Essay 3 Cell theory states that all organisms are made of one or more cells.

There are two basis types of cell: prokaryotes, which do not contain a nucleus, and eukaryotes, which have a true nucleus. The difference between the structure and functioning of prokaryotes and eukaryotes is so great that it is considered, by some, to be the most important distinction among groups of organisms. However, if we are to believe the endosymbiosis theory and that eukaryotes evolved from prokaryotes there must also be some fundamental similarities. A significant similarity is the fact that both prokaryotes and eukaryotes use the same genetic material (DNA) and genetic code to store and translate genetic information. But this genetic information is arranged very differently within the two types of cell. In eukaryotes the DNA is packed into chromatins and sequestered within a double membrane bound organelle, known as the nucleus, and is easily seen using a microscope. On the other hand, prokaryotes lack this distinct nucleus and nucleur membrane but instead have a nucleoid, which is an irregularly shaped region within the cell where the genetic information is localised in the form of a, usually circular, double strand of DNA. Prokaryotes and some eukaryotes are also known to have additional small satellite structures of DNA called plasmids. Both prokaryotes and eukaryotes also contain ribosomes which are the organelles responsible for accurately translating this linear genetic code (via messenger RNA) into a linear sequence of amino acids to produce a protein. This is because all cells require the continued synthesis of new proteins for growth and repair. These ribosomes are different in size though: whilst prokaryotes have ribosomes of size 70S, those found in eukaryotes are larger at 80S. One of the most noticeable differences between the two types of cell is the abundance of membrane bound organelles, or subcompartments, which carry out specialised reactions within their boundaries, found in eukaryotes compared to prokaryotes. Particularly as two of these organelles, the mitochondria and the chloroplasts found in plant cells, are believed to have been descendents of, and so derived from, endosymbiotic bacteria. These organelles contain 705 ribosomes, the same as prokaryotes, and perform metabolic processes which are similar to those that occur across the cell membrane in prokaryotes. This is evidence of the higher order of complexity found in eukaryotes suggesting that prokaryotes are indeed the oldest of the types of cell and the precursor to the eukaryote. Previously, prokaryotes were considered to lack membrane bound organelles, but is now known that they are found in some groups of

prokaryotes and that these systems are usually devoted to special metabolic processes such as photosynthesis or chemolithotrophy. This leads to the fact that prokaryotes have a far greater diversified metabolism than eukaryotes because in addition to the photosynthesis of organic compounds, prokaryotes may also obtain energy from chemicals such as hydrogen sulfide. It was also thought that, whereas the interior of a eukaryotic cell is a dense network of structural proteins, collectively termed the cytoskeleton, within which is embedded a large number of organelles, there was no cytoskeleton within prokaryotic cells. However, recent research has shown that prokaryotes do, indeed, have a cytoskeleton, albeit a very primitive form. Besides homologues of achtin and tubulin the helically arranged building blocks of flagellums flagellin is one of the most cytoskeletal proteins and is found in bacteria. Although both prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells can have flagellum, they are quite different in both structure and evolutionary origin; their own shared characteristic are their superficial appearance, as they are intracellular extensions used in creating movement. Eukaryotic flagella have an internal structure comprised of microtubule doublets forming a cylinder around a central pair of microtubules and move by using energy internally to propel a cell or transport fluids whereas prokaryote flagella move by torque transfer from the base and beat in a whiplike motion. Whilst eukaryotic cells only usually have 1 or 2 flagella, prokaryotic cells may have more. Cell walls can also be possessed by both prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells, although they have different chemical compositions. Eukaryotic plant cells have a cell wall constructed primarily from a carbohydrate polymer called cellulose, and fungi of chitin, as opposed to the cell wall of prokaryotic bacterial cells which are made of peptidoglycan. Another of the main differences between prokaryotes and eukaryotes is that of their size as this affects many aspects of their cellular functioning and structure. Prokaryotes are usually very small, perhaps just a micrometer or so in diameter, whereas eukaryotic cells are typically much larger at maybe ten times the size. The small size of the prokaryotic cells is because diffusion limits the rate of transport across the cell and they do not benefit from the cytoplasmic streaming that occurs in eukaryotic cells. It also means that prokaryotes have a larger surface area to volume ratio, thus a higher metabolic rate and higher growth rate and consequently far shorter generations. The small surface area to volume ratio of eukaryotes leads to the difference mentioned earlier, that eukaryotes have many more membrane bound organelles and this is because they need the extra amounts of

membrane for them to be enough for all the chemical reactions and metabolic processes. In summary, there are many striking similarities, such as the presence of organelles such as flagellum and ribosomes and the use of the same genetic code, between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells which support the theory that eukaryotic cells evolved from aggregates of prokaryotic cells that became interdependent and eventually merged. However, upon closer inspection it becomes apparent that there are, indeed, numerous and significant differences not just in the presence, or not, of a nucleus but in the fact that eukaryotic cells are larger and much more structurally and functionally complex.