tepe by comestion and radiation ito the amen ar at 300 KIC the heat ansereoefcent {Re cbmvccion heewcen the surface andthe ambien a 15 W/(a?-°C) determine te temperature of the plate Take the emisvity of pat as ¢ ~ 08. FBT A tia plate 30cm by 50cm is subjected 1 400 W of heating on on surface and dissipates the teat by combined convection and radiation from th other surface into the ambient ait at 290 K. IF the sac of he pate hasan emissivity e-~ 09 and the beat transfer ceficent between the surface td the ambien arin 15 Wi(m “Cp, determine the temperature of the plats “Anomer: 3622 K 1.32 The volar radiation cident onthe tse surface of an aluminum shading vie is 1000 W/m ‘Atainum absorb 12 percent oF the incident oar energy and dispatesit by convection rom the back ‘Aitae and by combined convection and radiation fyom the outside surface The emissivity ofthe “Tuminom it 10 the convection heat tander coefcent i 15 Wim: "C) for both surface, and ae abbleat temperture ean be taken 20°C for both convection and radiation. Determine the temperature ofthe shade, 1133 One surface of thin metal sheet reeves radiation from a lage plate at 70°C, while the otber SNnlae desputes eat by convection toa colant id at 20°C. The surfaces can be considered as 1 pet absorber and a perfect emiter for radiation. The heat transiercoefiint for convection ‘ween the surface and the fd i 120 Wim! °C). Deterne the temperature ofthe plate anower: 638 K 1-4 Heat is ot by both conection and radiation from a 2-nv4ong uninsulted portion of S 0. 224 A solid bar of rads r = bis niall ata wniform temperature T. Fortes > ts cooled by convection Irom its surface str ~ B into the ambient at at temperature with a heat transfer nefceat h- Writs the mathemati formulation ofthis eat conduction problem forthe determina- ‘on of one-dimensional, time-dependent temperature dsribuion T(,1) wthin the rod. 12.25 A plane wall of thickness Lis exposed toa uniform beat fx of gp Wim? on one side and dis pats hen by conection with eat transfer coefiiet hat the ambient air temperature Ton the bier side. Wine the mathematical formulation ofthis problem forthe determination of one-dimensional, Steady temperature disrbuion T(x) with the wall. 226 A thick-walled irclar tube has inside rade r, and outside ads. Aol gas at temperature 7; fle inside the tube, and a cold asa lemperatare T; ows outside The thermal conductivity k of the be is considered constant, The eat trafrcoaiciente for fow inside and outside the tobe are ‘Specied ah and sespectively, Write the mathematical formulation his heat conduction problem it order to deiermine the one-dimensional, steady-state emperataredsribution T() through the tube wall 2.27 Consider a solider of adiusr ~ band the height =~ H. Heats gnerated in the old at 2 fate of gy Win The boundary surface at: = O is kept insulated: the boundary surface at 2 = ‘isipates heat by convection intoa medium a temperature witha heat transfer coefficient h The Splindrical boundary surface at r= Bis maintained ata ifr temperate T,. Write the mathe ‘natal formlation this problem forthe determination of two-dimensional steaiystate emperere ‘rbution Te, 2) within the eins. 2-28 Consider the two-dimensional, steady-state heat conduction problem fr rectangular region 0s x = 4,0 << blorthe following boundary conditions: a) The boundary surface at x ~ Os electrically ated at a at of gy Wim? (by The boundary surfece atx = ois kept at constant temperature Ty, {e) The boundary surface at y= Oi insulated (a) The boundary surface aty~ b spats heat by convection ito a medium a temperature 7. with eat transfer eoefeest{CONDUCTION BASIC EQUATIONS 4 ‘The thermal conductivity ofthe solid is constant and there i 0 heat generation i the medio, Write the mathematical formulation ofthis problem forthe determination of twmenion, steady stare temperature distribution Tx 3) wih the teion 229 A copper bar of adi bi initially ta uniform temperture Ty The heating of the rod begs A time ¢ = 0 by the pasage of electri current which generates beat throughout the rod a a eonsant rate of gg W/m. The rod disipates heat by convection rom is surface tr ~b, witha beat ansfer ‘oeficient into the asbient a at temperature T,. Assuming thatthe thermal conduct kof the ‘ods constant and thatthe problem canbe rete a one-dimensional ransen heat conduction ia he "variable, write the mathematical formulation forthe determination of the one-dimensional tine ‘dependent temperate ditbution Te, 1} within the sod fort > 0 1230 Consider a holow sphere of inside adi r~ a and outside radi r= 5, The inside surface is tniformly heated electrical ata ato g W/m? andthe outside surface dasipats heat by convection with heat rander coeticient hint an ambien ta constant temperate T. Wht the mathematical {ormulatin a this heat conduction problem forthe determination othe oneimensiona stealy-sate temperature dsebution T() i the sphere 231 Consider long te ofinside radius r= cand outside radissy = b Heats pneratedin the tube ata constant tate of ge W/m? by the passage of elec current. The inside surtace kept insulted, and the outside surace i disiating heat by convection into an ambient at temperature T. with heat Uanser coefficient h. Wee the mathemattca formation a ths heat sondacion problem fr th determination ofthe one-dimensional. steadysate temperature dibution TU) the soli REFERENCES 1, Schneider, P.J.: Conduction Heat Transfer, Addison. Wesley, Reading, Mae, 1955 2 Carsiaw, HS, and J.C Jaeger: Condition of Heat Slide, 24 ed, Oxford University res, London, 1959, 3. Gnik, M.N.: Boundary Value Proboms of Heat Conduction, Inerational Textbook, Scranton, Pa, 1868 4. Myers, GM: Anayical Methods in Conduction Hoot Transfer, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1971 5. Ont, M.N.: Hear Conduction, Wiley, New York, 1980‘CHAPTER THREE ONE-DIMENSIONAL, STEADY-STATE HEAT CONDUCTION In this chapter we present the application of one-dimensional, steady-state heat conduction problems to determine temperature distribution and heat flow in solids having geometries inthe form of a slab (i. plane wall, cylinder, and sphere. ‘The one-dimensional, steady-state condition implies thatthe temperature gradients exist along one coordinate direction only and that temperature within the solid does not vary with time. Situations involving different types of boundary con- ditions, with and without internal energy generation within the solid, are examined. ‘The concept of thermal resistance, analogous to electric resistance, is introduced to solve one-dimensional, steady-state heat conduction with no internal energy generation. The thermal resistance concept is also utilized to determine one~ dimensional, steady-state heat flow through layers of slabs, cylinders, or spheres. Heat flow problems involving the determination of critical thickness of insulation and the use of extended surfaces (ie. fins) are examined, 3:1 THE SLAB Consider a slab (ie, plane wal) of thickness L as illustrated in Fig. 3-1. The plate is sufficiently large in the y and z directions in comparison to its thickness L to censure that the temperature gradients in the y and z directions are negligible ‘compared with that in the x direction. The temperature within the solid does not ‘vary with time. Then the temperature distribution T(x) within the solid is governed by the one-dimensional, steady-state heat conduction equation. For the case of constant thermal conductivity k and with an energy generation at a rate of g(x) ‘W/m?, the heat conduction equation is given by PT) 1 Se + p= Gt)‘ONE-DIMENSIONAL, STEADY-STATE HEAT CONDUCTION 43 rs Ono woe 7, * Figure 31 One-dimensional steady-state et flow through a Sin slab nd the equivalent thermal revstance concep which is valid over the domain of the slab confined to the region 0 7, the right-hand side of this expression is positive, hence the hheat flow isin the positive x direction, ‘The heat flow rate through an area A ofthe slab normal tothe direction of heat flow is On ag= ae BB w This result is now rearranged inthe form G50) where awd 5b) Here R is called the thermal resistance of the slab for heat flow through an area A across a temperature potential T; — T;. The concept is analogous to ‘electric resistance in Ohm's law and is illustrated in Fig. 3+. Example 3-2 Consider a slab of thickness L as illustrated in Fig. 3-2. A fluid at a temperature 7, with a heat transfer coefficient h, flows over the surface atx = 0,and another fluid ata temperature Tz witha heat transfer coefficient ‘hz flows over the surface at x = L of the plate. Develop an expression for the heat flow Q through an area 4 of the plate. Calculate the heat transfer rate through A= I m? ofthe slab for Ta, 130°C, Tay = 30°C, hey = 250 Wim? -"C), haz = 500 Wim? °O), L = 4om, k = 20 Wi(m °C), SOLUTION Since there is no energy generation in the medium and only the heat flow rate through the plate is required, it is more convenient to utilize Oo co ote g Figure 2 Thermal resistence concept for v heat Row through hie fc v ‘with convection ax ia im, at both srftces46 near mansren the thermal resistance concept for the solution of this problem. Refer to the ‘nomenclature shown in Fig. 3-2. The heat flow Q is by convection from fuid 1 to the surface of the plate at x = 0, by conduction through the plate, and by convection from the surface at x = L to fluid 2. With this consideration we write Q= Ah To, ~ 7) = 4k BSB = Ahg(Ts ~ Tas) ‘This result is rearranged in the form To -T,_ T= _Th~ Toa 1h) ~ LiAR) ~“1(Ahs) ‘This is analogous to Ohm's law, with each term in the denominator representing the thermal resistance to heat flow of that particular layer. By adding the numerators and the denominators of this equality, we obtain e= fer ~ To Tah) + Lia) + TAR) ‘The heat transfer rate Q through the area A of the slab can be calculated from this expression, since all the quantities on the right-hand side are known. ‘This result can be written more compactly in the form reste Row where the total thermal resistance to heat flow R,qis defined as tyke ya Ah,” Ak * Ah; Here /(Ah,) is the thermal resistance for convection through fuid 1, 1/(4K) isthe thermal resistance for conduction through the slab, and 1/(Al,) i the thermal resistance for convection through fluid 2 “The numerical part of this example is computed as fearon bea 1% 250 * 1x 20 * Tx 500 Q Q Ru 8x 107 12,500 W = 12.5 kW Example 3:3 Consider aslab of thickness and constant thermal conductivity kin which energy is generated at a constant rate of gp W/m. The boundary surface at x = O's insulated (adiabatic) and that at x = L disipates heat by convection with @ heat transfer coefficient h into a fluid ata temperature T,,(ONE-DIMENSIONAL, STEADY-STATE HEAT CONDUCTION 47 Develop expressions for the temperature T(x) and the heat flux q(x) in the slab, Calculate the temperatures at the surfaces following conditions: L = tem, k= 20W/m = 4000 W/(m? °C), and T,, = 100°C. O and x = L under the . go = 8 x 10" W/m’, Souution There is energy generation in the medium, hence the thermal resistance concept cannot be utilized for this problem. Therefore, the heat ‘conduction equation should be solved to determine the temperature distri- bution. "The mathematical formulation of this heat conduction problem is given » £T 009 ocxe 279,09 nocect ax=0 ‘The first integration of the differential equation gives aT) 7. ‘and the application of the boundary condition at x = 0 yields c=0 A second integration with C, = 0 results in =-%24¢, Te) = - S238 4 Ce and the application of the boundary condition at x = L. gives gol’, o.\_ or ‘Then the temperature distribution in the slab becomes 19 821 -(9) eee48 ear mansion ‘The physical significance of each term in this solution is as follows: The first term on the right-hand side is due to the energy generation in the solid. ‘The second term is due to the presence ofa finite heat transfer coefficient at the surface. For ft -» co, this term vanishes, and the boundary surface at x = L is at the temperature T,, ‘The expression for the heat fux anywhere in the medium is determined from its definition as ar) dx a) = = 90x Finally, by using the numerical values given above, the temperatures at the boundary surfaces x = O and x = L are, respectively, 8 = 107 x (01)? | 8 x 107 x 001 70) = 221A GOD" 5 91998 sc 7 = 29001 sarc Example 3-4 An iron plate of thickness 1. with thermal conductivity k is subjected to a constant, uniform heat flux qo W/m? at the boundary surface at x = 0. From the other boundary surface at x = L., heat is dissipated by convection into a fluid at temperature T., with a heat transfer coefficient h Figure 3-3 shows the geometry and the nomenclature Develop expressions for the determination of the surface temperatures T, and T; at the surfaces x = O and x = L, respectively. Caleulate the surface temperatures T, and 7, for L = 2cm, k= 20 Wom -C), qo = 10° W/m?, T,, = 50°C, and h = $00 Wi(ta? -°C), SOLUTION Since there is no energy generation in the medium and only the temperatures of the boundary surfaces are required, itis more convenient to utilize the thermal resistance concept as illustrated in Fig. 3-3 to solve this problem, td Fi ow Heat upy awn peetieid r Tyr. Figure 33 Nomenclature and thermal resistance con Age Scepter Example 4“ONE-DIMENSIONAL, STEADY-STATE HEAT.CONDUCTION 49) ‘Using the nomenclature in this figure, we immediately apply the thermal resistance concept: ete cea) Ts ~__N\- Te __ M40 = Lak) ~1itahy ~ Tak) + (AR) Here the last expression is obtained by adding the numerators and the de- ‘nominators of the second and third expressions. Clearly, in these equations the area 4 cancels, and the surface temperatures T, and T; become the two ‘unknowns. By equating the fist and the last expression, Tis found: Lt i= (beter and by equating the first and the third expressions, T; is found: 4% n-# na P+ To For the numerical part of this example, the temperatures T, and T; are calculated by introducing the numerical values of various quantities in the above results. We find ee (+g) +o-re W | gC 3.2 THE CYLINDER -The problems of one-dimensional, radial heat flow in solids having a geometry in the form of a cylinder have numerous engineering applications. Heat removal fom a cylindrical fuel element of a nuclear reactor by the coolant fluid, heat Gieeipation from a current-carrying wire, and heat flow across # thick-walled circular tube are typical examples. ‘Suppose there is an energy generation in the solid ata rate of ar) Wim and the thermal conductivity is considered constant. The temperature distribution Torin the solid is governed by the following heat conduction equation: 1a (é ral) 1 70 ooWhich is valid over the cylindrical region. Once the temperature distributic in the cylinder is established from the solution of this equation, the radia, flux q(r) anywhere in the solid is determined from the definition = 1270 ] ys o ‘To determine the temperature distribution T() in the region, Eq (3-6) is integrated, and the resulting integration constants are determined from the application of the boundary conditions for the problem. Jrllusrat the general procedure, we consider Eq. (3-6) for constant energy ‘generation gy and write it in the form a (2 fe, 68) Where go = constant, The first and the second integrations of Eq, (3-8) give, respectively, es 90 2 A ~ Retin +c, G19) Carly, two boundary conditions are needed to determine the two integration $Ertants Ci and C,. In the case of a hollow cylinder illustrated in Fig. 3-4, the boundary conditions at the inner and outer surfaces can be a prescribed temperature, a prescribed heat flux, or a convection boundary condition, The ‘ase in which both boundary surfaces are subjected to prescribed heat flux is net Spnsidered in this book, because it requires special consideration, The implications of such a situation can be envisioned if we consider a hollow eylinder vn wioch nergy is generated while both boundary surfaces are kept insulated. The energy Figure 3-4 Coordinate simensiona beat con ‘inder (a) Sabi hollow cylinder, «ONE-DIMENSIONAL, STEADY STATE HEAT CONDUCTION $1 insulteds ag 20,27 €0 e8ape from the medium because the boundaries are insulated sa result the problem has no steady-state eeloign £5 he case ofa solid cylinder, lustrated in Fig dene boundary condition an be specified for the outer surface, but another boundary condition is needed siuen. center of the cylinder. Such a boundary condition ig specified from the Physical consideration of the temperature distribution tong cylinder. Physically condiven lution fequies thatthe temperature not be info ae 0; this Condition is satisfied if Te) = finite atr=o @-tta) onedimensional, radial heat flow ina soli cylinder, the temperature is sym- boundary att the center of the cylinder. With this considersue alternative boundary condition at r = atr=0 G11) Example 3-5 Consider a sold cylinder of radius r= b in which energy is Sanat @coastant rate of gy W/m’, while the boundary sense ee 6 ‘8 maintained at a constant temperature 7, Revelop an expression for the one-dimensional, radial steady-state Kemperature distribution T(r) and the heat ux g(r), Calculate the center temperature T(0) and the heat fx atthe boundary Toone” ~ PFOrb = Lem, 95 = 2 x 10° Wim? = 90 Wes *Oyand 7 = 100°C, SOLUTION The mathematical formulation of this problem i siven as raparoys : Pt 0 mocres 0 . M9 a TO=T, arab its and the second integrations of this diferential equation give, respec- tively, are) r+ erates EP tC inr +c, TT]!2 meat ANSE “The application ofthe boundary condition atr = Oo the Bist equation gives c.=0 “The same result also could be obtained by the application of the alternative The sare boundary condition given by T() = faite at r= 7 the second Ghution. The constant Cis determined by the appicah of the boundary eauittgon at 7 = bt the second of the above equations, We find gob* ‘4k c, +h -Then the temperature distribution in the cylinder becomes eh)" and the heat ux (7) anywhere in theasedium is determined from definition as Te) aT) _ Gor ar “The center temperature 7(0) is caleulated from the above exDre=ion for Top) by setting r = 0° ay = ~' 10) 2A LOM 5 109 = 30° -thesurace heat floxiscaleulated from the expression for 4) By SinBT = b: ty = 9b = ENE = 18 Wi? Example 36 The inner surface at r = a and the outer surface at r= B of a ea der are maintained at uniformtemperatures 7 and 'T, sespectively ‘The thermal conductivity k ofthe solid is constant Develop an expression forthe one-dimensional, steady-state temperature distribution T() in the cylinder. Develop an expression forthe radial heat how rate Q through the cylinder over a length H. ene an expression forthe thermal resistance of hollow cylinder of length H. SSouvTi0n The mathematical formulation ofthis problem is giv=n 2 aT s[p]-0 eeeret Tye T, atONE-DIMENSIONAL, STEADY-STATE HEAT CONDUCTION 53, The first and the second integrations ofthe differential equation give, respec- tively, are) a TO) = The boundary conditions at r = a and r = b are applied to the equation for Toto give Pyne + Cy T=CnatC; T=CInb+C; A simultaneous solution of these two equations gives Tn@ja) “ina in ja) G h (Ts — 1) Introducing these coefficients into the above equation for T(r), we obtain Te) ~ 7, _ in(r/a) TT ~ Ina) ‘The heat flow rate Q over a length H of the cylinder is determined from Tin) = a¢)- area = 47 rept = -honic, since dT(rdr = (1/A}C,. Now, introducing C, into the expression Q, we find 2rktt ona) ~™ ‘This expression for Q is now rearranged in the form o=-5eh G-120) where 1(b/a) Ink omS54 wear reansre [Equation (3-125) can also be rearranged in the form pw in(b/a) _ (b ~ a) In (2nbH/C2naHh)] aH (b= ajantik = on where Ai = Ao ™ > nia) C wea 2ealt = area onner surface of elinder 2nbH = area of outer surface of cylinder logarithmic mean area b — a = thickness of eylinder Here, R, as defined above, is called the thermal resistance for a hollow cylinder. Example $7 A hollow cylinder with inner radius r= a and outer radius r= bis heated at the inner surface at a rate of qy W/m? and dissipates heat by convection from the outer surface into a fluid at temperature T., with a heat transfer coefficient h. There is no energy generation, and the thermal ‘conductivity of the solid is assumed to be constant. Develop expressions for the determination of the temperatures T; and T; of the inner and outer surfaces of the cylinder. Calculate the surface temperatures T, and T; for a= 3cm, b = Sem, 1h = 400 Wyn? °C), Ty, = 100°C, k = 15 W/m *C), and go = 10* W/m? SOLUTION Since there is no energy generation in the medium, it is more ‘convenient to solve this problem by utilizing the thermal resistance approach. Figure 35 illustrates various thermal resistances in the path of heat flow. We therefore immediately write anattgy= HB, = Te aldo ty (bjay(QakH) ~ T)CRbEN) I, Ciayiaxkit) + GmbH) Here H is the length of the cylinder, and the last expression is obtained by adding the numerators and the denominators of the second and third ex- pressions. Clearly, in these expressions 2rH cancels, and the surface tempera- tures T, and T, are the two unknown quantities.ve tam By equating the first and the last expressions, T, is determined to be (Guts Seon ‘and equating the first and third expressions, we find Figure 35 Nomenclature for thermal resistance con- cept for Example 1 By introducing the numerical values given above into these solutions, T= got Te we find os, 5, 003 n= (WEin§ + sass tL oy — x 10° + 100 = 250°C 005 x 400 3:3 THE SPHERE ,) 108+ 10 = 32.2 ‘The one-dimensional, steady-state temperature distribution T(r) in a sphere in which energy is generated at a rate of g(r) W/m? is governed by the heat con- duction equation 1d Pdr () +han=0 G3)56 war meansren This equation must be solved over the domain ofthe sphere subject to appropriate boundary conditions. Once the temperature distribution T() is known, the heat flux (7) anywhere in the medium is determined from the definition aT) ar a) Wim? G14) To illustrate the procedure, we consider Eq. (3-13) for the ease of constant ‘energy generation gp and write it in the form a (.aP a" a) where gy = constant. The first and second integrations of Eq, (3-15) give, re- spectively, GA) aT) _ 90, 7 Brg G16) G2 _ Cr Br - Sa Gin Two boundary conditions are needed to determine the two integration constants C, and C,. In the case of a hollow sphere, illustrated in Fig. 3-6b, the boundary conditions at the inner and outer surfaces can be a prescribed temperature, @ prescribed heat flux, ora convection boundary condition. The case in which both boundary surfaces are subjected to prescribed heat flux is not considered for the reasons stated previously in connection with the slab and the cylinder, In the case ofa solid sphere, illustrated in Fig. 3-6a, a boundary condition can bbe specified for the outer surface, but another boundary condition is needed at the center ofthe sphere. As discussed in connection with the solid cylinder, the boundary ‘condition at the center of the sphere can be taken as To) T()= finite atr=0 G-18a) A G18) Both houndary conditions lead to the same result Figure 36 Coordinates for oe imensionsl beat condection in & ‘phere (e) Sold sphere, (6) hollow sphereONE-DIMENSIONAL, STEADY-STATE HEAT CONDUCTION 57 ‘We now illustrate with examples the application of heat conduction in a sphere. Example 3.8 The inner surface at r = a and the outer surface at r = b of a hollow sphere are maintained at uniform temperatures T, and T;, respectively. The thermal conductivity k ofthe solid is constant. Develop an expression for the one-dimensional, steady-state tempera- ture distribution 7() inthe sphere. Develop an expression for the radial heat flow rate Q through the hollow sphere. Develop an expression for the thermal resistance of the hollow sphere SoLuTIoN The mathematical formulation of this problem is given as df dTy PefO]-0 acres TH =T, atr=a TO=T, atr=b ‘The first and second integrations of the differential equation give, respectively, aT) dr T= - Fae, ‘The boundary conditions at r = a and r = b are applied to the equation for T() to give and T= -S4, PD “Pr bna tr bma The heat ow rate Q through the hollow sphere is determined from af _,aT@) = rr [-«52 r58 Hear TRANSFER ‘When C, is substituted, we obtain ab boa ‘This result is now rearranged in the form Q = srk PT, - T) 3-194) where (3-196) and R is called the thermal resistance for a hollow sphere. Example 39 A hollow sphere of inside radius r = a and outside radius r = b is electrically heated at the inner surface at a constant rate of qo Wim?. At the outer surface it dissipates heat by convection into a fluid at temperature T, with a heat transfer coefficient h. The thermal conductivity k of the solid is constant. Develop expressions for the determinati temperatures T, and T, ofthe sphere. Calculate the inner and outer surface temperatures for a h = 400 W/(m?-°C), Tz = 100°C, k = 15 Witm-°C), and go of the inner and outer surface SOLUTION This problem can be readily solved by the thermal resistance ‘concept since there is no energy generated in the medium. Figure 3-7 illustrates the thermal resistance network for this problem. We therefore write trata, «Hiab __ T= To ina'do = ( — a)(ankab) ~ 1/(4nb*h) ___Ti=T. __ © ayarkaby + 1AEab™H In these equations, 7; and T; are the only unknowns; the last expression is ‘obtained by adding the numerators and denominators of the second and third expressions. n t 7 sx0'gg eo — On ry v GR Figue 27 Thermal resistance network for Example 39.By equating the first and last expressions, T, is found: v-[Pe*s Gib and by equating the first and third expressions, T; is found: fa\? 1 (tae. By introducing the numerical values given above, we find the surface eee) = PBEM (Y ge] on 2c T, = @abs * 10° + 100 = 190°C T 3.4 COMPOSITE MEDIUM In many engineering applications, heat transfer takes place through a medium ‘composed of several different layers, each having different thermal conductivity. Consider, for example, a hot fluid flowing inside a tube covered with a uniform layer of thermal insulation. The thermal conductivities of the tube metal and of insulation are different; hence the heat transfer problem from the hot fluid to the colder, outer environment involves conduction through a composite medium consisting of two parallel concentric cylinders. The thermal resistance concept discussed earlier is applied now to the prediction of one-dimensional, steady-state heat transfer rate by conduction through a composite structure. Composite Slab Consider a composite wall consisting of three parallel layers in perfect thermal contact as illustrated in Fig. 38. Consider the heat flow rate Q through an area 4 of the slab. The equivalent thermal resistance network is also shown in this figure. By applying the thermal resistance concept, we immediately write L-h_h-h_Ti-h_h-h_B-h @ R R RB ‘where various thermal resistances are defined as Ret A gn RK, Ah, 1 Ay ake© xr RANGER Figure 34 compote of thre walle in series paths and the equivalent thermal esitance network By summing the numerators and the denominators of the individual ratios in Eq, (3-20), we obtain -h wy q-75* Ww 3-220) where R=R4+R +R +R +R (8-22) Here R is the total thermal resistance in the path of heat flow through an area A from temperature 7, to Tj, and various individual resistances are defined by Eq. (G-21), The composite wall arrangement shown in Fig. 3-8 is a series arrangement because the individual thermal resistances are connected in series. t—-—4 Invuted Figure 3.9 A composite of to materials in wh parallel paths aed the equivalent thermal ak resistance network‘ONE-DIMENSIONAL, STEADY-STATE HEAT CONDUCTION 61 oe 2 0 Figue 3:10 Equivalent thermal resistance network approximating heat ow through ‘composite wall a one-dimensional heat fw. Figure 3-9 shows a composite of two materials combined in parallel paths with the ends maintained at uniform temperatures T, and ,. The equivalent thermal resistance network is also shown in this figure. The total heat transfer rate Q through this parallel arrangement is given by o- 230) where the equivalent parallel resistance is ett ear Ccares 320) R°R RL tL xed) Figure 310 illustrates a composite of several different materials arranged in parallel and series paths. An equivalent thermal resistance network shown in this figure is based on the assumption that the heat flow path can be approximated as one-dimensional. In reality, the heat flow through such a system is two-di- ‘mensional. But if all the materials have the same thermal conductivity, the heat flow is truly one-dimensional, and the analysis becomes exact. Therefore, ifthe thermal conductivities ofthe materials in the composite do not differ significantly, the approximation ofthe problem as one-dimensional may be reasonable. Other- wise, two-dimensional analysis is necessary. Example 3-10 Consider the composite of two materials combined in parallel paths with the ends maintained at uniform temperatures as illustrated in Fig.3.9. Various quantities are specified: A, = 02m?, ky = 20W/(m-°C), Az = 04 m?, ky = 15 Wilm-°C), L= 05 m, T, = 150°C, and T= 30°C. Caleulate the rate of heat transfer Q across the composite medium. SoLUTION The equivalent parallel resistance is computed according to Eq, G.230) as Aaky 02 x 20, 04 x15 ae se a0 Then the heat transfer rate Q is calculated by Eq. (3-230) as -% ‘= (150 ~ 30)(20) = 2400 W ‘Composite Coaxial Cylinders Consider a composite cylinder structure consisting of two coaxial layers in perfect thermal contact, as illustrated in Fig. 3.11a. A hot fluid at a temperature T, flows inside the tube, and heat is transferred to the tube wall with a heat transfer coefficient h,.On the outside, heat transfer takes place from the exterior surface of the tube (o a cold fluid at temperature 7, with a heat transfer coefficient hy, ‘The total heat transfer rate Q from the hot to the cold fluid over the length Hf of the cylindrical structure is the same through each layer and is given by To Tot n-th en Rn OR ORR es where vaso heal estan are dfind as a 1m ahh, tie Lite 1 Som, §~ Bialth on) Here the thermal resistances R, and R; for conduction through a cylindrical layer are written in accordance with the thermal resistance expression given by Eq. (3-126), Summing the numerators and denominators of the individual ratios in Eq, 6-24), we write Q where R=R+R +R + Ry (3-266) Here Ris the rotal thermal resistance inthe path of hea flow through the composite eliner from T, 107, w (3-260)‘ONT-DIMENSIONAL, STEADY-STATE HEAT CONDUCTION 63, Fire 3.11 Thermal ressancesfor radial eat Now though a hollow. ‘composite clade nd sphere with layers in perfect thermal eon (@) Coan eyinder (8) covcentne spheres. ‘Example 3-11 A steel tube with cm ID,7.6-cm OD, and k = 15 W/(m-°C) is covered with an insulative covering of thickness ¢ = 2om and k — 0.2 Wom »°C). A hot gas at T, = 330°C, hy = 400 W/(m? -°C) flows ins tube, The outer surface ofthe insulation is exposed to cooler air with hy = 60 Wim? -°C), ‘Calculate the heat loss from the tube to the air for H = 10 m of the tube, Calculate the temperature drops resulting from the thermal resistances of the hot gas flow, the steel tube, the insulation layer, and the outside air. SouuTion The radial heat flow through the tube is given by Eq, (3-26) as T-h LER FRR @ w64 ar rNsrER where various thermal resistances ae calculated by Es. (3-25) 38 EE TargHh, ~ 3x x OOS x 10 x A eer ene 38 gag x 102% Sank, = ae IO TM 2s =O «OY fle 1.38 Ra apa, Mr, ~ In x 10 x 02 sass tee nese ee TargHh, ~ 3 x 0058 x 10% “Then the total thermal resistance becomes RAR, + Ri +R; + Ry = 3989 x 107 °C/W and the total heat loss from the tubeis 330-30 ~ 3989 x 10 R = 159 x 10-8C/W 33.65 x 10° *C/W 421 x 10° °C/W R = 1521 W Given Q, various temperature drops can be calculated according to Eqs. (3-24): STiegn = ORe = 120°C ATrageran = OR, = 33°C Tynan = OR2 = 253°C ATowuiaeate = ORy = 3LTC Clearly, the largest temperature drop occurs across the insulation layer and the smallest across the tube wall. Composite Concentric Spheres Figure 3-116 shows a composite sphere consisting of two concentric layers. The interior and exterior surfaces are subjected 0 heat exchange by convection with fluids at constant temperatures T, and Ty, with heat transfer coefficients h, and tn tespectvely. The total radial heat flow Q through the sphere is given by Ty Teh : Q 7 “Rh G27) where various thermal resistances are defined as 1 one Garh, 7 (3-28) Ra Fak rah‘ONE-DIMENSIONAL, STEADY-STATE HEAT CONDUCTION 65, Here the thermal resistances R, and R; for conduction through a hollow sphere are written according to Eq. (3-196). ‘Summing the numerators and the denominators of the individual ratios in Eq. (3-27), we write w 3-290) where R=RAR +R +R, 3-29) where R is the total thermal resistance for the system, 3.5 THERMAL CONTACT RESISTANCE Consider one-dimensional heat flow ghrough a composite medium consisting of two bars brought into contact with lateral surfaces insulated. As illustrated in Fig. 3-12, the temperature profile through the solids experiences a sudden drop ‘across the interface between the two materials This temperature drop across the interface is the result of thermal contact resistance. ‘The physical significance of thermal contact resistance is better envisioned by examining an enlarged view of an interface as shown in Fig. 3-12. The direct ‘contact between the solid surfaces takes place at a limited ‘number of spots, and the voids between them usually are filled with air or the surrounding fluid. Heat ‘transfer through the fluid filing the voids is mainly by conduction, because there is no convection in such a thin layer of uid and the radiation effects are negligible Gap between sl Figure 3412 Temperature drop66 wear marsrin 4000 20.000 whe") Saher eee 200 ls 4 0 10 2 30 Ieterice pres, igre 3132) Efets of interface pressure, contat temperature, and roughnes on interface conde: tanoe weno) sein 10 ' I at} 10 20 30, igre 3:43() Elect of interface pressure, contact temperature, and roughness on interface cond tance h (Based on deta from Ref 2)‘ONE-DIMENSIONAL, STEADY-STATE MEAT CONDUCTION 67 ‘Table 3-1 Thermal contact conductance in a vacuum, Contact Contact Contact, Typeol temperature, roughness, presure, hy. imerace °C an Wim?) 304 Stanles 25 025x038 061075 300t0 11000 steel 2s 11x13 071075 200t02100 osi-T6 ‘Aluminom 25 03 071075 18001032000 Copper 8 02 07%075 —6:00t0 14000 Magnesium 40 03 07%075 11,0010 26500 ‘Based on dat in Ret 6 at normal temperatures. Then heat transfer across the interface takes place entirely by conduction through both the thin layer filling the voids and the spots indirect ametal-to-metal contact. Ifthe thermal conductivity ofthe fluid isless than that of the solids, the interface acts as a resistance to heat flow; this resistance is referred to-as the thermal contact resistance. Considerable amounts of experimental and theoretical work have been re- ported in the literature on the prediction of thermal contact resistance [1-12] Teappears that the reliable results for practical use are still those that have been determined experimentally, To illustrate the effects of various parameters such a the surface roughness, the interface temperature, the interface pressure, and the type of material, we present in Fig. 3-134 and b the interface thermal contact conductance h for stainless steel-to-stainless steel and aluminum-to-aluminum joints. The results on these figures show that interface conductance increases with Increasing interface pressure, increasing interface temperature, and decreasing surface roughness. The interface conductance is higher with a softer material (aluminum) than with a harder material (stainless ste, ‘The smoothness of the surface is another factor that affects contact conduc- tance;a joint witha superior surface finish may exhibit lower contact conductance ‘owing to waviness. The adverse effect of waviness can be overcome by introducing ‘between the surfaces an interface shim from a soft material suchas lead. Contact conductance also is reduced with a decrease in the ambient air pressure, beeause the effective thermal conductance ofthe gas entrapped in the interface is lowered. To illustrate this eflect, Table 3-1 shows appropriate ranges of contact conductance under vacuum conditions. Example 3-12 Consider one-dimensional, steady-state heat flow along two stainless-steel bars, each of diameter D ='2 cm, length L = 3 em and pressed together with a pressure of 10 atm. The surface has a roughness of about 25 umm. An overall temperature diflerence of AT = 100°C is applied across the bars. The interface temperature is about 90°C. Calculate the heat flow rate along the bars. Calculate the temperature drop at the interface.SoLUTION The total heat flow rate Q along the bars is determined by the pplication of the thermal resistance concept as ar RtRFR, where AT = 100°C. The thermal resistance R, for each of the steel bars is determined as w L 003 kA ~ 20 x wid x (O02 ‘The contact conductance of the interface is obtained from Fig. 3-13a a8 h, = 3000 W/m? -°C), Then the thermal contact resistance of the interface becomes. 1 1 FA 3000 x WA x OOD So the heat flow rate is Ry ams R, 1061 1 O Gris + L061 + 4775 ow The temperature drop across the interface becomes R O61 gp = eo RtR +R, 17 ~ 1061 Ke 3-6 CRITICAL THICKNESS OF INSULATION Consider a small-diameter tube, cable, or wire the outside surface of which has approximately constant temperature and dissipates heat by convection into the surrounding air. Suppose the surface is covered with a layer of insulation. In some situations the addition of insulation increases the heat loss until a critical thick- ress of insulation at which the energy loss becomes maximum. Further addition of insulation beyond the critical thickness starts to decrease the energy loss. Therefore, this critical thickness can be used to increase the cooling of a cable, wire, or tube. However, ifthe insulation is added to reduce the heat loss from a tube, itis essential that the thickness of the insulation added be larger than the critical thickness of the insulation. We now examine the critical thickness of insulation for a cylinder and a sphere, Cylinder To develop a relation forthe critical thickness of insulation, we consider a circular tube of radius r; maintained at a uniform temperature T; and covered with a layer of insulation of radius r,, as illustrated in Fig. 3-14. Heat is dissipated by con- vection from the outside Surface of the insulation into an ambient at temperature Tz with a heat transfer coefficient ho,(ONE-DIMENSIONAL, STEADY-STATE HEAT CONDUCTION 69 a & Figure 3.14 Nomenclature for the critical rads of insulation for a tube ‘The rate of heat loss Q from the tube is given by TT Rig + Ry If H is the tube length and & is the thermal conductivity of the insulation, the thermal resistances R,,, and R, of the insulation and the convection at the outer surface are @ w (G30) Lin 1 aa, 4 8 Sar ati Now, it is assumed that Tj, T., k, Hy h, and r; remain constant and r, is allowed to vary (ie. r, 2 r). We note that as r, increases, the thermal resistance RR, decreases but Rig, increases. Therefore, Q may have a maximum for a certain value of r, = r4.. This critical value of the radius ris determined by differentiating Eq, (3-30) with respect tor, and setting the resulting expression equal to zero: a 2xkH(T; ~ T.) ( ) ° aa G31) ar, ~~ Tin (er) + kbar JF re hor ‘The solution of Eq, (3-32) for r, gives the critical radius r. of insulation at which the heat transfer rate is a maximum; we find ie 33) In practice, the physical significance of this result is as follows: Ifthe radius is greater than the critical radius defined by Eq. (3-33), any addition of insulation ‘on the tube surface decreases the heat loss, as one expects. But ifthe radius is less than the critical radius, as in small-diameter tubes, cables, or wires, the heat Joss will increase continuously with the addition of insulation until the radius of the ‘outer surface of the insulation equals the critical radius. The heat loss becomes ‘maximum at the critical thickness of insulation and begins to decrease with the addition of insulation beyond the critical radius. ‘There are numerous practical applications of the critical radius of insulation. In electric wires or cables, the critical thickness of coating can be utilized to achieve 4 maximum amount of cooling. Ifthe insulation on a steam pipe is wetted, the thermal conductivity of the insulation increases, which in turn increases the70 omar rmansreR critical radius. Then itis possible that with the resulting critical radius the heat Joss from the pipe will become larger with wet insulation than with no insulation, Sphere In the previous analysis we discussed the critical thickness of insulation for a cylindrical body. In the case of a sphere, by following a similar procedure we can show that the critical radius of insulation becomes (34) where k isthe thermal conductivity of insulation. Effects of Radiation ‘The results given above forthe critical radius do not include the effects of thermal radiation. Suppose the heat transfer coefficient hy atthe outer surface of insulation is approximated by the sum of a convection component h, and a radiation com- ponent h, in the form hy = he + hy G35) ‘Then the critical radius given by Eqs. (3-33) and (3-34) becomes, respectively, for acylinder (3-360) for a sphere (G-360) Example 313 A tube with ODofD = 2cmismaintained at a uniform tempera- ture and is covered with an insulative tube covering (k = 0.18 Wj(m -°C)] in order to reduce the heat loss. Heat is dissipated from the outer surface of the cover by natural convection with hy = 12 W/(m? - °C) into the ambient air at constant temperature. Determine the critical thickness of the insulation. Calculate the ratio ofthe heat loss from the tube with insulation to that with- ‘out any insulation for (1) the thickness of insulation equal to that atthe critical thickness and (2) the thickness of insulation 2.5 em thicker than the critical thickness. SoLUtion The critical radius r, of insulation is determined by Eq. (3-32): k _ 018 re Bn y= Hl m = LSem ‘Then the critical thickness of insulation is 0.5 cm.(ONE-DIMENSIONAL, STEADY-STATE HEAT CONDUCTION 71 ‘The heat losses from the tube with and without insulation are respectively, Quin = 287, Hg AT 1 1+ Cohgikyin (rr) Queue = 2A Hh AT where H is the tube length and r, is the tube radius. Then the heat-loss ratio becomes (at) oa Qeieet M1 Ry For r, = rs this ratio reduces to & fe (tints 3.37) since rycho/k = 1 For the critical radius r,. = 1.5 em, this result gives Qu Quito Se n3y ett which shows that the heat loss is increased about 7 percent despite the fact, that there isan insulation of thickness 0.5 em. If another layer of 2 Scm-thick insulation is added, we have r, = 1.5 + 2.5 = 4.em, and the heat-loss ratio is = -i( +) = 08s ‘ois ithe ‘This result implies that with a 3-cm-thick insulation layer the heat loss is reduced by about 15 percent. 3:7 FINNED SURFACES Heat transfer by convection between a surface and the fluid surrounding it can be increased by attaching to the surface thin strips of metal called fins. A large variety of fin geometries are manufactured for heat transfer applications; Fig. 3-15 shows typical examples When heat transfer takes place by convection from beth interior and exterior surfaces of a tube or a plate, generally fins are used on the surface where the heat transfer coeficent is low. For example, in a car radiator the outer surface of the tubes is finned because the heat transfer coefficient for air at the outer surface is ‘much smaller than that for water flow at the inner surface. The problem of de- ‘termination of heat flow through a fin requires a knowledge of temperature72 war rRansren aoe Figure 418 Type of fined ting (From Brown Fintube Co.) distribution in the fin In this section we analyze temperature distribution and heat flow through a fin having a simple geometry. The objective is to provide the reader ‘a better insight to the physical significance of various parameters that affect heat transfer through a finned surface. “To determine the temperature distribution through afin, we must develop the governing energy equation by performing an energy balance on a differential Volume element in the fin, Figure 3-16 illustrates the geometry, the coordinates, and the nomenclature for the development of the one-dimensional, steady-sta energy equation for fins of uniform cross section. We consider a small volume emerstae = Te) Penier=P (ei . | Figwe 3.16 Nomenclature forthe derivation of one-dimensional in equation,‘ONe- DIMENSIONAL, STEADY-STATE HEAT CONDUCTION 73 clement Ax and write the statement of the steady-state energy balance for this ‘volume element as ‘Net rate of heat gain\ _/net rate of heat gain by conduction in by convection through’ x direction into} * | lateral surface into oy volume element Ax / \yolume element Ax 1 1 The net heat gain by conduction is given by pe MD ag = ch ETO ax G39) de ae and the net heat gain by convection by MW = HT, - TOP Ax (6-396) where the cross-sectional area 4, the perimeter P, the heat transfer coefcint h, And the thermal conductivity of the fin material k are constant. Equations (3-39) are introduced into Eq, (3-38), x is canceled, and the result is rearranged o yield @ T(x) _ bP SAO ARTO) ~ Ta] = 0 G-4) ‘This result is written more compactly in the form G-41a) where np x) = Ts) — To G-41b) Equation (3-41a) is called the one-dimensional fin equation for fins of uniform cross section. The solution of this ordinary differential equation subject to ap- propriate boundary conditions at the two ends of the fin gives the temperature distribution in the fin. Once the temperature distribution is known, the heat flow through the fin is readily determined. Equation (3-41a) isa linear, homogeneous, second-order ordinary differential ‘equation with constant coefficients. [ts general solution may be taken in the form Ox) = Ce + Cae on) where the two constants are determined from the two boundary conditions specified forthe fin problem. The solution given by Eq. (3-42) is more convenient to use in the solution of the fin equation (3-41a) for the long fin. Soon this matter will be clear in the solution of fin problems. | |ling the fact that hyperbolic sine and hyperboliccosine can be constructed by the combination of e”™* and e™, we know itis possible to express the solution (G-42) in the following alternative forms: (x) = C, cosh mx + C; sinh mx G-#a) or (x) = C, cosh mL — x) + Cy sinh m(L — x) 3-438) ‘The solution given by Eqs. (3-43) is more convenient to use for the analysis of fins of finite length, as soon will be apparent, ‘The temperature distribution 6(x) ina fin having a uniform cross section can be determined from Eq. (3-42) or (3-43) if the integration constants C, and C, are determined by the application of the two boundary conditions for the problem, ‘one specified for the fin base and the other forthe fn rip. Customary, the tempera- ture atthe fin base x = Qis considered known: that i, (0) = Te - Te, = 85 G44) where Ty is the fin base temperature. Several different physical situations are possible at the fin tip x = L; any one of the following conditions may be con- sidered: long fin, negligible heat loss from the fin tip, and convection at the fin tp. To illustrate the physical significance of such conditions and the corresponding heat transfer results, we present the solution of the fin problem for each of these three cases. Long Fin For a sufficiently long fin, it is reasonable to assume that the temperature at the fin tip approaches the temperature T,, of the surrounding fluid. With this con- sideration the mathematical formulation of the fin problem becomes FA) _ 20x) =0 inx>o 6-450) = %-Th=0 xno (6-454) a) +0 arr G50) where m? = Ph/(AR). The solution staken nthe form given by Fa, (2): 3) = Cue + Coe 46) ‘The boundary condition (3-45c) requires that C, = 0, and the application of the boundary condition (3-456) gives C, = o. Then the solution becomes Hx) _ TH) -T, % T= Te 47, ‘hich is the simplest analysis ofthe fn problem.‘ONE-DIMENSIONAL, STEADY-STATE HEAT CONDUCTION 75. Now, since the temperature distribution is known, the heat flow through the fin is determined either by integrating the convective heat transfer over the entire fin surface according to the relation Q- f APO) de 6-484) or by evaluating the conductive heat flow at the fin base according to the relation = 44) G48) Equations (3-482) and (3-480) give identical results since heat flow through the lateral surfaces by convection is equal to heat flow at the fin base by conduction. Here we prefer to use the relation given by Eq. (3-48b). By substituting O(x) from Eq, (3-47) into Eq. (3-486), the heat flow rate through the fin becomes, Q = Aktgm = 05./PikA | W 49) since m = /PAREA. Fins with Negligible Heat Loss at the Tip ‘The heat transfer area at the fin tip is generally small compared with the lateral area ofthe fin for heat transfer. For such situations the heat loss from the fin tip is ‘negligible compared with that from the lateral surfaces, and the boundary con- dition at the fin tip characterizing this situation is taken as d8/dx = O at x = L. ‘Then the mathematical formulation of the fin problem becomes pe = mx) = 0 in0 aero Wi est anf coetient hy = 15 Wit! -°C)- Determine the eat rane rate rom he rd into the surownding ai at Ty = 37°C “anoner: 2016 W 13.84 A tan rod of efor cros section 4, length L, and thermal conductivity kit thermal) ata 384 A thin oe (wo wal wich are maintained at Ymperatures T, and T. The rod i sipating hes Krom i eral surac by convection into the ambient air at T witha heat ans coefcient he ( Dechs the diteaal equation governing the one-dimensional, steady-ate temperature itibation TO) in the od. 1a) Bysohag thaequationdevelopanexpresson forthe emperatare dsributon T(sintherod (G) Buseiop tn expresion forthe Beat fos fom the od ito the ambient i, ‘445 Conner astel yo of length L = SOc, diameter D = 2m, and thermal conductivity k= $5 Wien) ove ond ots rod ie thermal tached to « ot sare malatained at Ti 150° eer Sead i attached to «cold rrface maitaind at T, = SPC. The rod dissipates hea by 208 tation ite tbe ambien air at temperature, = 20°C with a heat tranfr coeficient he = 15 ine), Deteine te heat loss fom the ro ato the ambient it. What fraction ofthis eat loss isfrom the sorface maintained at T, = 190°C? MAniner: 194 W, 3487 ‘3.86 Avery long slender bas ro f diameter D = 2om ad thermal condctviy k= 60 Km. “C) PEAS, Linked tone end to a lag, bot surlae maintained at Tp = 200°C; The fod dissipates Heer on wha heat ane coeticeat he = 25 Wits-°C) into an ambient tT = 2°. 1G) Calelate the heat lose trough the rod info the ambveat i. (0 Grcepper rad [k= 386 Wc-°C)] of dental sae were used in ple ofthe ras od, nat would be the revaling change in the heat los through the rod? a7 Avice rod oflength L = Wem diameter D ~ 1m,and thermal conduetinty = 65 Wi °C) ae ae ceontaly to 4 large tenk at temperature T, = 200°C. The rod is dsipating bet by A aes noes tne abn stat T ~ 20°C with a heat transfer coctcient he = 18 WY/tm"- °C) ‘Whar the temperatre ofthe rod 10 aod 20cm from the tank? “Anoner, AC, 01°C ‘3.88 Two very long, lender rods ofthe same dizmeter are given. One od is of lium and has 3 Serre nacaityky = 0 Wim. C) but the thermal conductivity kote other rodisnotknows, aa etce te ternal conductivity of the othe rod, oe ed ofeach rod i thermally attached to oe ee ehh is maintained at «constant temperature T,, Both rods are losing heat by con. at eat anf coetfcvent hint he ame ai aT, The surface temperature ofeach Yeon at various dances from he Hot base surface. The temperature ofthe aluminum rod(ONE-DIMENSIONAL, STEADY-STATE HEAT CONDUCTION 99 il — 9+ (hdd tl — cosh m+ him) nha sng thie deeop an xeon fr ht ander theaph tha Temperate deendet 7) ad vara cet an 2a Be neal srice of «rod i pec nated while tend atx = O and x thermal coer T and 7, tespecively, The cross-sectional are 4 cake esas ‘ermal condvcity ofthe matcil varie mthteoperienn Mn are kept a and the il +27) Whee ty and ware constants (@) Develop an expresion forth het fw rte Q through the cod (©) Devclop an expression forthe thermal resistance of tes so ‘391 Thermal condciviy of plane wal aes wt temperature scoring to he elation HT) = kya + 6) Where and fare constants, {@) Develop an expresion forthe heat fow throu snd + Lare maintained at worm temperturs 7, (0 an tion fr the thermal reise othe wall fhe et rnd suri Oak com aT trough A= Ol mathe pele aoe cc, 1 = 04 my = 60 Wim "Chand f= 028 5 10-8 Spec ale x Oa = Lave tpt wir tempers 7, end Tywe ‘pesinely and the thermal conductive of the material depends on tcopeener na ee We = kar — 79, where ky and Ty ae constants boundary surfaces at r= a and r= 6 siataned at tan [reggie The thermal conductivity ofthe material varies wth ereraune Mel SBT, Develop an expression forthe heat flow tough aah ena ot activity varies wth tempera: 0:40 + 10"*7), where Pi in depres Caen ‘Determine the heat fow rate per Im length of ind Sr shair=an ‘worm temperatures 7 and, respectively The thermal cont ay A) = be + ar-4 prt, 7 = bare maintained es with emperatre 8100 ear TRANSFER (a) Dewlop an esgrenion rhe ll eat How rte @ hh oop rn forte teal restr of the hollow ee spor ema i of hicks wich ea i gee a ST of go Wm?. The Bo come dant = Loti aba manne temas and T,respectivey aoa conductivity ofthe ib vases with emperare a8 Hr = kal + 6) erent vecontans Develo an exreion rhs a. 8h 8 sateen conto ne alo hikes Lair heme a= b+ 6?) a8: aremintaned a terperatures where and fareconstans Thebounsary surest t= and Ty respetively. enn forthe heat ow ata anatee HEE one he beat wane reer An OM LOAN. TS Cbg = © wie Stand fe 035 x 10-C 7280 compare ar ea Hh Souaned in Problem 3-9 REFERENCES 1, Ceuta, TN, and M. Fenn: Terma Coase MESS in Contact. Gener Cana TN a rar, Confer of sono Mecanzl ESEOS fends) and ASME, pp. 271-215, 1981 7 MME K.N. Tong and GF, Holloway sexect of Pressure on Thermal Condocance aay teins” NACA Tech Note 3295, May 1955 seer i perne Termal Cont Condes Genera His 6482, May toed aaa ARS Paper No. 190-61, AD 196 ieee ee in mere Terms Cone Resistance PORE Space Weis.” 5, Fenech, Hand W. H. Rol thermal Conductance of Meta Surfaces Contact emt ad Es Fried: "TexmalInteace Condoctanes (4-253, 1964 ee gan 87. Chao: “Tm Conta Resta 0 ASR Environment,” She Franger,81:249-265 (1969) er rate Tara Conact Conducta: Geel FASE Co, 65804395 March 1965. a ese. HA, Bum. an Hin: Sabet CS? piiograpty for Thermal Moor gaice Std” ASME Pope OE WALHT-K Dante, Fae BG BB Miki and M.M. Yowanoih: "Thermal Cont ‘Condvetances;" It. J ‘eat Mass Transfer, 12:279-30 (1969) 11, Chnuing, A- Ms" Heat Transfer athe cefiac of similar Metals —Thetnlunce of Thermal i Heat Mass Transfer, 971-801 0360) Panna t= Conetion of Temal Conta! Consumes experimental Results.” Prog yea so 2, Academe Pe, 1c. New York 195 ene A nd. Re Brown Matheateal Equations or He Conduction nthe Fis of Homrrcled Bagnes” NACA Rep. 158, 1922 ee Re ene of ended Sree.) Tne AON 21-631 (1949) Hi Ma Gad A Kru: tnd Sree Troe MEG New York, 1972‘CHAPTER FOUR TRANSIENT CONDUCTION AND USE OF TEMPERATURE CHARTS I the surface temperature of a solid body is suddenly altered, the temperature within the body begins to change over time. It will take some time before the Steady-state temperature distribution is reached. The determination of the temperature distribution within the solid during temperature transients is a more ‘complicated matter because temperature varies with both position and time [1-9], In many practical applications, the variation of temperature with position is negligible during the transients, hence the temperature is considered to vary with time only. The analysis of heat transfer under such an assumption is called the lumped system analysis, and since the temperature is a function of time only, the analysis becomes very simple. Therefore, in this chapter we begin with the lumped system analysis of transient heat conduction problems. ‘The use of transient-temperature charts isillustrated for solving simple transient heat conduction in a slab, cylinder, and sphere in which temperature varies with both time and position, The method of product solution is described for the analysis of multidimensional transient heat conduction. The use of conduction shape factors is discussed for predicting the steady-state heat flow in two-dimensional haat flow systems. Finally, the analytic solution of transient heat conduction by the method of separation of variables is presented for the case of the slab geometry, and the use of tabulated solutions is introduced. 41 LUMPED SYSTEM ANALYSIS ‘Consider that a solid of arbitrary shape, volume V, total surfaog area 4, thermal conductivity k,, density p, specific heat c,, at a uniform temperature Ty is suddenly immersed at the time t = 0 in a well-stired Quid which is kept at a uniform temperature T,,, Figure 4-1 illustrates the considered heat transfer system. Heat transfer between the solid and liquid takes place by convection with a heat transfer 10Wye Figure 41 Nomenclature for Tumped system analyse of tra sen eat flow. coefficient h, It is assumed thatthe temperature distribution within the solid at any instant is suficiently uniform that the temperature of the solid can be considered to be a function of time only, that is, T(0). The energy equation for heat transfer in the solid may be stated as ‘Rate of heat flow into the \\ [rate of increase of solid of volume V through} = { internal energy ofthe solid) (4-1) \boundary surfaces A of volume V By writing the appropriate mathematical expressions for each of these terms, Eq. (41) becomes = pe,v TO ABLT,, ~ T(Q] = peyV aa 40), Ab ry . fh pv TO fort > 0 (420) subject tothe intial condition TW)= Ty fort =0 (42) For convenience in the analysis, anew temperature O()is defined as Ht) = TW) - T. (43) Then Eqs. (42) become 20 4 mit) =0 fort > 0 (440)“TRANSIENT CONDUCTION AND USE OF TOMPERATURE CHARTS 103 Figere 42 Dimensionless temperature 0/65 a8 8 function of time and OW) = To—Te= 0 fort=0 (44) where we have defined m als (4-5) eV Equation (44a) is an ordinary differential equation for the temperature 6(), and its general solution is given as a) = oo ‘The application of the initial condition (4-46) gives the integration constant as C = 65, Then the temperature of the solid as a function of time is given as a) TO % "Ty T, «7 Figure 4-2 shows a plot of the dimensionless temperature given by Eq. (4-7) as a function of time. The temperature decays with time exponentially, and the shape of the curve is determined by the value of the exponent m. Here m has the dimension of (ime)! Clearly, the curves in Fig. 4-2 become steeper as the value of ‘m increases. That is, any increase in m will cause the solid to respond more quickly to a change in the ambient temperature, An examination of the parameters in the definition of m reveals that increasing the surface area for a given volume and the heat transfer coefficient increases m. Increasing the density, specific heat, or volume decreases m. To establish some criteria under which the temperature distribution can be considered uniform within the solid, and hence the lumped system analysis becomes. applicable, we define a characteristic length L, as L (48) and the Biot number Bi as i= 49)104 ear rmanseen wer ih tema conti fhe ol For sods inte hae ofa, ionnndr and spose temprarcdstnbusonderaguaere oases so any hans nfo isan cori ha sb paene vi co 0 This matter is discussed further and becomes clear later in this chapter. Here we assume that the lumped system analysis is applicable for situations in which Bi < 01, ‘The physica significance ofthe Biot number is better envisioned ifit is arranged in the form h kL, which is the ratio of the heat transfer coefficient for convection at the surface of the solid to the specific conductance ofthe solid, Hence, the assumption of uniform. {temperature within the solid is valid if the specific conductance of the solid is much larger than the heat transfer coefficient for convection. Bi au) Example 41. An aluminum plate [k = 160 W/(m °C), p = 2790 kglm?,c, (0.88 KJ((kg-°C)] of thickness L = 3 em and ata uniform temperature of Ty 225°C is suddenly immersed at time t = 0 in a well-stired fluid maintained at a constant temperature T,, = 25°C, The heat transfer coeficient between the plate and the fluid is k = 320 Wi(m? - °C). Determine the time required for the center ofthe plate to reach 50°C. ‘SOLUTION This problem can be solved by the lumped system analysis with sufficient accuracy if Bi <0.1, Therefore, we need to check the magnitude of the Biot number. The characteristic dimension L, is determined as volume LAL 0 area 242 Som ‘Then the Biot number becomes 300 x 15 x 10-7 2 aja Me WOK LS 1 5 1g ‘which is less than 0.1, hence the lumped system analysis is applicable. From Eq. (4-7) we have where WC T= 28°C T= DSC and h 320 BepL, ~ 2790 % 880 x[TRANSIENT CONDUCTION AND USE OF TEMPERATURE CHARTS 105 ‘Then 50 = 25 086% Bos or 0125 (0.008691 = 2.079 2398 = 4 min Example 42 The temperature of a gas stream is measured with a thermo- couple. The junction may be approximated asa sphere of diameter D = 1 mm, f=25Wim-°C), p= 8400 kg/m’, and c, = 04 kI/(kg-°C). The heat transfer coefficient between the junction and the gas stream is h = 560 Wien? -°C). How long wil it take forthe thermocouple to record 99 percent of the applied temperature diference? SouuTion The characteristic dimension L, is Vv 4 r Do 4 ae 3 6 “The Biot number becomes nes so0 1032 ence a= Ms $010" 5 37x 10 hence the lumped system analysis is applicable, From Ea, (4-7) we have Tw) -T, Ty= To ‘When the temperature reaches 99 percent of the applied temperature dif- ference, we have we or em = 100 The value of mis ‘Then ‘Mixed Boundary Condition Inthe previous discussion we considered a situation in which all boundary surfaces of the region were subjected to convection. The method is also applicable when part of the boundary surface is subjected to convection and the remainder is subjected to prescribed heat flux as now illustrated,‘oats Heat sup Win? Figure 43 Nomenclature for lumped analysis of transient heat flow inal Consider a slab of thickness L, initially at a uniform temperature Ty. For times ¢ > 0, heat is supplied to the slab from one of its boundary surfaces at a constant rate of q W/m? while heat is dissipated by convection from the other boundary surface into a medium at a uniform temperature T., with a heat transfer coefficient A Figure 4-3 shows the geometry and the boundary conditions for the problem, We assume an equal arca A for heat transfer on both sides of the plate. The application of the energy balance equation (4-1) for this particular case gives Aq + AMT, ~ T()] = peyat 7 ath TO)=p LTO forr>o 4120) ‘with the initial condition TW=T for For convenience in the analysis, a new temperature O() is defined as 0 (4:12) avert “9 Then Eqs. (4-12) become 9 5 payee r1>0 (ate) and aoe Te2h bee at) where we hive dened h = 4 ce om 0=5 as The solution of Eq, (4-142) is written asa sum of the solution of the homogeneous part of Eq, (4-14a) and a particular solution in the form HD) = Cem +0, 4-16) ‘where Cis the integration constant. The particular solution 6, is given by (4-17){TRANSIENT CONDUCTION AND USE OF TEMPERATURE CHARTS. 107 By combining Eqs. (4-16) and (4-17) we obtain ay = coms 2 (418) “The integration constant C is determined by the application of the initial condition (4-14b) as Q c+ 8 19) % Substitution of Eq, (4-19) into (4-18) gives the solution ofthis heat transfer problem (0) = Bye"™ + 1 = (4-20) For 1 -+ « this solution simplifies to (421) 20) = & which isthe steady-state temperature in the slab Example 43 A household electric iron has a steel base [p = 7840 kg/m’, ¢, = 450 J/kg -°C), and k = 70 Wim °C)} which weighs M = 1 kg. The base hasanironingsurface of A = 0.025 m? and is heated from the other surface with @ 250-W heating element. Initially the iron is at a uniform temperature of T, = 20°C. Suddenly the heating starts, and the iron dissipates heat by convection from the ironing surface into an ambient at T,, = 20°C with a heat transfer coefficient h = 50 W/(m? - °C). CCaleulate the temperature ofthe iron ¢ = Smin after the start of heating. ‘What would the equilibrium temperature of the iron be if the control did ‘ot switch off the current? SOLUTION The thickness L of the base is determined to be 1 Tas x Tea 7 O81 10 ‘The Biot number becomes _ WL _ 90 x O51 x 107? vk 70 Bi = 036 x 107?108 ear reansrex hhence the lumped system analysis is applicable, From Eq. (4-20) we have (0) = Oye™ + (1 my 1 as where 0) = T-T, = 20-20=0 250 ‘i 4 = ggg = 10000 Wii fh = 50 Wim? -°C) h 50 egh ~ TRAD ABO x OSI x 10? ~ 0278 * 10° Then the temperature at the end of t = 5 min is determined as mt = 0.278 x 10°? x 5 x 60 = 0834 04 = 1 = 0994) 2 re T() = Ht) + Te. = 113 + 20 = 133°C ‘The equilibrium temperature becomes 10,000 (20) = 2 — 200° (co) = Woo) + T, = 200 + 20 = 220°C 42 SLAB—Use of Transient-Temperature Charts In many situations the temperature gradients within the solid are no longer negligible, hence the lumped system analysis is no longer applicable. Then the analysis of heat conduction problems involves the determination of the tempera ture distribution within the solid asa function of both time and position, and itis a ‘complicated matter. Various methods of analysis for solving such problems are discussed in several texts [1-5] on advanced treatment of heat conduction ‘Simple problems, such as one-dimensional, time-dependent heat conduction in a slab with no internal energy generation, can be solved readily by the method of separation of variables, as described later in this chapter. In addition, the tempera- ‘ure distribution for such situations has been calculated, and the results presented in the form of transient-temperature charts in several places [6-8]. We now resent transient-temperature and heat fow charts and discuss their physical significance and use. Consider a slab (ie, a plane wall) of thickness 21 that is confined to the region =L < x < L. Initially the slab is at a uniform temperature 7,. Suddenly, at ¢ = 0, both boundary surfaces ofthe slab are subjected to convection with a heat transferFigure 4-4 Geometry, coordinates, and boundary condition for ransint het conduction in slab coefficient h into ambients at temperature T., and are maintained so for times > 0. Figure 4-4a shows the geometry, coordinates, and boundary conditions for this particular problem. However, in this problem there is both geometrical and thermal symmetry about the x =0 plane, so we need to consider the heat con- duction problem for only half the region, say, 0 < x < L. With this consideration the heat conduction problem for the slab of thickness 2L confined to the region =L 0 (42m) Feo ax=oforr>o (4228) yarew, aenborioa amg TT fore=Oindzx0 (4240) atX =0,fort>0 (4-240) aX = I,forr>0 (424c) Oat in0sXiforr=0 (249 ‘The physical significance of the dimensionless time + or the Fourier number is better envisioned if Eq (4-23d is rearranged in the form rate of heat conduction across L in volume L?, at _ K/L)? _ WFC PeyLit~ rate of eat storage in volume LPC ‘Thus, the Fourier number is a measure of the rate of heat conduction in com- parison with the rate of heat storage in a given volume element. Therefore, the larger the Fourier number, the deeper the penetration of heat into a solid over a siven time. ‘The physical significance of the Biot number is better understood if Eq. (4-23e) is rearranged in the form (4-250) heat transfer coefficient at nL, __h__ the surface of solid “K ~ W/L ~ internat conductance of solid across length L That is, the Biot number is the ratio of the heat transfer coefficient to the unit conductance of a solid over the characteristic dimension. ‘Comparing the heat conduction problems given by Eqs. (4-22) and (4424), we conclude that the number of independent parameters that affect the tempera- ture distribution in the solid is reduced significantly when the problem is expressed in the dimensionless form. In the problem given by Eqs. (4-22), the temperature {depends on the following eight physical parameters: Xt Lyk fy Ths To However, in the dimensionless problem given by Eqs. (4-24), the temperature depends on only the following three dimensionless parameters: X,Bi,and (426) Clearly, by expressing the problem in the dimensionless form, the number of parameters affecting the temperature distribution is significantly reduced, There- fore, it becomes feasible to solve such a problem once and for all and present the results in the form of charts for ready reference. (4-256)« 4 BorPoosto20s [235 1020 90 | or 1 10 0 Figure 45 Transientemperature chart for «slab of thickness 2L subjected to convection at both boundary surfaces. (a) Temperature Tp atthe center pase. x = 0; (0 poston correction for use with pat a) (Frm Heuer (6)112 wear TRaNsru ‘Transient-Temperature Chart for Slab The problem defined by Eqs. (4-28) has been solved, and the results for the d- mensionless temperature are presented in Fig. 4-Sa and b, Figure 4-5a gives the midplane temperature Ty or (0, 2) at X = 0 a8 a function of the dimensionless time + for several diferent values ofthe parameter 1/Bi. The curve for 1/Bi = 0 corresponds tothe case + 0, or the surfaces of the plate are maintained at the ambient temperature 7, For large values of 1/Bi, the Biot number is small or the internal conductance ofthe sold is large in comparison with the heat transfer coefcient at the surface. This, in turn, implies thatthe temperature distribution within the solid is sufficiently uniform, hence the lumped system analysis becomes applicable. Figure 4-5b relates the temperatures at diferent locations within the slab to the midplane temperature Ty. If we know Tp, temperatures at diferent Ications Within the slab can be determined. ‘An examination of Fig. 4-5b reveals that for values of 1/Bi larger than 10, or Bi <0, the temperature distribution within the slab may be considered uniform with an error less than about 5 percent. We recall thatthe eriterion Bi < 0.1 was used forthe lumped system analysis to be applicable. Figure 446 shows the dimensionless heat transferred Q/0, as a function of mensionless time for several different values ofthe Biot number for a slabof thick ness 21. Here Q represents the total amount of energy which s lost by the plate up to anytime ¢ during the transient heat transfer. The quantity Qo defined as Qo = pepMT—T.) Wes 27 represents the initial internal energy of the stab relative to the ambient temperature, Example 4-4 A 5-cm-thickiron plate [k = 60 WAm -°C),c, = 460J/(kg °C), 850 kg/m, and a= 1.6 x 10-* m?/s] is initially at 7; ~ 225°C. oo ea agree Figure 46 Dimensionless heat transfered Q/Qg fra sab of thickness 2L. (From Ref 8)[TRANSENT CONDUCTION AND USE OF TEMPERATURE CHARTS. 113, ‘Suddenly, both surfaces are exposed to an ambient at T,, = 25°C with a heat transfer coefficient h = 500 W/m? -°C). ‘Calculate the center temperature at = 2min ater the start ofthe cooling. ‘Calculate the temperature at a depth 1.0 cm from the surface at ¢ = 2 min after the start of the cooling. ‘Calculate the energy removed from the plate per square meter during this time. ‘Souumon ‘The transient-temperature charts may be used to solve this problem since the lumped system analysis is not applicable. We have wesxi0?m or L=25x10?m _ at _ (16 x 107992 x FBO Qa x 10-* ieee © BTL” Moxa xo “8 Bi = 021 ‘Then, from Fig. 4-5a for + = 3.4 and 1/Bi = 8, the center temperature Ty is (0,2) = = 058 T-To Ty = Te + (T~ TeXO58) 25 + 200(0.58) = 141°C “The temperature 1.0 em from the surface is determined as x_25- ana For 1/Bi = 48 and x/L = 06, rom Fig. 4Sb we have TT. T = T, + (Ty ~ TX095) 5 + (141 — 250095) = 135.2°C ‘The heat loss from the plate per square meter (including both sides) during the transientsuptot = 2 minis determined as follows: From Fig. 46,for Bi = 0.21 and Bi?-r = 0.21? x 3-1 = 0.137 we find Q 2 45114 wear reansren where Qp, by Eq. (4-27), is Qo = pe(2LXAXT, — Ty) (7850)(460X5 x 1021225 = 25) = 3533 x 10°) Then the heat loss from the slab per square meter in 2 min becomes Q = 0.459, = 159 x 10°) 43 LONG CYLINDER AND SPHERE—Use of ‘Transient-Temperature Charts The dimensionless transient-temperature distribution and the heat transfer results similar to those given by Figs. 4-5 and 4-6 also can be developed for a long cylinder and sphere. ‘Transient-Temperature Chart for Long Cylinder Consider one-dimensional, transient heat conduction in a long cylinder of radius », which i initially at a uniform temperature T,. Suddenly, at time t = 0, the bound- ary surface at r = b is subjected to convection with a heat transfer coefficient h {nto an ambient at temperature T., and maintained so for t > 0, The mathematical {formulation of this heat conduction problem is given in the dimensionless form as 12 (, 30) 2 LA (RB) mocrcnorr>o aay a Bag unenierso at a ee emen ea (e289 tat wostsimreo zag we vow cmesone ume dete los vi =! = atau (6389 72 = dimensionless time, or Fourier number (4-296) dimensionless temperature (4-290) = dimensionless radial coordinate (4298)enero HOH ee 19 o| | of o4| Bor o0s 0210235 10 20. 100 or 01 0s 0 Figere 47 Transienttemperatar chat for # long sid cinder of radius r = 6 subjected to con ‘retin atthe boundary srfaer = . (2) Temperature Ty athe ais ofthe cylinder; (8) positon cor- eton fo se with put). (Frm Heiser (6).) us116 wear reansren Gos a Be gy Figure 48 Dimensionless eat trasfered fora long clindr of ada (From Rf 8) ‘The problem given by Eq. (4-28) has been solved, and the results for the center temperature 7, or (0, 1)are shown in Fig. 4-7a asa function of the dimensionless. time + for several different values of the parameter 1/Bi, Figure 4-7b relates the temperatures at diflerent locations within the cylinder to the center temperature T,. Therefore, given Ty, temperatures at different locations within the cylinder can bbe determined from Fig. 4-7b Figure 48 shows the dimensionless heat transferred Q/Q, as a function of dimensionless time for several different values of the Biot number for the cylinder problem given by Eqs. (4-28). Here, Qo is as defined by Eq, (4-27), and Q represents the total amount of energy which is ost by the cylinder up to any time # during the transient heat transfer. ‘Transient-Temperature Chart for Sphere For a sphere of radius b, initially at a uniform temperature T;, and for ¢ > 0 subjected to convection at the boundary r = b, with a heat transfer coefficient h into an ambient at temperature T.., the transient heat conduction problem is «given in the dimensionless form as 12 fg.) LE (wa) mocn curso aon R 0 aR = 0,forr>0 (4-306) Be pie-0 R= 1forr>0 4-300 R = atR = fort « ‘) o= inO0 0. The applied temperature 7; may bbe higher or lower than the initial temperature 7; of the medium. 2. In Fig 4-116, at = 0a constant heat flux qo W/m? is imposed on the boundary surface at x = O and maintained for t > 0. 3. InFig. 4-1c, at = Othe boundary surface at x = (is subjected to convection with a fuid at temperature T, and with a heat transfer coefficient h. This con- dition is maintained for all't > 0. Here, the fluid temperature T, may be higher or lower than the initial temperature 7; of the soli. ‘Clearly, the temperature response within the solid will be different for each of these three cases ‘The semi-infinite medium transient heat conduction problems have numerous ‘practical applications in engineering. Consider, for example, temperature transients in a slab of finite thickness, initiated by a sudden change in the thermal condition at the boundary surface. At very early times, the temperature transients near the boundary surface behave similar to those of the semi-infinite medium, because some time is required for the heat to penetrate the slab before the other boundary condition begins to influence the transients. ‘The transient heat conduction problems for the three cases illustrated in Fi 411 have been solved, and analytical expressions are available forthe temperature oS Fos Bo So ‘Srreaon a = sity = fad + : igo Tah o ” © Figure 4.11 Tare diferent boundary condition for ransieat het conduction in sem nfit soi[TRANSIENT CONDUCTION AND USE OF TEMPERATURE CHARTS 121 distribution in the solid as a function of time and position. We now examine the results obtained from such solutions for each case. (Case 1 The solid is initially ata uniform temperature T,,and fort > Othe boundary surface at x = 0 is maintained at a constant temperature 7p, as illustrated in Fig 11a. For this particular case the dimensionless temperature Text) = To 7-T is ploted against the dimensionless parameter £ = x)(2/),asshown in Fi {The pipe sgnieance of this graph i as follows: Fora given value of x the Toph represents the vraton in temperatre with time t that particular location SE etc fora given value of the graph represent he vaFaton of tempera ture with postion within the solids that particular ime t in engineering applications, the heat fux at the boundary surface x = 0 is aso of interest For the case ilusrated in Fg. 41a, the analytic expression for theheat ux the boundary surface x = O's given by Ox, ) = af) =MB—P | wim? a3 Via 0 oa ot 1 o}—« oa| gs es a8 ‘igure 412 Temperature distribution Tx, in semi-infinite solid which intially at Ti for > 0 the surface atx = Ois maintained a To122 ear Tmansren Clearly, when 4, is a positive quantity, the heat flow is into the medium, and Case 2 The solid isinitially at a uniform temperature T,,and or t > Othe boundary surface at x = 0 is subjected to a constant heat flux qo W/m, as illustrated in Fig. 4-11b, For this case, the temperature distribution T(x, ) within the solid is given by (4320) Text) = 7, + con H+ Fete) ~ ] where ~ (4-32b) a me Here, the function er) iscalled the error function of arguments &,andits value are tabulated in App. D, Table D-L Case 3 Thesolidisinitially ata uniform temperature T;,and fort > Othe boundary surface at x = 0 is subjected to convection with a fluid at temperature T,, with a heat transfer coefficient h, as illustrated in Fig. 4-1 1c. For this case, the dimension. less temperature is ploted as a function of the dimensionless parameter x/(2/) for several diferent values of k/ aif as given in Fig 413, Note thatthe case» ao is equivtent to the boundary surface at x = 0 smaitained at a consant temperature 7 Example 446 A very thick concrete wall (a =7 x 10-7 m/s) is initially at a uniform temperature T; = 25°C. Suddenly one of its surfaces is raised to Tp = 125°C and maintained at that temperature. By treating the wall as a semi-infinite soli, calculate the temperatures at 5, 10, and 15 em from the hot surface 30 min after the raising ofthe surface temperature. SOLUTION This problem is the same as case 1, and the temperature distribu- tion is plotted in Fig. 4-12. Fora = 7 x 10~? m?/sandt = 30 x 60 = 1800s, the parameter & becomes 4x[TRANSIENT CONDUCTION AND USE OF TEMPERATURE CHARTS 123, Te 0, Tiss) To % Na ‘igure 4-13 Transient temperature Tx) in smn slid subjected to convection tthe bows dary sari. (From Ref. 9.) For x = 005m: = 07, and Tht) — Ty _ TO 8) ~ 125 T-™% 5-125 Ul T(x, 0) = 58°C Forx = 010m: = 14,and Thx) = 125 25 — 125 CA T(x, 1) = 30°C Forx = 015m: {= 21,and Mst) = 125 5-15 Te It is apparent from these calculations that the effect of heating has not pene tated to a depth x = 0.15 m in 30 min124 ear TRANSTER Example 4-7 A water pipe is to be buried in soil at suficient depth from the surface to prevent freezing in winter. When the soils at a uniform temperature T, = 10°C, the surface is subjected to a uniform temperature of Ty = —15°C continuously for 50 days. What minimum burial depth is needed to prevent the freezing of the pipe? Assume that « = 0.2 x 10~* m/s forthe soil and that the pipe surface temperature should not fall below 0°C. SovuTion Figure 4-12 may be used to determine the temperature distribu- tion in the soil. For « = 0.2 x 10-® m?/s and t= 50 x 24 x 3600s, the parameter § becomes Bat ~ AOD RIO x 50% A x HO Taking T; = 10°C, Ty = ~15*C,and T(x 1) 2 0°C, we obtain Ts) Ty_ 0415 “T=% 10415 From Fig. 4-12, for (x, t) = 0.6, we determine ¢ = 0.6; hence 0538 = 06 06 0338 ‘hati, the pipe shouldbe buried at last toa depth of x= 1.12 m 0538 x, 12m 45 PRODUCT SOLUTION—Use of Transient-Temperature Charts ‘When the temperature gradients are important in not one, but, say, two dif ferent directions within the solid, then the problem is one of two-dimensional ‘transient heat conduction in a solid. When there is no internal energy generation in the medium, it is possible to combine the solutions obtained from one-di- ‘mensional transient-temperature charts and to construct the solution for a two- dimensional transient heat conduction problem. Such an approach, called the ‘method of product solution, is applicable ifthe solution of a two-dimensional, time- ‘dependent heat conduction problem can be shown to be equivalent to the product of the solutions of two one-dimensional, transient heat conduction problems. Demonstration of the Concept of Product Solution ‘The basis of the product solution is better envisioned with the following example. Consider a rectangular bar of sides 2L, and 2L,, confined to the region Ly SxS Ly and ~Ly < y < Lz, as illustrated in Fig. 4-14, Initially the slab{TRANSIENT CONDUCTION AND USE OF TEMPERATURE CHARTS 125 1Learonta een ren Te AiLenretse is ata uniform temperature T, Suddenly at = Ol boundary surface are sub- jected to convection to an ambient at @ constant temperature Ty. The mathe- ‘matical formulation ofthis heat conduction problem, in terms of the dimensionless temperature Tex.) — Te Ox yt) = RO in -Ly 0 (+330) (4338) (4330) 5 (4334) 20 Sakon 0 aye ds 4336) e=1 fort = 0. (4339) It.can be shown that the solution ofthis two-dimensional problem can be expressed a product of the solutions of two one-dimensional problems 0,(x, 1) and 840, ) in the form (5, p. 54] Ox, 9.) = 04050 9126 sear mansren ‘where 0,(x,t)is the solution of the one-dimensional problem 270, _ 100, 1M im-tyexcbyt>0 4340) (4348) axeL, (434) fort =0 (434d) and €;(, 1s the solution ofthe following one dimensional problem #8, _ 100; Gera m-y0 3%) aty= =Ly (4-356) Ly (4359 fort = 0 (435d) ‘The validity of the above decomposition can be verified by substituting 0 = 0,0, in the original two-dimensional problem (Eqs. (4-33)] and utilizing the above problems, defined by Eqs. (4-34) and (4-35). Clearly, the above one-dimensional problems for the functions (x,t) and 0,0, 1) are exactly the same as that whose solution is given by the transient- temperature chart in Fig. 4-5. From the previous illustration we conclude that the solution of the two- dimensional heat conduction problem defined by Eqs. (4-33) for a rectangular region ~L, 0. Figure 4-16 shows the geometry, co- ordinates, and boundary conditions for the problem. The mathematical formula tion of this heat conduction problem is #TR.D _ 1TH Te) LTO ing exo (4370) subject to the boundary conditions Te) =0 atx=0,1>0 (4376) Te)= 0 atx=Lr>0 (4376) and the initiat condition Tex.) FG) fort =0,in0sx

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