Transducer

A transducer is a device that converts one form of energy to another. Energy types include (but are not limited to) electrical, mechanical, electromagnetic (including light), chemical, acoustic or thermal energy. While the term transducer commonly implies the use of a sensor/detector, any device which converts energy can be considered a transducer. Transducers are widely used in measuring instruments. A sensor is used to detect a parameter in one form and report it in another form of energy (usually an electrical and/or digital signal). For example, a pressure sensor might detect pressure (a mechanical form of energy) and convert it to electricity for display at a remote gauge. An actuator accepts energy and produces movement (action). The energy supplied to an actuator might be electrical or mechanical (pneumatic, hydraulic, etc.). An electric motor and a loudspeaker are both actuators, converting electrical energy into motion for different purposes. Combination transducers have both functions; they both detect and create action. For example, a typical ultrasonic transducer switches back and forth many times a second between acting as an actuator to produce ultrasonic waves, and acting as a sensor to detect ultrasonic waves. Rotating a DC electric motor's rotor will produce electricity and voice-coil speakers can also act as microphones.

Applications

Transducers are used in electronic communications systems to convert signals of various physical forms to electronic signals, and vice versa. Electromagnetic:

Antenna converts propagating electromagnetic waves to and from conducted electrical signals Magnetic cartridge converts relative physical motion to and from electrical signals Tape head, Disk read-and-write head - converts magnetic fields on a magnetic medium to and
from electrical signals Hall effect sensor converts a magnetic field level into an electrical signal Electrochemical:

pH probes Electro-galvanic fuel cell Hydrogen sensor

Electroactive polymers Galvanometer Microelectromechanical systems Rotary motor, linear motor Vibration powered generator Potentiometer when used for measuring position Load cell converts force to mV/V electrical signal using strain gauge Accelerometer Strain gauge String potentiometer Air flow sensor Tactile sensor
Electroacoustic:

Loudspeaker, earphone converts electrical signals into sound (amplified signal magnetic field motion air pressure)

Microphone converts sound into an electrical signal (air pressure motion of conductor/coil magnetic field electrical signal) Pickup (music technology) converts motion of metal strings into an electrical signal (magnetism
electrical signal)

Tactile transducer converts electrical signal into vibration ( electrical signal vibration) Piezoelectric crystal converts deformations of solid-state crystals (vibrations) to and from electrical
signals

Geophone converts a ground movement (displacement) into voltage (vibrations motion of conductor/coil magnetic field signal) Gramophone pickup (air pressure motion magnetic field electrical signal) Hydrophone converts changes in water pressure into an electrical signal Sonar transponder (water pressure motion of conductor/coil magnetic field electrical
signal)

Ultrasonic transceiver, transmitting ultrasound (transduced from electricity) as well as receiving it after sound reflection from target objects, availing for imaging of those objects. Electro-optical (Photoelectric): Fluorescent lamp converts electrical power into incoherent light Incandescent lamp converts electrical power into incoherent light Light-Emitting Diode converts electrical power into incoherent light Laser Diode converts electrical power into coherent light Photodiode, photoresistor, phototransistor, photomultiplier converts changing light levels into
electrical signals

Photodetector or photoresistor or light dependent resistor (LDR) converts changes in light levels
into changes in electrical resistance Cathode ray tube (CRT) converts electrical signals into visual signals Electrostatic:

Electrometer
Thermoelectric:

Resistance temperature detector (RTD) - converts temperature into an electrical resistance signal Thermocouple - converts relative temperatures of metallic junctions to electrical voltage Peltier cooler Thermistor (includes PTC resistor and NTC resistor)
Radioacoustic:

GeigerMller tube converts incident ionizing radiation to an electrical impulse signal Receiver (radio) transmitter-propagates electromagnetic transmissions to sound Transducer Types

Contact transducers are used for direct contact inspections, and are generally hand manipulated. They have elements protected in a rugged casing to withstand sliding contact with a variety of materials. These transducers have an ergonomic design so that they are easy to grip and move along a surface. They often have replaceable wear plates to lengthen their useful life. Coupling materials of water, grease, oils, or commercial materials are used to remove the air gap between the transducer and the component being inspected. Immersion transducers do not contact the component. These transducers are designed to operate in a liquid environment and all connections are watertight. Immersion transducers usually have an impedance matching layer that helps to get more sound energy into the water and, in turn, into the component being inspected. Immersion transducers can be purchased with a

planer, cylindrically focused or spherically focused lens. A focused transducer can improve the sensitivity and axial resolution by concentrating the sound energy to a smaller area. Immersion transducers are typically used inside a water tank or as part of a squirter or bubbler system in scanning applications. Dual element transducers contain two independently operated elements in a single housing. One of the elements transmits and the other receives the ultrasonic signal. Active elements can be chosen for their sending and receiving capabilities to provide a transducer with a cleaner signal, and transducers for special applications, such as the inspection of course grained material. Dual element transducers are especially well suited for making measurements in applications where reflectors are very near the transducer since this design eliminates the ring down effect that single-element transducers experience (when single-element transducers are operating in pulse echo mode, the element cannot start receiving reflected signals until the element has stopped ringing from its transmit function). Dual element transducers are very useful when making thickness measurements of thin materials and when inspecting for near surface defects. The two elements are angled towards each other to create a crossed-beam sound path in the test material. Delay line transducers provide versatility with a variety of replaceable options. Removable delay line, surface conforming membrane, and protective wear cap options can make a single transducer effective for a wide range of applications. As the name implies, the primary function of a delay line transducer is to introduce a time delay between the generation of the sound wave and the arrival of any reflected waves. This allows the transducer to complete its "sending" function before it starts its "listening" function so that near surface resolution is improved. They are designed for use in applications such as high precision thickness gauging of thin materials and delamination checks in composite materials. They are also useful in high-temperature measurement applications since the delay line provides some insulation to the piezoelectric element from the heat. Angle beam transducers and wedges are typically used to introduce a refracted shear wave into the test material. Transducers can be purchased in a variety of fixed angles or in adjustable versions where the user determines the angles of incidence and refraction. In the fixed angle versions, the angle of refraction that is marked on the transducer is only accurate for a particular material, which is usually steel. The angled sound path allows the sound beam to be reflected from the backwall to improve detectability of flaws in and around welded areas. They are also used to generate surface waves for use in detecting defects on the surface of a component. Normal incidence shear wave transducers are unique because they allow the introduction of shear waves directly into a test piece without the use of an angle beam wedge. Careful design has enabled manufacturing of transducers with minimal longitudinal wave contamination. The ratio of the longitudinal to shear wave components is generally below -30dB. Paint brush transducers are used to scan wide areas. These long and narrow transducers are made up of an array of small crystals that are carefully matched to minimize variations in performance and maintain uniform sensitivity over the entire area of the transducer. Paint brush transducers make it possible to scan a larger area more rapidly for discontinuities. Smaller and more sensitive transducers are often then required to further define the details of a discontinuity