Meteorite Impact and Dinosaur Extinction There is increasing evidence that the impacts of meteorites have had important
effects on Earth, particularly in the field of biological evolution. Such impacts continue to pose a natural hazard to life on Earth. Twice in the twentieth century, large meteorite objects are known to have collided with Earth. 5 If an impact is large enough, it can disturb the environment of the entire Earth and cause an ecological catastrophe. The best-documented such impact took place 65 million years ago at the end of the Cretaceous period of geological history. This break in Earths history is marked by a mass extinction, when as many as half the species on the planet became extinct. While there are a dozen or more mass extinctions in the geological 10 record, the Cretaceous mass extinction has always intrigued paleontologists because it marks the end of the age of the dinosaurs. For tens of millions of years, those great creatures had flourished. Then, suddenly, they disappeared. The body that impacted Earth at the end of the Cretaceous period was a meteorite with a 15 mass of more than a trillion tons and a diameter of at least 10 kilometers. Scientists first identified this impact in 1980 from the worldwide layer of sediment deposited from the dust cloud that enveloped the planet after the impact. This sediment layer is enriched in the rare metal iridium and other elements that are relatively abundant in a meteorite but very rare in the crust of Earth. Even diluted by the terrestrial material excavated from the 20 crater, this component of meteorites is easily identified. By 1990 geologists had located the impact site itself in the Yucatn region of Mexico. The crater, now deeply buried in sediment, was originally about 200 kilometers in diameter. This impact released an enormous amount of energy, excavating a crater about twice as 25 large as the lunar crater Tycho. The explosion lifted about 100 trillion tons of dust into the atmosphere, as can be determined by measuring the thickness of the sediment layer formed when this dust settled to the surface. Such a quantity of material would have blocked the sunlight completely from reaching the surface, plunging Earth into a period of cold and darkness that lasted at least several months. The explosion is also calculated 30 to have produced vast quantities of nitric acid and melted rock that sprayed out over much of Earth, starting widespread fires that must have consumed most terrestrial forests and grassland. Presumably, those environmental disasters could have been responsible for the mass extinction, including the death of the dinosaurs. 35 Several other mass extinctions in the geological record have been tentatively identified with large impacts, but none is so dramatic as the Cretaceous event. But even without such specific documentation, it is clear that impacts of this size do occur and that their results can be catastrophic. What is a catastrophe for one group of living things, however, may create opportunities for another group. Following each mass extinction, there is a 40 sudden evolutionary burst as new species develop to fill the ecological niches opened by the event. Impacts by meteorites represent one mechanism that could cause global catastrophes and seriously influence the evolution of life all over the planet. According to some estimates, 45 the majority of all extinctions of species may be due to such impacts. Such a perspective fundamentally changes our view of biological evolution. The standard criterion for the survival of a species is its success in competing with other species and adapting to slowly changing environments. Yet an equally important criterion is the ability of a species to survive random global ecological catastrophes due to impacts. 50 Earth is a target in a cosmic shooting gallery, subject to random violent events that were unsuspected a few decades ago. In 1991 the United States Congress asked NASA to investigate the hazard posed today by large impacts on Earth. The group conducting the study concluded from a detailed analysis that impacts from meteorites can indeed be 55 hazardous. Although there is always some risk that a large impact could occur, careful study shows that this risk is quite small.
CONVERSATION TRANSCRIPT (Narrator) Listen to a conversation between a student and her basketball coach and then answer the questions. (Male coach) Hi, Elizabeth. (Female student) Hey, Coach. I just thought Id stop by to see what I missed while I was gone. (Male coach) Well, weve been working real hard on our plan for the next game . . . Ive asked Susan to go over it with you before practice this afternoon, so youll know what were doing. (Female student) Okay. (Male coach) By the way, how did your brothers wedding go? (Female student) Oh, it was beautiful. And the whole family was there. I saw aunts and uncles and cousins I hadnt seen in years. (Male coach) So it was worth the trip. (Female student) Oh definitely. Im sorry I had to miss practice, though. I feel bad about that. (Male coach) Familys very important. (Female student) Yep. Okay, I guess Ill see you this afternoon at practice, then. (Male coach) Just a minute. There are a couple of other things I need to tell you. (Female student) Oh, okay. (Male coach) Uh . . . First, everybodys getting a new team jacket. (Female student) Wow. How did that happen? (Male coach) A woman who played here about 20, 25 years ago came through town a few weeks ago and saw a game, and said she wanted to do something for the team, so . . . (Female student) So shes buying us new jackets? (Male coach) Yep. (Female student) Wow, thats really nice of her. (Male coach) Yes, it is. Its great that former players still care so much about our school and our basketball program . . . Anyway you need to fill out an order form. Ill give it to you now, and you can bring it back this afternoon. Ive got the forms from the other players, so as soon as I get yours we can order. Maybe well have the jackets by the next game. (Female student) OK. (Male coach) Great. And the next thing is, you know Marys transferring to another college next week, so well need someone to take over her role as captain for the second half of the season. And the other players unanimously picked you to take over as captain when Mary leaves. (Female student) Wow. I saw everybody this morning, and nobody said a word. (Male coach) They wanted me to tell you. So, do you accept? (Female student) Of course! But Susans a much better player than I am. Im really surprised they didnt pick her. (Male coach) They think youre the right one. Youll have to ask them their thoughts. (Female student) Okay . . . I guess one of the first things Ill have to do as captain is make sure we get a thank-you card out to the lady whos buying us the jackets. (Male coach) Good idea. I have her address here somewhere. (Female student) And Ill make sure the whole team signs it. (Male coach) Good. Thats all the news there is. I think thats it for now. Oh, let me get you that order form.
