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df ( x)
INT 1: If = F ( x ) then we define ∫ F ( x ) dx = f ( x ) + c . For example
dx
d
1. ( sin x ) = cos x ⇒ ∫ cos xdx = sin x + c
dx
d
2. ( tan x ) = sec2 x ⇒ ∫ sec2 xdx = tan x + c
dx
Note: ∫ F ( x ) dx is read as integration of F ( x ) with respect to x
Here c is constant of integration.
INT 2: Memory Tips:
x n +1
1. ∫ x n dx = + c, (n + 1 ≠ 0) ∴ ∫ dx = x + c
n +1
(ax + b)n +1
2. ∫ (ax + b)n dx = + c (n + 1 ≠ 0)
(n + 1)a
dx
3. ∫ = log x + c
x
dx log ax + b
4. ∫ = +c
ax + b a
ax
5. ∫ a x dx = + c and ∫ e x dx = e x + c
log a
6. ∫ sin xdx = − cos x + c
7. ∫ cos xdx = sin x + c
8. ∫ tan xdx = − log cos x + c = log sec x + c
9. ∫ cot xdx = log sin x + c
10. ∫ sec x tan xdx = sec x + c
11. ∫ cos ecx cot xdx = − cos ecx + c
12. ∫ sec xdx = tan x + c
2

13. ∫ cos ec xdx = − cot x + c

2

π
x
14. ∫ sec xdx = log sec x + tan x + c = log tan( + ) +c
4 2
x
15. ∫ cos ecxdx = log cos ecx − cot x + c = log tan + c
2
dx
16. ∫ = sin −1 x + c = − cos −1 x + c
2
1− x
dx
17. ∫ 2
= tan −1 x + c = − cot −1 x + c
1+ x

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dx
18. ∫ = sec−1 x + c = − cos ec −1 x + c
2
x x −1
dx 1 x−a
19. ∫ 2 2
= log +c
x −a 2a x+a
dx 1 a−x
20. ∫ 2 2
= log +c
a −x 2a a+x
dx 1 x
21. ∫ 2 2
= tan −1 + c
a +x a a
dx x
22. ∫ dx = sin −1 + c
a2 − x2 a
dx
23. ∫ x +a2 2
= log x + x 2 + a 2 + c

dx
24. ∫ x −a2 2
= log x + x 2 − a 2 + c

x a2 − x2 a2 x
25. ∫ a 2 − x 2 dx =
2
+ sin −1 + c
2 a
x x2 − a 2 a2
26. ∫ x 2 − a 2 dx =
2
− log x + x 2 − a 2 + c
2
x x2 + a2 a2
27. ∫ x + a dx =
2 2
+ log x + x 2 + a 2 + c
2 2
dx 1 x
28. ∫ = sec −1 + c
2
x x −a 2 a a
eax
29. ∫ e cos bxdx =
ax
[ a cos bx + b sin bx ] + c
a2 + b2
e ax
30. ∫ e ax sin bxdx = [ a sin bx − b cos bx ] + c
a 2 + b2

Fundamental Results of Integration:

1. ∫ kf ( x ) dx = k ∫ f ( x)dx
2. ∫ { f ( x ) + g ( x )} dx = ∫ f ( x ) dx + ∫ g ( x ) dx
3. ∫ { f ( x ) − g ( x )} dx = ∫ f ( x ) dx − ∫ g ( x ) dx
F ( ax + b )
4. ∫ f ( x)dx = F ( x ) + c ⇒ ∫ f ( ax + b ) dx = +C
a
Method of Substitution:
To evaluate integral of the types ∫ ( f ( x) ) f ′ ( x ) dx put
n

n t n +1
∫ ( f ( x) ) f ′( x)dx = ∫ t dt =
n
f ( x) = t so that f ′( x)dx = dt and +c.
n +1

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n +1
( f ( x ))
∫ ( f ( x) )
n
Hence f ′( x) dx = + C provided n ≠ −1
n +1
If integral is of the type
f ( x) f ( x) dt
∫ f ′( x) dx the put f ( x) = t so that f ′( x)dx = dt and ∫ f ′( x) dx = ∫ t
= log t + c .

f ( x)
Hence ∫ dx = log f ( x ) + C
f '( x)

Examples:
1. Evaluate ∫ sin 3 x cos xdx
Solution: Put sin x = t ⇒ cos xdx = dt
t 3+1 t4 sin 4 x
⇒ ∫ sin x cos xdx = ∫ t dt =
3 3
+C = +C = +C
3 +1 4 4

2. ∫
( x + 1) e x dx
cos 2 xe x ( )
d x d dt
Solution: Put xe x = t ⇒ x e + ex x=
dx dx dx
dt
⇒ xe x + e x = ⇒ ( x + 1) e x dx = dt
dx
( x + 1) e dx = ∫ 1 dt = ∫ sec2 tdt = tan t + C = tan xe x + C
x

⇒∫ ( )
cos 2 xe x ( )
cos 2 t
sin 2 x
3. ∫ dx
a sin x + b 2 cos 2 x
2 2

Solution: Put a 2 sin 2 x + b 2 cos 2 x = t . Differentiate both sides with respect to x we

dt 1
(
get a 2 − b 2 sin 2 x = )
⇒ sin 2 xdx = 2 2 dt
dx a −b ( )
sin 2 x 1 1
∴∫ dx = 2 2 ∫ dt
2 2 22
a sin x + b cos x a −b t ( )
1 1
= log t + C = 2 2 log a 2 sin 2 x + b 2 cos 2 x + C
( a −b22
)
a −b ( )
4. ∫ tan xdx
sin x
Solution: ∫ tan xdx = ∫ dx
cos x
dt
Put cos x = t ⇒ − sin x = ⇒ sin xdx = − dt
dx
1
∴ ∫ tan xdx = − ∫ dt = − log t + C = − log cos x + C = log sec x + C
t

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Integral of the Type: ∫ ( ax + b ) px + q dx i.e. ∫ Linear Linear dx
2t
Method: Put Linear = t i.e. px + q = t 2 ⇒ pdx = 2tdt ⇒ dx = dt
p
  t − q   2t
2 2
∴ ∫ ( ax + b ) px + qdx = ∫ a   + b  dt
  p   p
2 a  2 5 2 3  2bt 3
=
p2
∫ ( at 4
− aqt 2
+ bpt 2
) p 2  5 t − 3 qt  + 3 p
dt =

2a 5  aq − bp  3
= 2
t −2 2 t + c
5p  3p 
2a 5
 aq − bp  3
Hence ∫ ( ax + b ) px + qdx = ( px + q ) 2 − 2  ( px + q ) +C
2
5 p2  3p 
2

Example: Evaluate ∫ ( 3 x + 4 ) 2 x + 5dx

Solution: Put 2 x + 5 = t 2 ⇒ 2dx = 2tdt ⇒ dx = tdt
  t − 5   2  3t 4 7 2 
2
∴ ∫ ( 3 x + 4 ) 2 x + 5dx = ∫ 3   + 4  t dt = ∫  2 − 2 t  dt
  2  
3t 5 7t 3 3 5
7 3
= − + c = ( 2 x + 5 ) 2 − ( 2 x + 5) 2 + c
10 6 10 6
ax + b
Integral of the type: ∫ dx
px + q
a bp − aq
Method: Let ax + b = α ( px + q ) + β ⇒ α = & β =
p p
ax + b α ( px + q) + β 1
∴∫ dx = ∫ dx = α ∫ px + qdx + b ∫ dx
px + q px + q px + q
2a 3 2 ( bp − aq ) 1
= ( px + q ) 2 + ( px + q )2 + C
3 p2 p2
x+2
Example: Evaluate ∫ dx
2x + 3
Solution: Put 2 x + 3 = t 2 ⇒ 2dx = 2tdt ⇒ dx = tdt
t2 − 3 3
+2
x+2 t 2
+ 1 t 3
1 ( 2 x + 3 ) 2 2x + 3
⇒∫ dx = ∫ 2 tdt = ∫ dt = + t + c = + +c
2x + 3 t 2 6 2 6 2
e kx + e − kx
Integral of the type: ∫ dx
ekx − e − kx
kx
Method: Divide numerator and denominator of the integrand by e 2

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ekx + 1 e kx / 2 + e − kx / 2
⇒ ∫ kx dx = ∫ kx / 2 dx
e −1 e − e − kx / 2
k 2
Put ekx / 2 − e− kx / 2 = t ⇒ ( e kx / 2 + e− kx / 2 ) dx = dt ⇒ ( e kx / 2 + e− kx / 2 ) dx = dt
2 k
kx
e +1 2 1 2 2
∴ ∫ kx dx = ∫ dt = log t + c = log e kx − e − kx + c
e −1 k t k k
2x −2 x
e +e
Example: Evaluate ∫ 2 x dx
e − e −2 x
e2 x + 1 e x + e− x
Solution: ∫ 2 x dx = ∫ x dx
e −1 e − e− x
Put ( e x − e − x ) = t ⇒ ( e x + e− x ) dx = dt
e 2 x + e −2 x 1
⇒∫ 2x −2 x
dx = ∫ dt = log t + c = log e x − e − x + c
e −e t
Integral of the type ∫ ae x + b
2t 2t
Method: Put ae x + b = t 2 ⇒ ae x dx = 2tdt ⇒ dx = x
dt ⇒ dx = 2 dt
ae t −b
2t t2 t2 − b + b 1
∴∫ ae x + b = ∫ t × 2 dt = 2 ∫ 2 dt = 2 ∫ 2 dt = 2 ∫ dt + 2b ∫ 2
dt
t −b t −b t −b t2 − b ( )
1 t− b ae x + b − b
= 2t + 2b × log + c = 2 ae x + b + b log +c
2 b t+ b ae x + b + b
Example: Evaluate ∫ 2e x + 3dx
2t
Solution: Put 2e x + 3 = t 2 ⇒ 2e x dx = 2tdt ⇒ ( t 2 − 3) dx = 2tdt ⇒ dx = 2
dt
t −3
2t t2 − 3 + 3 1 6 t− 3
⇒ ∫ 2e x + 3dx = ∫ t × 2
dt = 2 ∫ 2
dt = ∫ 2dt + 6 ∫ 2
dt = 2t + log +c
t −3 t −3
( )
t2 − 3 2 3 t+ 3

2e x + 3 − 3
= 2 2e x + 3 + 3 log +c
2e x + 3 + 3
1
Integral of the type: ∫ dx
ae x + b
2t 2t
Method: Put ae x + b = t 2 ⇒ ae x dx = 2tdt ⇒ dx = x
dt ⇒ dx = 2 dt
ae t −b

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1 1 2t 1 2 t− b 1 ae x + b − b
∴∫ dx = ∫ × 2 dt = 2 ∫ 2 dt = log +c = log +c
ae x + b t t −b t −b 2 b t+ b b ae x + b + b
1
Example: Evaluate ∫ dx
2e x + 3
2t
Solution: Put 2e x + 3 = t 2 ⇒ 2e x dx = 2tdt ⇒ ( t 2 − 3) dx = 2tdt ⇒ dx = 2 dt
t −3
1 1 2t 1 2 t− 3 1 2e x + 3 − 3
⇒∫ =∫ × 2 dt = 2 ∫ 2 dt = log +c = log +c
x
2e + 3dx t t −3 t −3 2 3 t+ 3 3 2e x + 3 + 3

Integration involving trigonometric functions:

Integral of type ∫ sin m xdx & ∫ cos m xdx if m ≤ 4
Use the following results
1 − cos 2 x
sin 2 x =
2
1 + cos 2x
cos 2 x =
2
3sin x − sin 3 x
sin 3 x =
4
3cos x + cos 3 x
cos3 x =
4
Example1. Evaluate ∫ sin 2 3xdx
1 − cos 6 x 1 sin 6 x
Solution ∫ sin 2 3 x = ∫ dx = x − +c
2 2 12
Example2. Evaluate ∫ sin 3 2xdx
3sin 2 x − sin 6 x 3 1
Solution ∫ sin 3 2 xdx = ∫ dx = − cos 2 x + cos 6 x + c
4 8 24
Example3. Evaluate ∫ cos xdx
2

1 + cos 2 x 1 1
Solution ∫ cos 2 xdx = ∫ dx = x + sin 2 x + c
2 2 4
Example4. Evaluate ∫ cos xdx
3

3cos x + cos 3 x 3 1
Solution ∫ cos3 xdx = ∫ dx = sin x + sin 3 x + c
4 4 12
Example5. Evaluate ∫ cos 2xdx
4

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Solution
2
 1 + cos 4 x  1 + 2 cos 4 x + cos 2 4 x 1  1 + cos 8 x 
∫ ∫  2  ∫ dx = ∫ 1 + 2 cos 4 x +
4
cos 2 xdx = dx =  dx
4 4  2 

1 1 1 3
=
8 ∫ ( cos 8 x + 4 cos 4 x + 3) dx = sin 8 x + sin 4 x + x + c
64 8 8
Example6. Evaluate ∫ cos xdx 4

Solution
2
 1 − cos 2 x  1 1  1 + cos 4 x 
∫ sin xdx = ∫  2  dx = 4 ∫ (1 − 2 cos 2 x + cos 2 x ) dx = 4 ∫ 1 − 2 cos 2 x + 2  dx
4 2

1 sin 4 x sin 2 x 3 x
=
8 ∫ ( cos 4 x − 4 cos 2 x + 3) dx =
32
−
4
+
8
+c

Integral of the type ∫ sin n x cos n xdx, n ≤ 4

1
Method Use the result sin x cos x = sin 2 x
2
n
 sin 2 x  1
⇒ ∫ sin x cos xdx = ∫ ( sin x cos x ) dx = ∫   = n ∫ sin 2 xdx . This integral can
n n n n

 2  2
be evaluated by the method given in the previous article.
Integral of the type ∫ sin n xdx or ∫ cos n xdx
Case1. When n is even
1  1 
cos n x = n −1 cos nx + nC1 cos ( n − 2 ) x + nC2 Cos ( n − 4 ) x + L + . nC n 
2  2 2 
n
( −1) 2  n
1 n 
sin n x = n −1 
cos nx − n
C1 cos ( n − 2 ) x + n
C 2 cos ( n − 4 ) x + L + ( − 1) 2 ⋅ ⋅ Cn 
2  2 2 

Case2. When n is odd

1  
cos n x = n −1 cos nx + nC1 cos ( n − 2 ) x + nC2 Cos ( n − 4 ) x + L + nC n −1 cos x 
2  2 
n −1
( −1) 2 n 
n
sin x = n −1  sin nx − n
C1 sin ( n − 2 ) x + n
C 2 sin ( n − 4 ) x + L + ( − 1) n
2 C
n −1 sin x 
2  2 
Example1. Evaluate ∫ sin xdx
8

4
8 ( −1)
 8 8 8 1 8 
Solution sin x =  cos8 x − C1 cos 6 x + C2 cos 4 x − C3 cos 2 x + × C4 
128  2 
1
⇒ sin 8 x = ( cos 8 x − 8 cos 6 x + 28 cos 4 x − 56 cos 2 x + 35 )
128

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1  sin 8 x 4sin 6 x 
⇒ ∫ sin 8 xdx =  − + 7 sin 4 x − 28sin 2 x + 35 x  + c
128  8 3 
Example2. Evaluate ∫ sin xdx
6

−1
Solution sin 6 x = ( cos 6 x − 6 cos 4 x + 15cos 2 x − 10 )
32
−1  sin 6 x 3sin 4 x 15sin 2 x 
⇒ ∫ sin 6 xdx =  − + − 10 x  + c
32  6 2 2 
Example3. Evaluate ∫ cos8 xdx
1
Solution cos8 x = ( cos 8 x + 8cos 6 x + 28cos 4 x + 56 cos 2 x + 35)
128
1  sin 8 x 4sin 6 x 
⇒ ∫ cos8 xdx =  + + 7 sin 4 x + 28sin 2 x + 35 x  + c
128  8 3 
Example4. Evaluate ∫ cos xdx
6

1
Solution cos 6 x = ( cos 6 x + 6 cos 4 x + 15cos 2 x + 10 )
32
1  sin 6 x 3cos 4 x 15sin 2 x 
∫ cos xdx = 32  6 + 2 + 2 + 10 x  + c
6

Example5. Evaluate ∫ sin 5 xdx

1
Solution sin 5 x = ( sin 5 x − 5sin 3x + 10 sin x )
16
1  cos 5 x 5cos 3 x 
⇒ ∫ sin 5 xdx =  − + − 10 cos x  + c
16  5 3 
Example6. Evaluate ∫ cos 7 xdx
1
Solution cos 7 x = ( cos 7 x + 7 cos 5 x + 21cos 3x + 35 cos x )
64
1  sin 7 x 7 sin 5 x 
⇒ ∫ cos 7 xdx =  + + 7 sin 3 x + 35sin x  + c
64  7 5 
Integral of the type ∫ sin m x cos n xdx by using De Moivre’s Theorem
Example1 Evaluate ∫ cos 7 x sin 5 xdx
Solution. Let z = cos x + i sin x ⇒ z −1 = cos x − i sin x
⇒ 2 cos x = z + z −1 & 2i sin x = z − z −1
7 −1 5 5 2
⇒ ( 2 cos x ) ( 2i sin x ) = ( z + z −1 ) (z − z ) = (z − z −5 ) ( z + z −1 )
7 5 2

⇒ ( 2 cos x ) ( 2i sin x ) = ( z10 − 5 z 6 + 10 z 2 − 10 z −2 + 5 z −6 − z −10 )( z 2 + 2 + z −2 )

7 5

= ( z12 − z −12 ) + 2 ( z10 − z −10 ) − 4 ( z 8 − z −8 ) − 10 ( z 6 − z −6 ) + 5 ( z 4 − z −4 ) + 20 ( z 2 − z −2 )

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Since z p − z − p = 2i sin px we have
cos 7 x sin 5 x = 2−11 ( sin12 x + 2sin10 x − 4sin 8 x − 10sin 6 x + 5sin 4 x + 20sin 2 x )
 cos12 x 2 sin10 x 4 cos8 x 10 cos 6 x 5 cos 4 x 20 cos 2 x 
∫ cos x sin 5 xdx = 2−11 −
7
− + + − − +c
 12 10 8 6 4 2 

Integral of the type ∫ sin m x cos n xdx when

• If m = 2k + 1 then put t = cos x
• If n = 2k + 1 then t = sin x
• If m & n = 2k + 1 then put t = cos x or t = sin x
• If m & n ≠ 2k + 1 , then

If m + n = −2k , put t = tan x

If m + n = 2k then express the integrand as algebraic sum of sin& cos of multiple
angles, using De-Moivre’s Theorem

If m + n = − ( 2k + 1) , then multiply by suitable power of ( cos 2 x + sin 2 x )
Example1. Evaluate ∫ sin 5 x cos 4 xdx
2
Solution I = ∫ sin 5 x cos 4 xdx = ∫ sin 4 x cos 4 x sin xdx = ∫ (1 − cos 2 x ) cos 4 x sin xdx
Put cos x = t ⇒ sin xdx = − dt
2  t 5 2t 7 t 9 
⇒ I = ∫ (1 − t 2 ) t 4 ( − dt ) = − ∫ ( t 4 − 2t 6 + t 8 ) dt = −  − + +c
5 7 9
5 7 9
sin x 2sin x sin x
=− + − +c
5 7 9
cos3 x
Example2. Evaluate ∫ dx
sin 7 x
cos3 x 7
Solution Let I = ∫ dx, here m = − , n = 3 ∴ Put sin x = t ⇒ cos xdx = dt
sin 7 x 2
(1 − sin x ) sin x dx = (1 − t ) dt = t
2 2

∴I = ∫ ∫ t ∫( − t −3 / 2 ) dt
−7 / 2
7 7/2
2
sin x
2 −5 / 2 2
=− t + 2t −1/ 2 + C = − cos ec5 / 2 x + 2 cos ecx + C
5 5
Example3. Evaluate ∫ sec x cos ec 5 / 3 dx
7/3

5 7
Solution Let I = ∫ cos −7 / 3 sin −5 / 3 dx .Here m = − , n = − ⇒ m + n = −4
3 2
1 1
Therefore put tan x = t ⇒ sec 2 xdx = dt ⇒ dx = 2
dx = dt
1 + tan x 1+ t2

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2 5/6

Let I = ∫ (1 + t 2 7/6
(1 + t ) dt (1 + t ) dt =
2
3 3
) =∫ ∫ (t
−5 / 3
+ t1/ 3 ) dt = − t −2 / 3 + t 4 / 3 + c
t 5/3
(1 + t )
2
t 5/3
2 4

3 3
= − cot 2 / 3 x + tan 4 / 3 x + c
2 4
Integral of the form: I = ∫ R ( sin x, cos x ) dx where R is a rational function of
sin x & cos x , are transformed into integrals of a rational function by the substitution
x
tan   = t
2
In some special cases the integral can be simplified by

Substituting sin x = t if I = ∫ R ( sin x ) cos xdx

Substituting cos x = t if I = ∫ R ( cos x ) sin xdx

Substituting tan x = t if I = ∫ R ( tan x ) dx

Substituting tan x = t , if R ( − sin x, − cos x ) = R ( sin x, cos x )

Substituting cos x = t if R ( − sin x, cos x ) = − R ( sin x, cos x )

Substituting sin x = t if R ( sin x, − cos x ) = − R ( sin x, cos x )
dx
Example1. ∫
sin x ( 2 + cos x − 2sin x )
dx
Solution Let I = ∫
sin x ( 2 + cos x − 2sin x )
 x 1  x 1 2
Put tan   = t ⇒ sec2   dx = dt ⇒ (1 + t 2 ) dx = dt ⇒ dx = dt
2 2 2 2 1+ t2
2
I =∫ 1 + t 2
=∫ 2
(1+ t2 )
dt = ∫
(1+ t2 )
dt
2t  1 − t2 4t  t ( t − 4t + 3) t ( t − 1)( t − 3)
2 + − 
1 + t2  1+ t2 1+ t2 
1 1 5 1 1 1 x 5  x x
= ∫
3 t
dt + ∫
3 t −3
dt − ∫
t −1
dt = log tan   + log tan   − 3 − log tan − 1 + c
3 2 3 2 2
dx
Example2. ∫
sin x ( 2 cos 2 x − 1)
dx
Solution I = ∫ In this expression if we substitute − sin x for sin x , then it
sin x ( 2 cos 2 x − 1)
will change its sign. So put cos x = t ⇒ sin xdx = − dt
sin xdx sin xdx dt
⇒I =∫ 2 =∫ = −∫
sin x ( 2 cos x − 1)
2
(1 − cos x )( 2 cos x − 1) (1 − t )( 2t 2 − 1)
2 2 2

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dt dt 1 1+ t 2 1 1+ t 1 1 + 2 cos x 1 1 + cos x
= 2∫ 2
−∫ 2
= log − log +C = log − log +c
1 − 2t 1− t 2 1− t 2 2 1− t 2 1 − 2 cos x 2 1 − cos x

1
Example3 ∫ dx
5 + 4 cos x
Solution
1 1 tan 2 ( x / 2 ) sec2 ( x / 2 )
I =∫ dx = ∫ dx = ∫ dx = ∫
5 + 4 cos x 1 − tan 2 ( x / 2 ) tan 2 ( x / 2 ) + 9 tan 2 ( x / 2 ) + 9
5+4
1 + tan 2 ( x / 2 )
x x
Put tan   = t ⇒ sec 2   dx = dt
2 2
2dt 2 t 2 1  x 
⇒I=∫ 2 = tan −1   + c = tan −1  tan    + c
t +9 3 3 3 3  2 
1
Example 4 ∫ dx
5 − 4sin x
1 1 sec2 ( x / 2 )
Solution I = ∫ dx = ∫ dx = ∫
5 − 4 sin x 8 tan ( x / 2 ) 5 tan 2 ( x / 2 ) − 8 tan ( x / 2 ) + 5
5−
1 + tan 2 ( x / 2 )
x x 2dt
Put tan   = t ⇒ sec 2   dx = dt ⇒ I = ∫ 2
2 2 5t − 8t + 5
2 dt 2 1
∫
5 2 8
= ∫
5  4 2  3  2
t − t +1
5 t −  +  
 5 5
 4
 t− 
2 1
tan −1  5 + c = 2 tan −1  5 tan ( x / 2 ) − 4 
= ×   
5 3  3  3  3 
   
5 5
Integral of the type
dx
• ∫
a + b cos 2 x
Example:
dx dx dx
Let I = ∫ 2
⇒I =∫ 2 2 2
=∫
2 + 3cos x 2(cos x + sin x) + 3cos x 5 cos x + 2sin 2 x
2

dx sec2 xdx
=∫ =∫
cos 2 x ( 5 + 2 tan 2 x ) 5 + 2 tan 2 x
Put tan x = t ⇒ sec 2 xdx = dt

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dx dx 1  2 tan x  1  2 tan x 
⇒I =∫
5 + 2t 2 ∫
= 2 2
= tan −1   + c = tan −1   + c
( 5 ) + ( 2t ) 10  5  10  5 

dx
• ∫ a + b sin 2
x
dx
Example: Evaluate ∫
2 + 3sin 2 x
dx dx dx
Solution: Let I = ∫ 2
=∫ 2 2 2
=∫
2 + 3sin x 2sin x + 2 cos x + 3sin x 2 cos x + 5sin 2 x
2

dx sec 2 dx
=∫ = ∫ 2 + 5 tan 2 x
cos 2 x ( 2 + 5 tan 2 x )
Put tan x = t ⇒ sec 2 xdx = dt
dt dt 1  5t  1  5 tan x 
I =∫
2 + 5t 2 ∫
= = tan −1   + c = tan −1  +c
2 2
2 
( 2 ) + ( 5t ) 10  2  10 
dx
• ∫ a + b cos 2
x + c cos 2 x
dx
Example: Evaluate ∫ 2 + sin 2
x + cos 2 x
dx dx
Solution: Let I = ∫ 2
=∫ 2
2 + sin x + cos x 3sin x + 2 cos 2 x
2

This can now be evaluated by the method of previous example.

dx
• ∫ a cos 2
x + b sin 2 x + c sin x cos x
dx
Evaluate: ∫ 2 2
cos x + 2 sin x + 2 sin x cos x
dx dx
Solution: Let I = ∫ =∫
cos 2 x ( 2 + tan 2 x + 2 tan x )
2 2
2 cos x + sin x + 2 sin x cos x
sec 2 xdx
=∫
( 2 + tan 2
x + 2 tan x )
Put tan x = t ⇒ sec 2 xdx = dt
dt dt
⇒I =∫ 2 =∫ 2
= tan −1 ( t + 1) + c = tan −1 ( tan x + 1) + c
t + 2t + 2 ( t + 1) + 1
dx
• ∫ ( a cos x + b sin x ) 2

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dx dx
Method: ∫ 2
=∫ 2 2
( a cos x + b sin x ) a cos x + b sin x + 2ab sin x cos x
This can be evaluated with the help of previous example.
φ ( tan x ) dx
• ∫
a sin x + b sin x cos x + c cos 2 x + d
2

2 tan x + 3
Example: ∫ 2 dx
sin x + 2 cos 2 x
2 tan x + 3 ( 2 tan x + 3) sec2 xdx
Solution: Let I = ∫ 2 dx = ∫
sin x + 2 cos 2 x tan 2 x + 2
Put tan x = t ⇒ sec 2 xdx = dt
2t + 3 2tdt 3 3  t 
⇒I =∫ 2 dt = ∫ 2 +∫ 2
dt = log t 2 + 2 + tan −1  +c
t +2 t +2 2
t + 2 ( ) 2  2 

3  tan x 
= log ( tan 2 x + 2 ) +tan −1  +c
2  2 
Integrals of the forms:
• ∫ sec 2 x ± adx

• ∫ cos ec 2 x ± adx

• ∫ tan 2 x ± adx

• ∫ cot 2 x ± adx
Method:
sec 2 x ± a sec2 x a cos x
i. Write sec2 x ± a = = ±
sec 2 x ± a sec 2 x ± a 1 ± a cos 2 x
In the first part put t = tan x and in the second part put t = sin x
cosec 2 x ± a cosec 2 x a sin x
ii. Write cosec 2 x ± a = = ±
cosec 2 x ± a cosec2 x ± a 1 ± a sin 2 x
In the first part put t = cot x and in the second part put t = cos x
iii. In case of tan 2 x ± a or cot 2 x ± a change tan 2 x into sec 2 x − 1 &
cot 2 x into cosec 2 x − 1
Example: Evaluate ∫ sec 2 x + 1dx
sec 2 x + 1 sec 2 x cos xdx
Solution: Let I = ∫ sec 2 x + 1dx = ∫ dx = ∫ dx + ∫
sec 2 x + 1 sec2 x + 1 1 + cos 2 x
sec2 xdx cos xdx
=∫ +∫
2 + tan 2 x 2 − sin 2 x
For the first part put t = tan x ⇒ dt = sec 2 xdx & for the second part put
y = sin x ⇒ dy = cos xdx

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dt dy  y 
⇒I =∫ +∫ = log t + 2 + t 2 + sin −1  +c
2 + t2 2 − y2  2
 sin x 
= log tan x + 2 + tan 2 x + sin −1  +c
 2 
dx
Integral of the type ∫
a cos x + b sin x
b
Method: Put a = r cos α & b = r sin α where r = a 2 + b 2 & α = tan −1  
a
dx 1 dx 1
⇒I =∫ = ∫ = ∫ sec ( x − α ) dx
r cos x cos α + r sin x sin α a + b cos ( x − α )
2 2
a + b2
2

1  b  b
⇒I= log sec  x − tan −1  + tan  x − tan −1  + c
2
a +b 2
 a  a
dx
Example: ∫
2 cos x + 3sin x
dx
Solution: Let I = ∫
2 cos x + 3sin x
3
Put 2 = r cos α & 3 = r sin α ⇒ r = 13 & α = tan −1  
2
1 dx 1 dx
⇒I= ∫
13 cos α cos x + sin α sin x
= ∫
13 cos ( x − α )
1 1  3  3
=
13
∫ sec ( x − α ) dx = 13
log sec  x − tan −1  + tan  x − tan −1  + c
 2  2
a cos x + b sin x
Integral of the type ∫ dx
c cos x + d sin x
d
Method: Write a cos x + b sin x = λ ( c cos x + d sin x ) + µ ( c cos x + d sin x )
dx
d ( Deno )
i.e. Num = λ ( Deno ) + µ
dx
λ ( c cos x + d sin x ) + µ ( −c sin x + d cos x ) −c sin x + d cos x
I =∫ dx = λ ∫ dx + µ ∫ dx
c cos x + d sin x c cos x + d sin x
= λ x + µ log c cos x + d sin x + K
3sin x + 2 cos x
Example: ∫ dx
3cos x + 2sin x
Solution: Write 3sin x + 2cos x = λ ( 3cos x + 2sin x ) + µ ( −3sin x + 2 cos x )
Comparing the coefficients of sin x & cos x we get the following equations
12 5
3 = 2λ − 3µ & 2 = 3λ + 2 µ ⇒ λ = & µ = −
13 13

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−3sin x + 2 cos x 12 5
⇒ I = λ ∫ dx + µ ∫ dx = x − log 3cos x + 2 sin x + c
3cos x + 2sin x 13 13
p cos + q sin x + r
Integral of the type ∫ dx
a cos x + b sin x + c
d
Method: Write Num = λ ( Deno ) + µ ( Deno ) + γ
dx
d .c. of denominator 1
⇒ I = λ ∫ dx + µ ∫ dx + γ ∫ dx
denominator a cos x + b sin x + c
2 + 3cos x
Example: ∫ dx
sin x + 2 cos x + 3
Solution: Write 2 + 3cos x = λ ( sin x + 2 cos x + 3) + µ ( cos x − 2sin x ) + γ
Comparing the coefficients of sin x, cos x and constant terms we get
6 3 −8
λ − 2µ = 0, 2λ + µ = 3 & 3λ + γ = 2 ⇒ λ = , µ = & γ =
5 5 5
6 3 cos x − 2sin x 8 1
⇒ I = ∫ [Link] + ∫ dx − ∫
5 5 sin x + 2 cos x + 3 5 sin x + 2 cos x + 3
6 3 8
= x + log sin x + 2 cos x + 3 − I 3
5 5 5
dx dx
where I = ∫ =∫
sin x + 2 cos x + 3 2 tan ( x / 2 )  1 − tan 2 ( x / 2 ) 
+ 2   + 3
1 + tan 2 ( x / 2 )  1 + tan 2
( x / 2 ) 
sec ( x / 2 ) dx
2

=∫
tan ( x / 2 ) + 2 tan ( x / 2 ) + 5
2

1
Let tan ( x / 2 ) = t ⇒ sec 2 ( x / 2 ) dx = dt ⇒ sec2 ( x / 2 ) dx = 2dt
2
2dt dt 1  t +1  tan ( x / 2 ) + 1 
I =∫ 2 = 2∫ 2 2
= 2 ⋅ tan −1   + c = tan 
−1
+c
t + 2t + 5 ( t + 1) + ( 2 ) 2  2   2 
 x 
 tan   + 1 
6 3 8
Thus I == x + log sin x + 2 cos x + 3 − tan −1  2 +c
5 5 5  2 
 
 
Some special integrals:
dx 1 x−a
1. ∫ 2 2
= log +c
x −a 2a x+a
dx 1 a−x
2. ∫ 2 2
= log +c
a −x 2a a+x
dx 1 x
3. ∫ 2 2
= tan −1 + c
a +x a a

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dx x
4. ∫ dx = sin −1 + c
2
a −x 2 a
dx
5. ∫ = log x + x 2 + a 2 + c
2 2
x +a
dx
6. ∫ = log x + x 2 − a 2 + c
2 2
x −a
x a2 − x2 a2 x
∫ + sin −1 + c
2 2
7. a − x dx =
2 2 a
2 2 2
x x −a a
8. ∫ x 2 − a 2 dx =
2
− log x + x 2 − a 2 + c
2
x x2 + a2 a2
9. ∫ x 2 + a 2 dx =
2
+ log x + x 2 + a 2 + c
2
Application of these formulae: The above standard integrals are very important.
We give below the integrals which are application of these types:
Type A:
dx dx
(i) ∫ 2 (ii) ∫ (iii) ∫ ax 2 + bx + cdx
ax + bx + c 2
ax + bx + c
 c b 2 
2
2 b 
Write ax + bx + c = a  x +  + − 
 2a  a 4a 2 
dx
Example: ∫ 2
2x + x − 1
dx 1 dx 1 dx
Solution: ∫ 2 = ∫ = ∫ 2 2
2x + x − 1 2 2 1 1 2  1 3
x + x−
2 2 x+  − 
 4 4
1 3
x+ −
1
= ×
1
log 4 4 + c = 1 log 4 x − 2 + c = 1 log 2 x − 1 + c
2 3 x+ +
1 3 3 4x + 4 3 2x + 2
2 
4 4 4
dx
Example: ∫
2x2 + x − 1
dx 1 dx 1 dx
Solution: ∫ = ∫ = ∫
2x2 + x − 1 2 1 1 2 
2
1 3
2
x2 + x − x + −
2 2    
 4 4
2 2
1 1  1 3
= log x + +  x +  −   + c
2 4  4 4

Example: ∫ x 2 + x + 1dx

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2
1  3
2

Solution: ∫ x + x + 1dx = ∫
2
 x +  +   dx
 2   2 
2 2
1  3 1  3
2 2 2
1 1  3 1 
= x+   x +  +  + log x + +  x +  +  +c
2 2  2   2  8 2  2   2 

1
Example: ∫ dx
3 + 2 x − x2
Solution:
1 1 1 1
∫ 3 + 2 x − x 2 dx = ∫ − x 2 − 2 x − 3 dx = ∫ − x − 1 2 − 22 dx = ∫ 22 − ( x − 1)2 dx
( ( ) ) { }
1 2 + ( x − 1) 1 1+ x
= log + c = log +c
2 ( 2) 2 − ( x − 1) 4 3− x
Example: ∫ 3 + 2x − x 2 dx

( )
Solution: ∫ 3 + 2 x − x 2 dx = ∫ − x 2 − 2 x − 3 dx = ∫ − ( x − 1) − 2 2 dx { 2
}
2
( x − 1) 22 − ( x − 1)  x −1
= ∫ 2 − ( x − 1) dx =
2
2
+ 2sin −1  +c
2  2 
dx
Example: ∫ 2
4x − 4x + 3
dx 1 1 1
Solution: ∫ 2 =∫ dx = ∫ dx
4x − 4x + 3  2 3 4  1
2
 1 
2
4 x − x + 
 4 x−  + 
 2  2 
 1
 x− 
1
= ×
1
tan −1  2  + c = 1 tan −1  2 x − 1  + c
 
4 1/ 2 ( ) 

1 

2 2  2 
 2 

Type B:
px + q px + q
(i) ∫ 2
dx (ii) ∫ dx (iii) ∫ ( px + q ) ax 2 + bx + c dx
ax + bx + c 2
ax + bx + c
d
Write px + q = λ
dx
( )
ax 2 + bx + c + µ = λ ( 2ax + b ) + µ
3x + 4
Example ∫ dx
2 x 2 + 3x + 1

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3x + 4
Solution: Let ∫ dx
2 x2 + 3x + 1
3 7
Write 3 x + 4 = λ ( 4 x + 3 ) + µ ⇒ 4λ = 3 & 3λ + µ = 4 ⇒ λ = & µ =
4 4
3 4x + 3 7 1 3 7
I= ∫ dx + ∫ dx = I1 + I 2
4 2 x 2 + 3x + 1 4 2 x 2 + 3x + 1 4 4
4x + 3
I1 = ∫ Put 2 x 2 + 3 x + 1 = t ⇒ ( 4 x + 3) dx = dt
2
2 x + 3x + 1
1
− +1
dt t 2
⇒ I1 = ∫ = ∫ t −1/ 2 dt = = 2 t + C1 = 2 2 x 2 + 3 x + 1 + C1
t − 1
+1
2
1 1 1 1 1
I2 = ∫ dx = ∫ = ∫ dx
2 2 2
2 x + 3 4
x + 2 3 1 2  3 1
x2 + x +
2 2 x+  − 
 4 4
2 2
1  3  3 1
= log  x + + x+  −  +c
2  4  4 4
2 2
3 7  3  3 1
Thus I = 2 x 2 + 3x + 1 + log  x +  +  x +  −   + c
2 4 2  4  4 4
3x + 4
Example: ∫ 2
dx
2 x + 3x + 1
3x + 4
Solution: Let I = ∫ 2 dx
2 x + 3x + 1
3 7
Write 3 x + 4 = λ ( 4 x + 3 ) + µ ⇒ 4λ = 3 & 3λ + µ = 4 ⇒ λ = &µ =
4 4
3 4x + 3 7 1 3 7
I= ∫ 2
4 2 x + 3x + 1
dx + ∫ 2
4 2 x + 3x + 1
dx = I1 + I 2
4 4
dt
Put 2 x 2 + 3 x + 1 = t ⇒ ( 4 x + 3) dx = dt ⇒ I1 = ∫ = log t + C1 = log 2 x 2 + 3 x + 1 + C1
t
1 1 1 1
I2 = ∫ dx = ∫ 2 2
dx
2 2 3 1 2  3   1 
x + x+
2 3 x+  − 
 4 4
3 1 1
x+ − x+
= log 4 4 + C = log 2 +C
2 2
3 1 x +1
x+ +
4 4

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1
x+
3 7 2 +C
Thus I = log 2 x 2 + 3 x + 1 + log
4 4 x +1

Example: ∫ ( x + 1) 1 − x − x 2 dx
1 1
Solution: Put x + 1 = λ ( −1 − 2 x ) + µ ⇒ λ = − & µ =
2 2
2
−1 1  5  1
2

Thus I = ∫ ( x + 1) 1 − x − x dx = 2
∫ ( −2 x − 1) 1 − x − x 2 dx + ∫   −  x + 
2 2  2   2
2
−1 1  5  1
2

= ∫ t dt + ∫   
− x + (
 Put 1- x - x = t ⇒ ( −2 x − 1) dx = dt
2
)
2 2  2   2
2 2
 1  5   1
x+    −x+ 
1 3
 2  2   2 5  2x + 1 
− ( )
1 − x − x2 2 + + sin −1  +c
3 4 16  5 
Type C:
px 2 + qx + r px 2 + qx + r
(i ) ∫ 2
ax + bx + c
dx ( ii )∫ 2
(
dx ( iii ) ∫ px 2 + qx + r ) ax 2 + bx + c dx
ax + bx + c
Method: Write px + qx + r = λ ( ax 2 + bx + c ) + µ ( 2ax + b ) + γ
2

Integral in (i) will become

λ (ax 2 + bx + c) + µ ( 2ax + b ) + γ 2ax + b 1
I =∫ 2
dx = λ ∫ dx + µ ∫ 2 dx + γ ∫ 2 dx
ax + bx + c ax + bx + c ax + bx + c

2 x2 + 5x + 4
Example: ∫ dx
x2 + x + 1
2x2 + 5x + 4
Solution: Let I = ∫ dx
x2 + x + 1
d 2
Put 2 x 2 + 5 x + 4 = λ ( x 2 + x + 1) + µ ( x + x + 1) + γ
dx
Or 2 x 2 + 5 x + 4 = λ ( x 2 + x + 1) + µ ( 2 x + 1) + γ
3 1
On comparing coefficients we get λ = 2, µ = &γ =
2 2

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3 1
2 ( x 2 + x + 1) + ( 2 x + 1) +
2 2 dx = 2 x 2 + x + 1 dx + 3 2x + 1 1 1
⇒I =∫ ∫ ∫ dx + ∫ dx
x2 + x + 1 2 x2 + x + 1 2 x2 + x + 1
2
1  3
2
 1 dt 3 1
= 2∫  x +  +   dx + ∫ + ∫ dx where ( t = x 2 + x + 1)
 2   2  2 t 2
1  3
2 2

 x +  +  
 2   2 
 2 2 
1  3 1  3 
2 2
1  1  1 3 1 
= 2   x +   x +  +   + ⋅ log x + +  x +  +   
2  2  2   2  2 4 2  2   2  
 
2
1  3
2
3 t 1/ 2 1 1 
+ + log x + +  x +  +   +c
2 1/ 2 2 2  2   2 

 2 2 
1  3 1  3 
2 2
1  1  1 3 1 
= 2   x +   x +  +   + ⋅ log x + +  x +  +   
2  2  2   2  2 4 2  2   2  
 
2
1  3
2
2 1 1 
+3 x + x + 1 + log x + +  x +  +   +c
2 2  2   2 

2 x2 + 5x + 4
Example: ∫ dx
x2 + x + 1
2x2 + 5x + 4
Solution: Let ∫ 2 dx
x + x +1
d 2
Put 2 x 2 + 5 x + 4 = λ ( x 2 + x + 1) + µ ( x + x + 1) + γ
dx
Or 2 x 2 + 5 x + 4 = λ ( x 2 + x + 1) + µ ( 2 x + 1) + γ
3 1
On comparing coefficients we get λ = 2, µ = &γ =
2 2
3 1
2 ( x 2 + x + 1) +
( 2 x + 1) +
2 2 dx = 2 dx + 3 2x + 1 1 1
⇒I =∫ 2 ∫ ∫ 2
dx + ∫ 2 dx
x + x +1 2 x + x +1 2 x + x +1
1 dt 3 1
= 2 ∫ dx + ∫ + ∫ 2
dx where ( t = x 2 + x + 1)
2 t 2  1  3
2

 x +  + 
 2   2 

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 1
 x+ 
3 1
2 x + log t + ×
1
tan −1  2  + c = 2 x + 3 log x 2 + x + 1 + 1 tan −1  2 x + 1  + c
 
2 2  3  3  2 3  3 
   
 2   2 
 α

  ax + b  n
 1
Integration of the type: ∫ f x,   dx
  cx + d   x
 
ax + b n
Method: Put =t
cx + d
1
 x + 2 2 1
Example: Evaluate ∫   dx
 2x + 3  x
x+2 3t 2 − 2 −2tdt
Solution: Put =t ⇒ x=
2
2
⇒ dx = 2
2x + 3 1 − 2t (1 − 2t 2 )
 
 1 − 2t 2   −2tdt  t2
⇒ I = −2 ∫ t ⋅  2  = 4 ∫ ( 3t 2 − 2 )(1 − 2t 2 ) dt
 3t − 2   (1 − 2t 2 ) 
2

 
2
t y A B
Let t 2 = y ⇒ = = +
( 3t − 2 )(1 − 2t ) ( 3 y − 2 )(1 − 2 y ) 3 y − 2 1 − 2 y
2 2

1 2
⇒ A (1 − 2 y ) + B ( 3 y − 2 ) = y . Put y =
⇒ B = −[Link] y = ⇒ A = −2
2 3
−2 −1 2 dt 1 dt
Thus I = ∫ 2 dt + ∫ dt = − ∫ − ∫
3t − 2 (1 − 2t )
2
3 t2 − 2 / 3 2
2
(
2
1/ 2 − t 2 ) ( )
These integrals can be evaluated with the help of the formulae of some special integrals.
(
Integral of the type: ∫ f x, ( ax + b )
α /n
, ( ax + b )
β /m
) dx
Method: Put ax + b = t p where p is L.C.M of m & n
dx
Example: Evaluate ∫ 1/ 4
x + 1 − ( x + 1)
Solution: Here n = 2 & m = 4 ⇒ p = LCM of 2 & 4 = 4
Thus put x + 1 = t 4 ⇒ dx = 4t 3 dt
4t 3 dt 4t 2 dt t2 −1+ 1 t2 −1 dt dt
⇒I=∫ 2 =∫ = 4∫ dt = 4 ∫ dt + 4 ∫ = 4 ∫ ( t + 1) dt + 4 ∫
t −t t −1 t −1 t −1 t −1 t −1
2
t
= 4 ⋅ + 4t + 4 log t − 1 + C = 2 x + 1 + 4 4 x + 1 + 4 log 4 x + 1 − 1 + C
2
1
Integral of the type: ∫ dx
( ax + b ) px + q
Method: Put px + q = t 2

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dx
Example: Evaluate ∫
( x + 3) x + 2
2tdt dt
Solution: Put x + 2 = t 2 ⇒ x = t 2 − 2 ⇒ dx = 2tdt ⇒ I = ∫ 2 =2∫ 2
( t + 1) t t + 1
= 2 tan −1 ( t ) + C = 2 tan −1 ( x+2 +C)
dx
Integral of the type: ∫
( ax 2
+ bx + c ) px + q
Method: Put px + q = t 2
dx
Example: Evaluate ∫
(x 2
+ 2x + 2) x + 1
Solution: Put x + 1 = t 2 ⇒ x = t 2 − 1 ⇒ dx = 2tdt
2tdt dt
⇒I =∫ = 2∫ 4
{ 2
( t 2 − 1) + 2 ( t 2 − 1) + 2 t t + 1 }
This integral will be discussed later.
dx
Integral of the type: ∫
( px + q ) ax 2 + bx + c
1
Method: Put px + q =
t
dx
Example: Evaluate ∫
( x + 1) x2 + 2x + 2
1 1
Solution: Put x + 1 = ⇒ dx = − 2 dt
t t
−1 −1
dt dt
t 2 2 −dt
⇒I =∫ =∫ t =∫ = − log t + t 2 + 1 + C
2 2
1 1  1  1 1 t +1
+1
 − 1 + 2  − 1 + 2 t t 2
t t  t 
1 1
= − log + 1+ 2
+C
x +1 ( x + 1)
dx
Integral of the type: ∫ where Q1 ( x ) & Q2 ( x) are two quadratic
Q1 ( x) Q2 ( x)
polynomials.
1 Q ( x) 2
Method: Put x = or 2 =t
t Q1 ( x )
dx
Example: Evaluate ∫
( x + 1) x2 + 2
2

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1
− 2 dt
1 1 t −tdt
Solution: Put x = ⇒ dx = − 2 dt ⇒ I = ∫ =∫
t t 1
 2 + 1
 1
 2 + 2 (1 + t 2 ) 1 + 2t 2
t  t
−1 ydy dy
Put 1 + 2t 2 = y 2 ⇒ 4tdt = 2 ydy ⇒ I = ∫
2  y −1
2
= −∫ 2
y −1
 y
 2 
2
2 −1 1+
−1 y −1 −1 1 + 2t − 1 1 x2 −1 x2 + 2 − x
I = log +C = log + C = − log + C = log +C
2 y +1 2 1 + 2t 2 + 1 2 2 2 x2 + 2 + x
1+ 2 +1
x


)  dx
n

(
Integral of the type: ∫ f  x ± x 2 + a 2

Method: Put x ± x 2 + a 2 = t
2

(
Example: Evaluate ∫ x + a 2 + x 2 ) dx
Solution:
 a2 − t 2 
Put x + a 2 + x 2 = t ⇒ a 2 + x 2 = t − x ⇒ a 2 + x 2 = t 2 + x 2 − 2tx ⇒ x = −  
 2t 
 1 a2   t 2 a2  t3 a2
⇒ dx =  + 2  dt ⇒ I = ∫  +  dt = + t + C
 2 2t  2 2  6 2
3

(x + a2 + x2 ) a2
=
6 2
+ (
x + a 2 + x2 + C )
Integration of rational functions using Partial Fractions:
Some Basic Definitions:
(a) Polynomial of degree n: An expression of the type
P ( x ) = a0 x n + a1 x n −1 + a2 x 2 + L + an −1 x + an where a0 , a1 , a2 L , an are real
numbers, a0 ≠ 0 and n is positive integer is called a polynomial of degree n .
P
(b) Rational Function: A function of the form where P & Q are polynomials is
Q
called a rational function. Consider the rational function
x+7 1 1
= − . The two fractions on RHS are called Partial
( 2 x − 3)( 3x + 4 ) 2 x − 3 3x + 4
Fractions.
(c) Proper and Improper Fractions: Any rational algebraic function is called a
p[roper fraction if the degree of numerator is less than that of its denominator,
otherwise it is called an improper fraction.

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x2 + 1 x5 − x + 1
For example 3 is a proper fraction, where as 2 is improper fraction.
x + x +1 x + 3x + 9
P ( x)
Note: In using the method of partial fractions for , we must have
Q ( x)
Deg ( P ( x ) ) < Deg ( Q ( x ) ) . If it is not so, we carry out the division of P ( x ) by Q ( x ) and
reduce the degree of numerator to less than the degree of denominator.
P ( x) P ( x)
i.e. = P1 ( x ) + 2 where Deg ( P2 ( x ) ) < Deg ( Q ( x ) )
Q ( x) Q ( x)
The partial fractions depend on the nature of Q ( x ) . We have to deal with the following
type different types when the factors of Q ( x ) are:
1. Linear and Non- Repeated
2. Linear and Repeated
3. Quadratic and non-repeated
4. Quadratic and repeated.

Case1. When denominator is expressible as the product of non-repeated linear

factors:
Let Q ( x ) = ( x − a1 )( x − a2 )( x − a3 )L ( x − an )
Then we assume that;
P ( x) A1 A2 A3 An
= + + +L+ where A1 , A2 , A3 ,L , An are constants
Q ( x ) ( x − a1 ) ( x − a2 ) ( x − a3 ) ( x − an )
and can be determined by equating numerator on LHS to numerator on RHS and then
substituting x = a1 , a2 ,L , an
1
Example: Evaluate ∫ dx
( x − 1)( x + 2 )( 2 x + 3)
1 A B C
Solution: Let = + +
( x − 1)( x + 2 )( 2 x + 3) ( x − 1) ( x + 2 ) ( 2 x + 3)
⇒ A ( x + 2 )( 2 x + 3) + B ( x − 1)( 2 x + 3) + C ( x − 1)( x + 2 ) = 1
1
Put x − 1 = 0 or x = 1 we get A (1 + 2 )( 2 + 3) + B ( 0 ) + C ( 0 ) = 1 ⇒ A =
15
Similarly for getting B, let x + 2 = 0 or x = −2 , we
1
get A ( 0 ) + B ( −2 − 1)( −4 + 3) + C ( 0 ) = 1 ⇒ B =
3
3
For getting C , let 2 x + 3 = 0 ⇒ x = − , we get
2
 3  3  4
A ( 0 ) + B ( 0 ) + C  − − 1 − + 2  = 1 ⇒ C = −
 2  2  5

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1 1 1 4
Hence, = + −
( x − 1)( x + 2 )( 2 x + 3) 15 ( x − 1) 3 ( x + 2 ) 5 ( 2 x + 3)
1 1 1 1 1 4 1
⇒∫ dx = ∫ dx + ∫ dx − ∫ dx
( x − 1)( x + 2 )( 2 x + 3) 15 x − 1 3 x+2 5 2x + 3

1 1 1 4 1
⇒∫ dx = log x − 1 + log x + 2 − × log 2 x + 3 + C
( x − 1)( x + 2 )( 2 x + 3) 15 3 5 2
x +1
Example: Evaluate ∫ dx
( x − 1)( x − 2 )( x − 3)
x +1 A B C
Solution: Let = + +
( x − 1)( x − 2 )( x − 3) ( x − 1) ( x − 2 ) ( x − 3)
⇒ A ( x − 2 )( x − 3) + B ( x − 1)( x − 3) + C ( x − 1)( x − 2 ) = x + 1
Put x = 1 ⇒ A (1 − 2 )(1 − 3) = 1 + 1 ⇒ A = 1
Put x = 2 ⇒ B ( 2 − 1)( 2 − 3) = 2 + 1 ⇒ B = −1
Put x = 3 ⇒ C ( 3 − 1)( 3 − 2 ) = 3 + 1 ⇒ C = 2
x +1 1 1 1
⇒∫ dx = ∫ dx − ∫ dx + 2 ∫ dx
( x − 1)( x − 2 )( x − 3) x −1 x−2 x −3
= log | x − 1 | − log x − 2 + 2 log x − 3 + C
3 x3 + 2 x 2 + x + 1
Example: Evaluate ∫ dx
( x + 1)( x + 2 )
3x3 + 2 x 2 + x + 1 C D
Solution: = Ax + B + +
( x + 1)( x + 2 ) x +1 x + 2
⇒ Ax ( x + 1)( x + 2 ) + B ( x + 1)( x + 2 ) + C ( x + 2 ) + D ( x + 1) = 3x3 + 2 x 2 + x + 1
Put x = −1 ⇒ C = −1
Put x = −2 ⇒ D = 17
Compare coefficients of x 3 we get A = 3
Compare coefficients of x 2 we get 3 A + B = 2 ⇒ B = 2 - 3 A = 2 - 9 = -7
3x3 + 2 x 2 + x + 1 1 17
Thus we get = 3x − 7 − +
( x + 1)( x + 2 ) x +1 x + 2
3 x3 + 2 x 2 + x + 1 1 1
∫ ( x + 1)( x + 2 ) dx = ∫ ( 3x − 7 ) dx − ∫ x + 1 dx + 17 ∫ x + 2 dx
3 x3 + 2 x 2 + x + 1 3x 2
∫ ( x + 1)( x + 2 ) dx =
2
− 7 x − log x + 1 + 17 log x + 2 + C

Case2: When the denominator Q ( x ) is expressible as the product of the linear factors
such that some of them are repeating. ( Linear and Repeated )

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k
Let Q ( x ) = ( x − a ) ( x − a1 )( x − a2 )( x − a3 )L ( x − ar ) . Then we assume that
P ( x) A1 A2 Ak B1 B2 Br
= + +L + + + +L +
Q ( x) ( x − a) ( x − a) 2
( x − a ) ( x − a1 ) ( x − a2 )
k
( x − ar )
3x − 2
Example: Evaluate ∫ 2
dx
( x − 1) ( x + 1)( x + 2 )
3x − 2 A B C D
Solution: Let = + + +
2
( x − 1) ( x + 1)( x + 2 ) ( x − 1) ( x − 1) ( x + 1) ( x + 2 )
2

2 2
⇒ A ( x − 1)( x + 1)( x + 2 ) + B ( x + 1)( x + 2 ) + C ( x − 1) ( x + 2 ) + D ( x − 1) ( x + 1)
1
Put x = 1 we get B =
6
5
Put x = −1 we get C = −
4
8
Put x = −2 we get D =
9
13
Now equating the coefficient of x on both sides we get 0 = A + C + D ⇒ A =
36
3x − 2 13 1 5 8
= + − +
2
( x − 1) ( x + 1)( x + 2 ) 36 ( x − 1) 6 ( x − 1) 2
4 ( x + 1) 9 ( x + 2 )

3x − 2 13 dx 1 dx 5 dx 8 dx
∫ ( x − 1) ( x + 1)( x + 2 ) dx = 36 ∫ ( x − 1) + 6 ∫ ( x − 1)
2 2
− ∫ + ∫
4 ( x + 1) 9 ( x + 2 )
13 1 5 8
log x − 1 − = − log x + 1 + log x + 2 + C
36 6 ( x − 1) 4 9
x +1
Example: Evaluate ∫ 2
dx
( x − 1)( x + 2 )
x +1 A B C
Solution: Let = + +
( x − 1)( x + 2 )
2
( x − 1) ( x + 2 ) ( x + 2 )2
2
⇒ A ( x + 2 ) + B ( x − 1)( x + 2 ) + C ( x − 1) = x + 1
2
Put x = 1 we get A =
9
1
Put x = −2 we get C =
3
2
Comparing coefficient of x 2 we get A + B = 0 ⇒ B = − A ⇒ B = −
9
x +1 2 2 1
Thus = − +
( x − 1)( x + 2 )
2
9 ( x − 1) 9 ( x + 2 ) 3 ( x + 2 )2

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x +1 2 dx 2 dx 1 dx
∫ ( x − 1)( x + 2 )2 dx = 9 ∫ ( x − 1) − 9 ∫ ( x + 2 ) + 3 ∫ ( x − 2 )2
x +1 2 2 1
∫ ( x − 1)( x + 2 ) 2
dx =
9
log x − 1 − log x + 2 −
9 3( x + 2)
+C

Case3: When some of the factors in the denominator are non-reducible quadratic
but non-repeating
Method: Corresponding to each quadratic factor ax 2 + bx + c we assume the fraction of
Ax + B
the type 2 .
ax + bx + c
2x + 7
Example: Evaluate ∫ dx
( x + 1) ( x 2 + 4 )
2x + 7 A Bx + C
Solution: Let = + 2
( x + 1) ( x + 4 ) 2
( x + 1) ( x + 4 )
⇒ A ( x 2 + 4 ) + ( Bx + C )( x + 1) = 2 x + 7
Put x = −1 ⇒ A = 1
Comparing coefficients of x 2 we get A + B = 0 ⇒ B = − A ⇒ B = −1
Comparing constant terms we get 4 A + C = 7 ⇒ C = 7 − 4 A = 3
2x + 7 1 ( − x + 3)
⇒ = + 2
( x + 1) ( x + 4 ) x + 1 x + 4
2

2x + 7 1 −x + 3 1 2x dx
⇒∫ dx = ∫ dx + ∫ 2 dx = log x + 1 − ∫ 2 dx + 3∫ 2
( x + 1) ( x 2
+ 4) x +1 x +4 2 x +4 x + 22
1 3 x
= log x + 1 − log x 2 + 4 + tan −1   + C
2 2 2

2x + 1
Example: Evaluate ∫ dx
( 3x + 2 ) ( 4 x 2 + 5 x + 6 )
2x + 1 A Bx + C
Solution: Le = + 2
( 3x + 2 ) ( 4 x 2 + 5 x + 6 ) 3x + 2 4 x + 5 x + 6
⇒ A ( 4 x 2 + 5 x + 6 ) + ( Bx + C )( 3 x + 2 ) = 2 x + 1
2 3
Put x = − ⇒ A=−
3 40
Comparing coefficients of x 2 and constant terms we get
4 1
4 A + 3B = 0 ⇒ B = − A ⇒ B =
3 10
1− 6A 29
and 6 A + 2C = 1 ⇒ C = ⇒C =
2 40

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1 29
x+
2x + 1 −3 3 4 x + 29
∴ = + 102 40 = − +
( 3x + 2 ) ( 4 x + 5 x + 6 ) 40 ( 3x + 2 ) 4 x + 5 x + 6 40 ( 3x + 2 ) 40 ( 4 x 2 + 5 x + 6 )
2

2x + 1 3 dx 1 4 x + 29
⇒∫ dx = − ∫ + ∫ dx
( 3x + 2 ) ( 4 x 2
+ 5x + 6) 40 3 x + 2 40 4 x 2 + 5 x + 6
3 1 1 8 x + 58 1 1 8 x + 5 + 53
=− log 3 x + 2 + × ∫ 2 dx = − log 3 x + 2 + ∫ 2 dx
40 × 3 40 2 4 x + 5 x + 6 40 80 4 x + 5 x + 6
1 1 8x + 5 53 1
= − log 3 x + 2 + ∫ 2 dx + ∫ 2 dx
40 80 4 x + 5 x + 6 80 4 x + 5 x + 6
1 1 53 dx
= − log 3 x + 2 + log 4 x 2 + 5 x + 6 +
40 80 ∫
320 2 5 3
x + x+
4 2
1 1 53 dx
320 ∫ 
= − log 3 x + 2 + log 4 x 2 + 5 x + 6 + 2
40 80 5   71 
2

 x +  +  
 8   8 
2x + 1
∫ ( 3x + 2 ) ( 4 x 2 + 5 x + 6 ) dx
1 1 53  8x + 5 
=− log 3 x + 2 + log 4 x 2 + 5 x + 6 + tan −1  +C
40 80 40 71  71 
Special Forms of Partial Fractions:
dx
Integral of the type: ∫
x ( xn + k )
Method: Multiply the numerator and denominator of the integrand by x n −1
dx x n −1
⇒∫ = ∫ x n ( x n + k ) dx
x ( xn + k )
1
Now put x n = t ⇒ nx n −1 dx = dt ⇒ x n −1 dx =
dt
n
dx 1 dt 1  1 1 1  
⇒∫ = ∫ = ∫  −  dt 
x ( x + k ) n t (t + k ) n  k  t t + k  
n

1 1 t 1 xn
= {log | t | − log | t + k |} + C = log + C = log +C
nk nk t+k nk xn + k
dx
Example: Evaluate ∫
x ( x 5 + 1)
Solution: Multiply the numerator and denominator of the integrand by x 4
dx x 4 dx
⇒∫ = ∫ x5 ( x5 + 1)
x ( x 5 + 1)

Gupta Maths Academy

Ofiifce No-321, Plot No-5, Krishnal Mall,
Sec-12 Dwarka New Delhi-110075
Ph: 9818817651, 9868916390
Visit Us at: [Link]
Email us at guptasir@[Link]
IIT-JEE (MATHEMATICS) BY MUKESH GUPTA ([Link]-MATHS IIT) Page 29 of 30
1
Put x5 = t ⇒ 5 x 4 dx = dt ⇒ x 4 dx = dt
5
dx 1 dt 1 1 1  1
⇒∫ = ∫ = ∫ −  dt = {log t − log t + 1 } + C
x ( x + 1) 5 t ( t + 1) 5  t t + 1 
5
5

1 t 1 x5
= log + C = log 5 +C
5 t +1 5 x +1
Integral containing only even powers of x :
x2 + 1
Example: Evaluate ∫ 2 dx
( x + 2 )( x 2 + 3)( x2 + 4 )
Solution: Put x 2 = y only for partial
x2 + 1 y +1 A B C
fraction ⇒ = = + +
(x 2
+ 2 )( x + 3)( x + 4 )
2 2
( y + 2 )( y + 3)( y + 4 ) y + 2 y + 3 y + 4
⇒ A ( y + 3)( y + 4 ) + B ( y + 2 )( y + 4 ) + C ( y + 2 )( y + 3) = y + 1
1
Put y = −2 ⇒ A = −
2
Put y = −3 ⇒ B = 2
3
Put y = −4 ⇒ C = −
2
x2 + 1 1 2 3 1 2 3
=− + − =− + 2 −
(x 2
+ 2 )( x + 3)( x + 4 )
2 2
2 ( y + 2) y + 3 2 ( y + 4) 2 ( x + 2 ) ( x + 3) 2 ( x + 4 )
2 2

x2 + 1 1 dx dx 3 dx
∫ (x 2
+ 2 )( x + 3)( x + 4 )
2 2
=− ∫
2 x + 2
2
2
+ 2∫
2
x + 3
2
− ∫ 2
2 x + 22
1  x  2  x  3 −1  x 
=− tan −1  + tan −1   − tan   + C
2 2  2 3  3 4 2
dx
Integral of the type: ∫
sin x × f ( cos x )
Method: Multiply the numerator and denominator of the integrand by sin x
sin xdx sin xdx
⇒I =∫ 2 =∫
sin x ( f ( cos x ) ) (1 − cos2 x ) ( f ( cos x ) )
dt
Put cos x = t ⇒ sin xdx = − dt ⇒ I = − ∫
(1 − t ) ( f ( t ) )
2

dx
Example: Evaluate ∫
sin x ( cos x + 2 )
dx sin xdx sin xdx
Solution: ∫ =∫ 2 =∫
sin x ( cos x + 2 ) sin x ( cos x + 2 ) (1 − cos2 x ) ( cos x + 2 )
Put cos x = t ⇒ sin xdx = − dt

Gupta Maths Academy

Ofiifce No-321, Plot No-5, Krishnal Mall,
Sec-12 Dwarka New Delhi-110075
Ph: 9818817651, 9868916390
Visit Us at: [Link]
Email us at guptasir@[Link]
IIT-JEE (MATHEMATICS) BY MUKESH GUPTA ([Link]-MATHS IIT) Page 30 of 30
dx dt dt
⇒∫ = −∫ = −∫
sin x ( cos x + 2 ) (1 − t ) ( t + 2 ) (1 − t )(1 + t )( t + 2 )
2

1 dt 1 dt 1 dt
6 1− t 2 1+ t 3 ∫ t + 2
∫
− − ∫ +
1 1 1 1 1 1
= log 1 − t − log 1 + t + log t + 2 + C = log 1 − cos x − log 1 + cos x + log cos x + 2 + C
6 2 3 6 2 3

Gupta Maths Academy

Ofiifce No-321, Plot No-5, Krishnal Mall,
Sec-12 Dwarka New Delhi-110075
Ph: 9818817651, 9868916390
Visit Us at: [Link]
Email us at guptasir@[Link]