Types of materials

For convenience most engineering materials are divided into three main classes

 Metals
 Polymers
 Ceramics

By the combining two or more of above mentioned materials we can get another type of material
known as

 Composites

Difference between Metals and Polymers

Metals Polymers

Metallic Bond Covalent bond

Free electrons Captive Electrons

Good Electrical Conductivity Poor Electrical Conductivity

High Density Low density

High Strength Low Strength

Hard Soft

High elastic modulus Low elastic modulus

High melting point Low melting point

Polymeric Materials
The word polymer literally means a “many parts”. A polymeric solid material is considered to be
the one that contains many chemically bonded parts or units which themselves are bonded
together to form a solid.
or

Large molecules that are composed of or made of repeating units connected to each other by
chemical bonds.

Monomer
Single repeating unit in polymer chain is known as monomer. e.g the monomer in polyethylene
is
 Polyethylene
Degree of polymerization
Number of repeating unit in polymer molecular chain is known as degree of polymerization.
Polymer molecular chains normally contains large number of repeating units e.g the average DP
for polyethylene ranges from about 3500 to 25000 corresponding to average molecular mass
ranging from about 100,000 to 700,000 g/mol.

Two industrially important polymeric materials are

1. Plastics . . Plastics refer to a class of materials which can be molded and formed into
shapes.
2. Elastomers . . Elastomers can be elastically deformed a large amount when a force is
applied to them and can return to their original shape when the force is released.

Types of Plastics
There are two types of plastics
 Thermo Plastics
 Thermosetting Plastics

Thermoplastics
Thermoplastics are those plastic materials which are reversibly softened by heat. They require
heat to make them formable and after cooling, retain their shape they were formed into.
Examples are Polyethylene, PVC, Polypropylene, polystyrene etc. .

Thermosetting Plastics
Thermosetting plastics formed into a permanent shape and cured or “set” by a chemical reaction
cannot be remelted and reformed into other shape but degrade or decompose upon heating heated
to too high a temperature. Thus, thermosetting plastics cannot be recycled.
Examples include Phenolics, Epoxy Resins, polyesters etc..
Homopolymers and Copolymers
Homopolymers are polymeric materials which consist of polymer chains made up of single
repeating units. e.g if A is a repeating unit, a homopolymer will have a sequence of AAAAAA…
in the polymer molecular chain.

Copolymers
Copolymers, in contrast, consist of polymer chains made up of two or more chemically different
repeating units which can be in different sequences.

Four distinct types of copolymers have been identified:

Random copolymers. Different monomers are randomly arranged within the polymer chains. If
A and B are different monomers, then an arrangement might be
ABAAABBAABBBAB….

Alternating copolymers. Different monomers show a definite ordered alternation, as

ABABABABABABAB…..

Block Copolymers. Different monomers in the chain are arranged in relatively long blocks of
each monomer:
AAAA------BBBB-----…

Graft Copolymers. Appendages of one type of monomer are grafted to the long chain of
another:
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
B B
B B
B B
Thermoplastics
Thermoplastics are those plastic materials which are reversibly softened by heat. They require
heat to make them formable and after cooling, retain their shape they were formed into.

Thermoplastics possess following properties.

1. They show great elongation which is not reversible (plastic deformation).
2. The thermoplastics can be reheated and reformed into new shapes without any significant
change in properties.
3. They are packed together in variety of configurations sometimes partly crystalline or
amorphous.
4. The long molecular chains are bonded to each other by secondary bonds.
Polyethylene
Polyethylene is a clear to whitish translucent thermoplastic material and is often fabricated into
thin films.

With the use of colorants a wide variety of colored products are obtained.

Repeating chemical structural unit

Types of polyethylene

Low Density PE

 Low density (0.92-0.93 g/cm3)- - a branched chain structure

 Low Strength (upto 17 Mpa)

 More ductile (Elongation% 550-600%)
 Low degree of crystallinity as compared to HDPE.

High Density PE Polyethylen

High density (0.95-0.96 g/cm3)- - a straight chain structure e or very
little branching
Mp:110-
136°Cene

High strength (upto 37 Mpa)

Less ductile (Elongation% 20-120%)
High degree of crystallinity

Applications
Plastic films for packaging and handling, housewares, electrical insulation, blow molded bottles
for holding detergents etc.

Vinyl and Vinylidene Polymers

If only one hydrogen atom of the ethylene monomer is replaced with another atom or group of
atoms, the polymerized polymer is called vinyl polymer. Examples of vinyl polymers are PVC,
polypropylene, polystyrene etc.

Polyethylene Poly Vinyl Chloride

If both hydrogen atoms on one of the carbon atoms of the ethylene monomer are replaced by
other atoms or group of atoms, the polymerized polymer is called vinylidene polymer. Examples
are Polyvinylidene Chloride, Polymethyl methacrylate.

Polyvinyl Chloride and Copolymers

 PVC a widely used synthetic plastic.

 The wide use of PVC is attributed mainly to its high chemical resistance and its unique
ability to be mixed with additives to produce a large number of compounds with a wide
range of physical and chemical properties.

Repeating Chemical Structural Unit

Structure and properties

The presence of the chlorine atom on every other carbon atom of the main chain of PVC
produces a polymeric material that is essentially amorphous.

PVC homopolymer is very difficult to process and in a few applications can PVC be used
without being compounded with a number of additives so that it can be processed and converted
into finished products.

PVC homopolymer has a relatively high strength (7.5 to 9 ksi), along with brittleness. The high
chlorine content of PVC produces flame and chemical resistance.

Polyvinyl chloride compounding

PVC can only be used for a few applications without the addition of number of compounds to the
basic material so that it can be processed and converted into finished products. Compounds
added to PVC include plasticizers, heat stabilizers, lubricants, fillers and pigments.

Plasticizers impart flexibility to polymeric materials. They are usually high-molecular-weight

compounds which are selected to be completely miscible and compatible with the basic material.
For PVC phthalate esters are used as plasticizers.

Heat Stabilizers are added to prevent thermal degradation during processing and also help to
extend the life of finished product. Typical stabilizers include organo-metallic compounds based
on tin, lead, barium-cadmium, calcium, and zinc.

Lubricants aid the melt flow of PVC compounds during processing and prevent adhesion to
metal surfaces. Waxes, fatty esters and metallic soaps are commonly used as lubricants.

Fillers such as calcium carbonate are mainly added to lower the cost of PVC compounds.

Pigments both organic and inorganic, are used to give color, opacity, and weather ability to PVC
compounds.

Applications of PVC

Rigid PVC

PVC alone is difficult to process, has low impact strength and used in small number of
applications but small amount of rubbery materials improves its properties. Rigid PVC with
improved properties is used in making pipes, window frames etc..

Plasticized PVC

The addition of plasticizers to PVC produces softness, flexibility and extensibility. These
properties can be varied over a wide range by adjusting the plastizer-polymer ratio. PVC is used
in furniture, shoes, house wares, inflatable structures electrical wires insulation and floor mats
etc..

Polypropylene
Polypropylene is one of the lowest in cost since it can be processed from low-cost petrochemical
raw materials.

Repeating Chemical Structural Unit

Structure and Properties

In going from polyethylene to polypropylene, the substitution of a methyl group on every second
carbon atom of the polymer main chain restricts rotation of the chains, producing a stronger but
less flexible material. Polypropylene has higher melting temperature than polyethylene.

Polypropylene has a good balance of attractive properties for producing many manufactured
goods. These include

 Good chemical, moisture and heat resistance

 Low density (0.9 to 0.91 g/cm3)
 Good surface hardness
 Dimensional stability
 Tensile strength in the range of 33 to 38 MPa
 High Toughness

Polystyrene

It is the fourth largest tonnage thermoplastic. Homopolymer polystyrene is a clear, odorless and
tasteless plastic material which is relatively brittle unless modified. Styrene also is used to
produce many important copolymers.

Repeating Chemical Structural Unit

Structure and Properties

Homopolymer possess certain unfavorable physical properties such as brittleness and rigidity.
The presence of phenylene ring on every other carbon atom of the main chain of polystyrene
produces a rigid bulky configuration very inflexible at room temperature.

The impact properties of polystyrene can be improved by copolymerization with poly butadiene
elastomer which has the chemical nature

Copolymers of impact styrene usually have rubber levels between 3 to 12%. The addition of
rubber to polystyrene lowers the rigidity of the homopolymer.

Another styrene copolymer of considerable importance is ABS. Acronym is derived from three
monomers derived from three monomers used to produce ABS, Acrylonitrile, butadiene and
styrene.

ABS is resistant to many acids and alkalis and also to many petroleum solvents. Acrylonitrile
contributes heat and chemical resistance and toughness, butadiene provides impact strength and
styrene provides rigidity and ease of processing.

Applications of ABS include pipe and fittings, computer housings and covers, telephone
housings etc..

Styrene-Acrylonitrile (SAN)

SAN is a copolymer of styrene and acrylonitrile and it generally contains 20-30% of

acrylonitrile. SAN have better chemical resistance, toughness, load bearing characteristics than
polystyrene alone.

Processing of Plastic Materials

Many different processes are used to transform plastic granules and pellets into shaped products.

Processes Used for Thermoplastic Materials

Injection Molding
Injection Molding is one of the most important methods used for forming thermoplastic
materials. In the injection molding process, plastic granules from a hopper are fed through an
opening in the injection cylinder onto the surface of rotating screw drive which carries them
forward towards the mold.
 The rotation of the screw forces the granules against the heated walls of the cylinder, causing
them to melt due to the heat of compression, friction, and the hot walls of the cylinder.
 When sufficient plastic material is melted at the mold end of the screw, the screw stops and
by plunger like motion injects a “shot” of melted plastic through a runner-gate system and
then into the closed mold cavities.
 The screw shaft maintains pressure on the plastic material fed into the mold for a short time
to allow it to become solid and then it is retracted.
 The mold is water cooled to rapidly cool the plastic part. Finally the mold is opened and the
part is ejected from the mold with ejector pins.

Advantages
High quality parts at high production rate
Low labor cost
Good surface finish
Highly automated process
Intricate shapes can be produced

Disadvantage
High cost of the machine
The product must be closely controlled to produce a quality product

Extrusion of polymers

Extrusion is a process of manufacturing long products of constant cross-section (rods, sheets,

pipes, films, wire insulation coating) forcing soften polymer through a die with an opening.
Polymer material in form of pellets is fed into an extruder through a hopper. The material is then
conveyed forward by a feeding screw and forced through a die, converting to continuous
polymer product.

Heating elements, placed over the barrel, soften and melt the polymer. The temperature of the
material is controlled by thermocouples.

The product going out of the die is cooled by blown air or in water bath.

Extrusion of polymers (in contrast to extrusion of metals) is continuous process lasting as long as
raw pellets are supplied.

Extrusion is used mainly for Thermoplastics, but Elastomers and Thermosets are also may be
extruded. In this case cross-linking forms during heating and melting of the material in the
extruder.

The thermoplastic extruded products may be further formed by the Thermoforming method.

A principal scheme of an extruder is shown in the picture.

Thermoforming

Thermoforming is a process of shaping flat thermoplastic sheet which includes two stages:
softening the sheet by heating, followed by forming it in the mold cavity.

Elastomers and Thermosets cannot be formed by the Thermoforming methods because of their
cross-linked structure – they do not soften when heated.
Thermoforming is widely used in the food packaging industry for manufacturing ice cream and
margarine tubs etc. Thermoforming is also used for manufacturing some pharmaceutical and
electronic articles, small tools, fasteners, toys, boat hulls.

There are three thermoforming methods, differing in the technique used for the forming stage:

 Vacuum Thermoforming
 Pressure Thermoforming
 Mechanical Thermoforming

Vacuum Thermoforming
The process involves shaping a preheated thermoplastic sheet by means of vacuum produced in
the mold cavity space.

The atmospheric pressure forces the soft sheet to deform in conformity with the cavity shape.
When the plastic comes into the contact with the mold surface it cools down and hardens.

Pressure Thermoforming

An alternative to vacuum forming involves positive pressure to force the heated plastic into the
mold cavity. This is called pressure thermoforming or blow forming its advantage over vacuum
forming is that higher pressures can be developed because the latter is limited to a theoretical
maximum of 1 atm. Blow-forming pressures of 3 to 4 atm are common.

The air pressure forces the soft sheet to deform in conformity with the cavity shape. When the
plastic comes into the contact with the mold surface it cools down and hardens.
Mechanical Thermoforming
The process involves shaping a preheated thermoplastic sheet by means of a direct mechanical
force.
A core plug (positive mold) forces the soft sheet to fill the space between the plug and the
negative mold. The process provides precise dimensional tolerance and surface detailing.

Blow Molding
Blow molding is a process in which a heated hollow thermoplastic tube (parison) is inflated into
a closed mold conforming the shape of the mold cavity.

The most widely used materials for Blow Molding are:

 Low Density Polyethylene (LDPE), High Density Polyethylene (HDPE)

  Polypropylene (PP)
 Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC)
 Polyethylene Terephtalate (PET)

Disposable containers of various sizes and shapes, drums, recyclable bottles, automotive fuel
tanks, storage tanks, globe light fixtures, toys, tubs, small boats are produced by Blow Molding
method.

Extrusion Blow Molding

Extrusion Blow Molding involves manufacture of parison by conventional extrusion method

using a die similar to that used for extrusion pipes.

Extrusion Blow Molding is commonly used for mass production of plastic bottles.

The production cycle consists of the following steps:

 The parison is extruded vertically in downward direction between two mold halves.

 When the parison reaches the required length the two mold halves close resulting in
pinching the top of parison end and sealing the blow pin in the bottom of the parison end.
 Parison is inflated by air blown through the blow pin, taking a shape conforming that of
the mold cavity. The parison is then cut on the top.

 The mold cools down, its halves open, and the final part is removed.