Foundation Course on

Air Quality Management in Asia

Emissions

Edited by
Gary Haq and Dieter Schwela

Editors

Dr Gary Haq, Stockholm Environment Institute, University of York

Dr Dieter Schwela, Stockholm Environment Institute, University of York

Module Contributors

Professor Bingheng Chen, School of Public Health, Fudan University, Shanghai

Dr Dilip Biwas, Former Chairman, Central Pollution Control Board, New Delhi
Dr David L. Calkins, Sierra Nevada Air Quality Group, LLC, San Francisco Bay Area, CA
Dr Axel Friedrich, Department of Transport and Noise at the Federal Environment Agency (UBA), Berlin
Mr Karsten Fuglsang, FORCE Technology, Copenhagen
Dr Gary Haq, Stockholm Environment Institute, University of York, York
Professor Lidia Morawska, School of Physical and Chemical Sciences, Queensland University of Technology, Brisbane
Professor Frank Murray, School of Environmental Science, Murdoch University, Perth
Dr Kim Oanh Nguyen Thi, Environmental Technology and Management, Asian Institute of Technology, Bangkok
Dr Dieter Schwela, Stockholm Environment Institute, University of York, York
Mr Bjarne Sivertsen, Norwegian Institute for Air Research, Olso
Dr Vanisa Surapipith, Pollution Control Department, Bangkok
Dr Patcharawadee Suwanathada, Pollution Control Department, Bangkok
Mr Harry Vallack, Stockholm Environment Institute, University of York

Production Team

Howard Cambridge, Web Manager, Stockholm Environment Institute, University of York, York
Richard Clay, Design/layout, Stockholm Environment Institute, University of York, York
Erik Willis, Publications Manager, Stockholm Environment Institute, University of York, York

Funding

The modules were produced by the Stockholm Environment Institute (SEI) and the University of York (UoY) as
part of the Clean Air for Asia Training Programme. The programme was led by the SEI and UoY in collaboration
with the Pollution Control Department (Thailand), Vietnam Environment Protection Agency (VEPA), and Clean
Air Initiative for Asian Cities (CAI-Asia). The Clean Air for Asia Training Programme was funded under the
European Unions Asia Urbs programme (TH/Asia Urbs/01 (91000)). Additional funding was received from the
Norwegian Agency for Development Cooperation (NORAD), International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA),
World Health Organization, Norwegian Institute for Air Research (NILU), and Force Technology.

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Foundation Course on Air Quality Management in Asia

The Foundation Course on Air Quality
Management in Asia is for adult learners studying
the issue without the support of a class room
teacher. It is aimed at students with some basic
knowledge of environment and air pollution
issues, acquired in a variety of ways ranging from
conventional study, working in an environmental
related field or informal experience of air
pollution issues.

Clean air is recognised as a key component of a

sustainable urban environment in international
agreements and increasingly in regional
environmental declarations in Asia. National
and local governments have begun to develop
air quality management strategies to address the
deterioration in urban air quality. However, the
scope and effectiveness of such strategies vary
widely between countries and cities.

The course provides you with an opportunity

to develop your understanding of the key
components required to develop a programme
to manage urban air pollution and to achieve
better air quality. By working through the six
modules you will gradually achieve a higher
level of understanding of urban air pollution and
the measures taken to monitor air quality and to
prevent and control urban air pollution.

The aim of air quality management is to maintain

the quality of the air that protects human health
and welfare but also to provide protection for
animals, plants (crops, forests and vegetation),
ecosystems and material aesthetics, such as
natural levels of visibility. In order to achieve
this goal, appropriate policies, and strategies
to prevent and control air pollution need to be
developed and implemented.

Urban Air Pollution in Asia

Module Structure

Urban air pollution affects the health, well-being

and life chances of hundreds of million men,
women and children in Asia every day. It is
responsible for an estimated 537,000 premature
deaths annually with indoor air being responsible
for over double this number of deaths. It is often
the poor and socially marginalized who tend
to suffer disproportionately from the effects of
deteriorating air quality due to living near sources
of pollution.

The foundation course consists of six modules

which address the key components of air
quality management. An international team of
air pollution experts have contributed to the
development of the course. Each module is
divided into a number of sections each devoted
to a different aspect of the issue, together with
examples and key references.

Module 2 - Emissions

Introduction

Section 1 Emissions Inventories

3
4
9

1.1
1.2
1.3

Emission Data
Emission Sources
Emission Factors

Section 2: Inventory for Different Source Types

13

2.1

2.2

2.3

2.4

2.5

2.6

14
17
18
20
20

Stationary Source Inventories

Area Source Inventories
Mobile (On-road) Inventories
Mobile (Off-road) Inventories
Inventory for Natural Sources
Baseline Studies of Emissions in Regional and Transboundary Air
Pollution

21

Section 3 Compiling an Emissions Inventory

22

22
22
23
23
25
26
27
27
28

3.1
3.2
3.3
3.4
3.5
3.6
3.7
3.8
3.9

EEA - EU EMEP/CORINAIR
Global Atmospheric Pollution Forum
NILU - AIRQUIS
The German-Swiss Emission Calculation System
USEPA - AIR CHIEF
WHO: RIAS
SIM-AIR
Other International Emissions Inventory Programs
Basic Considerations in Emissions Inventory Development

Section 4 Control of Emission Sources

31

32
32
37
44
50
53

4.1
4.2
4.3
4.4
4.5
4.6

Selection of Control Devices

Properties of Particles
Control of Particulate Matter
Control of Gaseous Emissions
Best Available Control Technology (BACT)
Reducing Emissions from Mobile Sources

Summary
Information Sources
Appendix A: Emission Factors for Generating Power
Appendix B: Emission Factors for Heavy Duty Vehicles

59
60
68
70

Learning objectives
In Module 2 Emissions you will examine the role of emissions inventories in air quality management
and the different measures available to control emissions from different sources. At the end of the
module you will have a better understanding of the:
need for emissions inventories
different types of pollution sources
basic considerations required in developing an emission inventory
computer programs available to compile an emission inventory
measures available to control emission sources.

List of Acronyms and Abbreviations

ABC
Atmospheric brown cloud
ACFA
Asian Clean Fuels Association
ACS
American Cancer Society
ADAC
Automatic data acquisition system
ADB
Asian Development Bank
ADORC
Acid Deposition and Oxidant

Research Center
AirQUIS
Air quality information system
ALAD
Aminolaevulinic acid dehydrase
AMIS
Air quality management

information system
APHEA
Air Pollution and Health, A

European Approach
API
Air pollution index
APINA
Air Pollution Information Network
APMA
Air pollution in the megacities of

Asia project
APNEE
Air Pollution Network for Early

warning and on-line information

Exchange in Europe
AQG
Air quality guideline
AQM
Air quality management
AQMS
Air quality management system
AQO
Air quality objective
AQSM
Air quality simulation model
As
Arsenic
ASEAN
Association of South East Asian

Nations
ASG
Atmospheric Studies Group
ATD
Arizona test dust
AWGESC ASEAN Working Group on

Environmentally Sustainable

Cities
AWS
Automatic weather station
BaP
Benzo[a]pyrene
BBC
British Broadcasting Corporation
BMR
Bangkok Metropolitan Area
BRT
Bus rapid transit
BS
Black smoke
BTEX
Benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene

and xylenes
CAI-Asia Clean Air Initiative for Asian Cities
CAIP
Clean air implementation plan
CARB
Californian Air Resources Board
CAS
Chemical Abstract Service
CBA
Cost benefit analysis
Cd
Cadmium
CD
Compact disc
CDM
Clean development mechanism
CEA
Cost-effectiveness analysis
CER
Certified emissions reduction
CMAS
Institute for the Environment,

Chapel Hill
CMB
Chemical mass balance
CNG
Compressed natural gas
CO
Carbon monoxide
Carbon dioxide
CO2
COHb
Carboxyhaemoglobin
COI
Cost of illness
COPD
Chronic obstructive pulmonary

disease
CORINAIR CORe INventory of AIR emissions
CPCB
Central Pollution Control Board
CSIRO
Commonwealth Scientific and

Industrial Research Organisation
CVM
Contingent valuation method
DALY
Disability-adjusted life years
DAS
Data acquisition system
DDT
Dichloro-Diphenyl-Trichloroethane
DETR
Department for Transport and the

Regions
DQO
Data quality system
DQO
Data quality objective
DWM
Diagnostic wind model
EB
Executive board
EC
European Commission
EEA
European Environment Agency
EGM
Eulerian Grid Module
EIA
Environmental impact assessment

ETS
EU
FID
FOE
FST

GBD
GDP
GHG
GIS
GTF
HAP
HC
HCA
HCMC
HEI
HEPA

Hg
HIV/AIDS


I&M
IBA
ICCA

IFFN
IPCC

IQ
IR
ISO
IT
IUGR
IUPAC

IVL

km
LBW
LCD
LPG
LPM
MAPs
MCIP

MMS
MOEF

MOPE

MT
MW
NAA
NAAQS

NASA

NDIR
NILU

NKBI
NMMAPS

NO
NO2
NOx
NYU
O2
O3
OECD

PAH
PAN
Pb
PbB
PCB
PCD
PDR

Environmental tobacco smoke

European Union
Flame ionisation detector
Friends of the Earth
Foundation for Science and
Technology
Global burden of disease
Gross domestic product
Greenhouse gas
Geographic information system
Global Technology Forum
Hazardous air pollutant
Hydrocarbon
Human capital approach
Ho Chi Minh City
Health Effects Institute
Ho Chi Minh City Environmental
Protection Agency
Mercury
Human immunodeficiency virus/
Acquired Immunodeficiency
Syndrome
Inspection and maintenance
Ion beam analysis
International Council of Chemical
Associations
International Forest Fire News
Intergovernmental Panel on
Climate Change
Intelligent quotient
Infrared
Organization for Standardization
Interim target
Intrauterine low growth restriction
International Union of Pure and
Applied Chemistry
Swedish Environmental Research
Institute
kilometre
Low birth weight
Less developed country
Liquid petroleum gas
Lagrangian particle module
Major air pollutants
Meteorology-Chemistry Interface
Processor
Multimedia messaging service
Ministry of Environment and
Forests
Ministry of Population and
Environment
Meteo-Technology
Molecular weight
Neutron activation analysis
National Ambient Air Quality
Standards
National Aeronautics and Space
Administration
Non-dispersive Infrared
Norwegian Institute for Air
Research
Neutral buffered potassium iodide
National Morbidity and Mortality
Air Pollution Study
Nitric oxide
Nitrogen dioxide
Nitrogen oxides
New York University
Oxygen
Ozone
Organization for Economic
Cooperation and Development
Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons
Peroxyacetyl nitrate
Lead
Level of blood lead
Polychlorinated biphenyl
Pollution Control Department
Peoples Democractic Republic

PESA
Proton elastic scattering analysis
PID
Photo ionisation detector
PIGE
Particle induced gamma ray

emission
PILs
Public interest litigation
PIXE
Particle induced X-ray emission
PM
Particulate matter
PM10
Particulate matter less than 10

microns in diameter
Particulate matter less than 2.5
PM2.5

microns in diameter
PMF
Positive matrix factorisation
POP
Persistent organic pollutant
PPM
Parts per million
PRC
Peoples Republic of China
PSAT
Particulate matter source

apportionment technology
PSI
Pollutant standard index
PSU/NCAR Pennsylvania State University /

National Center for Atmospheric

Research
PVC
Polyvinyl chloride
QA/QC
Quality assurance/quality control
QEPA
Queensland Environmental

Protection Agency
ROS
Reactive oxygen species
RBS
Rutherford backscattering

spectrometry
SA
Source apportionment
SACTRA Standing Advisory Committee on

Trunk Road Assessment
SAR
Special Administrative Region
SMC
San Miguel Corporation
SMS
Short message service
Sulphur dioxide
SO2
SOx
Sulphur oxides
SPCB
State Pollution Control Board
TAPM
The Air Pollution Model
TEA
Triethanolamine
TEAM
Total Exposure Assessment

Methodology
TEOM
Tapered element oscillating

microbalance
TSP
Total suspended particulate
UAM
Urban airshed model
UCB
University of California at

Berkeley
UF
Ultra fine
UK
United Kingdom
UNDESA United Nations Department of

Economic and Social Affairs
UNDP
United Nations Development

Programme
UNECE
United Nations Economic

Commission for Europe
UNEP
United Nations Environment

Programme
UNFCCC United Nations framework on

climate change
UN-Habitat United Nations Habitat
US
United States
USEPA
United States Environmental

Protection Agency
UV
Ultra violet
UVF
Ultra violet fluorescence
VOC
Volatile organic compound
VOSL
Value of statistical life
VSI
Visibility Standard Index
WAP
Wireless Application Service WHO

World Health Organization
WMO
World Meteorological

Organization
WRAC
Wide ranging aerosol collector
WTP
Willingness to pay
XRF
X-ray fluorescence
YLD
Years of life with disability
YLL
Years of life lost

List of Tables, Figures and Boxes

Table 2.1:
Table 2.2:
Table 2.3:
Table 2.4:
Table 2.5:
Table 2.6:
Table 2.7:
Table 2.8:
Table 2.9:
Table 2.10:
Table 2.11:
Table 2.12:
Table 2.13:
Table 2.14:
Figure 2.1:
Figure 2.2:
Figure 2.3:
Figure 2.4
Figure 2.5:
Figure 2.6
Figure 2.7:
Figure 2.8:
Figure 2.9
Figure 2.10
Figure 2.11:
Figure 2.12:
Figure 2.13:
Figure 2.14:

Types of sectoral source categories used

in an emissions inventory
Emitted compounds from various
industrial activities
Parameters influencing emissions of
activities
Area source categories
Types of natural sources and key
pollutants
Emission standards for coal power
plants in Thailand
Emission standards for cement plants
in Thailand
Sources of typical gaseous compounds
Industrial pollution sources and typical
control devices
Pollutant reduction through modern
technological devices
Emission standards for petrol-driven
private vehicles in Asia countries and
the European Union, 1995-2010
Sulphur Content in Diesel in Asian
Countries, the European Union and the
United States
Specification of Gasoline in Asian
Countries and the European Union
Person trip attributes and commodity
attributes
Copper smelter in Ilo, Peru
Area source of household emissions in
Alexandra, South Africa
Waste deposit in Lagos, Nigeria, as an
example of a large area source
The elements of the air quality
management system AirQUIS
The three modules of CITAIR
Cost of PM control devices as a
function of gas flow
Characteristic sizes of various particles
Petrol particles and asbestos fibre
particle
Size distribution of particles from a
diesel bus running on low power
Size distribution of side stream smoke
produced by a human smoker
Settling chamber
Baffle chamber
Operation diagram of a common
cyclone
Collection efficiency of a cyclone as a
function of particle size

Figure 2.15: Multiple cyclone separator

Figure 2.16: Counter-current (a) and cross flow (b)
scrubbers
Figure 2.17: Inertial impaction (a) and direct
interception (b) of particles on a liquid
droplet; D = liquid droplet diameter; DP
= particle diameter
Figure 2.18: Bag filter dust collecting system
PC-P021
Figure 2.19a-c Bag filter system (a) operation mode of
bag filter (b) and cleaning of bag filter
(c)
Figure 2.19d: Dust-loaded filter
Figure 2.20: New, clean, woven filter (a) and new,
clean, non-woven filter (b)
Figure 2.21: Pulse jet bag house
Figure 2.22: Schematic diagram of a wire and pipe
precipitator
Figure 2.23: Typical electrostatic precipitator used at
a coal-fired boiler
Figure 2.24: Single gas passage in a typical
electrostatic precipitator
Figure 2.25: Particle collection efficiency as a
function of particle diameter
Figure 2.26: Direct flame incinerator
Figure 2.27: Schematic diagram of the thermal
incinerator
Figure 2.28: Schematic diagram of a catalytic
oxidizer using its waste to preheat the
gaseous pollutant stream
Figure 2.29: Flue gas desulphurisation limestone
scrubber
Figure 2.30: Process of absorption and desorption in
a catalyst
Figure 2.31: Schematic design of a surface condenser
Figure 2.32: Schematic diagram of a spray contact
condenser
Figure 2.33: Biofiltration device for removal of air
pollutants
Figure 2.34: Elevated gas flaring in Russia
Figure 2.35: Shell gas flare at Rumuekpe, Rivers
State, Nigeria
Box 2.1
Box 2.2
Box 2.3
Box 2.4
Box 2.5
Box 2.6

Why produce an emissions inventory?

The consequences of an incomplete
inventory
Activity 1: Estimating missions from
power plants
Activity 2: Estimating exhaust emissions
from heavy duty diesel powered trucks
and buses
Activity 3: Estimation of the requested
efficiency of control devices
Public Transport Policy in China

 Introduction

ir pollutant emissions inventories are the

basic building blocks of air quality modelling
and an integral part of air quality management
(AQM) strategies. In Europe and North America
there is official national reporting of emissions
inventories for a number of pollutants. However, in
Asia, Africa and Latin America, routine estimation
and reporting of emission estimates of sufficient
quality is either absent or only available in a few
developing countries. If estimates exist they are
often unreliable, contradictory and/or unrealistic.
In most of the developing countries the capacity to
undertake reliable estimations is generally lacking
(CAI-Asia, 2004).

achieved or achievable by these measures remains

poorly understood due to the lack of high quality
emission factors and inventory techniques.
This fact has led to considerable debate as to
whether a certain measure is really effective with
respect to significantly reducing air pollutant
concentrations.
Regional challenges such as acidic deposition,
eutrophication of sensitive ecosystems, tropospheric
ozone formation and increasing atmospheric
loads of small particulate matter (especially those
less than 2.5 m in diameter) also require high
quality emissions inventories in order to develop
regionally coordinated abatement strategies.

Without detailed and reliable emissions inventories,

there is little opportunity to develop strategic
plans to deal with air pollution and to monitor
the effectiveness of such plans. In many cases
the sources of pollution are obvious and are
already being addressed in parts of Asia (e.g. the
transformation of diesel-driven buses and threewheelers to compressed natural gas (CNG) in New
Delhi). However, the level of emission reduction

This module examines the need for emissions

inventories and the different sources of emissions.
It provides an overview of the different types
of computer programs available from different
agencies that can be used to compile an emissions
inventory. The module also addresses the control
of emission sources of gaseous and particle
compounds.

Section 1 Emissions Inventories

estimate the impact of new sources of

pollution (e.g. planning new industrial
plants or changing processes in existing
plants or allowing the use of different types
of vehicles);

n emissions inventory is generally defined

as a comprehensive listing of sources and
an estimation of the magnitude of air pollutant
emissions in a geographic area during a specific
time period. It can have different geographical
scales ranging from global to individual plant level
emissions. An inventory can be compiled at the
national level, or emissions at the national level
can be the sum of emissions compiled at smaller
geographical scales (e.g. county, municipality or
even facility level). An inventory can be given for
a single year only, but inventories for more years
(time-series) are needed for most applications.
Emissions inventories should, therefore, be
annually compiled and updated.

support the setting of emission fees for

sources;
establish emission trading programmes;
help revise current air quality regulations,
policies and strategies; and
initiate strategies and regulations for AQM.
Emissions inventories can be approached in two
ways: top-down or bottom-up. The key decision
on which approach to take is generally based on
available resources.

An emissions inventory can be used in a variety

of ways as part of an integrated air quality
management (AQM) programme. It can be used
to:

Top-down approach:

estimate the magnitude of local, regional or

national emissions;

national- or regional-level emission

estimates allocated to state or county
based on surrogate parameters such
as population, employment, energy
consumption, resource use, vehicle number
growth in different sectors;

evaluate emissions tendencies;

serve as input in air quality models;
assure compliance with regulatory/legal
decisions (emission standards) and actions
relating to emissions and/or air quality;

used when local data are not available, cost

to gather local data is prohibitive, and end
use of data does not justify cost to collect;

Box 2.1
Why Produce an Emissions Inventory?

typically used to inventory area sources;

An emissions inventory:

estimates the magnitude of emissions to identify key sources;

provides input data for modelling dispersion, ground level concentrations,

deposition and effects of air pollutants;

helps to inform policy makers and the public;

helps to define priorities and set objectives for reducing emissions;

assesses the potential efficiency of different reduction strategies;

forecasts future emission levels to determine which emission sources

might require further controls.

requires modest resources.

Bottom-up approach:
collects source-specific information on
individual sources, processes, activities and
their levels, and estimates emission factors;
typically used to inventory major sources;

 results in more accurate estimates than the

top-down approach;

estimated from the knowledge of the throughput

and sulphur content of fuels, the process applied,
operating conditions, the existence of emissionreducing equipment, and other information. In
addition, reliable data may be available for some
components of an emissions inventory (e.g. for
some industrial sites from measurements of stack
emissions).

requires more financial resources,

depending on the requested level of detail
and accuracy.
An emissions inventory addresses all relevant
sources. It can often be labour-intensive to collect
data, in particular when more sophisticated
methods are applied. In this situation priority
should be given to the key sources. Key sources
are those that have a significant influence on the
absolute level of emissions, the trend in emissions,
or the reduction of uncertainty of estimated
emissions. A key source is also determined by the
toxicities of emitted compounds. For example,
for two sources with equal mass emissions of
compounds of different toxicity, the source which
emits the more toxic compound has a higher
relevance in a list of sources than the one which
emits the less toxic compound. In turn, a source
with low emission of a highly toxic compound
may be more relevant than a source with high
emission of a much less toxic compound. The
consideration of key sources should be the priority
for countries during inventory resource allocation
for data collection, compilation, quality assurance/
quality control (QA/QC), and reporting.

The preliminary emissions inventory estimates can

be revised as more accurate information becomes
available. Sources of information on how to prepare
rapid emissions inventories have been produced
by the World Health Organization (WHO) (1993;
1995; 1997) and the Global Atmospheric Pollution
Forum (GAPF) (2007).
In the past, most AQM goals have focused
on emissions from major, and relatively well
characterised, source categories. As major sources
are addressed, remaining emissions will be more
evenly distributed over source categories and will
be more difficult to measure or model. Thus, errors
in emission estimates from smaller individual
sources will have a greater impact. Errors could
range from wrongly identifying a pollutant
that should be controlled to overlooking source
categories whose control could result in a more
cost-effective emission reduction. The Houston
experience is an good example of the consequences
of incomplete inventories (see Box 2.2).

1.1 Emission Data

eliable emission estimates are often lacking in

developing countries. However, where action
is needed to improve air quality, absence of accurate
information should not prevent the development of
preliminary emission estimates. Basic information
about the population, transportation, industry,
fuels and other information can be used to
calculate preliminary emission estimates (Kato
and Akimoto, 1992), which can then be used to
develop and implement AQM plans. In other cases,
emissions can be calculated from estimates of
process inputs. For example, emissions of sulphur
dioxide (SO2) from coal fired power plants can be

Box 2.2
The consequences of an incomplete inventory
Houston,Texas has some of the most frequent violations of the US National
Ambient Air Quality Standards. Emissions inventories in the late 1990s
indicated that to meet the one-hour ozone standard it would be required
to reduce nitrogen oxides (NOx) emissions by 90 per cent. However, a 2000
study on the atmospheric chemistry affecting Houstons ozone problem
found previously-unidentified sources of highly reactive volatile organic
compounds (VOCs), and therefore a control strategy for NOx-only would
not achieve the desired reductions in ozone levels. The strategy was then
revised to require more VOC control and only 79 per cent NOx emission
reductions. Subsequent studies showed that the 90 per cent NOx control
strategy would have resulted in the loss of 60,000 jobs and a US$ 9 billion
smaller regional economy compared to the adopted 79 per cent NOx strategy.
Obtaining accurate and complete emissions inventories is therefore
extremely important and cost-effective (Corbett and Beskid, 2000).

2
stationary (point) sources such as major
industrial sites;

1.2 Emission Sources

ollutant air emissions can come from both

man-made (anthropogenic) or natural
(biogenic) sources. Table 2.1 provides a summary
of the types of sectoral source categories that can
be used in an emissions inventory.

area (non-point) sources such as domestic

emissions and emissions from light
industry and commercial areas;
mobile (line) sources such as motor
vehicles;

Emissions can be identified on the basis of their

sources which include the following:

biogenic or natural sources such as dust

storms, forest fires, and volcanic eruptions.

Table 2.1: Types of sectoral source categories used in an emission inventory

Activities

Emissions from

Activities not
adequately defined

consumer solvent use

Agriculture, forestry
and fishing

surface coating
crop and animal production
forestry and logging
fishing and aquaculture
mining of coal and lignite
extraction of crude petroleum and natural gas

Mining and quarrying

mining of metal ores

other mining and quarrying
mining support service activities
Manufacture of
food, beverages and tobacco products
textile, wearing apparel & leather and related products
wood and products of wood and cork, except furniture; articles of straw and plaiting
materials
paper and paper products, printing and reproduction of recorded media
coke and refined petroleum products
chemicals and chemical products
basic pharmaceutical products and preparations
rubber and plastics products

Manufacturing

other non-metallic mineral products

basic metals
fabricated metal products, except machinery and equipment
computer, electronic and optical products
machinery and equipment
motor vehicles, trailers and semi-trailers
other transport equipment
furniture
other products
repair and installation of machinery and equipment

Table 2.1: (continued)

Production of
4

Electricity, gas and

water

electricity
gas
steam
air conditioning supply.

Water supply,
sewerage, waste
management and
remediation

water collection, treatment and supply

sewerage
waste collection, treatment and disposal, and materials recovery
remediation activities and other waste management services
construction of buildings

Construction

civil engineering
specialized construction activities
wholesale trade

Wholesale and retail

trade, repair of
motor vehicles and
motorcycles

retail trade
repair of motor vehicles and cycles
other retail trade

land transport and transport via pipelines

8

Transportation and
storage

water transport
air transport
warehouses and support activities for transportation
postal and courier activities
sanitary and similar services

Community, social
and personal services

social and related community service

recreational and cultural services
personal and household services

10

Accommodation and
food service activities

hotels
restaurants
publishing activities

11

Information and
communication

motion picture, video and television programme production, sound recording and
music publishing activities
telecommunications
computer programming, consultancy and related activities
information service activities

Source: Adapted from UN (2007)

2
Stationary sources

A stationary source is a fixed-site emitter of

pollution which usually involves industrial
combustion processes. Emissions may be from
large or small point sources or several single
sources over a small area (e.g. several smokestacks
in a copper smelter). Emissions may also be
released from material transfers, equipment leaks,
stacks or vents.
Point sources (see Figure 2.1) typically emit key
pollutants such as, carbon monoxide (CO), nitrogen
oxides (NOx), particulate matter (PM), sulphur
oxides (SOx) and volatile organic compounds
(VOCs). Table 2.2 lists the different types of
industrial activities which could be a stationary
source of air pollution.

cardiovascular diseases, cancer, reproductive

effects, or adverse environmental effects (USEPA,
2007a).

Toxic air pollutants, also called hazardous air

pollutants, are known or suspected to cause
serious health effects, such as respiratory and

Point source emissions can be further divided

into various sub-categories, depending on the
industrial process. Examples of sub-categories

Figure 2.1: Copper smelter in Ilo, Peru

Source: Courtesy D. Schwela

Table 2.2: Emitted compounds from various industrial activities

Activities

Emitted compounds

Electric utilities

PM, CO, NOx, SOx, lead (Pb), and toxic air pollutants

Petroleum refining

VOCs, PM, toxic air pollutants

Primary/Secondary metal production

PM, SOx, Pb, toxic air pollutants

Cement production
Mining and quarrying

PM, Pb, toxic air pollutants

Mineral products
Waste disposal

VOCs, PM, CO, Pb, toxic air pollutants

Automobile industry

VOCs, PM, toxic air pollutants

Wood pulp and paper

PM, SOx, toxic air pollutants

Oil and gas production

Surface coating
Bulk fuel terminals
Wood products manufacturing

VOCs and toxic air pollutants

Food and agriculture industry

Chemical manufacturing
Printing and publishing

include fugitive emissions, process emissions,

combustion emissions, various solvent usage
emissions, and storage tank emissions.

Area sources

An area source refers to any source of air pollution

emitted over an area, which cannot be classified as
a point source. Area sources can be a large number
of similar small stack point sources (e.g. household
emissions) (see Figure 2.2) which can be difficult
to estimate individually. Area sources might
include emissions from household activities such
as cooking and heating, small business activities,
agricultural residue burning, waste combustion,

Figure 2.3: Waste deposit in Lagos,

Nigeria, as an example of a
large area source
Source: Courtesy D. Schwela

to air , whose combined impact ... may be

significant and for which it is impractical to collect
reports from each individual source.
Emissions from diffuse sources include evaporative
emissions from motor vehicles and off-road mobile
sources (e.g. hot soak emissions, running and
diurnal losses) and emissions from areas with
light industry, domestic and wood burning as
well as biogenic emissions from natural sources.
Area sources can be difficult and time-intensive
to inventory and various screening techniques are
often used to estimate their emissions.

Figure 2.2: Area source of household

emissions in Alexandra, South
Africa
Source: Photo credit unknown

Mobile (line) sources

fugitive dust from deposits and roads, forest fires,

small activities from gasoline service stations, small
paint shops, consumer use of solvents and biogenic
(natural) sources. Waste deposits can also be a large
area source of emissions (see Figure 2.3).

Mobile sources are on-road and off-road vehicles,

ships and aircraft. Emissions from vehicles can
be distributed over a large urban area and are
normally near to where people live. In addition,
the tail-pipe emissions are close to the level of the
individual (e.g. breathing zone of children); thus
exposure and impact of vehicle source emissions on
human health may be higher than from stationary
sources with elevated emission outlets.

Diffuse sources
Diffuse sources are sources that are not clearly
delimited such as open windows, gates, doors,
tube connections and flanges in a plant. They are
also often summarized as area sources. According
to the definition in the European PRTR Regulation
(EC, 2006):

On-road sources
Mobile on-road sources include all vehicles which
move on-roads. The category can be divided in
sub-groups:

diffuse sources are the many smaller or scattered

sources from which pollutants may be released

2
Emissions from these sources are similar to those
from on-road vehicles, but are much more difficult
to estimate due to the fact that for most of the
categories, no registration and activity rates are
available in less developed countries (LDCs).

passenger cars;
light duty vehicles;
heavy duty vehicles;
urban buses and coaches; and
two- and three-wheelers.

Ships and aircraft

Emissions from ships are important in harbours
and on the shipping routes close to ports. Aircraft
emissions are important for starting, landing and
taxiing activities on airports.

In an emissions inventory mobile sources on the

roads in urban areas are considered to constitute
line sources since it is not feasible to consider the
emissions from each individual vehicle. Parameters
that are important for estimating vehicle emissions
include:

Emissions

The amount of emissions released into the

atmosphere from any activity generally depend
on a number of parameters such as (WHO, 1993):

type of the vehicles;

year of conventional vehicle manufacturing;
fuel consumption;

source type;

cylinder displacement;

unit of activity;

type of catalytic converter, particle filter or

conventional technology used;

source size;
process;

average trip length;

source age and technological sophistication;

ambient mean temperature.

The main pollutant categories associated with
motorized vehicles are hydrocarbons (HCs) which
contain a vast number of different hydrocarbon
species including carcinogenic substances such
as benzene and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons
(PAHs). Other pollutants emitted from motor
vehicles include PM, NOx, CO, and ammonia
(NH3). PM includes black carbon species, metal
oxides, sulphates, nitrates, and other particles.

source maintenance and operating

practices;

Off-road sources
Non-road sources include a large number of
different emission sources such as construction
machines and equipment, tractors, lawn mowers,
oil field equipment, boats, ships, aircraft, etc.

other conditions.

type and quality of the raw material used;

type, design and age of the control system
employed;
ambient conditions such as humidity and
temperature; and

These parameters are explained in Table 2.3.

Table 2.3: Parameters influencing emissions of activities

Parameter

Impact on emissions

Source type

Type of pollution-generating activity such as cement manufacturing, vehicle

traffic

Unit of activity

Measure of the activity, e.g. mileage of vehicles; number of aircraft take-offs and
landings; amount of raw materials consumed or of products manufactured

Source size

Only indirectly related to the emission rate (defined as emission amount per unit
of activity) if the process selected depends on the source size

Process

The quantities of emissions depend on the process chosen, e.g. different kinds of
kilns in the production of lime and cement

Source age and technological

sophistication

Both parameters affect emission loads. The ageing of a source leads to more
frequent failure. Technological innovations may be more environmentally friendly.

Source maintenance and operating

practices

These parameters affect emission loads, product quality and costs. Therefore, it
is in the interest of manufacturers to ensure proper maintenance and operation.
For vehicles, these parameters offer less emissions, lower fuel consumption and
economic savings

Type and quality of the raw material

used

In industrial processes, the type and quality of raw materials often dictate the
process to be employed and, correspondingly, emissions. For motor vehicles,
the type and quality of fuels affect the performance of the engines and their
emissions

Type, design and age of the control

system employed

These parameters determine the efficiency of emission removal

Ambient conditions such as wind

velocity, humidity and temperature

Ambient conditions may significantly affect the emission rate, e.g. wind
velocity and/or rainfall affect PM emissions from roads and material deposits.
Temperature affects road traffic emissions

Topographic conditions such as

altitude

Altitude may change the combustion efficiency due to rarefied atmospheric

conditions and lower temperatures resulting in power loss

1.3 Emission Factors

emissions by using general emission factors for

point, area and line sources. Most emissions can
be estimated using the simple relation:

ften monitored source data such as the

emission rate of the exhaust gas stream
and concentrations of pollutants in the exhaust
gas stream are missing. This is due to the fact that
emissions would involve extensive monitoring
in order to determine individual emission rates.
Under these circumstances, it is common to model

Emissions [mass/time unit] =

Emission factor [mass/activity unit] .
Activity rate [activity unit/time unit]

2
An emission factor provides emission as mass
per unit activity, for example, kg NOx emitted
per ton of coal or terajoule of fuel. Abatement of
emissions is taken into account by the appropriate
choice of the emission factor corresponding to the
applied abatement technology. In other situations,
abatement is taken into account by subtraction of
a recovery term:

. Activity rate

Emissions = Emission factor

Recovery [mass/time unit]

In this equation recovery is a measure of the

efficiency of an abatement technology. Recovery
depends on similar parameters to emissions
such as the activity, type and age of technology.
Industrial sources usually have several activities.
Production processes therefore include more than
one emission factor or type of activity data. Box
2.3 presents an example of emissions from power
plants (Activity 1).
Air pollution inventories often include data from
large point sources (LPS). Such data can be based on
direct emission measurements, calculations from
emission factors or mass balance considerations. In
combining data from LPS with data estimated from
aggregated emission factors and activity data (e.g.

10

at the country level), it is particularly important

to check that emissions are not double counted
and that the inventory is complete. In applying
emission measurements to determine emissions it
is important to adhere to accepted standards for
making such measurements (e.g. ISO 9096:2003;
ISO 10396:2007; ISO 11942:1996).
Emission factors for area sources are calculated
using the data specific for each type of source
within the area. These are averaged over the
sources. For line sources, motor vehicle emissions
may be estimated by calculations involving
the distance travelled by vehicles, number of
vehicles, temperature, fuel consumption and the
composition and properties of the fuels used (see
Box 2.4, Activity 2).
General emission factors for many industrial
processes are available from various published
sources (WHO, 1993;1995; GAPF, 2007; UBA,
2004; USEPA, 2007b). However, emission factors
need to be used with care, as adjustments in
emission factors may need to take into account
the differences in operating conditions, fuels and
resource materials.

Box 2.3
Activity 1: Estimating emissions from power plants
Estimate the emissions of TSP, SO2, NOx, CO, VOC and SO3 from three power plants in the study area:
(a) One is a utility boiler (UB) using natural gas (NG), the second one is an industrial boiler (IB) using distillate fuel oil, the third one is a power
plant (PP) using anthracite coal in a pulverised coal furnace
(b) UB consumes 1,000,000 Nm3/year
(c) IB consumes 200,000 tons/year
(d) PP consumes 50,000 tons/year in a pulverized coal furnace equipped with a cyclone.
Use the data of the rapid assessment technique in Appendix A (WHO, 1993), and the equation:

Release [t/y] = Emission factor [kg/U] Activity rate [u/y]

Source

Fuel/boiler
parameters

Unit
[U]

Source size
[1000*U/y]

TSP

Factor
[kg/U]

Utility boiler
S-content gas [%]

NOx

CO

VOC

SO3

Release Factor Release Factor Release Factor Release Factor Release Factor Release
[t/y]
[kg/U]
[t/y]
[kg/U]
[t/y]
[kg/U]
[t/y]
[kg/U]
[t/y]
[kg/U]
[t/y]

1000
Nm3

1,000

0.048

48

15.6S

9.6

8.8f

6890

0.64

640

0.028

28

200

0.28

56

20S

12,000

2.84

568

0.71

142

0.035

50

1.25

587.5

19.5S

3,900

450.00

0.3

15

0.55

27.5

0.000615

Mean boiler load [%]

0.87

Load reduction
coefficient f (see
Appendix A)

0.783

Industrial boiler
Sulphur content of
fuel oil [%]

SO2

0.28

56

Anthracite coal
power plant
pulverized coal
furnace
Cyclone
Sulphur content
anthracite coal
Ash content in
anthracite coal [%]
(see Appendix A)

9.4

Subtotal

691.5

t: metric tonnes; y: year, S: Sulphur content, f: load reduction coefficient

11

15,909.6

4,063.10

797

62.5

56

2
Box 2.4
Activity 2: Estimating exhaust emissions from heavy duty diesel powered trucks and buses in urban
areas
Description of vehicle fleet:

(a) Average speed = 25 km/h

(b) Average trip length = 8 km
(c) Cold/hot starts 75/25
(d) Mean ambient temperature 200C
(e) S-content in diesel: 0.5%
(f) Number of trucks 3.5-16 tons: 1 000

(g) Number of trucks > 16 tons: 200

(h) Number of buses > 16 tons: 300
(i) Annual mileage trucks: 52000 km
(j) Annual mileage buses: 20000 km

Use the emission factors of Appendix B to estimate the emissions from this vehicle fleet., and the equation:

Unit
[U]

Source

Release [t/y] = Emission factor [kg/U] Activity rate [u/y]

Activity
rate
[1000*U/y]

TSP

SO2

NOx

CO

VOC

Factor
[kg/U]

Release
[t/y]

Factor
[kg/U]

Release
[t/y]

Factor
[kg/U]

Release
[t/y]

Factor
[kg/U]

Release
[t/y]

Factor
[kg/U]

Release
[t/y]

711 Land
transport
Sulphur content
of diesel [%]

0.5

Annual mileage
trucks 52000 km

52,000

Annual mileage
buses 20000 km

20,000

Number of
trucks 3.5-16
tons

1,000

1000
km

52

0.9

46,800

4.29S

111,540

11.8

613,600

312,000

2.6

135,200

Number of
trucks > 16 tons

200

1000
km

52

1.6

16,640

7.26S

37,752

18.2

189,280

7.3

75,920

5.8

60,320

Number of buses
> 16 tons

300

1000
km

20

1.4

8,400

6.6S

19,800

16.5

99,000

6.6

39,600

5.3

31,800

Subtotal

71,840

169,092

t: metric tonnes; y: year, S: Sulphur content

12

901,880

427,520

227,320

 Section 2

Inventory for Different Source Types

n planning a source inventory the following

issues should be considered:

technical reviews;
accuracy checks;

1 the objective and the scope of the inventory;

use of approved standardized procedures

for emissions calculations;

2 the area to be covered;

3 the accuracy and precision needed for
estimating emissions;

external review and audit procedures

conducted by personnel not involved in the
inventory development process to assess
the effectiveness of the QC plan and the
quality, completeness, accuracy, precision,
and representativeness of the inventory;

4 the implementation of quality assurance

(QA) and quality control (QC);
5 previous efforts to establish emissions
inventories and existing useful information,
e.g. source apportionment;

devotion of adequate resources to QA/QC

activities;

6 source categories in the area;

implementation of data quality objectives

(DQO) to ensure that the data in the
emissions inventory will be sufficient for
the intended use;

7 sources within each source category;

8 relevant source parameters such as
stack height, flue gas exit velocity, and
temperature;

balancing DQO with available resources

including time constraints, resource (staff
and funding) limitations, and lack of data;.

9 availability of relevant source parameters;

10 methodology to be used for emission
estimates.

describing data quality indicators

such as accuracy (precision, systematic
error), comparability of methods and
data, completeness (amount of valid
data obtained compared to the planned
amount), and representativeness with
respect to sources and the area to be
covered;

Objectives for an emissions inventory may include

estimates of the contribution of individual sources
to the overall concentrations at receptor sites;
the prioritisation of source contributions; the
assessment of compliance of individual sources
with emission standards; the determination of
stack heights; decisions on appropriate source
control measures; estimation of exposure of the
population. The scope of an emissions inventory
refers to the inclusion of point, area and line
sources and the extent to which these source types
have to be considered.

a standardized checklist that assesses

the adequacy of the data and procedures
at various intervals in the inventory
development process and includes
questions concerning completeness, use of
approved procedures, and reasonableness;

A reliable, defensible emissions inventory needs

a comprehensive QA plan and a thorough QA/
QC system to ensure confidence in the inventory
(USEPA, 2004a). Ingredients of QA/QC include:

application of techniques such as reality

check, computerized data checks, peer
review, statistical checks, replication of
calculations, and QA audits.

13

2
A key part of QC is recognising in the planning
stage where errors typically happen and making
a plan to avoid them. Typical errors found in
inventories include (USEPA, 2004a):
missing facilities;
double counting of facilities;

2.1 Stationary Source Inventories

The most basic type of emissions inventories in
LDCs is the stationary source inventory.
The following steps should be considered in
identifying source categories to determine
emissions:
examine any past emissions inventory
efforts in the area, including those created
by other agencies or levels of government;

improper facility location data;

missing operating or technical data;

look at permit files, source and compliance

tests;

erroneous technical data including

misinterpretation of data or transcription
errors;

review emission characterisation

documents;

inconsistent point, area and line source

size designation or failure to designate
inventory size cutoffs;

prepare a list of potential source categories

based on the pollutants of interest;
eliminate any source categories not found
in the study area, or which no emission
reduction methods are available;

errors in calculations such as transposition

of digits; decimal errors; entering wrong
numbers; and misinterpreting emission
factor applications; and, finally,

separate out stationary from area and line

source categories;

data entry, transposition and coding errors.

examine emission factor and estimation

tools and decide on methodology;

Data gaps in the inventory may be the result of:

prioritise sources by amount of emissions in

each category;

pollutants unaccounted for due to a lack of

credible emission factors;

refine prioritisation by weighting emission

amounts with toxicity parameters such
as air quality limits and guidelines (EC,
1999; 2000; 2002; 2004; USEPA, 2006a;
WHO, 2005), threshold limit values and
biological exposure indices (ACGIH, 2007),
permissible exposure levels (OSHA, 2007),
specified limits of toxicity (HSE, 2002),
irreversible effects thresholds (Pichard,
2001), acute reference exposure limits
(USEPA, 1998), or acute exposure guideline
levels (NRC, 1993; NAC/AEGL 2001; 2002);

sources that are missing or unaccounted for

due to incomplete source lists;
source categories that have not been
considered due to a lack of credible
emission factors or activity data;
oversight of a facility or source category
during inventory compilation; and
data entry errors.
All QA/QC activities and results should be
documented and reported, either as part of the
inventory report, or as a separate document.

consider budget and time constraints to

conduct the inventory;

14

Factors influencing emissions

document decisions to ensure transparency

and consistency with future emissions
inventories.

There are several important factors that can

influence the emissions from a specific facility or
operation and must be factored into the emission
calculations. Two facilities might have similar
production activities, but entirely different
emission levels based on the following factors:

Once the source categories have been identified,

specific point sources within the study area should
be identified. Useful data sources for identifying
potential point sources include:

combustion characteristics influenced by

firing configuration, operating conditions,
fuel specifications;

existing inventories;
inspection reports, compliance reports, and
permit files;

equipment age;

local information such as telephone

directories or business license databases;

operating practices;
air pollution control equipment;

professional organisations such as trade

association membership, chamber of
commerce membership, local section or
chapter of the Air and Waste Management
Association, and academic institutions;

raw materials used in processes or stored;

meteorological conditions.

Level of emission detail for point

source facility inventories

Once the above have been examined, a list of

potential sources, including name, address, size,
and point source category can be created.

There are several specific emissions inventory

details that should be considered when determining
what information to gather from a point source.
Examples include:

Finally, after identifying the categories and specific

facilities to inventory, specific facility activity data
for use in the emissions calculations should be
determined. The following information sources
should be considered:

Plant level: denotes facility, and could

contain several pollutant-emitting activities;
Point source/stack level: denotes where
emissions from point sources to ambient air
occur;

use of surveys, emissions declarations, and

questionnaires;
direct plant inspection reports;

Process/segment level: denotes where

emissions from individual processes within
a facility may occur.

permit applications and files;

industrial directories;

Frequently overlooked processes

commerce and labour statistics;

A common error in inventory development is

that of not considering all aspects of a facilitys
emissions. There are numerous processes and
emission locations beyond those emissions that
are vented through a smoke stack, and the activity
level of the facilitys production may not account
for them. Here are a few of the frequently
overlooked processes of a stationary source:

national directories of manufacturers;

data compiled by private research and
development companies;
trade and professional associations;
similar facilities in other countries.

15

2
in-process fuel use;

An alternative formulation of this equation1 is:

E = A . EFU . [1 CE/100]

process additives;
fugitive VOC component and dust
emissions;

Where:
E = emission rate [mass of pollutant/time unit];

devices that act as control devices and also

emission sources;

A = activity rate [activity unit/time unit];

EFU = emission factor of uncontrolled process
[mass of pollutant/activity unit].

miscellaneous solvent usage;

upset and start-up emissions.

CE = Control Efficiency (per cent emissions

reduction as measured across the control device
times percent capture of the control device).

Accidental releases of emissions are not part of a

regular emissions inventory since they occur only
in an emergency.

Control efficiency (CE) refers to the level of

pollutant capture that a particular control device
produces. Control efficiency should be considered
when making rule effectiveness1 determinations,
as defects in the operation of equipment designed
to capture emissions and route them through a
control device can result in a substantial increase in
emissions. Emission units that are dependent upon
the operation of both capture and control device
equipment should generally receive lower rule
effectiveness1 adjustments than units equipped
with only control devices.

Basic estimation formula for emissions

from point sources

While emissions inventories frequently calculate

source emissions through a software-computerized
program, it is important to understand the basic
formula to estimate emissions for a point source.
The basic formula is as follows:
E = A . EF
Where:
E = emission rate [mass of pollutant/time unit];
A = activity rate [activity unit/time unit];
EF = emission factor [mass of pollutant/activity
unit].

1 In the United States a more complicated formula is in use

(USEPA, 2004b):

The mass of pollutant may be expressed in g, kg,

or tons. The emission factor (EF) is a representative
value that attempts to relate the mass of a pollutant
released to the atmosphere with an activity
associated with the release of that pollutant. In
most cases, emission factors are simply averages
of all available data of acceptable quality, and are
generally assumed to be representative of longterm averages for all facilities in a source category.
EF is different for different process parameters
such as controlled process, uncontrolled
process, use of cyclones, etc.

In this formula, E, A, EFU, and CE have the same meaning as

above. RE denotes Rule Effectiveness, a correction factor
to adjust for real world operating conditions (i.e. equipment
breakdown, operator variance, compliance rate, etc.). It is a
term that describes a method to account for the reality that not
all facilities covered by a rule are in compliance with the rule
100 per cent of the time. In addition, RE accounts for the fact
that control equipment does not always operate at its assumed
control efficiency. Control efficiency, therefore, is related to
RE determinations, as defects in the operation of equipment
designed to capture emissions and route them through a control
device can result in a substantial increase in emissions. Emission
units that are dependent upon the operation of both capture
and control device equipment should generally receive lower RE
adjustments than units equipped with only control devices. RP
denotes Rule Penetration, a correction factor to adjust the
degree a given regulation penetrates the totality of emission
processes coming under the scope of the rule. RP is the extent
to which a regulation may cover emissions from a geographical
source category. T is an adjustment factor for temporal changes
in emissions (e.g. the portion of the year that a particular source
is operating.

E = A EFU [1-(CE/100 RE RP)] T

16

Checklist of point source emissions

inventory development

selection and documentation of quality

assurance procedures.

It is useful to establish a planning review checklist

for point source emissions inventory development.
This checklist should include:

2.2 Area Source Inventories

rea sources can be geographically dispersed

and are often aggregated by source category
such as residential areas, waste deposits, forest
fires, urban open burning, and commercial
facilities such as service stations and dry cleaning
facilities. This section will discuss how to apply
emission factors to area sources, the level of detail
to gather information, and identify those categories
of area sources that might have potential interest
in LDCs.

objectives and end user requirements of the

inventory;
compatibility of defined source categories
with available source and emission
information;
sufficient detailed source categories to
facilitate control strategy projections;
selection of an inventory data handling
system

Use of emission factors (local, national,

or census-based)

definition of data reporting formats;

staff and budget allocations;

s noted earlier, area source emission factors

A
generally are based on a top-down approach. This
approach frequently has a nationally-developed
emission factor which is applied to the local level.
Also, when there are national, regional or state/
provincial emission estimates, these can also be
allocated to the local level on a population basis.
The following are some examples of when to use
national, local, or census-based emission factors:

identification of the geographical inventory

area;
selection of the inventory base year ;
adjustment of seasonal variations of
emissions;
determination of the temporal basis of
emissions;
compilation frequency of emissions;

Nationally-based emission factors

National averages come from wide range of
source tests, such as those found in AP-42
and CORINAIR guidebooks (see below).

determination of the point source cut-off,

depending on amount of pollutant emitted
and its toxicity;

Useful when:
no local emission factors exist;
local mix of area sources is similar to
the national average;
source category is of low priority.
Geographical variability is not taken into
account.

estimation of the relative quantity of

sources below the emissions cut-off level;
determination of best collection methods
for point source data;
decisions made on emissions projections
and projection period;
identification of existing emissions
estimates;

Locally-based emission factors

Preferred when national-level emission
factors do not account for local variation.

consideration of all important sources

including non-combustion industrial
processes;

Applicable to locally-significant source

categories.

17

2
May require representative source sampling.

All these sources emit air pollutants such as PM,

SO2, NOx, CO, VOCs and PAHs.

Considers existing uncertainty of estimate

(e.g., mass balance for solvent emissions
may be sufficiently accurate).

Summary of area source emissions

inventory development

Census-based emission factors

Area sources are numerous sources of air pollution

emitting over a relatively small area or extended
sources which cannot be classified as a point source.
Completing the area source inventory involves the
following steps:

Often used when sources do not vary

geographically or seasonally, such as
consumer solvents and auto refinishing.
May be highly uncertain due to socioeconomic and cultural difference between
regions of the country.

Calculate emissions from the various area

sources, using similar formulae as for point
sources but with appropriately averaged
emission factors.

Example of VOC emission factors:

- Architectural surface coating: 2.9 kg/
year/person
- Consumer solvents: 3.56 kg/yearperson.

Avoid duplication between area source and

point source inventories.

Level of detail

Make temporal and spatial adjustments if

necessary.

There are several specific emissions inventory

details that should be considered when determining
what information to gather from an area source:

Ensure quality assurance and quality

control.
Prepare documentation.

geographical level, such as city, district,

province;

2.3 Mobile (On-road) Inventories

magnitude of pollutant levels, such as only

area source emission above 5 tons per year
of pollutant; and

he following input data are required for an

emission modelling:

number of vehicles;

source type, such as construction works

with lower particle emission levels than
wildfires

vehicle fleet composition (share of light

duty vehicles, separated gasoline, CNG,
liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) and diesel,
trucks differentiated between medium and
heavy duty, buses differentiated between
urban buses and coaches, other heavy
vehicles);

A key concern is the overlapping of area and

point source categories. For example, point source
inventories may include small sources such as dry
cleaners and gas stations. However, these are often
included in area source inventories and may thus
lead to potential double counting of emissions.

vehicle age distribution;

number of vehicles meeting different
emission standards;

Area sources of potential interest

Several major area source categories need to be
carefully assessed before estimating their emissions.
These include the source categories shown in Table
2.4.

information on the inspection and

maintenance level;
annual mileage for the different vehicle
categories;

18

Table 2.4: Area source categories

Source category
Fuel combustion

Typical area sources

Small stationary source use of fossil fuel, e.g., diesel generators, residential wood
burning, small utility boilers
Parking cars evaporation
Gasoline and diesel distribution

Evaporative losses of fuels

Petroleum vessel loading/unloading

Aircraft refuelling
Leaking underground storage tanks
Catastrophic/accidental releases (Oil spills)
Solid waste incineration (on-site, open burning)

Open burning

Slash burning and prescribed burning

Agricultural field burning
Forest fires
Mining and quarrying
Construction works

Fugitive particulate matter

Resuspended dust from paved roads

Resuspended dust from unpaved roads
Agricultural tilling
Dry cleaning
Surface cleaning (de-greasing)
Surface coating

Solvents

Graphic arts
Asphalt paving
Commercial/consumer solvent use
Barge, tank truck, rail car, and drum cleaning

Pesticides

Agriculture and indoors applications

Bio process (bakeries, breweries, distilleries)
Agricultural fertilizer application

Ammonia

Agricultural fertilizer manufacturing

Animal husbandry
Waste water treatment

Source: Adapted from USEPA (2004b)

vehicle speed information depending

on the road category, urban, rural and
highway;

These input parameters are the minimum to start

an emissions inventory for the mobile sector. For
other parameters such as average trip length,
cylinder displacement, and the numbers of cold
and hot starts, default values can be used. To
further improve measured emission factors,
information on driving behaviour and length of
the trip should be developed. For heavy duty
trucks information on the load and of the slope of
the road should be evaluated. The altitude of the
roads should also be made available.

meteorological conditions, day/night

fluctuations, seasonal changes;
fuel characterisation, e.g. sulphur level,
vapour pressure, aromatic and alcohol
content;
total fuel consumption.

19

2
2.5) are important sources of H2S, CH4, CO2, VOCs
and Radon (Rn) some of which are carcinogenic
pollutants and precursors of regional tropospheric
ozone.

2.4 Mobile (Off-road) Inventories

he estimation of off-road machinery emissions

is much more complicated and inaccurate
than for on-road vehicles. The problem is twofold.
Firstly the emission factors have higher uncertainty
due to the fact that this sector is very diverse and
includes a large number of applications in:

Biogenic VOC emissions are thought to exceed

anthropogenic VOC emissions on a national basis
by up to a factor of two. In addition, many of these
compounds, such as isoprene and methyl butenol,
are highly reactive and control photochemistry in
many locations. Model uncertainties range from
50 per cent for summertime isoprene emission
estimates to over a factor of 10 for some oxygenated
VOC such as hexenol (USEPA, 2007c).

agriculture
construction
forestry
household and garden
sport boats
passenger ships
locomotives.

Factors influencing biogenic emissions

To ensure the effectiveness of reducing
anthropogenic emissions, it is necessary to utilize
adequate datasets describing the environmental
conditions that influence the photochemical
reactivity of the ambient atmosphere. Compared
to anthropogenic emissions from point and
mobile sources, there are large uncertainties in the
locations and amounts of biogenic emissions. For
regional air quality modelling, biogenic emissions
are not directly measured but are usually estimated
with meteorological data such as solar radiation,
surface temperature, land type, and vegetation
data (Byun et al., 2005). General and specific factors
influence the results of modelling (LADCO, 2001;
Byun et al., 2005):

Secondly, the activity rates are much lessknown than for on-road vehicles. The following
information is needed to establish an inventory
for the off road sector:
number of engines
size
age distribution
fuel quality
duration of use
average power used.
If this information is available, as a first approach
the COPERT III non-road model can be used
(EEA, 2000a). Due to the fact that the fuel quality
and the engines used in LDC differs from those
used in developed countries, results should be
handled with caution. Further refinement of
emission factors will require actual measurements
of emissions of local vehicles.

General factors include:

diurnal and seasonal variations;
species number and spatial distribution.
Specific factors include:

2.5 Inventory for natural sources

type of vegetation cover;

atural (non-anthropogenic) sources include

emissions of pollutants from volcanoes,
deserts, and biogenic emissions from swamps,
forests, and other vegetation (USEPA, 2006b). This
source category is difficult to control as processes
based on natural phenomena and the source
strengths occur unpredictably and therefore are
not well established. Natural sources (see Table

leaf biomass and area index;

ambient temperature;
photo-synthetically active radiation;
humidity, wind speed, rainfall.

20

Table 2.5: Types of natural sources and key pollutants

Types of natural sources

Pollutants

Trees and other vegetation

VOCs; isoprene
CH4, VOCs

Oil and gas seeps

Reference
Geron and Pierce (2002)
Leifer et al. (2007); Marse and
Tsoflias (2001)

Microbial action, e.g. soil de-nitrification

NOx, N2O, CO2

Hall et al., (1996); Kitzler et al. (2005)

Volcanoes

PM, SO2, VOCs

Thelocke et al. (2006)

Geothermal activities (geysers, seeps)

H2S, CO2, VOCs, Rn

Electrical storms (lighting)

NO, O3

Durand and Scott (2004); Guenther

(2000)
Pierce (1999)

Wind blown dust

PM10, PM2.5

Thelocke et al. (2006)

Vegetation fires

NOx, PM10, PM2.5, CO,

VOCs

Thelocke et al. (2006)

Basic estimation methods include:

computer models for the Biogenic
Emissions Inventory System BEIS
(USEPA, 2006b) and Global Biosphere
Emissions and Interactions System
(GloBEIS); GLOBEIS estimates emissions
from natural (biogenic) sources and is
designed for use in combination with
photochemical modelling systems for
ozone and particulate matter such as CAMx
(GLOBEIS, 2003);

that cause transboundary air pollution with data

on the available options for reducing emissions
from these activities and their costs (IIASA, 2004).
Dispersion models are used to calculate how
these emissions are transported over Europe and
how they influence air quality. With the resulting
ambient concentrations and deposition fields of
the various pollutants, RAINS estimates the impact
on human health and ecosystems. These expected
impacts can then be compared with environmental
targets, highlighting areas where the assumed
measures fail to meet the environmental policy
objectives. A unique feature of the model is its
ability to investigate the optimal distribution
of further reduction efforts across the whole of
Europe (from Norway to Italy and from Spain to
the Ural) to meet air quality objectives. In this case
the model provides estimates of regional costs and
environmental benefits of alternative emission
control strategies.

use of maps with land use and land-cover

data;
use of meteorological data;
Global Emissions Inventory Activity (GEIA,
2007; Olivier, 2000).

2.6 Baseline Studies of Emissions

in Regional and Transboundary
Air Pollution

n Europe, the Regional Air pollution INformation

and Simulation (RAINS) model is widely used
for the calculation of regional and transboundary air
pollution. The RAINS model combines information
on expected trends in anthropogenic activities

21

For SO2, a RAINS model version for Asia exists.

The problem of the extension to other pollutants
is the lack of reliable emission data for the key
emission sectors in many Asian countries (IIASA,
1999).

2
Section 3

Compiling an Emissions Inventory

here are many good computer programs

to develop emissions inventories produced
by various environmental agencies, international
organisations and the academic world. Some of
these are all encompassing while others focus on
a particular aspect or category of activities such as
mobile sources. In selecting the emissions inventory
method, one needs to carefully assess which
approach best meets ones needs and can effectively
form part of an overall AQM. A brief description of
selected emissions inventory programmes available
is given below.

Range Transboundary Air Pollution and the EU

Directive on national emission ceilings (EC, 2001).
The guidebook contains emission factors for various
emission categories, and sub-categories. While
the EMEP/CORINAIR guidebook provides a very
extensive coverage of the stationary source category,
the AP-42 document contains a more detailed set of
emission factors.
An important aspect of EU emissions inventories
is road transport. COPERT III is the programme
used to develop relevant emission factors and is to
be used by EU member countries to compile the
mobile source portion of the CORINAIR annual
emissions inventories (EEA, 2000b). COPERT III
includes a software package to estimate national
mobile source emissions. The methodology can
be applied to calculate traffic emission estimates
at a relatively high spatial and temporal aggregate
level. Pollutants covered in COPERT III are ozone
precursors (CO, NOx, and NMVOC), greenhouse
gases (CO2, CH4, and N2O), acidifying substances
(NH3, SO2), PM, carcinogenic species (PAHs, POPs),
toxic substances (dioxins and furans) and heavy
metals. Fuel consumption information can also be
calculated.

3.1 EEA - EU EMEP/CORINAIR

he European Unions (EU) EMEP/CORINAIR

emissions inventory (EEA, 2006) is similar to
USEPAs Air CHIEF programme (USEPA, 2007d). It
is the European air emissions inventory programme
to collect, manage, maintain, and publish official
national inventories on annual basis as required
by EU legislation. Countries can use a software
package, known as CERCERRER, to report their
data (Lacour, 2003). Source types are harmonised
using a detailed selected nomenclature for air
pollution (SNAP). Emissions from some types of
natural or biogenic sources are also included in
CORINAIR.

3.2 Global Atmospheric Pollution

Forum

The initial CORINAIR program was developed in

1985. During the early 1990s, revisions were made
by the United Nations Economic Commission
for Europe (UNECE) to allow it to be used for
reporting transboundary air pollution. Additional
modifications included covering emissions from
more pollutants, including greenhouse gases.

The most recent edition of the EMEP/CORINAIR

Emissions Inventory Guidebook was published
in 2007, and provides a comprehensive guide to
state-of-the-art atmospheric emissions inventory
methodology (EEA, 2007). Its intention is to support
reporting under the UNECE Convention on Long-

manual and workbook have been produced

under the auspices of the Global Atmospheric
Pollution Forum which is coordinated by the
Stockholm Environment Institute (SEI), based at
the University of York, UK and the International
Union of Air Pollution Prevention Association
(IUAPPA). The Forum Manual was based on a
manual initially prepared for UNDP/UNDESA
by SEI (GAPF, 2007) for use in Northeast Asia
which has been subsequently modified for use by
the Mal Declaration countries of South Asia and
the Air Pollution Information Network for Africa
(APINA).

22

The purpose of the Forum Manual is to provide

a simplified and user-friendly framework for an
emissions inventory preparation that is suitable
for use in different developing and rapidly
industrialising countries and which is compatible
with other major international emissions inventory
initiatives.
Inventory methods are provided for estimating
emissions from the following sources: fuel
combustion and transformation; fugitive emissions
from fuels; industrial process emissions (noncombustion); emissions from solvent and other
product use; emissions from agriculture (including
savannah fires); emissions from other vegetation
fires and forestry; and emissions SO 2 , NO x ,
CO, non-methane volatile organic compounds
(NMVOC), ammonia (NH 3 ) and PM 10 and
PM2.5. An Excel workbook has been prepared as
a companion to this Manual for use as an aid and
tool in preparing emissions inventories.

3.3 NILU - AIRQUIS

he AirQUIS system developed by the

Norwegian Institute for Air Research (NILU)
in Norway has been based on the integrated AQM
concept (see Figure 2.4)

Figure 2.4: The elements of the air quality management

system AirQUIS
Source: NILU (2001)

system can be used for monitoring and to estimate

environmental impacts from planned measures to
reduce air pollution.

3.4 The German-Swiss Emission

Calculation System

he German-Swiss emission calculation

system consists of a set of three emission
models with a different level of complexity:
1 The Handbook of Emission Factors for
Road Transport

The AirQUIS system uses modern information

technology and geographical information systems
(GIS). It contains the following modules (NILU,
2001):

2 Computer-aided Instrument for predicting

the impact of Traffic measures on Air
pollution Reduction (CITAIR)

On-line measurement system

3 TRansport Emission estimation MODel

(TREMOD).

Emissions inventory database

Atmospheric dispersion models
Exposure estimation
Geographical information system
Air quality planning.
The combination of on-line data collection,
statistical evaluations and numerical modelling
enable the user to obtain information, carry out
forecasting and future planning of air quality. The

Handbook of Emission Factors for

Road Transport (UBA-BUWAL)

The Handbook of Emission Factors for Road

Transport (HBEFA) was developed for the
environmental agencies of Germany (UBA,
Federal Environmental Agency) and Switzerland
(BUWAL, Swiss Agency for the Environment,
Forests and Landscape) by INFRAS, Switzerland.
The HBEFA provides emission factors. These

23

2
include specific emission factor in grams/ kilometre
for all current vehicle categories (Personal cars,
Light Duty Vehicles (LDV), Heavy Duty Vehicles
(HDV) and motor cycles), each divided in different
categories, for a wide variations of traffic situations.
Version 2.1 contains the emission factors for Germany,
Switzerland and Austria (HBEFA, 2004a).
The HBEFA is a Microsoft Access application, which
is distributed as a CD and has to be installed as a
run time version. The Model provides emission
factors on a differentiated level (e.g. for different
Euro standards and different traffic situations).
An online version also exists (HBEFA, 2004b). The
online version is a reduced version for occasional
users and provides only aggregate values for
Germany, Switzerland and Austria. The CD version
includes also a forecast of the emission factors until
2020 based on adopted emission standards and
proven technology.

Figure 2.5: The three modules of CITAIR

Source: Friedrich (2002)

in the form of exhaust and evaporation

emissions of the secondary road network as
area sources.
Mobilev contains and combines the following road
network/traffic volume related elements:
road category/traffic situation classification
(urban, rural, motorway, free flowing
traffic, dense traffic, congested traffic, road
gradient class);

CITAIR

The computer-aided instrument for predicting

the impact of traffic measures on air pollution
reduction (CITAIR) has three modules: City Impact,
Mobilev and Immis-Net/CPB. The interaction of the
three modules is shown in Figure 2.5.

vehicle category/subcategory classification

(cars, trucks, buses, motorcycles);
characteristic diurnal traffic load
distribution curves for each vehicle
category;

City Impact estimates the impacts of actions in the

transport sector in reducing air pollution (UBA,
2002).
Mobilev allows air pollutant emissions to be
quantified and makes prognoses about the
development until 2020. Emission factors are
estimated on the basis of road type, average daily
traffic strength and vehicle distribution (UBA,
2007). Mobilev is designed to determine vehicle
emissions:
on the basis of scenarios for specific roads or
road sections;

shares for the contribution of each vehicle

category to the whole vehicle fleet.
The model contains the following pollutants:
methane and non-methane HC, benzene, NOx, CO,
PM for diesel vehicles, diesel soot, lead, SO2.
Immis-Net/CPB calculates the pollutant
concentrations in street canyons taking into account
the following aspects:

throughout the main road network (as line

sources); or

modelling the propagation of benzene,

diesel soot and NOx in road spaces;

for a single road section with lane-by-lane

resolution;

limitation to concentration-relevant road

classes;

24

 user-friendliness;

3.5 USEPA - AIR CHIEF

practicable computation times;

medium data input;
proven model concepts; and
integration in an overall system.
The CPB model is a two-dimensional analytical/
empirical propagation model for calculating
concentrations of inert pollutants in road
canyons. The CPB model is based on the
Gaussian smoke plume equation and has been
used successfully for many years.
Apart from the geometry of the road canyon,
the CPB model requires only the hourly traffic
emissions in the road canyon. These emissions
are provided by using the Mobilev emission
model. All other initial data records are
provided directly by IMMIS-NET (Friedrich,
2002).

TREMOD

The transport emission estimation model

(TREMOD) is used to calculate the national or
regional total emission in Germany (UBA, 2007).
TREMOD consists of a database on personal
passenger vehicles, motorcycles, buses, trucks,
railways, ships and aircraft which has been
updated annually since 1980. Data collected
include trip lengths and frequencies, degree
of usage of passenger and goods vehicles,
energy consumption and emission factors. Air
pollutants considered include NO x, methane
and non-methane HCs, benzene, CO, PM,
NH3, N 2O, CO 2 and SO 2. The model is used by
German authorities, automobile and petroleum
industries and the German Railways to estimate
the national emissions from transport.

25

he USEPA has one of the most extensive

programmes to develop emission factors
for use in stationary and mobile source emissions
inventories. The major repository for stationary and
areas source emission information and updates can
be found on its Air CHIEF programme (USEPA,
2007d). A subsection on emissions inventories
contains all the official US, Mexican, and Canadian
inventories.
The Emissions Factors and Policy Applications
Center (EFPAC), a subsection of AirCHIEF,
provides access to a recent USEPA update to the
emissions factors program as well as various
emission factors software and tools. EFPAC also
contains information and access to AP-42, the
classic compilation of emission factors that began
with the US Public Health Service in 1968. The
current fifth edition was published in January
1995.
Since December 2005, the USEPA provides an
internet version of its FIRE (Factor Information
REtrieval) Data System. This allows the user to
search for the latest and best emission factors for
most point and area source categories, including
a rating on the quality of the particular emission
factor. Users can browse through records in the
database or select specific emissions factors by
source category, source classification code (SCC),
pollutant name, CAS number, or control device.
The latest emission model for mobile (on-road)
sources is MOBILE 6. Until recently, mobile source
emission factors were contained in a Volume II of
AP-42. As the complexity of the MOBILE model
had substantially increased, it was no longer
feasible to provide documentation of the model in
this format. MOBILE 6 is an emission factor model
for estimating emissions [g/mile] of HC, CO, NOx,
CO2, PM, and toxic air pollutants emitted by cars,
trucks, and motorcycles under various conditions.
For off-road mobile sources such as engines and
equipment, USEPAs NONROAD 2005 model site,
provides information on the NONROAD emissions

2
Control has also been developed and is available
on CD-ROM (WHO, 1997; 1998). A Tutors Guide
is also available (WHO, 1996a), which addresses
workshop organisation, course agenda, and
provides transparency charts and lecture notes,
as well as the training of participants through
the solution of selected environmental problems
(WHO, 1996b). Moreover, it offers evaluation
questionnaires to be used before and after the
workshop. For motor vehicle emission estimates,
a Teachers Guide gives practicable examples of
the estimation methods (WHO, 1996c).

inventory model, which is a software tool for

predicting emissions of CO, HC, NOx, PM, SOx
from small and large non-road vehicles, equipment,
and engines.
The National Mobile Inventory Model (NMIM) is
a free, desktop computer application to estimate
current and future emissions inventories for on-road
motor vehicles and non-road equipment. NMIM
uses current versions of MOBILE6 and NONROAD,
based on multiple input scenarios that can be entered
into the system. NMIM can be used to calculate
national, regional, or provincial inventories. Because
of the large amount of computing necessary to
calculate a national inventory, the NMIM model
is designed to utilize multiple computers over a
computer network. NMIM will also work on a single
computer, but much more slowly.

For a country or region with very limited resources

the use of rapid assessment techniques can provide
a good indication of the magnitude and type of air
pollutant emissions as well as identifying some
initial control strategies for consideration. RIAS
can provide the country with an initial decision
support system.

Finally, USEPA is currently developing a new

generation model called MOVES (Motor Vehicle
Emission Simulator) to estimate emissions produced
by on-road and non-road mobile sources and
covers a broad range of pollutants. When fully
implemented, MOVES will serve as the replacement
for MOBILE6 and NONROAD.

This relatively simple and straightforward

approach to emissions inventories is based on
existing information on a facilitys activity, quantity
of emissions, application of existing or proposed
control equipment and estimations of released
pollution load. The RIAS contains various emission
factors for both stationary and mobile sources of
pollution (WHO, 1993). Many of these factors have
since been updated in AP-42 or in CORINAIR
corresponding to the implementation of new
technologies for stationary and mobile sources.
One must therefore use them with caution or
substitute them with newer factors. However, for
the technologies still in place in many developing
countries, the 1993 emission factors may represent
reality more closely than the new emission factors
developed for modern technologies in developed
countries. There are several advantages to the use
of the WHO rapid assessment approach which
include:

3.6 WHO: RIAS

HO has published various books on how

to rapidly assess and develop management
systems on air, water, and land pollution. The
aim was to use these techniques in developing
countries to enhance their capacity to address
pollution issues. In 1993 WHO published a rapid
inventory guide, part one of which discusses
rapid inventory techniques in environmental
pollution and part two describes approaches for
consideration in formulating environmental control
strategies (WHO, 1993). The emissions inventory
methodology used in this publication has been
used in numerous countries including Chile, India
and Mexico. Furthermore, the technique, generally
referred to as Rapid Inventory Assessment
Technique (RIAS), is frequently used as part of
AQM training courses. A computer program called
Decision Support System for Industrial Pollution

convenience of use;
limited time and little resources required;
effectiveness of alternative control
measures can be assessed.

26

 provides an optimization scheme to

identify most cost-effective option
combinations.

The RIAS is useful for initial emissions inventories

but may need adjustment once more detailed
emissions inventories are conducted.

SIM-AIR uses a main worksheet and eight other

theme worksheets to display the output in
Excel format. The eight themes include emission
distribution of non-transport sources, vehicle
data, emissions inventory, a menu of options,
health impacts, transfer coefficients to compute
ambient concentrations, ambient concentrations,
and, finally, a help worksheet. The result is that for
any grid of the study area, the input data contains
information on emission distribution, ambient
concentration, health impacts, and management
options.

3.7 SIM-AIR

he Simple Integrated Model for Better

Air Quality (SIM-AIR) is a relatively new
interactive model to examine emissions, ambient
air quality, and health. While it relies on some of the
basic approaches and emission factors contained
in AP-42, CORINAIR, and RIAS, it is based on
an integrated AQM approach like AirQUIS and
provides a user-friendly visualisation of rapid
assessment of pollution data and control options.
The SIM-AIR integrated approach has a number
of advantages:

The SIM-AIR model is primarily a training tool

and should not be used as the only support system
for decision making. However, as a training tool,
it helps to understand how different management
options can influence health impacts.

allows definition of all major types of urban

emission sources, such as point, mobile,
and area;
provides default emission factors where
available (users can change these factors
based on local context, or use CORINAIR,
AP-42 or RIAS emission factors);

3.8 Other International Emissions

Inventory Programs

n addition to the emissions inventory approaches

discussed above, there are several other similar
programs that should be briefly mentioned.

interfaces an emission computation model

with key technology and management
options (e.g. fuel change, conversion of two
stroke to four stroke engines etc.);

The Organisation for Economic Co-operation and

Development (OECD) has had a project since
1983 known as the OECD/MAP Project. The MAP
Project was designed (EEA, 2006) to:

links emissions to ambient air quality

through an externally created or supplied
source-receptor matrix (this allows user to
apply an urban air quality model of their
choice. SIM-AIR is thus independent of the
air quality model);

assess pollution by large scale

photochemical oxidant episodes in Western
Europe; and

allows estimation of economic impacts on

health. The user can edit exposure-damage
relationships according to local knowledge;

evaluate the impact of various emission

control strategies for such episodes.
The MAP emissions inventory covered the
following pollutants: SO 2 , NO x , and VOCs,
including natural emissions. The inventory
quantified point and area source emissions in
nine main source sectors from 17 European OECD
countries - the current 15 Member States (excluding

allows input of cost data for a broad range

of air quality management options;
encourages rapid assessment of
management options in terms of cost
effectiveness;

27

2
different strategies will effect local emissions, and
measures progress in reducing emissions over
time. Local air pollutants, greenhouse gases, and
toxic pollutants can be estimated with the IVE
Model (ISSRC, 2005). Existing US and European
models take into account the modern technologies
and conditions that exist in most developed
countries. These technologies and conditions
do not prevail in developing countries. A model
applicable for developing countries must consider
the local toxic emissions that are needed to fully
evaluate the impact of motor vehicles. The IVE
Model is designed to have the flexibility needed
by developing nations in their efforts to address
mobile source air pollutant emissions. Reports on
IVE vehicle activities exist for Almaty, Kazakhstan;
Beijing, PR China; Lima, Peru; Mexico City,
Mexico; Nairobi, Kenya; Pune, India; Santiago,
Chile; Sao Paulo, Brazil; and Shanghai, PR China.
A report on the measurement of in-use passenger
vehicles in three urban areas of developing nations
describes the gasoline emissions testing results and
applications of the IVE model in Mexico City ; Sao
Paulo; and Nairobi.

the former German Democratic Republic) plus

Norway and Switzerland. The nine main source
sectors were:
1 mobile
2 power plant
3 non-industrial combustion
4 industry
5 organic solvent evaporation
6 waste treatment and disposal
7 agriculture and food industry
8 nature
9 miscellaneous
In most but not all cases the inventory was
compiled from emission estimates submitted
officially by each country.
Another OECD emissions inventory programme
is the Pollutant Release and Transfer Registry
(PRTR). A PRTR provides publicly accessible data
about quantities of releases and/or transfers of a
set of potentially harmful substances, the origin of
these releases and transfers and their geographic
distribution on a timely, regular periodic basis
(OECD, 1996).

3.9 Basic Considerations

In Emissions Inventory
Development

NARSTO (formerly North American Research

Strategy for Tropospheric Ozone) has had
considerable experience in evaluating and
recommending improvements to emissions
inventories in North America. NARSTOs third
assessment examines the current state of emissions
inventories for Canada, the US and Mexico, and
offers suggestions for improvement (NARSTO,
2006).

Adoption of emission models

None of the emission factor models can be used

without adaptation to local conditions and with
the help of an experienced expert. Emission
standards, the age distribution of the vehicles,
maintenance quality, fuel quality and enforcement
are very different in LDCs. Only by considering the
local situation and the support of an expert can a
reliable emissions inventory for all mobile sources,
including aircraft and ships, be developed. Quality
control of the results can be achieved by simulating
the concentrations related to a multitude of sources
and comparing them with measurements.

The International Sustainable Systems Research

Center (ISSRC) is a relatively new organisation that
focuses on assisting cities in developing countries
assess their air pollution program. The key model
used is the International Vehicle Emissions (IVE)
Model, which focuses on control strategies and
transportation. The IVE model predicts how

28

General planning considerations

The most important step in initiating an emissions
inventory is determining the objectives of, and the
major planning considerations for, the inventory.
Factors which need to be considered include:
ultimate use of and background and basis
for the inventory;

impact of the emissions on the atmosphere, human

health and the environment.
Stages in estimating an emissions inventory
There are six stages in calculating an emissions
inventory:
1 establishing a list of sources by category;
2 contacting source operators for information;

identification of point, area, and mobile

source categories;

3 compiling data on activity levels and

process parameters;

responsibility for the inventory;

4 review data on its suitability for use in the

calculations;

staff and budget requirements/constraints;

geographical coverage;

5 develop alternative strategies or activity

levels, if necessary;

selection of base year;

6 process source and activity level

information to provide a spatially
disaggregated inventory.

variation of source emissions: daily,

seasonal, annual;
rule effectiveness;

Methods to assess/conduct emissions inventory

There are several methods to gather the necessary
information to develop an emissions inventory.
Some of these include:

minimal source size;

data collection methods;
emission estimate approach, including
selection of sources for emission factors;
status of existing emissions inventories;

direct or indirect source sampling (e.g.,

testing the stack emissions);

inventory data handling system;

surveys of industrial sources;

quality control (QC) and quality assurance

(QA) measures, including naming a quality
assessment coordinator;

use of modelling to simulate emissions

from point, area, and line sources;
use of the national census to determine
number of registered vehicles,
distinguished by type and eventually other
characteristic parameters;

use of the inventory modelling purposes,

e.g. as input to a photochemical dispersion
model.

material balance: collection of information

on raw materials and fuel consumption;

Characteristics
Key characteristics of an emissions inventory
include the base year for which the emissions
will be estimated and the geographic domain for
the inventory. The area selection determines the
sources to be included; the political boundaries
for setting regulations when applying control
strategies; and the potential area (which may be
different from the source area) to simulate the

29

information transfer or extrapolation from

similar sources;
use of relevant meteorological information;
application of appropriate emission factors;
ensure quality of the inventory by QA/QC
plan.

2
Resource needs
The level of detail or sophistication of an emissions
inventory is directly dependent upon the level
of human and financial resources. This needs to
be carefully considered before launching into an
inventory development process as it is necessary
to complete the full inventory on a consistent base
year basis. A team leader with broad environmental
management experience is important. Some of the
internal resource considerations include:
availability of staff and staff expertise, team
can vary from 2-3 persons up to 10;
outside experts/specialists knowledgeable
of particular sources such as power plants,
smelters, etc.;
budget allocations;
administrative and training support;
computer/data management capabilities;
data handling systems;
availability of emissions inventory-related
data;
coordination of efforts within the agency.
External resource considerations include:
consider assistance from national or
regional air pollution control agencies if
conducted at a local level;
obtain training and funding from national
and/or international agencies;
using emission data compiled on national
basis;
using outside experts to provide guidance.

30

Time requirements
The time required to conduct and analyze the
emissions inventory varies with the complexity of
the inventory. A fairly uncomplicated area might
take a couple of months, while a more complex
metropolitan region could take six months or
longer.
Use of rapid assessment techniques
In LDCs emissions inventories should be compiled
by use of rapid inventory assessment techniques
such as the GAP Forum model (GAPF, 2007) or the
WHO model (WHO, 2003). These models provide
an indication of the magnitude of emissions
and can be implemented with relatively limited
resources. Staff applying these models should be
made aware of the uncertainties in the estimates
which are larger than those of more sophisticated
models.

 Section 4

Control of Emission Sources

ecades of AQM in developing countries have

shown that prevention of air pollution in
the planning phase of stationary sources or in the
inspection and maintenance of mobile sources is
less expensive that taking remedial action to clean
the air of polluting emissions.

increase of distance between sources and

sensitive areas.
There are fewer control options for area sources:
Reduction of emissions
keeping wet raw and waste material
deposits;

Two approaches to address the problem of air

pollution have been applied in the past:

housing/encapsulating raw and waste

material deposits;

reduction of emissions;
reduction of the impact of emissions.
For the reduction of emissions from all types of
sources, planning tools have been developed to:
evaluate the magnitude of a potential
reduction of emissions using emission
factors; and
apply dispersion models for estimating
ambient air pollutant concentrations before
and after the implementation of control
options (see Module 3 Modelling).

use of modern incineration facilities for

wastes.
Reduction of impacts of emissions
increasing distance between sources and
sensitive areas.
For line sources control options include:
Reduction of emissions
fuel type and quality improvements;
oxygenated fuels for CO reduction;

In broad terms, control options for point sources

include:

reduce age of car fleet;

enforce vehicles to have catalytic converters;

Reduction of emissions

renewal of old diesel-powered fleet;

selection of type and quality of raw

materials;

inspection and maintenance programme for

vehicles;

changes in processes;

develop aggressively hydrogen/solar driven

cars;

programmes of inspection and

maintenance;

remove fugitive dust from roads;

replacement of obsolete factories;

develop mass transportation (e.g. bus rapid

transport systems);

closing down of very obsolete factories;

Limit vehicle licensing;

Reduction of impacts of emissions

Introduce congestion charges.

increase of stack heights;

compounding of gases of adjacent stacks
into single stacks;

Reduction of impacts of emissions

modification of exit gas volume;

Increasing of distance between sources and

sensitive areas;

modification of exit gas temperature;

Plan roads outside residential areas.

31

2
4.1 Selection of Control Devices

he selection of control devices is determined by

what is required to limit polluting emissions
from a point source. The selection depends on
the processes applied in the source, the effluent
characteristics, the capacities and limitation of
control devices, and the capital investment and
operation costs.
Emissions are usually limited by regulations on
emission standards and their enforcement. Tables
2.6 and 2.7 provide examples of emission standards
in Thailand for old and new power plants using
coal and cement factories, respectively.
Control equipment must be designed to meet
the emission standards. A central concept in the
reduction of emissions into the atmosphere is
control efficiency.
Control efficiency is defined as the ratio of the
amount of emissions prevented from entering
the atmosphere by the control equipment to the
amount of emissions Ein that would have entered
the atmosphere without control equipment (Spaite
and Burckle, 1977). The amount of emissions
prevented from entering the atmosphere is the
difference between Ein and the emission standard
Eout (also see Activity in Box 2.5):
[%] = (Ein-Eout)/Ein . 1001

The capital investment is the amount of money

which is required to put a plant and its equipment

in operation. The capital investment is composed

of two parts (Armer et al., 1974):
fixed capital investment to provide the
physical facilities;
working capital investment to provide
a revolving fund to keep the facility in
operation.
The operating costs is a repeated cost covering
the cost of keeping the facility running every day,
every month and every year.
Fixed capital investment cost include expenditures
for land acquisition, buildings, utilities, process
units, storage facilities, auxiliary facilities and
spare parts. Working capital investment includes
raw materials in stock or storage, finished products
in storage, semi-finished products in process,
accounts receivable and payable, and taxes.
Operation costs include recurring costs such as
raw-materials costs; labour, supervision, and
payroll charges; factory supplies, maintenance
and power costs. Armer et al. (1974) discuss
extensively the methodology for estimating capital
investment costs and operating costs, sources and
representation of cost data, pitfalls in estimating
capital investment and operation costs. Figure 2.6
presents a comparative estimate of costs of PM
control devices as a function of the gas flow in
actual cubic feet per minute (acfm, 472 L/s).

4.2 Properties of Particles

ome of the most important physical properties

of particles include:

Box 2.5
Activity 3: Estimation of the requested efficiency of
control devices

number and number size distribution;

The SO2 emission measured from a stack is 7,000 mg/m3.

mass and mass size distribution;

What is the control efficiency required to meet the emission standard of

300 mg/m3?

surface area;

Answer: = (7000-300)/7000 . 100% = 95.7%.

shape;
hygroscopicity;

1 Note: This formula does not apply to PM collectors since the

collection efficiency depends on the size of the particles. For
this case a set of fractional collection efficiencies corresponding
to particle fractions has to be used and combined to a total
collection efficiency (Spaite and Burckle (1977).

volatility;
electrical charge.

32

Table 2.6: Emission standards for coal power plants in Thailand

Compounds

Capacity [MW]

Standard

Old power plant

Total particulate matter [mg/Nm3]

320

SO2 [ppm]

Any

NO2 [ppm]

700
400

New power plant

Total particulate matter [mg/Nm3]

SO2 [ppm]

NO2 [ppm]

Any

120

< 300

640

300-500

450

> 500

320

Any

350

Source: Ministry of Industry (2004a)

Table 2.7: Emission standards for cement plants in Thailand

Sources

Compound

Limit [mg/Nm3]

Old cement plant

Grey cement kiln

White cement kiln

Clinker, cooler, clinker grinding mill, coal

grinding mill

Total Particulate matter [mg/Nm3]

300

SO2 [ppm]

50

NO2 [ppm]

600

Total Particulate matter [mg/Nm3]

300

SO2 [ppm]

600

NO2 [ppm]

600

Total Particulate matter [mg/Nm3]

200

Total Particulate matter [mg/Nm3]

120

SO2 [ppm]

50

NO2 [ppm]

500

Total Particulate matter [mg/Nm3]]

120

SO2 [ppm]

500

NO2 [ppm]

500

Total Particulate matter [mg/Nm3]

120

New cement plant

Grey cement kiln

White cement kiln

Clinker, cooler, clinker grinding mill, coal

grinding mill
Source: Ministry of Industry (2004b)

33

Figure 2.6 Comparative cost of PM control devices as a function of gas flow

Source: Unknown

While each of these characteristics is important

in terms of playing a role in affecting particle
dynamics and thus behaviour and fate in the air,
the first two are always important (Schwela et al.,
2002). Figure 2.7 illustrates the large variance of
different particle sizes.

for particle detection. Almost all of the sources of

particles in outdoor air generate particles with
some distribution of the sizes. The spread of
particle size distribution is characterised by an
arithmetic or geometric (logarithmic) standard
deviation.

Particle size is often characterised by particle

diameter. Diameter is a characteristic of spherical
objects, but in fact, only a small fraction of particles
is spherical. Figure 2.8 presents examples of the
non-spherical size of particles. Particle equivalent
diameter is a way of representing irregular shapes
of particles. Particle equivalent diameter is the
diameter of a sphere having the same value of a
physical property as the irregularly shaped particle
being measured.

Particles generated by most sources have a

lognormal size distribution, which means that the
particle concentration versus particle size curve
is normal (bell shaped) when the particles are
plotted on a logarithmic scale. The geometric
standard deviation characterises the width of the
peak in the distribution. Particle size distributions
often do contain one or more distinct peaks, called
modes of the distribution. Figures 2.9 and 2.10.
provide examples of the typical size distributions
of emissions from diesel vehicle emissions
(Morawska et al., 1998a) and from environmental
tobacco smoke (ETS) (Morawska et al., 1997). The
distributions show that different emission sources
are characterised by different size distributions.

An important characteristic of airborne particles is

their size distribution as it strongly affects particle
behaviour and fate in atmospheric systems and
their deposition in the human respiratory tract,
and also determines the instrumentation to be used

34

Figure 2.7: Characteristic sizes of various particles

Source: Adapted from Armer et al., 1974: 508)

35

2
Figure 2.8: Petrol particles and asbestos fibre particle
Source: Courtesy L. Morawska, Queensland University of Technology

Figure 2.9 Size distribution of

particles from a diesel
bus running on low power
Source: After Morawska et al. (1998).

Figure 2.10 Size distribution of side

stream smoke produced by a
human smoker.
Source: After Morawska et al. (1997)

36

It should be kept in mind that size distributions

change their shapes due to various factors affecting
emissions from the sources or after the particles
have been emitted. These factors are therefore
important for understanding particle behaviour
(Schwela et al., 2002).

4.3 Control Of Particulate Matter

ifferent devices based on different particle

collection processes are used to control
particle air pollution. These include (Spaite and
Burckle, 1977):
inertial dust separators;

Baffle dust collectors have a baffle plate (a flat

plate) in the path of the dust filled air stream to
slow it down. The air stream strikes the baffle plate
and undergoes a sudden change in direction (see
Figure 2.12). The air stream flow and the baffle are
designed in a way that the stream is first forced
in a downward direction, followed by an upward
180 degree turn. With such abrupt changes in
direction, the air flow slows down sharply. The
heavier dust particles either strike the baffle plates
due to their inertia or settle out by gravity when
the flow slows down and slide into the hopper
where they are collected.

cyclones or centrifugal dust collectors;

wet scrubbers;
filters;
electrostatic precipitators.
Inertial dust separators are the simplest type of
dust collector. When the dust filled air stream is
slowed down heavier particles settle out from
the air stream by gravity and fall into a hopper.
There are two types of inertial separators: settling
collectors and baffle collectors (BPA, 2006-2007).
Settling dust collectors separate dust from the dust
filled air stream by using a settling chamber (see
Figure 2.11). When the air stream enters the large
settling chamber its speed decreases considerably.
Heavier dust particles settle out due to gravity from
the slow air stream and are collected.

Figure 2.11: S
ettling chamber
Source: Adapted from OSHA (1987)

Figure 2.12: B
affle chamber
Source: OSHA 1987

Inertial separators are normally used as a precleaner or a pre-filter for collectors since their main
function is to separate large particles.
A cyclone collector is a structure without moving
parts in which the velocity of an inlet gas stream
is transformed into a confined vortex. Centrifugal
forces tend to drive the suspended particles to the
wall of the cyclone body (Caplan, 1977). Cyclone
dust collectors, named after the cyclone weather
phenomenon, are large funnel shaped sheet metal
tubes (see Figure 2.13). The common cyclone has
a tangential inlet with axial dust discharge into a
hopper or dust bin. Other types of cyclones have
a tangential inlet with peripheral discharge, or an
axial inlet through swirl vanes, with either axis or
peripheral dust discharge (Caplan, 1977)
Collection efficiency of cyclones increases with
dust particle size (see Figure 2.14) or density, gas
inlet velocity, cyclone body or cone length, and
ratio of body diameter to gas outlet diameter.
Efficiency will decrease with an increase in gas

37

2
2006-2007). Multiple cyclones are more efficient
than single cyclones because they are longer and
smaller in diameter. The longer length provides
longer residence time while the smaller diameter
creates greater centrifugal force. These two factors
result in better separation of dust particles (OSHA,
1987). Figure 2.15 presents a multiple cyclone.
A wet scrubber is a device that removes
contaminants in either gaseous or particulate
state from an effluent gas stream by means of

Figure 2.13: Operation diagram of a common

cyclone
Source: BPA (2006-2007)

This is a simplified drawing showing only the main vortex.

viscosity or density, cyclone diameter, gas outlet

diameter, and inlet width (Caplan, 1977).
High efficiency cyclones are usually operated in
a larger number as multiple cyclone separators
arranged in parallel in order to achieve a practical
gas volume. Multiple cyclone separators consist
of a number of small diameter cyclones (15 cm
diameter) and have a common inlet and outlet for
air and a common dust bin (Caplan, 1977; BPA,

Figure 2.15: M
ultiple cyclone separator
Source: Shin Pung (1999-2004)

a liquid. The removal process depends on the

contacting process. Three schemes of contact are
distinguished:
1 counter-current, if the liquid enters the top
of and passes down a vertical column and
the effluent gas enters the bottom of and
passes upward through the column;
2 co-current, if liquid and gas enter the top
of the column and pass downward through
the column;
3 crosscurrent or cross flow, if the gas stream
flows in a direction perpendicular to the
liquid.
Combinations of these contacting processes may
occur (Calvert, 1977). Figure 2.16 shows some of
these arrangements.

Figure 2.14: Collection efficiency of a

cyclone as a function of particle
size
Source: Caplan (1977)

38

Figure 2.16: C
ounter-current (a) and cross flow (b) scrubbers
For PM, wet scrubber collection mechanisms
include inertial impaction, gravitational force,
interception, electrostatic, and Brownian and
turbulent diffusion processes. The purpose of the
liquid is to provide the collecting surface and/or
to wash a solid collecting surface (Calvert, 1977).
Figure 2.17 illustrates the mechanisms of inertial
impaction and interception.
Filter separators are among the most reliable,
efficient and economic methods of removing
particles from effluent gases. Gas filters may be
classified into fabric, or cloth, filters and in-depth,
or bed, filters. Fabric filters are characterised by
various fabric bag arrangements while bed filters

Figure 2.17: Inertial impaction (A) and direct

interception (B) of particles on
a liquid droplet.

39

D = liquid droplet diameter; DP

= particle diameter.

2
are mostly fibrous packings or paper-like mats.
Fabric filters are utilized with effluent gas streams
of particle loading of 1 g/Nm3; fibrous packings,
paper filters, and packed beds are applied at
particle concentrations of approximately 1 mg/
Nm3 (Iinoya and Orr, 1977). Performance criteria
for particle filtration are pressure loss, collection
efficiency and lifetime.
Fabric filters are extensively employed to control
harmful or noxious emissions of abrasives, irritating
chemical dusts, and effluents from electric furnace,
oil-fired boilers, and oxygen-fed converters for steel
making (Iinoya and Orr, 1977). Fibrous-mat filters
are extensively used in air conditioning, heating
and ventilating systems. High-efficiency filters are
used as after-cleaners, and less efficient fibrous mat
filters are pre-cleaners for the protection of more
efficient and sensible equipment (Iinoya and Orr,
1977).

Figure 2.18: B
ag filter dust collecting
system
Source: Boarke (2007)

works. Cleaning of the filter system is achieved by

reversing the air stream (see Figure 2.19c). Figure
2.19d shows a dust-loaded filter.

In a bag house, filter bags hang vertically inside

the unit and are firmly held in place by clamps,
snap-bands or hold-downs and the bag bottoms are
enclosed. In some systems, the bags are supported
internally by wire cages. Dust-laden gas enters the
system through the inlet and is filtered through
the bag, depositing dust on the outside surface of
the bag.

Filter material may be woven or non-woven.

Figure 2.20 shows examples of both types of
filters. Woven and non-woven filter materials
include polyamide, polyester, polypropylene,
polyethylene and others.
In a pulse jet bag house, the dust is removed by
a blast of compressed air injected into the top of

Figure 2.18 shows a typical bag filter system

while Figures 2.19a and 2.19b illustrates how it

(a)

(b)

(c)

Figure 2.19a-c Bag filter system (a), operation mode of bag filter (b) and cleaning of bag
Source: Photo credit unknown
filter (c)

40

3 removal of the collected material to a

hopper or dustbin.

Figure 2.19d: Dust-loaded filter

Source: Photo credit unknown

the opening of the filter bags. The air is supplied

from a blowpipe which feeds into Venturi tubes
located at the top of each filter bag. The blast of
high pressure air creates a shock wave that stops
the normal flow of air though the filter and causes
the bag to flex as the air wave travels down the
length of the filter bag. As the bag flexes, PM is
released into the hopper below. Figure 2.21 shows
a pulse jet bag house.
The key steps of operation in an electrostatic
precipitator are:
1 electrical charging of suspended particles;
2 collection of the charged particles on an
electrode; and

(a)

The simplest arrangement to charge suspended

particles is that of a fine wire with negative polarity
in a grounded cylindrical or plate electrode. A
high-voltage direct-current flowing through the
wire forms a corona which produces positive and
negative ions in the effluent gas. The positive ions
are attracted to the wire while the negative ions are
attracted to the ground electrode. The gas space is
mostly filled with negative ions which bounce on
particles in the gas stream which in turn become
quickly charged.
Particles are collected on the grounded electrode by
either the field of the corona (one-stage precipitator)
or an additional electrostatic field (two-stage
precipitator) between the electrodes exerting the
Coulomb force. Figure 2.22 shows a schematic
diagram of a wire and tube precipitator.
The last step in an electrostatic precipitator is the
removal of the particles into a hopper. While sticky
solid particles and liquid droplets can be easily
removed this is not the case for dry solid particles
which are susceptible to re-entrainment in the gas
stream. For such dry particles and large effluent
gas flow rates plate type systems with baffles are

(b)

Figure 2.20: N
ew, clean, woven filter (a) and new, clean, non-woven filter (b)
Source: TF (2007)

41

Figure 2.21: Pulse jet bag house

Source: Menardi (2003)

used while for liquid droplets and for smaller flow

rates pipe type electrodes are applied (Armer et al.,
1974). Dry solid particles can also be removed in
a wet electrostatic precipitator by irrigation of
the collecting electrode with some fluid (Oglesby
and Nichols, 1977).
The size and type of electrostatic precipitator are
determined by the:
physical properties of the effluent gas;

The operation of precipitators is largely governed

by the:
magnitude of the charge transferred to the
particles;
electric field; and
extent of re-entrainment of collected
particles in the gas stream (Oglesby and
Nichols, 1977).
Figure 2.23 shows a conventional electrostatic
precipitator.

physical properties of the particles;

gas flow rate; and

Figure 2.24 shows a single gas passage in a typical

electrostatic precipitator. The fine wire electrode

required collection efficiency.

42

Figure 2.22: Schematic diagram of a

wire and pipe precipitator
Source: Oglesby and Nichols (1977)

Figure 2.23: Typical electrostatic precipitator used at a coal-fired boiler

Figure 2.24: Single gas passage in a typical

electrostatic precipitator

Source: USEPA (2006)

Source: USEPA (2006)

43

Figure 2.25: Particle collection efficiency as a function of particle diameter

Source: Spaite and Burckle (1977)

of negative polarity is in the centre of the gap

defined by grounded vertical surfaces on both
sides of the electrode. The gas stream is moving
horizontally through the unit. Particles moving
with the gas stream become charged by collisions
with ions created in the corona and then move to
either side.

4.4 Control of Gaseous Emissions

able 2.8 shows the typical air pollutants

emitted from point sources.

Gaseous emissions are controlled by the following

physical/chemical/biological processes:
combustion

Figure 2.25 gives an impression of the wide

variation of particle collection efficiencies of
equipment for particle equivalent diameters
between 0.01 and 2 m.

absorption
adsorption
condensation
biofiltration
flaring

44

Table 2.8: Sources of typical gaseous compounds

Key
element

Pollutant

Source

SO2

Boiler flue gas

SO3

Sulphuric acid manufacturing

H2SO4 vapours

Sulphuric acid manufacturing, pickling operations

H 2S

Natural gas processing, pulp and paper mills, sewage treatment

R-SH (mercaptans)

Petroleum refining, pulp and paper mills

NO, NO2

Nitric acid manufacturing, boiler flue gas

HNO3 vapours

Nitric acid manufacturing, pickling operations

NH3

Ammonia manufacturing

Other N compounds (i.e.

amines, pyridines)

Sewage, rendering, solvent processes

Inorganic CO

Boiler flue gas

Organics: Volatile Organic

Compounds

Solvent uses, gasoline marketing, petrochemical plants

Hydrocarbon
paraffins

olefins
aromatics
Oxygenated hydrocarbons
aldehydes

Surface coating operations, petroleum processing, plastics

manufacturing

ketones
alcohols
phenols

F
Cl

Chlorinated solvent

Dry cleaning, degreasing

HF

Phosphate fertilizer plant, aluminium plant

SiF4

Ceramics, fertilizer plant

HCl

HCl manufacturing, PVC combustion

Cl2

Chlorine manufacturing

45

2
Direct flame incinerators burn the effluent
pollutants without any additional fuel at
temperatures around or above 13700C (Armer
et al., 1974). Components of these incinerators
include a combustion chamber, a combustion
system of one or more burners, and accessories
for control of temperature and safety. Direct
incineration is not applicable for:
oxides;
pollutants that are stable under combustion
conditions;

Figure 2.26: Direct flame incinerator

Source: IF (2007)

pollutants whose combustion products

are chemically altered into obnoxious
combustion products.

For the purpose of cleaning effluent gases

from gaseous pollutants, combustion processes
require:

Figure 2.26 provides an example of a direct flame

incinerator.

a combustible fuel which can be the

pollutant;
oxygen which can be carried by the flue gas;
a high enough temperature;
sufficient turbulence;
a sufficiently long residence time of the
gaseous pollutants in the combustion unit;
combustion products not to be pollutants.
There are three processes of incineration of gaseous
pollutants:
direct flame incineration;
thermal incineration; and
catalytic combustion.

Thermal incinerators involve the burning of a fuel

(natural gas, propane) and mixing the effluent
polluted gas stream with the hot combustion
products at temperatures between 650 and 8200C
(Armer et al., 1974). In order to achieve complete
oxidation of waste gases thorough mixing of the
pollutant with the burning fuel must be achieved.
Figure 2.27 shows the schematic diagram of a
thermal incinerator.
Catalytic incinerators use a catalyst which adsorbs
gaseous pollutants on its active surface and
initiates a chemical reaction between the adsorbed

Figure 2.27: Schematic diagram of the thermal incinerator

Source: FEEE (2007)

46

oxygen and pollutant gas to yield CO2 and water

as the primary products which will be desorbed
from the catalysts surface and entrained into the
main gas stream. Catalytic combustion works at
temperatures between 340 and 5400C (Armer et
al., 1974). Catalytic combustion is primarily used
to control VOCs. Figure 2.28 shows the catalytic
afterburner in two parts: a chamber in which the
waste gas is preheated and a chamber in which
the waste gas is brought into contact with a bed
of catalyst, often a finely divided metal such as
platinum or nickel.
Waste gas absorption is the main process for gas
scrubbing. Diffusion and absorption of the gas in
the liquid provides the mechanism for the transfer
of the contaminant succeeded by a separation
of the cleaned gas and the contaminated liquid.
There are physical or chemical constraints to the
solubility of gaseous material in liquid regardless
of how intimate the contacting of phases is or how
long the time of contact. An example of physical
equilibrium is the solution of SO2 in water which
is governed by Henrys law. The absorption of SO2
in sodium hydroxide is an irreversible chemical
reaction (Calvert, 1977). Figure 2.29 presents a flue
gas desulphurisation limestone scrubber

Figure 2.28: Schematic diagram of a catalytic oxidizer

using its waste to preheat the gaseous
pollutant stream.
Source: USEPA (2006)

Adsorption is the process where a gaseous pollutant

is removed from flue gas by the binding forces of the
molecules on a solid surface to which the gas comes
in contact. For example, SO2 brought in contact with
activated charcoal at temperatures between 40 and
1500C (Alpert et al., 1974) is first absorbed to the
porous charcoal surface, oxidized to sulphuric acid
in the presence of water vapour and oxygen in the
waste gas, and then desorbed by steam or a liquid.
Figure 2.30 presents the process.
Gaseous pollutants in high concentrations and
with dew points above 300C can also be removed
by condensation through cooling or compression
of the gas stream. Two types of condenser designs
exist: surface or contact.
In surface condensers the pollutant gas does not
come into contact with the coolant while in contact

Figure 2.29: Flue gas desulphurisation limestone

scrubber
Source: EBO (2007)

47

2
Figure 2.32: Schematic diagram of a spray
contact condenser

Figure 2.30: Process of absorption and

desorption in a catalyst

Source: Armer et al. (1974:737)

condensers the coolant and polluted gas are mixed.

Figure 2.31 shows a schematic design of a surface
condenser.

Biofiltration is a relatively new pollution control

technology for the removal of malodorous gas
emissions and of low concentrations of VOCs.

Contact condensers can be the spray scrubber and

jet condenser types (Armer et al., 1974). In the vessel
of the spray scrubber type the effluent gas-pollutantvapour stream is in contact with the liquid coolant
injected into the vessel through spray nozzles.
Baffles increase the contact between the liquid spray
and the gas stream. Figure 2.32 shows a schematic
diagram of the spray contact condenser. In the jet
condenser type the gas-vapour mixture is brought
in contact with a high-speed water jet.

Biofilters are essentially large tanks filled with

a porous medium such as soil or compost. The
microorganisms live in a thin layer of moisture, the
biofilm, which surrounds the constituents of the
filter medium. When contaminated air is slowly
passed through the medium, contaminants are
transferred to and adsorbed by the biofilm, where
they can be biologically degraded. This microorganisms degrade the pollutants to produce
energy and metabolic by-products according to
(Anit and Artuz, 2006):
Organic Pollutant + O2 => CO2 + H2O + Heat +
Biomass
Figure 2.33 depicts an arrangement of a biofilter to
remove noxious organic gases from air.
Flaring of combustible gases is performed in
the petroleum refining and chemical processing
industries to dispose of:
small continuous hydrocarbon waste gas
streams from the process units; and/or
huge quantities of process gases released
under off-design operating conditions by
pressure relief valves due to compressor

Figure 2.31: Schematic design of a surface

condenser
Source: Roymech (2007)

48

failures, loss of cooling water, vessel

overpressure, power failures, fires, etc.
(Armer et al., 1974).
Flares are either elevated or ground combustion
flares or burning pits. Elevated flares are emitted
at elevations between 30 and 100 m; flow rates
are between 30 Nm3/hour to more than 30,000
Nm3/hour (Gottschlich, 1977). Figure 2.34 shows
an elevated flare and Figure 2.35 a burning pit in
Africa. Armer et al. (1974) noted that such pits are
generally unacceptable except as a device to handle
catastrophic emergency situations.

Figure 2.34: Elevated gas flaring in

Russia
Source: Amsterdam (2007)

Figure 2.35: Shell gas flare at

Rumuekpe, Rivers State,
Nigeria
Source: ENS (2006) Friends of the Earth

49

Figure 2.33: Biofiltration device for removal

of air pollutants
Source: Anit and Artuz (2006)

2
4.5 Best Available Control
Technology (BACT)

est available control technology (BACT) is

the currently available technology which
achieves a maximum reduction for each regulated
air pollutant emitted from any new or modified

stationary source. BACT represents an achievable

emission limit that is determined on a case-by-case
basis and takes into account energy, environmental
and economic impacts, and other costs (adapted
from USEPA, 2006c). Table 2.9 summarizes typical
control devices that correspond to BACT in
industrial pollution sources.

Table 2.9: Industrial pollution sources and typical control devices

Industry

Source

Control System

Typical Gas
Temperature [oC]

Scrubber
Asphalt roofing

Saturator and storage tanks

Precipitator

26.7-148.9

Basic oxygen furnace

Afterburner
Precipitator

1926.7-2204

Basic oxygen furnace

Scrubber
Charging hood

Bag house

65.6-204.4

Afterburner
Benzene handling and
storage

Vents, storage tanks

Adsorber

21-37.8

Refrigeration
Tunnel kiln
Brick manufacturing

Castable manufacturing

Chemical manufacturing
waste disposal

93.3 315.6

Crushers

Scrubber, Bag house

Dryer

121.1

Periodic kiln

93.3 315.6

Electric arc

1648.9 2204

Crushers

Scrubber, Bag house

21

Dryer

148.9

Periodic kiln

65.6
Afterburner

Miscellaneous sources

Flare

Shuttle kiln
Clay refractories

21

Bag house, Precipitator

Scrubber

Calciner
Dryer
Crusher

As required
66 - 427
66 - 427
121.1

Baghouse Precipitator

21

Precipitator
Coal fired boiler

Stream generator

Scrubber

148.9 371.1

Bag house
Conical incinerator

Incinerator

Scrubber

204.4 371.1

Cotton ginning

Incinerator

Scrubber

260 371.1

Degreasing

Degreasing tanks

Adsorber Refrigeration 21

Detergent manufacturing

Spray dryer

Direct smoking of meat

Smoke house

Scrubber
Bag house
Afterburner
Electrical precipitator

50

82.2-121.1
48.9 65.6

Table 2.9: (continued)

Industry

Source

Typical gas
temperature [oC]

Control System

Distilled Whiskey
Processing

Distillation process

Adsorber Afterburner

As required

Dry Cleaning

Washer, extractor, tumbler

Adsorber

21

Arc furnace (direct exhaust)

Bag house, Scrubber,

Precipitator

1649

Electric arc furnace

Charging and tapping

Storage bins

Feed mills

65.6 (canopy)
21.1

Mills/grinders

Scrubber, Bag house

21.1

Flash dryer

76.7 121.1

Conveyors

65.6

Ferroalloys plants
HC, Fe, Mn

Submerged arc furnace (open)

50%Fe, Si

Submerged arc furnace (close)

HC, Fe, Cr

Tap fume

Scrubber, Bag house,

Precipitators
Scrubber
Same collector
or baghouse

204.4 - 260

537.8 648.9
65.6 hood

Afterburner,
Gasoline Bulk Terminal
Storage

Vents, storage tanks

Adsorber,

21 37.8

Refrigeration
Regenerative
Glass Manufacturing

Bag house,

tanks furnace

scrubber,

Weight hoppers

Precipitator

and mixers

37.8

Presses

Adsorber,

Graphic Arts

Gray Iron Foundries

315.6 454.4

37.8

Afterburner
Lithographics, metal decor. ovens

Afterburner

Cupola

Afterburnerbaghouse for closed

cap. Afterburnerprecipitator for closed
cap.

Electric arc furnace

Scrubber, Baghouse,
Precipitator

Core Oven

Afterburner

Shakeout

Baghouse

51

204.4 315.6
21 37.8

- 1407direct exhaust.
- 240 hood.
65.6 -101.1

2
Table 2.9: (continued)
Industry

Industrial and Utility Boiler

Insulation Wire Varnish

Source

Control System
Precipitator

Boiler

Bag house

Spray booths

Adsorbers

Flow coating machines

Absorbers

Dip tanks

afterburners

Typical gas
temperature [oC]
37.8 426.7

37.8

Roller coating machines

Iron Ore Beneficiation

Bag house

Crushing

Scrubber

Sinter Machine

Sinter machine

Iron & Steel (Sintering)

Precipitator

sinter bed

Bag house

i gnition fee

Scrubber

As required

65.6 204.4 Sinter

machine

w
ind boxes
sinter crusher

Baghouse

c
onveyors

Scrubber

21, conveyors

feeders

Kraft Recovery Furnace

Recovery furnace and direct

contact evaporator

Scrubber
Baghouse

Vertical kilns

Scrubber

Lime Kilns

176.7

93.3 648.9

Precipitator
Scrubber

Rotary sludge kilns

Maleic Anhydrid

Precipitator

Precipitator

Benzene storage tanks Process

vent and vacuum. Refinery vent

Adsorbers, afterburners

93.3 648.9

21 37.8

Afterburner
Miscellaneous Refinery
Sources

Vents

Flare

Storage tanks

Absorbers
Refrigeration

Source: USEPA (2006c)

52

As required

4.6 Reducing Emissions from

Mobile Sources

The lag time with European and US standards has

been considerably reduced since the mid-1990s
when Asian countries started to introduce vehicle
emission standards. Table 2.10 presents the current
emission standards in Asian countries for new
light-duty vehicles.

n recognition of the major importance of vehicle

emissions in determining the quality of air in a
city, numerous Asian countries have implemented
legislation to reduce vehicle emissions. There is
a trend towards the introduction of increasingly
strict standards. Four elements can help to reduce
emissions from mobile sources (ADB, 2003):

Modern vehicle technology is characterised by the

use of catalytic converters, three-way catalysts, and
NOx traps in petrol-driven and catalysts, filters
and NOx absorbers in diesel-driven vehicles. These
devices serve to reduce emissions of NOx, CO and
HC in petrol-driven vehicles. In addition, diesel
filters and catalysts help to reduce emissions of
PM. Table 2.11 illustrates the reduction potential
of these devices depending on the sulphur content
of gasoline and diesel fuel.

emissions standards and vehicle

technology;
cleaner fuels;
inspection and maintenance;
transportation planning and demand
management.

Cleaner fuels

Emissions standards and vehicle

technology

To support the introduction of stricter vehicle

emissions standards, fuel quality is required
to meet tighter standards. With the exception
of a limited number of countries, Afghanistan,
Lao PDR, Mongolia, and Myanmar all Asian

Regulations have been developed and enforced

to require that new vehicles satisfy increasingly
strict emissions standards in most Asian nations.

Table 2.10: Vehicle Emissions Standards in Asia and the European Union, 1995-2010
Country
European Union
a
Bangladesh
b
Bangladesh
Hong Kong, SAR
a
India
Indiab
Indonesia
Malaysia
Nepal
Pakistan
Philippines
a
PRC
e
PRC
a
Singapore
b
Singapore
Sri Lanka
Thailand
Vietnam
Euro 1

95

Euro 2

96

97

Euro 3

98

99

Euro 4

00

01

02

03

04

05

06

07

08

09

10

Euro 5

Source: CAI-Asia (2006)

Notes: agasoline, bdiesel; cEntire country; dNew Delhi and other cities - Euro 2 introduced in Mumbai, Kolkata, and Chennai in 2001 - Euro 3 in Bangalore, Hyderabad,
Khampur, Pune, and Ahmedabad in 2003 - Euro 3 to be introduced; eBeijing and Guangzhou adopted Euro 3 standards as of 01.09.2006 - Shanghai requested the approval
of the State Council for implementation of Euro 3; *Under discussion

53

2
Table 2.11: Pollutant reduction through modern technological devices
Optimum/required fuel quality

Vehicle technology

Pollutant reduction

Gasoline
Unleaded gasoline

Catalytic converters

NOx, HC and CO

< 50 ppm sulphur

Three-way catalyst (TWC)

NOx, HC and CO

< 30 ppm sulphur

Advanced TWC

NOx, HC and CO

< 15 ppm sulphur

NOx Trap

NOx

< 150 ppm sulphur

Diesel oxidation catalyst

PM, HC and CO

< 50 ppm sulphur

Diesel particulate filter

PM, HC and CO

< 50 ppm sulphur

Selective catalytic reduction

NOx

< 15 ppm sulphur

NOx absorber

NOx

Diesel

introducing low carbon-footprint fuels,

with lower GHG emissions.

countrieshave phased out Pb. An issue following

the phase-out of leaded gasoline is the use of octane
enhancing fuel additives (CAI-Asia, 2006). Table
2.12 and Table 2.13 show gasoline specifications in
EU and Asian countries.

Inspection and Maintenance

Effective inspection and maintenance (I&M)

programmes can reduce vehicle emissions by 30
to 50 per cent compared to emissions without I&M
(ADB, 2003). The main objective of I&M is to ensure
that benefits of emission control technologies are
not lost through poor maintenance and tampering
with emission controls. Many Asian countries
have introduced inspection and maintenance
requirements for in-use vehicles, but the success of
efforts to implement these requirements have been
mixed. Many Asian countries are still struggling
to develop effective inspection and maintenance
systems (CAI-Asia, 2006).

Key issues and recommendations for emissions

standards, vehicle technology and cleaner fuels
include the following:
institutionalising a clear roadmap for
introducing vehicle emissions standards
and fuel quality;
developing a comprehensive fuel quality
monitoring system;
promoting fuel efficiency/ economy
standards;
introducing alternative fuel (NGVs)
vehicles, whenever possible, especially for
public transportation;

Regular I&M controls can:

help identify vehicles with high emissions
caused by maladjustments or other
mechanical problems; and

improving vehicle engines and fuel

technology to improve the energy efficiency
of individual vehicles, to increase the
distance travelled per unit of fuel;

discourage tampering with emission

control equipment so that emission controls

54

 routine checking;

remain effective over useful life of the

vehicle.

adequate repair facilities and mechanics;

Key Components of I&M include:

effective enforcement (i.e. no exceptions).

public awareness;

The testing facility should be centralised in order to

reduce the potential for fraud. For the same reason,
repair facilities should be separated from emission
testing facilities. I&M facilities operated by a small
number of private contractors facilitate the role
of the Government to supervise and oversee the
I&M process.

link between registration and emission

testing;
carefully designed programme in
centralised high-volume testing facility;
automated reading of emission
measurements and computerization of
pass/fail decisions;
information management and analysis;

Table 2.12: Sulphur content in diesel in Asian countries, the European Union and the United States
Country

96

97

98

99

2000

01

Bangladesh

02

04

05

06

07

08

09

10

5000

Cambodia

2000

Hong Kong, China

500

50

India (nationwide)

5000

2500

India (metros)

5000

2500

Indonesia

5000

Japan

500

Malaysia

5000

Pakistan

10000

Philippines

5000

PRC (nationwide)

5000

2000

PRC (Beijing)

5000

2000

Republic of Korea

500

Singapore

3000

Sri Lanka

10000

Taipei, China

3000

500

Thailand

2500

500

Viet Nam

10000

European Union
United States

03

10

500

500

350

350

50

50
3000

500

10

500

50

5000
2000

500
500
500

350

430

30

500

10

50
5000

3000 /500

350

500

50
350

50

2500
500

500
50/10

500

10
15

Source: ADB (2003)

55

11

2
Table 2.13: Specification of Gasoline in Asian Countries and the European Union
Lead

Sulphur
ppm

Benzene %
v/v, max

Aromatics
%

Olefins
%

Oxygen %
m/m, max

RVP summer
kPa, max

Linked to Euro 3 Vehicle

Standards Effective 2000

Lead free

150

1.0

42

18

2.7

60

Linked to Euro 4 Vehicle

Standards Effective 2005

Lead free

50

1.0

35

18

2.7

60

Bangladesh

Lead free

1000

0.7kg/m2

Bhutan

Lead free

Cambodia

Lead free

3.5

Hong Kong SAR PRC

Lead free

5-

42

18

2.7

60

India

Lead free

1000

2.7

35 - 60

0.30 g/l

2000

2.0 (premix)

62

Lead free

Indonesia
Laos
Japan

Lead free

100

78

Malaysia

Lead free

1500

40

18

70

Pakistan

Lead free

10000

40

9 - 10 psi

Philippines

Lead free

1000

35

2.7

9 psi

PRC

Lead free

500

2.5

40

35

74

Singapore

Lead free

Sri Lanka

Lead free

1000

45

2.7

35 - 60

Taipei, China

Lead free

180

2.7

8.9 psi

Thailand

Lead free

500

3%

35

1 - 2%

Viet Nam

Lead free

5000 - 10000

Source: ADB (2003)

traffic management;

Most Asian countries/cities with I&M facilities

have centralised systems, however, most emissions
testing centres also offer repair facilities which can
fix the vehicles to pass the emissions test; most
emissions testing facilities are not also linked to a
central repository of data on vehicles.

traffic law enforcement.

Transportation planning is a continuing,
comprehensive and collaborative process to
encourage and promote the development of a
multimodal transportation system to ensure safe
and efficient transportation of people and goods
while balancing environmental and community
needs. This process can include market mechanisms
such as fees for registration, congestion charges,
and road pricing.

Transportation management and travel

demand management

Transportation management and travel demand

management includes four basic elements (ADB,
2003):

The urban transport planning process for a certain

study area incorporates several steps:

transportation planning;
traffic engineering;

56

 Preparation of land use, transport and

travel inventories of the study area;

Box 2.6
Public Transport Policy in China

. Analysis of present land use and travel

characteristics;

The National Reform and Development Commission (NRDC) Guideline

(2006) prioritised public transportation:

Forecast of the tendency of land use and

travel demands;
Setting of goals and the formulation
of transport alternatives designed to
accommodate the projected travel demands
and land use changes; and
Testing and evaluation of alternative
transport plans.
Travel demand analysis is one of the most
important elements of the transportation planning
process. Travel demand is expressed as either
person trips or commodity (freight) trips. Table
2.14 provides an overview over attributes for
person and commodity trips.

Purpose

Time of the day

Handling

Origin

Volume

Destination

Packaging

Travel mode

Storage

Travel route

Weight

Trip frequency

Shelf-life

integrated modal systems (normal buses, BRT buses and

railways);

cities as appropriate to develop BRT system and rebuild the urban

street network;

increase of bus density and shortening of waiting times;

safe, comfortable, energy-efficient and environment-friendly

buses;

scrapping of highly polluting and low-technology buses;

economic subsidy and compensation policy for public transportation

in cities;

fares should consider economic and social benefits, business cost

of enterprises, and paying capacity of the public.

responding to air quality, climate change,

road safety, congestion challenges resulting
from increased motorization;
reducing urban CO2 emissions;
maintaining a (high) share of NMT not
withstanding almost complete lack of
government investment and the desire for
individual motorized transport;

Table 2.14: Person trip attributes and

commodity attributes

Purpose

mitigating traffic congestion;

providing mobility for goods and persons

in support of economic growth and poverty
alleviation;

Commodity trip
attributes

mass rapid transit (MRT) as a key transport mode in megacities;

Source: ADB (2003)

The key challenges for urban transport in Asia

include (ADB, 2003):

Person trip attributes

understanding and integrating motorcycles

and three-wheelers in urban transport
strategy;
modernizing transit and public transport
to provide attractive alternative to
individualized transport.

57

2
The key recommendations to improve urban
transport include:
promoting urban reform and land use
planning to ensure urban design that
reduces the need to travel, requiring fewer
passenger- or freight-kilometres travelled;

adopting an integrated transportation

planning to ensure modal shift that
promotes lower fuel consumption per
passenger- or freight-kilometre travelled.

Box 2.7
Transport Policy in India
The 2006 Indian National Urban Transport Policy vision recognises that all plans would be for the common benefit
and well-being of people:

incorporation of urban transportation in the urban planning stage;

integrated land-use and transport planning to minimise travel distances and improve access;

equitable allocation of road space to people, rather than vehicles;

investing in transport systems that encourage greater use of public transport and non-motorized modes instead
of personal motor vehicles;

financing frameworks for project development and implementation.

Source: ADB (2003)

58

 Summary

n this module you have learnt how an

emissions inventory can be used as part of an
integrated AQM programme. You have gained an
understanding of the:

management).
The key messages you should take away from this
module on emissions are:
Emissions inventories must be as accurate
as possible.

top-down and bottom-up approaches;

consequences of an incomplete emissions
inventory;

Emissions inventories much consider all

relevant sources of air pollutants and their
potential of affecting human health and the
environment.

need for quality assurance and quality

control in the development of an emissions
inventory;

Rapid assessment of emissions is the most

cost-effective way to obtain a fairly reliable
emissions inventory.

different sources to be considered in an

emission inventory (point, area, and line
(mobile));

Best available control technologies exist for

stationary sources.

parameters influencing emissions of

activities;

For mobile sources cleaner fuels and

engines, inspection and maintenance
programmes and transport and demand
management are suitable measures to limit
air pollution and greenhouse gas emissions.

emission factors used to estimate emissions.

You have become knowledgeable of the various
sophisticated computer programs used in
developed countries (e.g. EEA, NILU, USEPA and
WHO) to compile an emissions inventory and the
rapid assessment methods which are more suitable
for developing countries.
This module has introduced you to the most
important devices available to control particulate
and gaseous emissions. You have learnt about the
best control technologies and measures available
for mobile sources (cleaner fuels, inspection and
maintenance programmes, transport demand

In Module 3 Modelling you will examine the basic

components of an air simulation model which is
used to estimate air pollutant concentrations in
space and time. You will gain an understanding
of the application of dispersion models and the
key data requirements. You will also examine the
different approaches to source apportionment in
determining the contribution of different pollution
sources.

59

2
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67

Appendix A: Emission Factors for Generating Power

Process

Unit (U)

TSP

SO2

NOx

CO

VOC

kg/U

kg/U

kg/U

kg/U

kg/U

15.6S

8.8f 3

0.64

0.028

kg/U

Electricity Gas and Steam 1

Gaseous Fuels
Natural Gas 2
Utility Boilers

1000 Nm3

0.048

0.061

20S

11.3f

0.82

0.036

Industrial Boilers

1000 Nm3

0.048

15.6S

2.24

0.56

0.092

0.061

20S

2.87

0.72

0.118

Domestic Furnaces

1000 Nm3

0.048

15.6S

1.6

0.32

0.127

0.061

20S

2.05

0.41

0.163

Stationary Gas Turbines

1000 Nm3

0.224

15.6S

6.62

1.84

0.673

0.287

20S

8.91

2.36

0.863

MWh

0.138

9.6S

4.08

1.14

0.415

Liquified Petroleum Gas (LPG)

Industrial Boilers

Domestic Furnaces

m3 (Liq)

0.031

0.004

1.51

0.37

0.06

0.060

0.007

2.9

0.71

0.12

m3 (Liq)

0.031

0.004

1.07

0.22

0.09

0.060

0.007

2.05

0.42

0.17

Liquid Fuels
Distillate Fuel Oil
Industrial and Commercial Boilers

0.28

20S

2.84

0.71

0.035

SO3

0.28S

Residential Furnaces

0.36 4

20S

2.60

0.71

0.354

SO3

0.28S

Stationary Gas Turbines

0.710

20S

9.62

2.19

0.791

MWh

0.369

10.4S

5.01

1.14

0.415

Uncontrolled

20S

8.5 6

0.64

0.127

SO3

0.25S

ESP - Low Efficiency

0.5P

20S

8.5

0.64

0.09

SO3

0.25S

ESP - High Efficiency

0.1P

20S

8.5

0.64

0.09

SO3

0.25S

Scrubber

0.45P

1.5S

8.5

0.64

0.09

Industrial and Commercial Boilers 7

20S

7.0 8

0.64

0.163

SO3

0.25S

Industrial and Commercial Boilers

8.1A

20S

2.7

0.67

0.13

Pb

5.6P

Domestic Heaters

8.6A

20S

2.7

0.67

0.13

Pb

6.8P

Uncontrolled

5A

19.5S

9.0

0.3

0.055

Cyclone

1.25A

19.5S

9.0

0.3

0.055

ESP - High Efficiency

0.36A

19.5S

9.0

0.3

0.055

Fabric Filter

0.01A

19.5S

9.0

0.3

0.055

Residual Fuel Oil 5

Utility Boilers

Waste Lub Oil 9

Solid Fuels
Anthracite Coal 10
Pulverised Coal Furnace

Travelling Grate Stoker

Uncontrolled

4.6

19.5S

5.0

0.3

0.055

Cyclone

>1.2

19.5S

5.0

0.3

0.055

Hand Fed Units

5.0

19.5S

1.5

45.0

9.0

Uncontrolled

5A

19.5S

10.5 12

0.3

0.055

Multiple Cyclones

1.25A

19.5S

10.5

0.3

0.055

Bituminous and Subbituminous Coal 11

Pulverized Coal/Dry Bottom Furnace

ESP - High Efficiency

- Low S Coal + No Condning

0.33A

19.5S

10.5

0.3

0.055

- Otherwise

>0.01A

19.5S

10.5

0.3

0.055

Fabric Filter

0.01A

19.5S

10.5

0.3

0.055

Flue Gas Desulphurisation

0.05A

1.95S

10.5

0.3

0.055

t metric ton;

Nm3

normal cubic metre; MWh Megawatt hour

1. (a) S is the weight percent of Sulphur in the fuel.

(b) A is the weight percent of Ash in the solid fuel.

(c) N is the weight percent of Nitrogen in the fuel.

2. Typical sulphur content of Natural Gas is 0.000615%.

3. For tangentially fired boilers use 5.6f kg/1000Nm3. The load reduction coefficient f is computed from Equation
f = 0.3505 - 0.005235 L + 0.0001173 L2,

where L is the mean boiler load, %. A typical mean boiler load is 87%.

4.

In the absence of boiler I/M programs, smoke emission factors may be closer to 1.6 kg/t.

5. P, the uncontrolled TSP emission factor, is function of the sulphur content of fuel oil and is computed from Equation
P = 0.4 + 1.32 S

6. Use 5.3 kg/tn for tangentially fired boilers, 13.3 for vertical fired boilers and 8.5 for all other boiler types.

7. (a) In the absence of boiler I/M programs, the average smoke emission factor (EF) can exceed that in the table by about
60%, Econompoulos (1987)

(b) In cases where very effective boiler I/M programs are implemented, the average smoke emission factor can be lower
by up to 45% of that listed in the table, Econompoulos (1991)

8. If the nitrogen content of the fuel is known, the NOx emission factor EF(NOx) can be computed more accurately from the
empirical formula
EF(NOx) = (3.25 + 59.2 N2).
9. (a) Typical values of A and S in lub oils are 0.65% and 0.5%.

(b) P is the weight percent of lead (Pb) in the fuel. The value of P depends on the lead content of the gasoline used.
In the U.S.A. the average values of P dropped from 1% in 1970 (catalytic cars and unleaded gasoline were not in use) to
0.11% in 1982-83 (three years after the introduction of catalytic cars and unleaded gasoline) and to 0.04% in 1985-86 (six
years after the introduction of catalytic cars and unleaded gasoline).

10. Typical Ash and Sulphur contents are 8.1% and 0.9% for Meta Anthracite, 9.4% and 0.6% for Anthracite, and 12.4% and
2% for Semianthracite respectively (dry basis).

11. (a) In Bituminous coals typical Ash and Sulphur contents are 4.9% and 0.8% for Low Volatility coals, 2.9% and 0.6% for
Medium Volatility coals, 6.5% and 1.3% for High Volatility A coals, 5.4% and 1.4% for High Volatility B coals, and 9.1% and
2.6% for High Volatility C coals, respectively (dry basis).

(b) In Subbituminous coals typical Ash and Sulphur contents are 4.7% and 1% for A type, 2.8% and 0.5% for B type, 13.2%
and 0.4% for C type, respectively (dry basis).

12. For tangentially fired boilers use 7.5kg/t.

69

2
Appendix B: Emission Factorsa for Heavy Duty Vehicles

Source

Weight
[tons]

Driving
mode

Urban
Heavy Duty
Diesel Powered
Vehiclesc

3.5-16.0

Suburban

Highway

Urban
Heavy Duty
Diesel Powered
Trucksd

> 16.0

Suburban

Highway

Urban
Heavy duty
Diesel Powered
Busesd

> 16.0

Suburban

Highway

Unit [U]

TSP

SO2

NOx

CO

VOC

Factor
[kg/U]

Factorb
[kg/U]

Factor
[kg/U]

Factor
[kg/U]

Factor
[kg/U]

1000 km

0.9

4.29S

11.8

6.0

2.6

tons of fuel

4.3

20S

55.0

28.0

12.0

1000 km

0.9

4.15S

14.4

2.9

0.8

tons of fuel

4.3

20S

70.0

14.0

4.0

1000 km

0.9

4.15S

14.4

2.9

0.8

tons of fuel

4.3

20S

70.0

14.0

4.0

1000 km

1.6

7.26S

18.2

7.3

5.8

tons of fuel

4.3

20S

50.0

20.0

18.0

1000 km

1.6

7.43S

24.1

3.7

3.0

tons of fuel

4.3

20S

65.0

10.0

8.0

1000 km

1.3

6.1S

19.8

3.1

2.4

tons of fuel

4.3

20S

65.0

10.0

8.0

1000 km

1.4

6.6S

16.5

6.6

5.3

tons of fuel

4.3

20S

50.0

20.0

16.0

1000 km

1.2

5.61S

18.2

2.8

2.2

tons of fuel

4.3

20S

65.0

10.0

8.0

1000 km

0.9

6.11S

13.9

2.1

1.7

tons of fuel

4.3

20S

65.0

10.0

8.0

o
The emission factors listed are based on a mean ambient temperature of 20 C and on the following assumptions:
For Urban Driving: Average speed = 25 km/h; Average trip length = 8 km; Cold/hot starts: = 75/25
For suburban Driving: Average speed = 60 km/h; Average trip length = 12 km; Cold/hot starts: = 75/25
For highway Driving: Average speed = 100 km/h; Average trip length = 20 km; Cold/hot starts: = 75/25

b S is the percent weight of sulphur in fuel

c

Emission factors of the Central Bureau of Statistics, Netherlands (1983) for the TSP (Smoke) emissions from Urban,
Suburban and Highway Driving are 5.4, 2.0 and 1.4 kg/1000 km, respectively

d Emission factors of the Central Bureau of Statistics, Netherlands (1983) for the TSP (Smoke) emissions from Urban,
Suburban and Highway Driving are 5.1, 1.8 and 1.0 kg/1000 km, respectively

70

The Foundation Course on Air Quality Management in Asia is for adult learners studying the issue
without the support of a class room teacher. It is aimed at students with some basic knowledge of
environment and air pollution issues, acquired in a variety of ways ranging from conventional study,
working in an environment related field or informal experience of air pollution issues. It provides
the opportunity to develop an understanding of the key components required to manage urban air
pollution and to achieve better air quality.
The course consists of six modules which address the key components of air quality management.
An international team of air pollution experts have contributed to the development of the course.
Each module is divided into a number of sections devoted to a different aspect of the issue together
with examples and key references.

[Link]/cleanair