A

Industrial Training REPORT ON

SIGNAL AND TELECOMMUNICATION UNDERTAKEN AT

NORTH EASTERN RAILWAY GORAKHPUR

Submitted in partial fulfillment of the Requirement for the award of the degree of

BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY IN ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

SUBMITTED BY: -

SUBMITTED TO:-

SAURABH PARASHAR
(ROLL NO. -10060108031)

[Link] KUMAR
(ASST. PROFESSOR)

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING ROORKEE

(UTTRAKHAND TECHNICAL UNIVERSITY,DEHRADUN) SESSION 2013-2014

CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that SAURABH PARASHAR, a III year student of Electrical and Electronics branch from College of Engineering Roorkee had completed a 4week training with Northern Eastern Railways (NER) in the following modules:-

1. OPTICAL FIBRE CABLE EQUIPMENT AND CABLES 2. ELECTRONIC EXCHANGE 3. NETWORKING

During this period he showed keen interest in every field. We wish him success for his future. Date: - 11 July 2013

CONTENTS

1. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT 2. ABSTRACT 3. INTRODUCTION 4. HISTORY 5. STRUCTURE 6. ZONAL RAILWAYS AND HEADQUARTER 7. COMMUNICATION 8. OPTICAL FIBRE CABLE EQUIPMENT AND CABLES 9. ELECTRONIC EXCHANGE 10. NETWORKING 11. CONCLUSION 12. REFERENCES

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Behind the completion of any successful work there lies the contribution of not one but many individuals who may have directly or indirectly contributed to it. First and foremost I am grateful to the management of NORTH EASTERN RAILWAY, GORAKHPUR for providing me the opportunity to undertake my Summer Industrial Training in the organization. I specially convey my thanks to all the staff members for th eir precious guidance during our training and in completion of this project. I feel privileged to express my deep regards and gratitude to all the Engineers and staffs of MICROWAVE CENTRE, N.E RLY, GORAKHPUR and SIGNAL WORKSHOP, N.E RLY,

GORAKHPUR. I am thankful to all my teachers who have best owed upon me their knowledge and have been guiding light throughout my course. They have cast an indelible impression on my existence. I am much indent to my friends whose moral support always inspired me to come out with the best. Its great pleasure to extend my heartfelt thanks to everybody who helped me through the successful completion of my training. The acknowledgement would be incomplete if I fail to express deep sense of my obligation and reverence to my parents without whom this work would not have seen the light of the day.

SAURABH PARASHAR

ABSTRACT

This report takes a pedagogical stance in demonstrating how results from theoretical computer science may be applied to yield significant insight into the behavior of the devices computer systems engineering practice seeks to put in place, and that this is immediately attainable with the present state of the art. The focus for this detailed study is provided by the type of solid state signaling and various communication systems currently being deployed throughout mainline railways. Safety and system reliability concerns dominate in this domain. With such motivation, two issues are tackled: the special problem of software quality assurance in these data-driven control systems, and the broader problem of design dependability. In the former case, the analysis is directed towards proving safety properties of the geographic data which encode the control logic for the railway interlocking; the latter examines the fidelity of the communication protocols upon which the distributed control system depends.

HISTORY
The first railway on Indian sub-continent ran over a stretch of 21 miles from Bombay to Thane. The idea of a railway to connect Bombay with Thane, Kalyan and with the Thal and Bhore Ghats inclines first occurred to Mr. George Clark, the Engineer of the Bombay Government, during a visit Bhandup in 1843. The formal inauguration ceremony was performed on 16th April 1853, when 14 railway carriages carrying about 400 guests left Bori Bunder at 3.30 pm "amidst the loud applause of a vast multitude and to the salute of 21 guns." Chief to

The first passenger train steamed out of Howrah station destined for Hooghly, a distance of 24 miles, on 15th August, 1854. Thus the first section of the East Indian Railway was opened to public traffic, inaugurating the beginning of railway transport on the Eastern side of the sub-continent. In south the first line was opened on Ist July, 1856 by the Madras Railway Company. It ran between Veyasarpandy and Walajah Road (Arcot), a distance of 63 miles. In the North a length of 119 miles of line was laid from Allahabad to Kanpur on 3rd March 1859. The first section from Hathras Road to Mathura Cantonment was opened to traffic on 19th October, 1875. These were the small beginnings which is due course developed into a network of railway lines all over the country. By 1880 the Indian Railway system had a route mileage of about 9000 miles.

STRUCTURE
Indian Railways has one of the largest and busiest rail networks in the world, transporting over 18 million passengers and more than 2 million tons of freight daily. It is the world's largest commercial or utility employer, with more than 1.4 million employees. The railways traverse the length and breadth of the country, covering 6,909 stations over a total route length of more than 63,327 kilometers (39,350 mi). As to rolling stock, IR owns over 200,000 (freight) wagons, 50,000 coaches and 8,000 locomotives. Indian Railways operates about 9,000 passenger trains and transports 18 million passengers daily across twenty-eight states and one union territory. Sikkim, Arunachal Pradesh and Meghalaya are the only states not connected by rail. The passenger division is the most preferred form of long distance transport in most of the country. Indian Railways is divided into zones, which are further sub-divided into divisions. The number of zones in Indian Railways increased from six to eight in 1951, nine in 1952, and finally 16 in 2003. Each zonal railway is made up of a certain number of divisions, each having a divisional headquarters. There are a total of sixty-seven divisions. Each of the sixteen zones, as well as the Kolkata Metro, is headed by a General Manager (GM) who reports directly to the Railway Board. The zones are further divided into divisions under the control of Divisional Railway Managers (DRM). The divisional officers of engineering, mechanical, electrical, signal & telecommunication, accounts, personnel, operating, commercial and safety branches report to the respective Divisional Manager and are in charge of operation and maintenance of assets. Further down the hierarchy tree are the Station Masters who control individual stations and the train movement through the track territory under their stations' administration. (See fig.)

RAILWAY BOARD

ZONAL RAILWAYS

DIVISIONS

ENG G.

MEC H

ELEC T

S&T

COM M

OPERAT AING

PERSONNE L

ACC.

SAFE TY

ZONAL RAILWAYS AND HEADQUARTER

Sl. No 1.

Name

Abbr.

Date Established November 5, 1951 October 2002 1,

Headquarters Divisions Mumbai, Bhusawal, Pune, Solapur, Nagpur Danapur, Dhanbad, Mughalsarai,

Central

CR

Mumbai

2.

East Central ECR

Hajipur

Samastipur, Sonpur Khurda Road, Sambalpur,

3. 4. 5.

East Coast Eastern North Central North Eastern North Western Northeast Frontier

ECoR April 1, 2003 Bhubaneswar ER April, 1952 Kolkata

Visakhapatnam Howrah, Sealdah, Asansol, Malda Allahabad, Agra, Jhansi

NCR April 1, 2003 Allahabad

6.

NER 1952 October 2002 1,

Gorakhpur

Izzatnagar, Lucknow, Varanasi

7.

NWR

Jaipur

Jaipur, Ajmer, Bikaner, Jodhpur Alipurduar, Katihar, Lumding, Rangia, Tinsukia Delhi, Ambala, Firozpur, Lucknow, Moradabad Secunderabad, Hyderabad, Guntakal, Guntur, Nanded, Vijayawada Bilaspur, Raipur, Nagpur Adra, Ranchi Chakradharpur, Kharagpur,

NFR 1958 April 1952 October 1966 2, 14,

Guwahati

9.

Northern South Central South Central South Eastern East

NR

Delhi

10.

SCR

Secunderabad

11.

SECR April 1, 2003 Bilaspur, CG

12.

SER

1955

Kolkata

13.

South Western

SWR April 1, 2003 Hubli April 1951 14,

Hubli, Bengaluru, Mysore Chennai, Madurai, Palakkad, Salem, Tiruchchirappalli, Thiruvanathapuram Jabalpur, Bhopal, Kota Mumbai Central, Vadodara, Ratlam, Ahmedabad, Rajkot, Bhavnagar

14. Southern West Central

SR

Chennai

15.

WCR April 1, 2003 Jabalpur November 5, 1951

16. Western

WR

Mumbai

COMMUNICATION

Today, it would be difficult for us to imagine life without the telephone. World-wide, there are some 750 million telephone connections in use and the number of Internet users has exploded in the last few years. By the year 2010, according to a forecast from Nortel, there will be almost 475 million Internet users and the number of services provided will also grow rapidly.

To control the working of employers and to ensure the proper running of trains, we need fast and reliable means of communication. To ensure this we have SIGNAL & TELECOMMUNICATION department. They provide path and sources (Equipments) to communicate. Their work is to provide the line and maintain it.

Railway communication provides uninterrupted motion of trains. Due to faster means of communication there is increase in the efficiency and greater control. To communicate we require some media, which carry our signal. In past, railway use iron wires, copper wires or aluminum wires for signal propagation. Now, a day we railway use Microwave, Quad cable, Optical Fiber cable & satellite communication.

The explosion in demand for network bandwidth is largely due to the growth in data traffic, specifically Internet Protocol (IP). Leading service providers report bandwidths doubling on their backbones about every six to nine months. This is largely in response to the 300 percent growth per year in Internet traffic, while traditional voice traffic grows at a compound annual rate of only about 13 percent.

OFC EQUIPMENT AND CABLES

OPTICAL FIBRE EQUIPMENT
STM-1 Optical to STM-1 Electrical Converter Valiant VCL-STM-1 Optical to STM-1 Electrical converter provides a simple and cost-effective conversion between STM-1 optical interfaces to STM-1 electrical interface. VCL-STM-1 Optical to STM-1 Electrical converter is interface conversion equipment supplied with one STM-1 electrical interface and one STM-1 optical interface. VCL-STM-1 Optical to STM-1 Electrical converter is a compact solution housed in a 19" rack 1U high, which can be placed on the desktop or installed in a standard 19 inch rack.

This unit offers dual (1+1) power supply options. Options for the power supply to the equipment include: 1. Dual DC -48V Inputs (range -18V DC to -72V DC) 2. Dual AC Inputs (range 110V AC to 240V AC, 50 / 60Hz) STM-1 Optical to STM-1 Electrical converters converter complies with ITU-T and the relevant SDH specifications. The rear panel includes power socket and alarm output terminal interface.

Features and Highlights

1+0 STM-1 Optical to STM-1 Electrical 1+1 STM-1 Optical to STM-1 Electrical options available SFP based design. Provides field removable / upgradeable optical SFPs Short haul (1310nm), long haul (1550nm) and multi-mode (850nm) optical SFP modules Provides low cost STM-1 Optical to STM-1 Electrical conversion Management options: Serial RS232 Port (COM Port) 10/100 BaseT Remote Management over LAN Telnet 10/100 BaseT Telnet over TCP-IP Network SNMP V2 USB interface Network Management System (NMS) High reliability, complies to ITU-T G.703 and G.957 State-of-the-art design, ensure normal working under difficult environments Supports local and remote loop-back on electrical or optical interface for system diagnostics. Simple operation and maintenance Compact design and low power consumption.

 75 Ohms compliant with ITU-T G.703 and Telcordia GR-253 155Mbps electrical interfaces
(BNC connector).

ITU-T G.783 compatible loss of signal detects. Handles over 12.7dB of cable loss. Duplex LC optical interface. Hot-pluggable. Supports DDM function for read back of transmit and received optical power. Class 1 laser safety. Compliant with ITU-T G.957 STM-1. Management options Serial RS232 Port (COM Port). 10/100 BaseT Remote Management over LAN Telnet. 10/100 BaseT Telnet over TCP-IP Network. SNMP V2. USB interface. Network Management System (NMS).

INTRODUCTION
The demand for high-capacity long-haul Signal & telecommunication systems is increasing at a steady rate, and is expected to accelerate in the next decade. At the same time, communication networks which cover long distances and serve large areas with a large information capacity are also in increasing demand. To satisfy the requirements on long distances, the communication channel must have a very low loss. On the other hand, a large information capacity can only be achieved with a wide system bandwidth which can support a high data bit rate (> Gbit/s). Reducing the loss whilst increasing the bandwidth of the communication channels is therefore essential for future telecommunications systems. Of the many different communication channel available optical fiber proved to the most promising due to its low attenuation, low losses and various other advantages over twisted cables and other means of transmission.

Communication between stations and signalmen is done through telephone. In some places, IR still uses twisted pair cables and elderly stronger exchanges. Drivers and guards were equipped with VHF radio systems in 1999 to communicate with each other and with station masters.

OPTICAL FIBER COMMUNICATION SYSTEM

A thin glass strand designed for light transmission. A single hair-thin fiber is capable of transmitting trillions of bits per second. In addition to their huge transmission capacity, optical fibers offer many advantages over electricity and copper wire. Light pulses are not affected by random radiation in the environment, and their error rate is significantly lower. Fibers allow longer distances to be spanned before the signal has to be regenerated by expensive "repeaters."

Fibers are more secure, because taps in the line can be detected, and lastly, fiber installation is streamlined due to their dramatically lower weight and smaller size compared to copper cables.

Optical fiber v/s copper cable The optical fiber acts as a low loss, wide bandwidth transmission channel. A light source is required to emit light signals, which are modulated by the signal data. To enhance the performance of the system, a spectrally pure light source is required. Advances in semiconductor laser technology, especially after the invention of double hetero structures (DH), resulted in stable, efficient, small-sized and compact semiconductor laser diodes (SLDs). Using such coherent light sources increases the bandwidth of the signal which can be transmitted in a simple intensity modulated (IM) system. Other modulation methods, such as phase shift keying (PSK) and frequency-shift keying (FSK), can also be used. These can be achieved either by directly modulating the injection current to the SLD or by using an externals electro or acousto-optic modulator.

ORIGIN AND CHARACTERISTICS OF OPTICAL FIBER

In the late 1970s and early 1980s, telephone companies began to use fibers extensively to rebuild their communications infrastructure. According to KMI Corporation, specialists in fiber optic market research, by the end of 1990 there were approximately eight million miles of fiber laid in the U.S. (this is miles of fiber, not miles of cable which can contain many fibers). By the end of 2000, there were 80 million miles in the U.S. and 225 million worldwide. Copper cable is increasingly being replaced with fibers for LAN back bones as well, and this usage is expected to increase substantially.

Pure Glass
An optical fiber is constructed of a transparent core made of nearly pure silicon dioxide (SiO2), through which the light travels. The core is surrounded by a cladding layer that reflects light, guiding the light along the core. A plastic coating covers the cladding to protect the glass surface. Cables also include fibers of Kevlar and/or steel wires for strength and an outer sheath of plastic or Teflon for protection. ro or acousto-optic modulator.

Enormous Bandwidth
For glass fibers, there are two "optical windows" where the fiber is most transparent and efficient. The centers of these windows are 1300 nm and 1550 nm, providing approximately 18,000GHz and 12,000GHz respectively, for a total of 30,000GHz. This enormous bandwidth is potentially usable in one fiber. Plastic is also used for short-distance fiber runs, and their transparent windows are typically 650 nm and in the 750-900 nm range.

Single mode and Multimode

There are two primary types of fiber. For intercity cabling and highest speed, single mode fiber with a core diameter of less than 10 microns is used. Multimode fiber is very common for short distances and has a core diameter from 50 to 100 microns. See laser, WDM, fiber optics glossary and cable categories.

OPERATION OF OPTICAL FIBER

In an optical fiber, a refracted ray is one that is refracted from the core into the cladding. Specifically a ray having direction such that where r is the radial distance from the fiber axis, (r) is the azimuthally angle of projection of the ray at on the transverse plane, (r )is the angle the ray makes with the fiber axis, n (r ) is the refractive index at r, n (a ) is the refractive index at the core radius, a . Refracted rays correspond to radiation modes in the terminology of mode descriptors. For the fiber to guide the optical signal, the refractive index of the core must be slightly higher than that of the cladding. In different types of fibers, the core and core-cladding boundary function slightly differently in guiding the signal. Especially in single-mode fibers, a significant fraction of the energy in the bound mode travels in the cladding.

The light in a fiber-optic cable travels through the core (hallway) by constantly bouncing from the cladding (mirror-lined walls), a principle called total internal reflection. Because the cladding does not absorb any light from the core, the light wave can travel great distances. However, some of the light signal degrades within the fiber, mostly due to impurities in the glass. The extent that the signal degrades depends on the purity of the glass and the wavelength of the transmitted light (for example, 850 nm = 60 to 75percent/km; 1,300 nm = 50 to 60 percent/km ; 1,550 nm is greater than 50 percent/km). Some premium optical fibers show much less signal degradation -less than 10percent/km at 1,550 nm.

A FIBER-OPTIC RELAY SYSTEM

To understand how optical fibers are used in communication systems, let's look at an example from a World War II movie or documentary where two naval ships in a fleet need to communicate with each other while maintaining radio silence or on stormy seas. One ship pulls up alongside the other. The captain of one ship sends a message to a sailor on deck. The sailor translates the message into Morse code (dots and dashes) and uses a signal light (floodlight with a Venetian blind type shutter on it) to send the message to the other ship. A sailor on the deck of the other ship sees the Morse code message, decodes it into English and sends the message up to

the captain. Now, imagine doing this when the ships are on either side of the ocean separated by thousands of miles and you have a fiber-optic communication system in place between the two ships. Fiber-optic relay systems consist of the following: TRANSMITTER - Produces and encodes the light signals OPTICAL FIBER - Conducts the light signals over a distance OPTICAL REGENERATOR - May be necessary to boost the light signal (for long distances) OPTICAL RECEIVER - Receives and decodes the light signals TRANSMITTER - The transmitter is like the sailor on the deck of the sending ship. It receives and directs the optical device to turn the light "on" and "off" in the correct sequence, thereby generating a light signal. The transmitter is physically close to the optical fiber and may even have a lens to focus the light into the fiber. Lasers have more power than LEDs, but vary more with changes in temperature and are more expensive. The most common wavelengths of light signals are 850 nm, 1,300 nm, and 1,550 nm (infrared, non-visible portions of the spectrum).

Optical Regenerator
As mentioned above, some signal loss occurs when the light is transmitted through the fiber, especially over long distances (more than a half mile, or about 1 km) such as with undersea cables. Therefore, one or more optical regenerators is spliced along the cable to boost the degraded light signals. An optical regenerator consists of optical fibers with a special coating (doping). The doped portion is "pumped" with a laser. When the degraded signal comes into the doped coating, the energy from the laser allows the doped molecules to become lasers themselves. The doped molecules then emit a new, stronger light signal with the same characteristics as the incoming weak light signal. Basically, the regenerator is a laser amplifier for the incoming signal.

Optical Receiver
The optical receiver is like the sailor on the deck of the receiving ship. It takes the incoming digital light signals, decodes them and sends the electrical signal to the other user's computer, TV or telephone (receiving ship's captain). The receiver uses a photocell or photodiode to detect the light.

USES OF OPTICAL FIBER

The optical fiber can be used as a medium for telecommunication and networking because it is flexible and can be bundled as cables. Although fibers can be made out of either transparent plastic or glass, the fibers used in long-distance telecommunications applications are always glass, because of the lower optical absorption. The light transmitted through the fiber is confined due to total internal reflection within the material. This is an important property that eliminates signal crosstalk between fibers within the cable and allows the routing of the cable with twists and turns. In telecommunications applications, the light used is typically infrared light, at wavelengths near to the minimum absorption wavelength of the fiber in use.

Core - Thin glass center of the fiber where the light travels. Cladding- Outer optical material surrounding the core that reflects the light back into the core. Buffer coating - Plastic coating that protects the fiber from damage and moisture. Fibers are generally used in pairs, with one fiber of the pair carrying a signal in each direction, however bidirectional communications is possible over one strand by using two different wavelengths (colors) and appropriate coupling/splitting devices. Fibers, like waveguides, can have various transmission modes. The fibers used for long-distance communication are known as single mode fibers, as they have only one strong propagation mode. This results in superior performance compared to other, multi-mode fibers, where light transmitted in the different modes arrives at different times, resulting in dispersion of the transmitted signal. Typical single mode fiber optic cables can sustain transmission distances of 80 to 140 km between regenerations of the signal, whereas most multi-mode fiber has a maximum transmission distance of 300 to 500 meters. Single mode equipment is generally more expensive than multi-mode equipment. Fibers used in telecommunications typically have a diameter of 125 m. The transmission core of single-mode fibers most commonly has a diameter of 9 m, while multi-mode cores are available with 50 m or 62.5 m diameters. Because of the remarkably low loss and excellent linearity and dispersion behavior of singlemode optical fiber, data rates of up to 40 gigabits per second are possible in real-world use on a single wavelength. Wavelength division multiplexing can then be used to allow many wavelengths to be used at once on a single fiber, allowing a single fiber to bear an aggregate bandwidth measured in terabits per second. Modern fiber cables can contain up to a thousand fibers in a single cable, so the performance of optical networks easily accommodate even today's demands for bandwidth on a point-to-point basis. However, unused point-to-point potential band width does not translate to operating

profits, and it is estimated that no more than 1% of the optical fiber buried in recent years is actually 'lit'. Modern cables come in a wide variety of sheathings and armor, designed for applications such as direct burial in trenches, installation in conduit, lashing to aerial telephone poles, submarine installation, or insertion in paved streets. In recent years the cost of small fiber-count pole mounted cables has greatly decreased due to the high Japanese and South Korean demand for Fiber to the Home (FTTH) installations. Recent advances in fiber technology have reduced losses so far that no amplification of the optical signal is needed over distances of hundreds of kilometers. This has greatly reduced the cost of optical networking, particularly over undersea spans where the cost reliability of amplifiers is one of the key factors determining the performance of the whole cable system. In the past few years several manufacturers of submarine cable line terminal equipment have introduced upgrades that promise to quadruple the capacity of older submarine systems installed in the early to mid-1990s.

ADVANTAGES OF OPTICAL FIBER

Low loss, so repeater-less transmission over long distances is possible Large data-carrying capacity (thousands of times greater, reaching speeds of up to 3TB/s). Immunity to electromagnetic interference, including nuclear electromagnetic pulses (but can be damaged by alpha and beta radiation). No electromagnetic radiation; difficult to eavesdrop. High electrical resistance, so safe to use near high-voltage equipment or between areas with different earth potentials. Low weight Signals contain very little power.

APPLICATIONS OF OPTICAL FIBER

Fibers can be used as light guides in medical and other applications where bright light needs to be brought to bear on a target without a clear line-of-sight path. Optical fibers can be used as sensors to measure strain, temperature, pressure and other parameters. Bundles of fibers are used along with lenses for long, thin imaging devices called endoscopes, which are used to view objects through a small hole. Medical endoscopes are used for minimally invasive exploratory or surgical procedures (endoscopy). Industrial endoscopes (see fiberscope or bore scope) are used for inspecting anything hard to reach, such as jet engine interiors. In some high-tech buildings, optical fibers are used to route sunlight from the roof to other parts of the building. Optical fibers have many decorative applications, including signs and art, articifal Christmas tree & lighting.

ELECTRONIC EXCHANGE

Telephone exchange
A telephone operator manually connecting calls with cord pairs at a telephone switchboard. In the field of telecommunications, a telephone exchange or telephone switch is a system of electronic components that connects telephone calls. A central office is the physical building used to house inside plant equipment including telephone switches, which make telephone calls "work" in the sense of making connections and relaying the speech information. The term exchange area can be used to refer to an area served by a particular switch, but is typically known as a wire center in the US telecommunications industry. The exchange code or Central Office Code refers to the first three digits of the local number (NXX). It is sometimes confused with the area code (NPA). In the United States, local exchange areas together make up a legal entity called local access and transport areas (LATA) under the Modification of Final Judgment (MFJ). Manual service exchanges

With manual service, the customer lifts the receiver off-hook and asks the operator to connect the call to a requested number. Provided that the number is in the same central office, the operator connects the call by plugging into the jack on the switchboard corresponding to the called customer's line. If the call is to another central office, the operator plugs into the trunk for the other office and asks the operator answering (known as the "inward" operator) to connect the call. Most urban exchanges were commonbattery, meaning that the central office provided power for the telephone circuits, as is the case today. In common-battery systems, the pair of wires from a subscriber's telephone to the switch (or manual exchange) carries -48VDC (nominal) from the telephone company end, across the conductors. The telephone presents an open circuit when it is on-hook or idle. When the subscriber goes off-hook, the telephone puts a DC resistance short across the line. In manual service, this current flowing through the off-hook telephone flows through a relay coil actuating a buzzer and lamp on the operator's switchboard. The buzzer and lamp would tell an operator the subscriber was off-hook (requesting service). In the largest U.S. cities, it took many years to convert every office to automatic equipment, such as panel switches. During this transition period, it was possible to dial a manual number and be connected without requesting an operator's assistance. This was because the policy of the Bell System was that customers should not need to know whether they were calling a manual or automated office. If a subscriber dialed a manual number, an inward operator would answer the call, see the called number on a display device, and manually connect the call. For instance, if a customer calling from TAylor 4725 dialed a manual number, Adams 1233, the call would go through, from the subscriber's perspective, exactly as a call to Lennox 5813, in an automated exchange. In contrast to the common-battery system, smaller towns with manual service often had magneto, or crank, phones. Using a magneto set, the subscriber turned a crank to generate ringing current, to gain the operator's attention. The switchboard would respond by dropping a metal tab above the subscriber's line jack and sounding a buzzer. Dry cell batteries (normally two large "No 6" cells) in the subscriber's telephone provided the DC power for conversation.

Magneto systems were in use in one American small town, Bryant Pond, Woodstock, Maine as late as 1983. In general, this type of system had a poorer call quality compared to common-battery systems. Many small town magneto systems featured party lines, anywhere from two to ten or more subscribers sharing a single line. When calling a party, the operator would use a distinctive ringing signal sequence, such as two long rings followed by one short. Everyone on the line could hear the rings, and of course could pick up and listen in if they wanted. On rural lines which were not connected to a central office (thus not connected to the outside world), subscribers would crank the correct sequence of rings to reach their party.

Circuit Diagram

The analogue circuitry comprises the following parts: Call sensor Originating loop Destination loop Transmission Bridge Tone generator Ring Trip

Call sensor When the exchange is idle, power is applied to the call sensor via a TLP598G photo-relay. The sensor comprises 8 CNX35U opto-isolators - one for each line. When an extension is lifted "offhook", its associated opto-isolator asserts a sense line. If only one sense line is asserted, the controller latches the binary code of the originating extension and initiates a call. The call sensor is powered-down until the end of the call. Originating Loop The calling line is connected to the originating loop by an opto-triac. Loop current flows through transformer T1 secondary, and through the CNX35U loop status opto-isolator which detects dialing pulses and, ultimately, hang-up. A small time delay is allowed for things to settle down before dial tone is delivered to the caller via the primary of transformer T1. If the loop is not closed at the end of the time delay, the exchange reverts to the idle state. Destination loop

The called extension is connected to the destination loop by an opto-triac. There are two paths through the loop: for DC only via transformer T2 and a TLP598G photo-relay; and for AC via the AC ringing generator and a TLP3043 opto-triac. The paths are switched alternately producing the required ring-ring effect interspersed with silence. The 598 and 3043 light emitting diodes are connected back-to-back as a safety interlock. The TLP3043 contains a zero-crossing circuit to ensure a clean switch. Ring Trip

The ringing voltage applied to the line is that of the ringing generator plus a DC offset. The average voltage equals the DC supply. Only AC can flow during ringing because telephone bells are AC coupled. Answering creates a DC path through the telephone allowing DC to flow. The 47-ohm resistor samples the line current. The voltage across it is low-pass filtered to attenuate the AC component. When the call is answered, the DC component operates the BC640 PNP transistor which asserts the Trip input to the controller. A high voltage PNP transistor is required. The BC640 has a VCEO of 80V.

Transmission Bridge

The secondaries of transformers T1 and T2, and the 22 coupling capacitor form the transmission bridge. The transformers act as low frequency chokes, passing DC to the carbon microphones whilst presenting high impedance to audio frequencies. The transformers were salvaged from an old cordless telephone. Similar types can also be found in modems and other mains-powered telephone appliances. The primary of T1 is connected to the tone generator. The primary of T2 could be used for an outside line facility. Tone generator The tone generator takes up approximately one quarter of the analogue board area. It was felt that high quality sinusoidal tones were worth having. Square waves and /or 50Hz mains hum sound unpleasant and are not user-friendly. This little exchange sounds like the real thing! An LM324 quad op-amp generates three independent sine waves. The fourth amplifier is used as a supply splitter to generate a 2.5V virtual earth. Wien bridge oscillators are used with a simple diode shaping circuit to control the amplitude. The resultant harmonic distortion is minimized by adjustment of the presets and by subsequent low pass filtering.

The tones are coupled to the originating loop via transformer T1. An emitter follower drives the primary. The required tone combination is selected using a 4016 quad bilateral switch. To prevent clicks, the 2.5V virtual earth is connected in the gaps between rings. When all the switches are off, the emitter follower goes tri-state and thus does not load the speech path. Controller The controller, comprising 3 programmable logic devices (PLDs) plus discrete HCMOS, occupies an entire euro card. RC delays and Schmitt triggers are used for timing. I would use a single chip micro-controller if I were making more than one of these! The Atmel ATF16V8B PLDs were programmed using the Atmel version of WinCUPL downloaded from [Link] for free.

IC INSIDE

NETWORKING

RAIL NET
The Indian Railways is Asia's largest and the world's second largest rail network. Adopting eGovernance in right earnest and to reap the benefit of IT explosion, Indian Railways have established a 'Corporate Wide Information System' (CWIS) called RAILNET. It provides smooth flow of information on demand for administrative purposes, which would enable taking quicker and better decisions? Realizing the important role that information plays in customer services and in railways operations, IR had embarked on its computerization program. IR developed dedicated skeletal communication network, as a basic requirement for train operation. After the early introduction of basic computer applications e.g. Pay rolls, Inventory Control and Operating Statistics, Railways went for deployment of computers for productivity improvement through building up operational databases.

IVRS (INTERACTIVE VOICE RESPONSE SYSTEM)

Interactive voice response (IVR) is a technology that allows a computer to interact with humans through the use of voice and DTMF keypad inputs. In telecommunications, IVR allows customers to interact with a companys database via a telephone keypad or by speech recognition, after which they can service their own inquiries by following the IVR dialogue. IVR systems can respond with prerecorded or dynamically generated audio to further direct users on how to proceed. IVR applications can be used to control almost any function where the interface can be broken down into a series of simple interactions. IVR systems deployed in the network are sized to handle large call volumes. IVR technology is also being introduced into automobile systems for hands-free operation. Current deployment in automobiles revolves around satellite navigation, audio and mobile phone systems. It has become common in industries that have recently entered the telecommunications industry to refer to an automated attendant as an IVR. The terms, however, are distinct and mean different things to traditional telecommunications professionals, whereas emerging telephony and VoIP professionals often use the term IVR as a catch-all to signify any kind of telephony menu, even a basic automated attendant. The term voice response unit (VRU) is sometimes used as well.

PRS- PASSENGER RESERVATION SYSTEM

Reserved travel by Indian Railways is facilitated by the Passenger Reservation System (PRS). PRS provides reservation services to nearly 1.5 to 2.2 million passengers a day on over 2500 trains running throughout the country. The PRS Application CONCERT (Country-wide Network of Computerized Enhanced Reservation and Ticketing) is the worlds largest online reservation application, developed and maintained by CRIS. The system currently operates from 5 Data centers. The server clusters are connected together by a core network that enables universal terminals across country, through which the travelling public can reserve a berth on any train, between any pair of station for any date and class. PRS web site was awarded Web Ratna Platinum Icon Award in year 2009 under Citizen Centric Service category. PRS application has been awarded by Computer Society of India for best IT

usage in the year 1999. If you have any further questions or suggestions email us at prs@[Link].

ROUTER A router is a device that forwards data packets between telecommunications networks, creating an overlay internetwork. A router is connected to two or more data lines from different networks. When data comes in on one of the lines, the router reads the address information in the packet to determine its ultimate destination. Then, using information in its routing table or routing policy, it directs the packet to the next network on its journey or drops the packet. A data packet is typically forwarded from one router to another through networks that constitute the internetwork until it gets to its destination node.[1] The most familiar type of routers are home and small office routers that simply pass data, such as web pages and email, between the home computers and the owner's cable or DSL modem, which connects to the Internet (ISP). However more sophisticated routers range from enterprise routers, which connect large business or ISP networks up to the powerful core routers that forward data at high speed along the optical fiber lines of the Internet backbone.

A PICTURE OF ROUTER-BY CISCO