A SEMINAR REPORT ON EDDY CURRENT BRAKING SYSTEM & CHARACTERISTIC ANALYSIS USING THE LINEAR HALBACH ARRAY 1|P ag e

CONTENTS Abstract 1. Introduction 1.1 Circular Eddy Current Brake. 1.2 Linear Eddy Curren t Brake. 2. Installation Location. 3. Working principle. 4. Electrical Controls system. 5. Characteristics of Eddy current Brakes. 5.1 General Characterstics. 5 .1.1 characteristic analysis of eddy-current brake system using the linear halba ch array 5.2 Thermal Dynamics. 6 Advantage 7 Conclusion 8 Bibilography. 2|P ag e

ABSTRACT This paper presentation explores the working principle of eddy current brake mec hanism, which can be analysed by Maxwell 3D Transient solver. An eddy current br ake, like a conventional friction brake, is responsible for slowing an object, s uch as a train or a roller coaster etc. Unlike the friction brakes, which apply pressure on two separate objects, eddy current brakes slow an object by creating eddy currents through electromagnetic induction which create resistance, and in turn either heat or electricity. In this paper, linear Halbach magnetized mover is applied to eddy current braking system for high speed. For such a breaker, w e give analytical formulas considering end effects for its magnetic field, eddy current distribution, forces according to the secondary relative permeability, a nd conductivity.The results given here are purely analytic. 3|P ag e

1.INTRODUCTION An eddy current is a swirling current set up in a conductor in response to a han ging magnetic field. By Lenz's law, the current swirls in such a way as to creat e a magnetic field opposing the change; to do this in a conductor, electrons swi rl in a plane perpendicular to the magnetic field. Because of the tendency of ed dy currents to oppose, eddy currents cause energy to be lost. More accurately, e ddy currents transform more useful forms of energy, such as kinetic energy, into heat, which is generally much less useful. In many applications the loss of use ful energy is not particularly desirable, but there are some practical applicati ons. One is in the brakes of some trains. During braking, the metal wheels are e xposed to a magnetic field from an electromagnet, generating eddy currents in th e wheels. The magnetic interaction between the applied field and the eddy curren ts acts to slow the wheels down. The faster the wheels are spinning, the stronge r the effect, meaning that as the train slows the braking force is reduced, prod ucing a smooth stopping motion. There are two basics types of Eddy current brake as follows(1) Circular eddy current brake. (2) Linear eddy current brake 1.1 CI RCULAR EDDY CURRENT BRAKE: Electromagnetic brakes are similar to electrical motors; nonferromagnetic metal discs (rotors) are connected to a rotating coil, and a magnetic field between th e rotor and the coil creates a resistance used to generate electricity or heat. When electromagnets are used, control of the 4|P ag e

braking action is made possible by varying the strength of the magnetic field. A braking force is possible when electric current is passed through the electroma gnets. The movement of the metal through the magnetic field of the electromagnet s creates eddy currents in the discs. These eddy currents generate an opposing m agnetic field, which then resists the rotation of the discs, providing braking f orce. The net result is to convert the motion of the rotors into heat in the rot ors. Japanese Shinkansen trains had employed circular eddy current brake system on trailer cars since 100 Series Shinkansen. However, N700 Series Shinkansen aba ndoned eddy current brakes in favour of regenerative brakes since 14 of the 16 c ars in the trainset used electric motors. 1.2 LINEAR EDDY CURRENT BRAKE: The principle of the linear eddy current brake ha s been described by the French physicist Foucault, hence in French the eddy curr ent brake is called the "frein courants de Foucault". The linear eddy current br ake consists of a magnetic yoke with electrical coils positioned along the rail, which are being magnetized alternating as south and north magnetic poles. This magnet does not touch the rail, as with the magnetic brake, but is held at a con stant small distance from the rail (approximately seven millimeters). It does no t move along the rail, exerting only a vertical pull on the rail. When the magne t is moved along the rail, it generates a nonstationary magnetic field in the he ad of the rail, which then generates electrical tension (Faraday's induction law ), and causes eddy currents. These disturb the magnetic field in such a way that the magnetic force is diverted to the opposite of the direction of the movement , thus creating a horizontal force component, which works against the movement o f the magnet. 2.INSTALLATION LOCATION 5|P ag e

Electromagnetic brakes work in a relatively cool condition and satisfy all the e nergy requirements of braking at high speeds, completely without the use of fric tion. Due to its specific installation location (transmission line of rigid vehi cles), electromagnetic brakes have better heat dissipation capability to avoid p roblems that friction brakes face. Typically, electromagnetic brakes have been m ounted in the transmission line of vehicles. The propeller shaft is divided and fitted with a sliding universal joint and is connected to the coupling flange on the brake. The brake is fitted into the chassis of the vehicle by means of anti -vibration mounting. The practical location of the retarder within the vehicle p revents the direct impingement of air on the retarder caused by the motion of th e vehicle. Any air flow movement within the chassis of the vehicle is found to h ave a relatively insignificant effect on the air flow around tire areas and henc e on the temperature of both front and rear discs. So the application of the ret arder does not affect the temperature of the regular brakes. In that way, the re tarders help to extend the life span of the regular brakes and keep the regular brakes cool for emergency situation. 3.WORKING PRINCIPLE The working principle of the electric retarder is based on the creation of eddy currents within a metal disc rotating between two electromagnets, which sets up a force opposing the rotation of the disc. If the electromagnet is not energized , the rotation of the disc is free and accelerates uniformly under the action of the weight to which its shaft is connected. When the electromagnet is energized , the rotation of the disc is retarded and the energy absorbed appears as heatin g of the disc. If the current exciting the electromagnet is varied by a rheostat , the braking torque varies in direct proportion to the value of the current. It was the Frenchman Raoul Sarazin who made the first vehicle application of eddy current brakes. The development of this invention began when the French company Telma, 6|P ag e

associated with Raoul Sarazin, developed and marketed several generations of ele ctric brakes based on the functioning principles described above (Reverdin, 1974 ). A typical retarder consists of stator and rotor. The stator holds 16 inductio n coils, energized separately in groups of four. The coils are made up of varnis hed aluminum wire mounded in epoxy resin. The stator assembly is 9 supported res iliently through anti-vibration mountings on the chassis frame of the vehicle. T he rotor is made up of two discs, which provide the braking force when subject t o the electromagnetic influence when the coils are excited. Careful design of th e fins, which are integral to the disc, permit independent cooling of the arrang ement. Fig 1.1 Block diagram of Eddy current Brake The simulation eddy current brakes is difficult because, (1)Physical effects suc h as nonlinear saturation, skin effects and motion induced eddy currents must be considered simultaneously. (2) A fine mesh is required due to very small skin d epths. A transient solution with time-stepping is necessary. (3) A multiple doma in eddy current regions are needed including master/slave boundaries. 7|P ag e

The results from three unique simulations will be shown while pointing out the c hallenges of each design and the methodology needed to allow the simulation to b e successful Collaborative. They can be analysed by Maxwell 3D Transient solver .Which is well suited for magnetic problems with motion.Solves transient magneti c fields caused by time-varying or moving electrical sources and permanent magne ts. It uses both linear and nonlinear materials. The excitation can be DC, sinus oidal, and transient voltages or currents. An external schematic circuit is avai lable and considers skin and proximity effects. It also considers motioninduced eddy currents and time-diffusion of magnetic field. Fig 1.2(a) 8|P ag e

Fig: 1.2 (b) Fig : 1.2(c) Fig 1.2 (a),(b),(c)- model set up for eddy current brake simulation by using Max well 3-D transient solver The Red coils are fed by a continuous DC current, that creates a permanent magne tic field.Poles, blooming, and rotor use the same non linear iron. The rotation of the light blue rotor, produces FOUCAULTscurrents that brake the device. 4.ELECTRIC CONTROL SYSTEM The energization of the retarder is operated by a hand control mounted on the st eering column of the vehicle. This control has five positions: the first is off, a nd the four remaining positions increase the braking power in sequence. This han d-control system can be replaced by an automatic type that can operate mechanica lly through the brake pedal. In this case, the contacts are switched on successi vely over the slack movement of the brake pedal. The use of an automatic control must be coupled with a cut-off system operating at very low vehicle speed in or der to prevent energization of the retarder while the vehicle is stationary with the driver maintaining pressure on the brake pedal. Both the manual control and the automatic control activate four solenoid contractors in the relay box, whic h in turn close the four groups of coil 9|P ag e

circuits within the electric brake at either 24 volts or 12 volts, as appropriat e (Reverdin 1974 and Omega Technologies). 5.CHARACTERISTIC OF ELECTROMAGNETIC BRAKES 5.1 GENARAL CHARACTERSTICS: It was found that electromagnetic brakes can develop a negative power which represents nearly twice the maximum power output of a ty pical engine, and at least three times the braking power of an exhaust brake (Re verdin 1974). These performance of electromagnetic brakes make them much more co mpetitive candidate for alternative retardation equipments compared with other r etarders. By using the electromagnetic brake as supplementary 10 retardation equ ipment, the friction brakes can be used less frequently, and therefore practical ly never reach high temperatures. The brake linings would last considerably long er before requiring maintenance, and the potentially brake fade problem could be a voided. In research conducted by a truck manufacturer, it was proved that the el ectromagnetic brake assumed 80 percent of the duty which would otherwise have be en demanded of the regular service brake (Reverdin 1974). Furthermore, the elect romagnetic brake prevents the dangers that can arise from the prolonged use of b rakes beyond their capability to dissipate heat. This is most likely to occur wh ile a vehicle descending a long gradient at high speed. The installation of an e lectromagnetic brake is not very difficult if there is enough space between the gearbox and the rear axle. It does not need a subsidiary cooling system. It does not rely on the efficiency of engine components for its use, as do exhaust and hydrokinetic brakes. The electromagnetic brake also has better controllability. The exhaust brake is an on/off device and hydrokinetic brakes have very complex control system. The electromagnetic brake control system is an electric switchin g system which gives it superior controllability. From the foregoing, it is appa rent that the electromagnetic brake is an attractive complement to the safe brak ing of heavy vehicles. 10 | P a g e

5.1.1 CHARACTERISTIC ANALYSIS OF EDDY-CURRENT BRAKE SYSTEM USING THE LINEAR HALB ACH ARRAY: HALBACH ARRAY A Halbach array is a special arrangement of permanent magnets that augments the magnetic field on one side of the array while cancelling the field to near zero on the other side. In the diagram, the magnetic field is enhanced on the bottom side and cancelled on the top side The effect was discovered by Ma llinson in 1973, and these "onesided flux" structures were initially described b y him as a "curiosity", although he recognised at the time the potential for sig nificant improvements in magnetic tape technology. In the 1980s, the late Klaus Halbach, a physicist at Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, invented the Halb ach array to focus accelerator particle beams. An eddy current braking system of high speed railway is developed because of the adhesion limit. Linear eddy curr ent braking system are used in magnetic train to avoid the abrasion of mechanica l disc brake [1] The eddy-cur-levitation applications and in high-speed vehicles in order to rent braking system with dc-excited magnet inherently needs the pow er supply and has the consequent power losses. If the dc-excited magnetic poles are replaced with permanent magnet,a braking system has a high efficiency due to no power losses and a high power/weight ratio. In particular, the braking syste m with a linear Halbach magnetized mover develops a higher braking force because of the strong flux density [2]For high-speed linear braking system, dynamic end effects are caused by the relative motion between the mover of a finite length and an infinitely long secondary. As a result, the attraction force decreases no tably with speed and, furthermore, a magnetic drag force occur [3]In the charact eristic analysis of linear braking system with magnet for high speed, the end ef fect should be necessarily accounted for . 11 | P a g e

A. MODEL AND ASSUMPTIONS In order to obtain an analytical solution of the eddy-c urrent braking system with a linear Halbach array mover shown in Fig. 2.1, the f ollowing assumptions are made. 1) The flux density distribution in the air gap i s symmetric to the center of the secondary in the transverse direction(direction as shown in Fig. 2.2(a),)and sinusoidal in the longitudinal direction ( directi on, as shown in Fig. 2.2(b).) 2) The induced currents in the secondary vary sinu soidally along the transverse direction. Fig 2.1 Fig 2.2(a) fig 2.2(b) Fig. 2 Eddy-current braking system using linear Halbach array. Fig 2.1 Schematic of eddy current braking system. fig 2.2(a) Magnetostatic field distribution in the transverse direction. Fig 2.2 (b) Magnetostatic field distribution in the lo ngitudinal direction. B. FIELD EQUATIONS: 12 | P a g e

According to the above assumptions, the air-gap reaction field fulfils the equat ions Where is the electric conductivity of the secondary, is the relative mover speed , and d is the field penetration depth. The solution of (3) takes the forms. C.SIMULATION RESULTS ACCORDING TO THE SECONDARY PERMEABILITY AND CONDUCTIVITY: Using three-dimensional (3-D) finite-element analysis,in fig 3 shows the magneto static field distribution due to magnet source Fig 3 : Magnetostatic field distribution due to magnet source. For a fixed value of the secondary conductivity and permeability, Fig. 4(a) and fig 4(b) shows how the transverse eddy-current density and absolute value of air -gap flux density longitudinal distributions vary for two different speeds, resp ectively. It can be seen that, for the speed is high, the eddy current density i ncreases and the air-gap flux density has a nonuniform distribution. These pheno mena are called end effect. For a fixed low value of the secondary conductivity, t he drag and attraction force variation with speed is calculated and ploted in fi g 4(c) 13 | P a g e

Fig 4 (a) Fig 4 (b) Fig. 4. (a) Distributions of the eddy current density in the transvers e direction and (b) flux density in the longitudinal direction 5.2 THERMAL DYNAMICS Thermal stability of the electromagnetic brakes is achieved by means of the conv ection and radiation of the heat energy at high temperature. The major part of t he heat energy is imparted to the ventilationg air which is circulating vigorous ly through the fan of the heated disc. The electromagnetic brakes has excellent heat dissipation efficiency owing to the high temperature of the surface of the disc which is being cooled and also because the flow of air through the centrifu gal fan is very rapid. Therefore, the curie temperature of the disc material cou ld never been reached(Reverdin 1974). 14 | P a g e

The practical location of the electromagnetic brakes prevents the direct impinge ment of air on the brakes caused by the motion of the vehicle. Any air flow move ment within the chassis of the vehicle is found to have a relatively 12 insignif icant effect on the air flow and hence temperature of both front and rear discs. Due to its special mounting location and heat dissipation mechanism, electromag netic brakes have better thermal dynamic performance than regular friction brake s. 6.ADVANTAGE Advantage Of Eddy Current Brake are as follows: 1. These are non mechanical,no m oving parts hence no friction. 2. Fully resettable,no parts need to be replaced. 3. Can be activated at will via electrical signal. 4. Low maintainance cost. 5. Operates at any rotational speed. 15 | P a g e

7. CONCLUSION With all the advantages of electromagnetic brakes over friction brakes, they hav e been widely used on heavy vehicles where the brake fading problem is serious. Th e same concept is being developed for application on lighter vehicles. A Halbach magnetized mover was applied to a high-speed eddy current braking system. Based on analytical 2-D field solutions considering dynamic end effect, the magnetic field, eddy current distribution, and forces according to the secondary relative permeability and conductivity were presented. It was observed that the air-gap flux density has a nonuniform distribution for the high speed. Comparisons betwe en numerical simulations and experimental data were also presented. 16 | P a g e

Bibilography 1. Characteristic Analysis of Eddy-Current Brake System Using the Linear Halbach Array -Seok-Myeong Jang, Member, IEEE, Sung-Ho Lee, and SangSub Jeong IEEE tran sactions on magnetics, vol. 38, no. 5, september 2002 2. www.eddycurrentprojects .com 3. www.wikipedia.org 4. Analysis of Eddy Current Brakes using Maxwell 3D Tra nsient -Valeo Telma Electrical System. 17 | P a g e