China-Japan Joint Seminar on Steel and Composite Bridges
JSCE Specifications for Steel and Composite Structures
K. Nogami
Associate Professor, Tokyo Metropolitan University, Japan
T. Yoda
Professor, Waseda University, Japan ABSTRACT: This paper is concerned with the current draft of the provisional standard specifications for steel and composite structures. The specifications are still under developing stage. The committee on steel structures has been promoting the revision of design codes under a performance-based design concept. Although the design concept is based on the performances to be required, some of the definitions on the performances need further discussions in order to reach a consensus. In this paper, the principal part of the performance-based design methodology and design formats are described in recognition of a need for consistency among the harmonized technical standard specifications. 1 INTRODUCTION The Steel Structure Committee of Japan Society of Civil Engineers is developing the internationally-applicable Standard Specifications for Steel and Composite Structures while paying due attention to the Basis of Structural Design for Buildings and Public Works (hereinafter abbreviated as Basis of Design) issued by the Ministry of Land, Infrastructure and Transport and ISO 2394 (General principles on Reliability for Structures), and incorporating the latest research achievements. This specification consists of 6 volumes of General Provision, Structural Planning, Design, Earthquake-resistant Design, Fabrication and Construction, and Maintenance. This paper outlines the fundamentals of the Design volume. 2 RESEARCH ON PERFORMANCES REQUIRED FOR STRUCTURES, WHICH ARE ESTABLISHED IN STANDARDS In general, the performance-based design specifies the performances required for structures (required performances), and verification of whether or not the required performances are satisfied is made by using the appropriate verification indices. Therefore, the important thing is what required performances are to be set for the structure, which leads to the features of the design standard. Table 1 shows the summary of required performances and basic design concept of existing standards. As is known from this table, the safety and serviceability are performances common to almost all the standards while others are roughly classified into the durability, restorability, environmental compatibility, constructability and maintainability, and economy, although such classifications are not universally employed in standards. 3 CLASSIFICATION OF REQUIRED PERFORMANCES AND DESIGN FUNDAMENTALS IN DESIGN VOLUME 3.1 Classification of required performances
China-Japan Joint Seminar on Steel and Composite Bridges
Table 1. Comparison of required performances ISO2394 code PLATFORM (1998) (2003)
(Basic requirements) Requirements concerning the service limit state Requirements concerning the ultimate limit state Requirements concerning structural robustness Safety Serviceability Environmental compatibility Constructability Economy, etc.
Design basis (2003)
Safety Serviceability Restorability
JSSC Guideline (2001)
Safety Serviceability Environmental compatibility Constructability Maintainability Demolishing and reusability
The Design Section Committee has established the required performances in Design volume, as shown in Table 2 on the basis of the design fundamentals of Table 1 and the performancebased design system of steel structure (draft) of the Japan Society of Civil Engineers (JSCE,2003b).
Table 2. Required performances in the Design volume (draft)
Required Performance
Safety Serviceability Restorability Durability
Performance item
Safety of structure (Ultimate, Stable) Public safety (Injury to 3 rd party) Running, walking Recovery from earthquake damage Fatigue, Damage, Corrosion, Maintenance planning
Social importance Social and environmental Economical compatibility (LCC, LCU) compatibility Environmental compatibility (Noise, vibration, landscape, LCA) Safety of construction, Constructability Easiness of fabrication and erection
Safety is defined as a performance not presenting threat to the life and property, and its performance item includes the safety such as the loading capacity of the member and structure, safety against damage to the third party. Serviceability is a performance to ensure comfortable utilization of structures, including specifically the running performance of vehicles, walking performance of pedestrians, or ride comfort of railway trains. For durability, some includes this performance in the verification of safety. Since it is extremely important to secure the performance (safety, serviceability) level necessary for the structure throughout the design working-period, this performance was positioned as the required one to highlight the idea. Durability is related to all other required performances, and its performance item includes the resistance against fatigue, steel corrosion and deterioration of concrete. Social and environmental compatibility is difficult to verify quantitatively when considering the present technical level, but considered to be the important required performance. The present standard specification describes only the currently applicable review method for this performance, but will be positioned as the required performance so that the quantitative verification method can be applied according to the future technical progress. Constructability represents the performance required during construction, such as safety at construction, easiness of fabrication and erection, and easiness of quality control. This is an important performance to be taken into account in the design. In this respect, the constructability was selected as one of required performances in this specification, Design volume. The specific verification method will be described in the Construction volume.
China-Japan Joint Seminar on Steel and Composite Bridges Force
Strength Redundancy: Ultimate limit state
Ductility Restorability limit state Stiffness Integrity: Serviceability limit state
o
Figure 1. Concept of restorability limit state
Displacement
Restorability represents the easiness with which the performance can be restored in case of performance deterioration due to structural damage caused by expected actions (mainly the influence of earthquake). The easiness of performance restoration in case of damage during normal action is closely related to that of maintenance, so that this was to be handled as the performance item under the durability. Verification on these performance items against the Level-2 earthquake motion will be described in Earthquake-resistant Design volume. For verification in case of the Level-1 earthquake motion, however, the verification method of this Design volume may be applied. 3.2 Basis of Design When based on the safety, serviceability, and durability that are applied normally, the basic performance-based design methodology may be represented as shown in Figure 2. Generally, in the performance-based design, the appropriate verification index is used for each of multiple performance items corresponding to the basic required performance so as to verify that the response value (demand) calculated from the required performance level does not exceed the limit value (capacity) held by the structure. Note, however, that not all of performance items can be verified.
Action level
Dead and Live loads, Environmental action, etc
Verification check
Demand Index Capacity
Member strength Stiffness Cost, etc
Structural level
Damage level, Working -period, etc
Stress resultantsStress Displacement & Deformation CostEnvironmental influence, etc
Figure 2. Conceptual view of the performance-based design
China-Japan Joint Seminar on Steel and Composite Bridges
4 CHAPTER COMPOSITION AND FUNDAMENTALS OF THE DESIGN VOLUME In Design volume, there are 15 chapters as follows, on the basis of required performances described previously in Table 3. 4.1 General Provision In Chapter 1, General Provision, terms shown in Figure 3 are defined. Most of these terms are transferred to General Provision volume of the Standard Specification. Then, the term conventionally called the partial safety factor has been renamed as the partial factor in line with the international trends. 4.2 General performance verification type
Chapter 1 Chapter 2 Chapter 3 Chapter 4 Chapter 5 Chapter 6 Chapter 7 Chapter 8 Chapter 9 Chapter 10 Chapter 11 Chapter 12 Chapter 13 Chapter 14 Chapter 15
Table 3. Chapter composition
General provision Action Materials Structural analysis Resistance of members Required performance and verification for safety Required performance and verification for serviceability Required performance and verification for durability Required performance and verification for social and environmental compatibility Provisions for structural members Provisions for connections Provisions for frame structures Provisions for plate structures Design of slabs Design of composite girder structures
Basically, verification is made by means of the basic verification equation (1) using the partial factor (structural factor i) determined from the criticality of a structure and social/economic influences when the structure has reached the limit state. As long as this equation is used, the load, sectional force, stress, and displacement are used as design values for Sd and Rd according to the performance verification item. Structural analytical methods are used in the linear analysis and the non-linear analysis. However, the linear analysis is used commonly for design calculation. Considering the fact that performance verification is used for member design, the verification equation (2) using the partial factor method will be convenient for calculation of the design limit value Rd and the design response value Sd.
Sd 1.0 Rd
(1)
a S ( f Fk ) R( fk / m ) / b
1.0
(2)
where, i : Importance factor (structural factor), a : Partial factor taking account of uncertainty in the structural analysis (factor of structural analysis), f : Partial factor for actions (load factor), m: Partial factor for material (material factor), b: Partial factor covering uncertainty in the resistance (factor of structural members) They are determined on the basis of the reliability theory while taking into account variation in the undesirable direction from the characteristic values, uncertainty of the calculation method, variances of the load as well as actual structures and materials. When designing steel and composite structures or structural members, the most desirable thing is to determine the type, shape, and dimensions of steel and composite structures so that the probability of their limit values exceeding the response values remains below the required level. Practically, however, the calculation of probability is considered quite unlikely and, at present, actually impossible. The standard verification method employed here is the equation
China-Japan Joint Seminar on Steel and Composite Bridges
(2) using the partial factors to check whether or not the performance required for steel structures or structural members is satisfied.
Chapter 1 General Provision 1.2 Definitions of Technical Terms (excerpt) 1.2.1 Terms commonly used in specifications
(2) Terms related to the performance 1) Performance: Capacity that the structure should demonstrate according to the application purpose or requirement 2) Required performance: Performance that the structure should hold to achieve the intended purpose 3) Performance item: Subdivided required performance. The verification index is set for each performance item. Normally, the limit state is specified for the verification index. 4) Performance level: Level of performance required for the structure, which is set for each required performance as appropriate 5) Safety: Performance that is required for the structure to prevent any threat to the life and property of users and any third party 6) Serviceability: Performance required for the users to use the structure comfortably and without feeling any discomfort and insecurity exceeding the allowable limit 7) Durability: Resistance against performance deterioration of any structure or member due to load and environmental effects. For steel and composite structures, steel corrosion due to environmental effects, fatigue phenomena caused by loading, and material deterioration and decrease in the loading capacity of concrete members will be considered. 8) Restorability: Easiness of recovering the performance when it has been deteriorated due to damage of the structure under expected actions 9) Social and environmental compatibility: Performance of the structure to contribute to sound social, economic, and cultural activities while minimizing any adverse affects on the healthy society, environments, and natural environment. 10) Constructability: Safety and reliability of construction during fabrication and construction works of structures 11) Structural integrity: Performance of the structure to ensure that the structural performance is not below the performance established in the design stage. 12) Maintainability: Easiness of maintenance of structures Figure 3. Definition of technical terms (excerpt)
Figure 4 shows the conceptual view concerning the role of respective partial factors along the flow chart of performance-based design.
Design Resistance R
Characteristic value of material strength
Design Action Effect S
fk
m
Characteristic value of action
Fk
Design value of material strength Resistance
fd = fk /
Design value of action Action effect
Fd = f Fk
R (f d ) R d = R (f d ) /
b
S (F d ) S d =
a
Design resistance
Design action effect
i
S (F d )
Verification
iS d /
Rd 1.0
Figure 4. Flow chart of performance based design
China-Japan Joint Seminar on Steel and Composite Bridges
The recommended value of a partial factor for each required performance is currently shown in Table 4.
Table 4. Required Performance
Safety Serviceability Durability
Recommended value of partial factor i f a m
1.01.2 1.0 1.01.1 1.01.7 1.0 1.01.1 1.01.1 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.05 1.01.05 1.0
1.11.3 1.0 1.01.1
4.3 Action 4.3.1 Characteristics of action and load In the performance-based design, verification is made whether or not the calculated response value exceeds the limit value. In the calculation of response values, all of the behaviors exerting effects on the structure are called the action. Conventional design methods referred such behaviors as the load. As shown in (3) of Figure 5, the term load should better be defined only as the mechanical force, so that the term including the load was determined to be the action. Figure 5 and Figure 6 show the definition of the action, classification of the action and the load, respectively.
Chapter 2 Action 2.1 General
(1) For the design of steel and composite structures, the action likely to occur during construction and design working-period must be established respectively for the performance to be verified. (2) The action means all behaviors causing increase in stress, deformation, and time-dependent change of material characteristics of structures and members, including; Direct action: Mechanical force acting concentrically or distributively on a structure Indirect action: Action causing deformations of a structure or constraints inside the structure Environmental action: Action causing deterioration of structural materials (3) The load is the representation of forces directly acting on the structure, which is used for design calculation, such as calculation of the sectional forces, stresses, or displacements, via the structural model of action on the structure.
Figure 5. Action (excerpt)
The action may be classified into the direct action, indirect action, and environmental action depending on the way of effects on the structure. The direct action is a general term of mechanical forces and equivalent to the load. The indirect action may be considered to be the load when it is modeled into mechanical forces in the response value calculation process, but [Action]
[Load]
Dead load Live load Impact load Wind load Snow load Braking load, traction load Centrifugal load, etc. Effects of creep and shrinkage of concrete Effects of temperature variation Effects of support displacement and differential settlement Effects of earthquake Effects of salt splash Effects of exhaust gas, etc.
China-Japan Joint Seminar on Steel and Composite Bridges
Figure 6. Classification of Action and Load
is represented, not as the load, but as the action when any external deformation or displacement is to be directly reflected in the model. 4.3.2 Types of actions The action can be classified as follows depending on the frequency, duration, and variable process: Permanent action: Action with less time-dependent fluctuation, which occurs normally throughout the design working period Variable action: Action without monotonic variation, for which variation during the design working-period cannot be ignored when compared with the average value Accidental action: Action which occurs very rarely during the design working-period, which, once occurring, may cause major damage to the structure. The action is also classified as follows depending on the way of response of the structure: Static action: Action that does not cause non-ignorable vibration in the structure or its components Dynamic action: Action that may cause impact and non-ignorable vibration in the structure or its components Repetitive action: Action that may cause fatigue These actions must be established in size and combined adequately depending on the performance to be secured, verification items concerned, and members. Direct and indirect actions have been described in various standards and specifications, and knowledge has been accumulated concerning their setting method. On the other hand, there are still ambiguous points concerning the environmental actions affecting the durability, and there is no established setting method applicable to practical design in terms of the scope of application and magnitude of action. Accordingly, research results are expected in this respect in the future.
Direct
Permanent Action (1) Dead load (2) Soil pressure (3) Pre-stress
Table 5. Types of actions Indirect
(18) Effects of concrete shrinkage (19) Effects of concrete creep
Environmental
(23) Effects of splashed salt (24) Effects of exhaust gas (25) Effects of CO2 gas concentration (26) Effects of acid concentration (27) Effects of repeated drying and wetting (28) Effects of solar isolation
8
Variable action
China-Japan Joint Seminar on Steel and Composite Bridges
(4) Live load a) Vehicle load b) Train load c) Pedestrian load (5) Impact load (6) Stream flow pressure (7) Hydraulic pressure (8) Buoyancy, uplift pressure (9) Wind load (10) Snow load (11) Braking load, traction load (12) Centrifugal load (13) Longitudinal load from long rail (14) Vehicle transverse load and wheel lateral force load (15) Wave pressure (16) Load during construction (17) Collision load (20) Effects of temperature variation (21) Effects of support displacement and differential settlement (29) Effects of freezing
Accidental tion
ac-
(22) Effects of earthquake
(30) Effects of fire
4.4 Strength of materials and members Materials used in steel and composite structures must have the characteristics necessary to satisfy the required performance on structures and members. Basic physical properties to be achieved are those satisfying requirements as shown in Figure 7.
Chapter 3 Materials 3.1 General 3.1.1 Fundamentals concerning physical properties of materials
Materials to be used in steel and composite structures must have the basic physical properties to satisfy the following requirements: (1) Adequate strength and deformation capability, or toughness (2) Safety against change or deterioration of material quality and properties expected during the working period (3) Minimum effect on the global environment (4) Minimum effect on human beings and animals/plants
Figure 7. Materials (excerpt)
Regarding the strength of members, the classification of bending resistances and sections is compared between four classes of EUROCODE and three classes of AASHTO of the United States. For use in the civil engineering field, three classes as shown in Figure 8 are employed.
Chapter 5 Resistance of Members 5.3 Resistance of steel members 5.3.3 Bending resistance
5.3.3.1 Classification of sections Members are classified as follows, depending on the maximum width-thickness ratio of the section element subject to bending or both compression and bending, namely, the resistance against local buckling of the member: (1) Compact section: Section where the full plastic moment can be reached (2) Non-compact section: Section where the yield strain is reached at the edge end of the compression range, but the full plasticity is not reached due to occurrence of local buckling (3) Slender section: Section where yield is not reached due to local buckling in the compressed state.
Figure 8. Resistance of members (excerpt)
China-Japan Joint Seminar on Steel and Composite Bridges 4.5 Required performance and verification
In the Design volume, the performance verification in terms of safety, serviceability, durability, and social/environmental compatibility is specified as described in 2. 4.5.1 Safety This specification provides for the structural safety representing the loading capacity of the structure itself as well as the public safety intended to prevent public disasters to the third party caused by the structure as shown in Figure 9. However, the public safety is handled as a performance item to be set as required according to the situation around the structures, and no specific verification is not to be specified in this respect. Therefore, in this chapter, only the structural safety is provided for specific verification standard.
Chapter 6 Required Performance and Verification for Safety 6.1 General
(1) The safety must be ensured against the acting effects occurring erection and design working-period. (2) The safety-related performance item must include structural and public safeties. (3) Verification on the safety must involve setting of the adequate indices representative of the performances and verification on the limit state established for each item.
Figure 9. Required performance and verification for safety (excerpt)
4.5.2 Serviceability The serviceability requirement of steel and composite structures must be set to secure the convenience and comfort for the users of the structure. This specification is intended mainly for bridges as steel and composite structures and deals with the running performance as the serviceability for a driver and passengers of vehicles, the train running performance as that for railway users, and the walking comfort as that for pedestrians as shown in Figure 10.
Chapter 7 Required Performance and Verification for Serviceability 7.1 General
(1) Steel and composite structures must maintain the serviceability under the action specified in Chapter 2 throughout the working-period. (2) The performance item related to the serviceability includes the running performance, train running performance, and walking comfort according to the utilization manner of a structure. (3) Verification for serviceability must involve setting of the adequate indices representative of the performances and verification on the limit state established for each item, except for the cases when the use of structure is limited due to meteorological and earthquake effects or when there is any obstruction to hinder usage.
Figure 10. Required Performance and Verification for Serviceability (excerpt)
4.5.3 Durability Considering that it is important to clarify the maintenance plan at a time of design of the structure and to implement the maintenance on the basis of the plan after the structure is put into service, this specification intends to maintain the durability of a structure by considering the maintenance (conventionally handled separately) within the span of life cycle from the design to renewal of the structure as shown in Figure 11.
10
China-Japan Joint Seminar on Steel and Composite Bridges
Chapter 8 Required Performance and Verification for Durability 8.1 General
(1) Steel and composite structures must maintain the required level of performance continuously under the expected actions throughout the design working-period. (2) Performance verification item related to the durability of steel and composite structures includes the fatigue resistance, corrosion resistance, resistance against material deterioration, and maintainability. (3) Verification on the fatigue resistance, corrosion resistance, resistance against material deterioration, and maintainability must involve setting of the adequate indices representative of the performances and verification on the limit state established for each item.
Figure 11. Required Performance and Verification for Durability (excerpt)
4.6 Design of slabs and composite girder structures For the slabs subject to the out-of-plane load, including RC slab, PC slab and composite slab, this specification provides the verifications for safety and serviceability, fatigue resistance, and resistance against material deterioration. Figure 12 shows the safety measure of slabs.
Chapter 14 Design of Slabs 14.2 Safety 14.2.3 Safety of slabs
(1) The slabs must carry the load directly and also transmit the load to the slab support safely. (2) The slabs must secure the safety for each and both of the two following performance items: 1) Safety as the slab to carry the load directly 2) Safety as the main structural member
Figure 12. Slabs (excerpt)
This specification deals only with the composite girder as a composite structure. The latest research achievements have been incorporated in the design of composite girders in which PC/RC slabs or steel/concrete composite slabs and steel girders are combined by means of the studs. The composite girders are divided into compact, non-compact, and slender sections according to the width-thickness ratio of web plate as shown in Figure 13. And the verification method employed is the one to satisfy the required performance in the service state and ultimate state.
Chapter 15 Design of Composite Girder Structures 15.2 Strength of composite girders 15.2.1 Classification of sections
(1) Similar to the case of the steel girders in Chapter 5, the composite sections may be classified into (a) compact, (b) non-compact, and (c) slender sections for calculation of the sectional strength. (2) When the compressive flange of a steel girder is joined to the concrete slab with sufficient studs, the section may be classified on the basis of the width-thickness ratio of the web plate only. (3) When the negative bending moment acts on the composite girder or when the compressive flange of the steel girder is not joined to the concrete slab with sufficient studs, the section must be classified according to the section classification of steel girders in Chapter 5.
Figure 13. Design of composite girder structures (excerpt)
China-Japan Joint Seminar on Steel and Composite Bridges 5 CONCLUSIONS
11
Japan has been working on numerous research and development projects concerning performance based design. Such projects are mainly focused on cost reduction, the improvement of durability, constructability, maintainability, and mitigation of environmental impact. Finally, for this specification, the preparation work is now in the final stage for publication .The Design volume will appear in the near future. 6 REFERENCES
[1] Ministry of Land, Infrastructure and Transport. 2002. Basis of Structural Design for Buildings and Public Works. [2] ISO2394. 1998. International Standard General Principles on Reliability for Structures, 1998.3. [3] Japanese Society of Steel Construction. 2001. Guidelines for Performance-Based Design of Civil Engineering Steel Structures, Technical report No.49. [4] Japan Society of Civil Engineers. 2003a. Code PLATFORM ver.1 [5] Japan Society of Civil Engineers. 2003b. Performance Based Design System of Steel Structures (draft).
