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Unit-3 Melting and Pouring

FOUNDRY FURNACES Choice of Furnace :There are a number of furnaces available which can meet the requirements of melting and casting metals and alloys in foundries. The quality of castings and economics of casting operations will depend upon the furnace selection. Therefore, the following factors should be given careful consideration while selecting a furnace for a job: 1. Capacity of molten metal/alloy required. 2. Melting rate and temperature control desired. 3. Quality of melt required. 4. Economics of melting, i.e. initial cost with operation and maintenance charges. 5. Forms and types of charge material. 6. Method of pouring and types of products to be manufactured. 7. Control of furnace atmosphere. 8. Availability of heating media (power supply and its availability) with cost of fuels and capital investment. 9. Environmental considerations, such as air pollution and noise Cupola The cupola is the most widely used furnace in the foundry for melting ferrous and non-ferrous metals and alloys. A cross-section of a cupola is shown in Fig. A cupola is a shaft furnace of cylindrical shape erected on legs or columns. The cupola shell is made of steel plate 8 or 10 mm thick. The interior is lined with refractory bricks to protect the shell from getting over-heated. The charge for the cupola consists of metallic materials, fuel and fluxes. The metallic part of the charge is made up of definite quantities of pig iron of various grades, cast iron and steel scrap, foundry scrap (gating, rejects and chips) and a small amount of ferroalloys. Foundry coke is used as fuel for melting the metallic charge. Fluxes used in melting both grey iron and steel may be limestone, dolomite (Ca CO3 and MgCO3), fluorspar (CaF2) and CaC etc. The fluxes melt and react with contaminants and non-metallic elements and inclusions, the resulting slag (Calcium silicate) floats to the surface of the melt. By definition, a flux is a substance which reacts with a slag (accumulation of oxides and other unwanted materials) to lower its melting point. Fluxes used in melting non-ferrous metals are usually chlorous and fluoric salts of alkali and alkaline-earth metals. The solid materials (metal, coke, flux) are charged into the cupola from the charging floor through charging hole (door). Charging is mechanised in large foundries where drop bottom buckets are employed. Air for combustion of the fuel is delivered from a blower
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and enters a chamber called the wind box. The wind box completely encircles the cupola. Its purpose is to supply air evenly to all the tuyers, the openings which extend through the steel shell and refractory wall to the combustion zone . The tuyers are arranged above the cupola well. The lower part of the cupola from sand bottom to tuyers is called the well . The products of combustion (flue gases) pass out through stack and spark arrester. The function of spark arrester is to catch the glowing dust carried with the flue gases and thereby prevent fires. The bottom of the cupola is rammed of weak moulding sand possessing high refractoriness. After each heat the bottom is dropped. A tap hole is provided at the lower part of the sand bottom to let the molten metal into a fore hearth or a ladle. A fore hearth is a metal receiver in front of a cupola. It may perform the following functions 1. Mix the molten metal collected over a period of time thus ensuring a more uniform metal. 2. Hold the molten metal in temporary storage. 3. Permit an intermediate metallurgical treatment of the metal such as desulphurising or adding of inoculants (Ferrosilicon, ferromanganese, Ferro-chromium, FerroSilicon-chromium, Ferro silicon-cadmium and others). Slagging is done, as required, through a slag spout.

Figure: Cross section of Cupola furnace

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Cupola Operation:A newly built cupola should be thoroughly dried before firing. The bottom doors are then closed and held shut by means of a vertical prop. A layer of sand about 150 mm thick is placed over the doors and sloped towards the tap hole. In firing a cupola, fire of wood is started on the sand bottom. Coke is then added in several portions to a level slightly above the tuyers and the air blast is turned on at a lower than normal blowing rate. This intensifies coke combustion. Then new portions of coke are charged into the cupola to reach a height of 700 to 800 mm above the tuyers. This layer of coke is called "Coke bed". The height of the coke bed is very important to the cupola process. It affects the temperature, melting rate and chemical composition of the grey iron tapped from the cupola. As soon as the coke bed is thoroughly ignited, alternate charges of limestone, iron and coke are added in weighted portions until level with the charging door. Limestone = 2 to 4% by weight of metal charge Coke = 8 to 12% of the metal charge. Full blast, delivered to the tuyers from the blower is turned on after completely charging the cupola. The first molten metal would appear at the tap hole within 5 to 10 minutes. When the well or the crucible becomes full, the slag is first drained off through the slag spout. For intermittent tapping, the tap hole is closed with a suitable lump of sand and clay called a "bot". For tapping, the bot is punctured with a long bar and the cast iron flows out the tap spout into a holding ladle. When the crucible is empty, another bot is rammed into the tap hole to accumulate another melt. As the cupola is operated, additional charges of limestone, iron and coke are charged through the charging door when there is sufficient space for them. Various zones in a cupola are:1. Well or crucible Zone: It is the space between the bottom of the tuyers and the sand bed. The metal, after melting, drop down and collected in this space before it is tapped out. 2. Tuyers Zone: The zone above the cupola well where tuyers are located is known as Tuyer zone. The openings which extend through the steel shell and refractory wall to the combustion zone are known as Tuyers. 3. Combustion Zone or Oxidizing zone: This zone extends from the top of the tuyers to a surface boundary below which all oxygen of air blast is consumed by combustion of coke. The total height of this zone is normally from 15 cm to 30 cm. The actual combustion takes place in this zone, consuming all free oxygen from the air blast and producing a lot of heat, which is sufficient enough to meet the requirements of other zones of cupola. More heat is evolved due to oxidation of silicon and manganese. A temperature of about 1540C1870C is produced in this zone. The exothermic reactions taking place in this zone can be represented as follows: C + O2 CO2 + Heat Si + O2 SiO2 + Heat 2Mn + O2 2MnO + Heat 4. Reducing Zone or Protective zone: This zone is above the combustion zone upto the top of a coke bed. The CO2 flowing upward through this zone reacts with hot coke and the reaction is endothermic. CO2 + C (Coke) 2CO + Heat
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Because of this reaction, the temperature in the reducing zone gets reduced to @ 1200C. However, due to the reducing atmosphere, this zone protects the metal charge from getting oxidised. 5. Melting Zone: This zone includes the first layer of iron above the initial coke bed. In this zone, the charge starts melting through the coke to the bottom of the cupola. A significant part of carbon pick up by metal also occurs in this zone according to the following reaction 3 Fe + 2CO Fe3 C + CO2 6. Preheating Zone: It extends from above the melting zone to the bottom level of the charging door and contains a number of alternate layers of coke and metal charge. The function of this zone is to preheat the charges from atmospheric temperature to about 1090C before they settle downwards to enter the melting zone. This preheating takes place due to the upward advancing hot gases, from which the solid metal also picks up some sulphur content. 7. Stack: The empty portion of cupola above the preheating zone, winch provides the passage to hot gases to go to atmosphere, is known as Stack. Advantages of a Cupola: 1. It is continuous in operation 2. Low cost of operation as compared to other furnaces of the same capacity. 3. Easy to operate & maintain. 4. Composition of the melt can be controlled. 5. Temperature of the melt can be controlled 6. Very less floor area is required. 7. It is operated for number of hours at a stretch. 8. Very simple design. Disadvantages:1. It is difficult to maintain close temperature control. 2. Since the fuel (Coke) and the molten metal come into contact with each other, some of the elements like Si are lost and others like S are picked up. This changes the final analysis of the molten metal. FLUX A suitable amount of Flux is always added to the metal charge in order to remove the impurities like ash, dirt and sand from the metal. The Flux, on being heated, melts and collects all such impurities to form the Slag. Being lighter, this Slug floats on the surface of the molten metal and is removed separately. Limestone is most common used in ferrous melting as a flux. Sometimes dolomite is also used.

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REFRACTORIES These are those materials which are capable of withstanding high temperatures without fusion. All furnaces are provided with a inside lining of bricks, made up of these materials, A good refractory material should have the following properties: 1. It should not fuse or soften at the high temperature to which it is subjected. 2. It should possess a high resistance to abrasion. 3. It should be able to adapt itself to quick changes in temperature. 4. It should have a low thermal coefficient. 5. It should be corrosion-resistant. 6. It should not react chemically with the constituents of the molten metal. 7. It should be strong enough to retain its shape and resist deformation due to the heavy pressure of the charge. 8. It should serve as an electrical insulator when used in electric furnaces. TYPES OF REFRACTORIES There are three main classes of refractory materials: 1. Acid refractories 2. Basic refractories 3. Neutral refractories. Acid Refractories are Silica having fusion point of 1710C in pure state, Aluminium Silica (46% Al203+ 54% Si02)having a fusion point of 1775C, Silimanite (63% Al, 03 + 37% Si0)having a fusion point of 1900C ; and Alumina or Corundum (Al, 03 ) having a fusion point of 2050C. Basic Refractories include Magnesia having a fusion point of 2800C, Dolomite and Bauxite (A1303.31430). Of all these Magnesia is the best basic refractory material but is costlier. Neutral Refractories, which can be used with equal advantage for both acid and basic processes, are Graphite and Chromite. The fusion temperatures of these two refractories are 3000C and 2180C respectively. Apart from these two, Zirconium Oxide also works as a Neutral Refractory

Induction Furnaces:
Melting of metal in an induction furnace differs from that in the electric arc furnace in that, instead of the bulk of the heat being generated in an arc and radiated to the charge, all the heat is generated in the charge itself. The furnace contains a refractory lined crucible surrounded by a water cooled copper coil. The furnace works on the principle of transformer. Water cooled copper coil is the primary and the secondary is the metal charge. When A.C. is passed through the copper tubing, a magnetic field is set up. This magnetic field induces eddy currents in the crucible charge, which melts the metal. If ferrous metals show magnetic property, the loss due to hysterises produces extra heat. Very high temperatures can be obtained by this method of melting, the only limitation being the ability of the furnace lining to withstand the temperature developed.

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There are two types of induction furnaces: Core-less or high frequency induction furnace:Figure shows a cross-section of a high frequency induction furnace. Here, a watercooled copper coil constituting the primary coil of a transformer completely surrounds the crucible. A high frequency current (10000 cps to 500,000 cps) is passed through the coil. A heavier, secondary current is induced in the charge constituting the secondary coil. The resistance of metal charge will cause it to heat up to the desired temperature.
(i)

Figure: High Frequency Induction Furnace

Core or Channel furnace or Low frequency induction furnace: Here the coil surrounds only a small portion of the crucible and the A.C. passed through the coil is of low frequency (50 to 60 cps).The induction furnaces are employed to melt steel, iron, bronze, brass and Alluminium alloys. They are widely used to melt precision alloys, that is, alloys of exact composition based on iron and other metals. These furnaces have capacities ranging from few kgs to 4 or 6 tones.

Advantages: 1. Simple control: These furnaces can be readily started or stopped. High rate of melting and can deliver metal at regular intervals. 2. Metal can be heated to very high temperatures without the danger of localized overheating that is sometimes observed in electric arc furnaces. 3. Gas atmosphere within the furnace can be controlled or a vacuum may be set up if necessary. 4. The motor effect of the strong electro-magnetic forces in the bath produces a circulatory motion, that is, automatic stirring or mixing. This facilitates better mixing between metal and slag. This mixing characteristic is excellent for alloying and adding new charge of metal. All this results in more uniform composition of the metal. 5. Automatic mixing and stirring of the metal in the bath also has a favorable effect on its degasification and upon the removal of non-metallic inclusions. Thus high quality metals and alloys free of H, and N2 can be easily produced. Disadvantages:1. High initial cost. 2. The low frequency furnace has better efficiency
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Electric Furnaces:
Electric furnaces are one of the major methods of melting in iron and steel factories. These furnaces are thus finding increasing use in foundries. Since there are no products of combustion in these furnaces, the loss of constituent elements is minimum. This results in the production of high quality metal for foundry purposes. Also, there is higher and accurate metallurgical control in getting proper compositions and temperature for casting intricate high duty alloys having various metallurgical and physical properties. Unlike cupola or air furnaces, electric furnaces possess greater adaptability and flexibility and provide precise control over the temperature of molten metal. The high cost of electric power is a limitation, but this is outweighed by several overwhelming advantages listed above. a) Direct Arc Electric Furnace : In this furnace, the source of heat is a continuous arc established directly between carbon electrodes and the charged material. The furnace consists mainly of a heavy cylindrical steel shell with either a spherical or flat base, which is mounted on rollers to enable tilting the furnace when operating a hand wheel. The charge is contained in the bowl-shaped hearth which along with furnace walls arc lined with suitable basic material, such as magnesite refractory bricks. There are two spouts opposite each other, one for pouring the molten metal and the other for taking out the slag. The roof is dome - shaped and is detachable to facilitate easy charging from top.

Figure: Direct Arc Electric Furnace In order to provide the arc with the means of carrying the current, three large vertical electrodes are arranged in a triangular pattern, through the roof of the furnace. These electrodes can be raised or lowered automatically by suitable electric or electronically controlled devices or by hydraulic control with the help of servomotors. For 50 t furnace, each electrode carries a current of the order of 25000 A. The furnace works on the principle that heat is generated when resistance is offered to the flow of electricity. In this case, it is the metal in the charge that provides the resistance to the flow of current. When the metal is molten, the slag offers the resistance to the flow of current. Thus to maintain proper heating even when the metal is molten, the electrodes must be raised so that they just touch the slag layer. The electrodes should have high electrical and low thermal conductivity, good refractoriness and resistance to oxidation or chemical reaction. They should also possess good mechanical strength at elevated temperature. Out of graphite and amorphous carbon, graphite is preferred as it has higher electrical conductivity and is lighter. The charge consists of scrap plus a small amount of carbon and limestone. The scrap consists of 40% heavy scrap such
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as heads, risers and bloom heads, 40% medium scrap and 20% light scrap. The charge should be so distributed as to facilitate the formation of a pool under the electrodes. It is sound practice to place on the furnace base a small amount of light scrap topped by heavier scrap. Light scrap or turnings form another layer to reduce the electrode breakage and allow fast melting. The heaviest pieces of scrap are then placed directly below the electrodes, where the heat is the greatest. The charge is placed in the furnace through the roof which is lifted up for charging. The roof is then closed and the electrodes are lowered. The power supply is switched on. The three carbon electrodes ore electrodes and the metal charge. Within about 2 hours, the charge melts. The power supply is switched off, the electrodes are raised and the furnace is tilted to pour the molten metal into a ladle. The electrodes can be upto 750 mm in diameter and 1.5 to 2.5 m in length. Their lengths within the furnace can be adjusted depending upon the amount of charge and the wear of electrodes. The capacity of such furnaces may be upto 50 tonnes. These furnaces operate on 3-phase supply and consume about 600 to 850 kWh of electric energy to produce 1 tonne of steel from a solid charge. The temperature in the furnace can be as high as 1925C, so as to melt metals with a high concentration of components with high melting points (Chromium, Tungsten, Molybdenum and other admixtures). b) Indirect arc electric furnace: Here, the arc is struck between two electrodes, Fig. 2.56, instead of between electrode and the metal charge. Such furnaces are commonly used for melting copper base alloys. The furnace consists of a horizontal refractory lined drum. Two graphite or carbon electrodes between which the arc is struck, are inserted in the centres of the end walls. The drum is mounted on trunnions and rollers due to which rocking motion can be given to the furnace. When needed, the furnace is tilted on trunnions and the molten metal is poured into a ladle. The capacity of such a furnace is upto 1000 kg.

Figure: Indirect Arc Electric Furnace

As noted above, this furnace is specially designed for non-ferrous metals. However, these furnaces are excellent for melting and refining plain carbon and low alloy and high alloy steels, in addition to non-ferrous metals.
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Advantages of direct electric arc furnaces are: 1. High thermal efficiency (about 70%). 2. Most alloying elements, such as chromium, nickel, tungsten etc. can be recovered from the scrap at negligible cost. 3. Steel may be made direct from pig iron and steel scrap, using the same method as for open-hearth furnaces. 4. An arc furnace is preferred for it is: quicker readyness for use, longer hearth life and ease of repair. Because of high electric energy consumption, these furnaces are recommended for the production of high grade melt of selective quality, where the added expense is warranted. Also, these furnaces have definite economic advantages over the use of cupolas because of high-ash coke in India. Therefore, they are preferred to cupolas for melting C.I. Crucible or Pot furnaces:These are the simplest of all the furnaces used in a foundry. They are used for melting many ferrous and non-ferrous metals. For melting copper-based alloys, the crucibles are made of Chamotte or clay and graphite, while for melting Al and Zinc base alloys these are made of steel or Cl. These are available in convenient shapes and are used as melting pots. These furnaces are usually installed in a formed pit as shown in Figure. They have a refractory lining inside. These furnaces are fired by solid fuel (Coke), pulverized fuel, liquid or gaseous fuel (or natural gas). Both natural and artificial draughts can be used. In coke fired furnaces, the crucible containing metal is placed over the bed of coke. The products of fuel combustion heat the walls of the crucible or pot which transmit the heat to the metal inside. Thus, in most cases, the products of combustion do not come into direct contact with the metal, the metal does not become saturated with flue gases and high quality castings can be made. These furnaces may be stationary, tilting or movable. Tilting-pot furnaces are mounted above the floor level on supports. The furnace is tilted on trunnions to pour the molten metal. The capacity of these furnaces ranges from 30 to 150 kg. The melting time depends upon the metal and the type of fuel used. A disadvantage of these furnaces is the high fuel consumption.

Fig: Pit Furnace

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b ) O i l and Gas Fired Furnaces:

These furnaces utilize oil or gas as a fuel. Infect a mixture of gas and air or oil and air is fed into the furnace which burns inside to produce the desired temperature. The mixture usually enters tangentially and encircles the crucible while burning. The furnaces essentially consist of a cylindrical steel shell, provided with refractory lining inside and proper passage for entry of the fuel mixture. The crucible is seated on a pad formed at the bottom. A Cover is produced at the top to prevent heat losses. These furnaces may be of Stationary Type or Tilti ng Type. The latter type is more preferred. A good design of a Stationary type Gas fired furnace is shown in Fig.

Fig: Gas fired Crucible Furnace

In an oil furnace, instead of coke, oil is used as the fuel. A drum of kerosine oil is placed at a height of 5 to 6 m above floor level. Oil and air are admitted at a pressure of 3.5 kg per sq. m and directed through a nozzle generally placed in tangential position. Thus the flame of burning gases heats the crucible uniformly. Sometimes, oil flames are directed from the top of the furnace. In those furnaces using coal or coke, the crucible rests on the fuel bed, and in the gas fired and oil-fired furnaces the crucible is supported on a block of refractory material.

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Fig: Oil fired furnace METAL-POT FURNACE: The alloys of aluminium, magnesium, antimony, zinc, lead, cadmium and tin can be melted in a metal pot which is usually made of cast iron or steel. The metal container is preferred for melting those alloys which have relatively low melting points. The metal pot is supported by its rim in a stationary furnace which is fired by gas or oil fuel. The products of combustion are discharged through a flue and do not come in contact

Fig: Metal pot furnace

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Pouring and Handling equipment: Metal, melted in a furnace is tapped into a ladle (a refractory lined vessel) which is taken to the moulding boxes and the metal is poured into the moulds from the ladle. Ladles are available in a wide capacity range from 20 to 35 kg to 10 tones and even more. Small ladles are coated inside with clay while large ones are lined with refractory ladle brick or a refractory mass. The lining must be thoroughly dried before filling the ladle with metal. The other pouring and handling equipment includes: Shanks (Ladle handles), trolleys, monorails, cranes, hand wheels, tilting levers etc. Types of Ladles: All types of ladles used in foundries are basically of two types: a) Large reservoir or Holding ladle As is clear from the name, these are large capacity ladles. The molten metal is tapped into these ladles from the furnace. As the name implies, these ladles hold or store the metal temporarily. From these ladles, the metal is then taken to the moulds in smaller ladles. So, these bigger ladles receive and di stribute the molten metal simultaneously. These ladles are steel shells lined with firebricks. The bottom and sides of the ladle can also be lined with fire sand and clay, which is hardened by baking. These are also employed when there may be a mismatch between the rates of melting and using material. b) Crane or Monorail ladles These are also large capacity ladles but smaller in size as compared to holding ladles. These are conveyed with the help of a crane or monorail to the place where the moulds are kept ready for pouring. The capacity of these ladles can range from 350 kg to 100 tones (for very big castings). These ladles are of the following types Lip pouring ladl e:- The action of this ladle is just like that of pouring water out of a jug. To avoid going of slag and other impurities into the mould, the molten metal in the ladle is skimmed with the help of a metal skimming bar before it is poured into the mould. Or a refractory dam can be built in front of the lip to achieve the same results. To pour the metal into the mould, the ladle is tilted by hand wheel or lever. Teapot ladle: This ladle resembles a tea pot except that the snout is inside the body of the ladle. Since the metal leaves the ladle near the bottom, it is clean and free of any slag etc. For pouring, the ladle is tilted with the help of a hand wheel Bottom pour ladle: In this ladle, the tap hole is at the bottom. The tapping can be stopped with a refractory covered vertical rod stopper. Clean metal goes into the mould.

Fig: Types of Ladles