1.
Water Efficiency
1.1 The demand for water
Reducing water consumption and protecting water quality are key objectives in
sustainable building. One critical issue of water consumption is that in many areas of
the country, the demands on the supplying aquifer exceed its ability to replenish itself.
To the maximum extent feasible, facilities should increase their dependence on water
that is collected, used, purified, and reused on-site. The protection and conservation of
water throughout the life of a building may be accomplished by designing for dual
plumbing that recycles water in toilet flushing. Waste-water may be minimized by
utilizing water conserving fixtures such as ultra-low flush toilets and low-flow shower
heads. Bidets help eliminate the use of toilet paper, reducing sewer traffic and
increasing possibilities of re-using water on-site
Freshwater withdrawals have tripled over the last 50 years. The world demand for
freshwater is increasing by 64 billion cubic meters a year (1 cubic meter = 1,000 liters).
The worlds population is growing by roughly 80 million people each year.
Population growth rate of Sri Lanka: 0.904% (2009 est.)
Changes in lifestyles and eating habits in recent years are requiring more water
consumption per capita. (Sri Lankan domestic consumption exceeds 130 liters
per capita)
Energy demand is also accelerating, with corresponding implications for water
demand.
Rectify Leaks
Review
Verify is it really necessary to use water or is there any cost
effective alternative
Reduce
Could water be used more efficiently?
Consider alternative activities or process
which could use water efficiently
Re-use
Consider the possibility of water be
treated/filtered and re-used within
the process/activity
Recycle
Consider the
possibility of water
be recycled and use
for other activity
Fig 01: Water Conservation Hierarchy
1.2 Technical measures of improving water efficiency
1.2.1 Water auditing and metering
a) Water audits
Description
Water audits are a key part of water management. They are essential to gathering the
facts and analysing them so as to provide management with options, costs, savings and
financial returns. Audits form the basis for the sound decision making in the allocation of
always scarce capital.
No standard exists for water audits. They are generally classified as basic and detailed.
A basic level audit is always useful and often a good starting point to help scope
complex buildings and systems that justify a detailed audit. The audit scope should
include:
Recommendations
make a breakdown of usage across the site and site activities, reconciled against total
metered water consumption
inspection of equipment, devices and processes across the site as part of preparing a
usage inventory
investigation of consumption by major equipment, devices and processes
investigation of usage trends and patterns using monitoring as detailed below in this
section
preparation of Performance Indicators (PIs) of consumption (using baseline data) in
relation to an appropriate business activity indicator (such as L/m2/year, or L/Rupees
of product made)
comparison of monthly PIs with industry benchmarks (where available) for baseline
consumption, with consideration of site specific factors (such as climate) where
appropriate
development of a model or flow chart of consumption on the site utilising the
equipment/device inventory and known consumption for the equipment (such as from
suppliers, equipment manuals) and reconciling this with total site consumption
identification and feasibility assessment of water savings measures (note, simple
payback methods may not provide a true assessment, particularly for long-life
measures; whole of life costs may need to be subject to discounted cash flow analysis
to get the true picture).
b) Metering
Description
Investigation of the water consumption in office and public buildings has shown in many
cases that there is inadequate or no metering (such as no submetering for a tenancy).
Water meter data is important to a water management programme. For example, if the
building is multi-tenanted without submetering, it will be necessary to work with the
owners to determine a satisfactory means of apportioning water consumption and costs
following the implementation of water management initiatives.
Apportioning total building water use by the percentage of total net rentable area
occupied by a tenant is one approach that can be used in the absence of tenancy
submetering.
Common metering-related issues which have been found in public sector buildings
include:
Recommendations
Use proper metering system for the building (if no metering at all for a building)
Provide meters (submetering) for sections of buildings (such as base building, cooling
tower or retail services)
Install submetering for individual tenancies
Size the meter for the actual load (in case of oversized meters).
1.2.2 Rectifying leakage (10-30% of water use)
Office and commercial building water supply systems and equipment are prone to
leakage. Leakage losses of 10-30% are not uncommon. Many problems start off small
and can be almost imperceptible (such as a slight leak from a toilet cistern) yet increase
gradually over time. Occupants can become desensitised to leaks and some are not
detected and/or reported for 6-12 months if there is no routine maintenance inspection
programme. Given that such leakage is on a 24x7 basis, even a modest leak of 2
L/minute accounts for 1000000 L over one year. In a large building even just 10 such
small leaks can quickly aggregate into significant losses that are not obvious from the
single meter consumption figure in a monthly water bill.
Common sources of leakage in office and public buildings include cooling towers, taps
(especially in high usage areas where tap washer wear is high), urinals, cistern flapper
and filler ball valves, fire hose reels, underground pipes and control valves. Leakage is
sometimes referred to as unaccounted for water or base flow.
1.2.2.1 Water saving opportunities
Rectifying leaks quite often provides the best return on investment of all water saving
measures. Such maintenance should be completed before any efficiency measures so
that a true baseline of consumption can be established against which to check the
savings from other measures. Possible actions include:
Recommendations
Implement planned maintenance and/or replacement of problematic items regardless
of condition (such as changing discharge flapper valves on cisterns every two years).
Make leak reporting the responsibility of cleaners, maintenance contractors and
security personnel (in addition to staff of course). Install stickers with hotline numbers
to encourage visitors to report problems.
Conduct 6-monthly inspections of grounds and storm water pits to observe damp
areas or unexpected flows to drain.
Regularly inspect and exercise hot water system pressure relief valves.
1.2.3 Cooling towers (30-40% of building consumption)
Many commercial and public buildings, and in particular larger buildings, have cooling
towers. They can account for up to 30-40% of such a buildings water use. These
towers will most likely be roof mounted (out of sight - out of mind) so any water related
problems cannot be easily identified. If towers are provided, they should be regularly
monitored and thoroughly checked as part of a routine maintenance programme.
Cooling towers are used to cool condenser water pumped to the roof from the building
cooling plant (chillers or package units) after it has extracted heat from the building.
They are essentially an open water reservoir or basin inside a vented enclosure with an
extraction fan at the top. Warm condenser water is sprayed down onto internal fill
material while air is drawn through it via vents at the bottom or sides of the tower. Water
that is not lost to evaporation and drift then falls into the tower basin where it is treated
before being returned to the cooling plant. Make up water needs to be supplied to
compensate for water lost due to evaporation (an essential cooling process) and
unnecessary losses.
1.2.3.1 Water use in cooling towers
Water is lost from cooling tower systems for a range of reasons. Figure 2 shows the
typical breakdown of evaporation, bleed/blow-down, drift and splash (these terms are
explained below) in a well-designed tower, which together can account for 30-40% of
total water consumption in buildings with cooling towers. This percentage can be higher
if the system has leakage, water treatment or overfilling problems. These losses are
compensated for by make up water (usually from the potable water supply) which is
added to the basin and regulated via a float valve.
Figure 2: Cooling tower system schematic
1.2.3.1 Cooling tower efficiency and improvement measures
The typical problem areas and suitable response measures are discussed below.
a) Overflow - occurs when the level of water within a cooling tower basin rises above a
predetermined design level. Normally this water flows down an overflow pipe to the
sewer. In some cases it can account for up to 40% of daily make up water.
Recommendations
Avoid wastage due to operational problems or inadequate maintenance such as water
supply ball valve repair or adjustment, overflow pipe repositioning or leak repair,
condenser water pipes not positioned below tower spray head so as to eliminate
backflow or water imbalance between interconnected towers.
b) Leaks - leaks can occur in tower basins or casings, flexible connections, pump gland
seals and control valves. They are usually evident from ponding around the tower.
Recommendations
Rectify leaks in basins or casings, flexible connections, pump gland seals and control
valves.
c) Evaporation - the amount of water consumed through evaporation is dictated by the
temperature difference between the condenser water inlet and outlet of the cooling
tower. Evaporation is an essential and unavoidable part of the water cooling process in
cooling towers.
d) Bleed - to prevent the build up of dissolved and suspended solids (both organic and
mineral) in the water left behind after evaporation, some water must bleed off from the
basin to allow dilution by fresh water. The bleed or blow-down process is normally
automatic and controlled via a sensor that measures Total Dissolved Solids (TDS)
concentrations in the water as indicated by water conductivity. When the conductivity
reaches a predetermined setting, the bleed valve opens and so allows water to flow
from the towers basin to the sewer. Savings measures include:
Recommendations
Conduct monthly cleaning of sensors plus at least a 6-monthly calibration to make
sure it is not causing unnecessary bleed
Fitting automatic bleed lockout to prevent bleed off when the system is being injected
with biocide.
Maximising the cycles of concentration used (the ratio of the concentration of
dissolved solids in the condenser water to those in the make up water), a ratio that is
reflected by the water conductivity as measured by a sensor. Increasing this ratio from
3 to 9 can reduce bleed water volumes by 25% - ratios of less than 3 are indicative of
very high bleed water losses and hence costs in water, sewer and chemicals.
Bleeding off water may well present a reuse opportunity for landscape irrigation.
However, quantities may be relatively small and treatment may be necessary before
reuse (OH&S issues) so these factors should be carefully considered in any feasibility
analysis.
e) Drift - is the water lost from the cooling tower as liquid droplets entrained in the
exhaust air, excluding condensation. Current standards limit drift to 0.002% of the
circulated flow rate. Measures include the fitting of drift eliminators or arrestors.
Reducing drift also results in chemical cost savings.
f) Splash - is due to water being accidentally lost from a cooling tower due to the
splashing action of falling water within the tower or the effect of a strong wind blowing
through a tower exposed to the elements. This is usually due to poor design.
Recommendations
Fix anti-splash louvres or splash mats, or install wind breaks to reduce splash losses.
g) Plant operation loads and times - reducing the amount of central plant in operation
and/or the time for which it operates also reduces cooling tower water losses (and
saves energy). The Building Management System (BMS) settings should be checked to
ensure that plant is not starting too early, running too late or operating unnecessarily on
weekends. The controls and plant configuration should also be reviewed to make sure
that only the minimum needed is in operation at any time. After hours tenant requests
for service may be bringing on all tower pumps and fans when only one of a multi-tower
bank may be needed. A cooling tower bypass valve can also reduce tower losses for
instances of low heat load (such as mild weather, partial building occupancy). Fitting
variable speed drives to cooling tower fans also helps, they allow system operation to
better reflect actual load requirements and so reduce water consumption. Associated
energy savings may far exceed the water cost savings and so free up funds for
investment in further water efficiency measures.
Recommendations
Install Building Management System (BMS) to regulate the plant operation
h) Plant maintenance - building managers and their maintenance contractors should
consider a range of strategies to achieve optimum cooling tower performance:
Recommendations
Adopt a risk management/performance based maintenance regime rather than routine
periodic (such as every 6 months) programme, as such periodic programmes can lead
to unnecessary chemical and water use.
Targets for water and chemical use and cycles of concentration should be agreed, set
and closely monitored.
Include a system diagnostic check list as part of any routine monthly checks and other
contractor service visits.
If side stream filters are fitted, use bag or cartridge filters in the back wash process,
or at least capture bleed-off water and use it for back washing.
An effective plant scale, corrosion and bio-fouling protection plan will ensure chillers
operate at maximum efficiency and so reduce cooling tower loads and hence water
losses.
Fan belt tightness should be regularly checked. If belts are loose then operating times
may be extended to compensate for loss of tower performance which will result in
greater tower water loss.
Consider non-chemical water treatment options such as ozone and ultraviolet that
usually offer superior performance and reduced maintenance.
i) Water treatment - cooling towers represent a very complex and dynamic water
system. The water must be treated to address constantly changing biological, scale,
erosion, corrosion and sludge issues. A complex mix of corrosion inhibitors,
antiscalants, antifoulants, dispersants, surfactants, biocides and pH control chemicals is
needed. These need to be carefully managed by a treatment expert, as major health
issues and equipment damage can occur in just a couple of days. There is no set and
forget option for water treatment.
Biological treatment eliminates organisms such as bacteria (a major health risk) as well
as viruses, fungi, slime and algae which in such an ideal moist and warm environment
can build up into a biofilm that fouls heat exchangers and attacks components. These
biological treatments also indirectly reduce scale build up as mineral micro-crystals
(calcium and magnesium commonly) adhere especially well to biofilm.
Other treatments (such as acidic compounds) directly reduce the build up in mineral
concentrations (commonly calcium chloride) in the cooling plant. Such minerals are
introduced by the make up water but are left behind by water evaporating from the
system. Left unchecked the mineral concentrations would build up to a point where they
are so concentrated they would begin to settle out of the condenser water to form scale.
Whilst adding make up water can reduce the concentrations, chemicals can allow the
concentration to increase before scaling occurs. This saves bleed water and the loss of
other expensive chemicals.
Chemicals are also added to inhibit corrosion. Typically such chemicals are injected by
dosing equipment. Hexavalent chromium-based (chrome) compounds are among the
most efficient and cheapest corrosion inhibitors available. However, hexavalent
chromium is a suspected carcinogen, and is highly toxic. However, there are now other
non-chemical options at least for biological treatment or disinfection, such as ozone or
ultraviolet based treatment systems.
j) Ozone - is a high energy form of oxygen and the most efficient broad spectrum
microbial control agent available. Correctly applied (some installations and operating
environments are unsuitable), it destroys all bacteria, viruses and cysts. The ozone is
produced electronically in an ozone generator under vacuum conditions. It is drawn into
the cooling water, producing a powerful biocidal effect throughout the cooling tower and
the cooling system. Acting as a biocide throughout the cooling system, it destroys
bacteria, algae and viruses, both in the water and attached to the pipe work and cooling
tower.
Ozone treatment reduces the amount of other biocides needed or can even eliminate
them. Its effectiveness reduces the quantity of dissolved solids and so reduces the
amount of bleed needed. In reducing biofilm, equipment efficiency is improved so tower
operating times are reduced, thereby reducing losses due to leaks, splash and drift.
Case studies indicate that bleed can be reduced by 90%, cycles of concentration ratios
can increase from 5-10 to 30-40 and bacterial counts are reduced by three orders of
magnitude. There can be some corrosion issues, but on balance, no worse than for the
chemicals displaced.
k) Ultraviolet (UV) - treatment systems pass tower basin water through a UV unit which
destroys pathogenic bacteria and viruses. It is a non-corrosive process, so no
chemicals need be stored on site. Also, no biocides are present to be carried off-site in
tower drift and there are no chemicals to adversely impact the system water pH or its
composition. The capital costs and the running costs are low, and the equipment usually
suits retrofit situations. For similar reasons to ozone treatment, UV water treatment
systems save water. In addition, chemical and energy costs are lowered and waste
water quality improved (for chemical treatment systems some authorities may require
treatment of bleed water prior to discharge). However, the UV elements require cleaning
to maintain effectiveness (some newer units are self-cleaning). They must also be
correctly sized to suit the water volume. Therefore, the whole of life cycle costs and
benefits of such alternatives to chemical dosing should be investigated.
l) Tower water filtration - the cooling tower sprays pick up air pollutants and deposit
them into the cooling tower water system. The water supply itself may also carry
sediment. Among other operational problems, this increases both the need for chemical
treatment and the need for blow down.
Recommendation
The fitting of filters can reduce this contamination by 2-10% with 10-20% savings in
chemicals and blow down water possible, depending on ambient air pollution levels.
m) Tower air filtration - some towers can be exposed to larger air borne contamination
(such as leaves, insects, paper) which are drawn into the tower water, especially if wave
type air inlets are fitted. This material also leads to increased treatment and blow down
volumes. The fitting of air intake filters can often be justified purely for operation and
maintenance reasons, with water savings being a bonus - they should be considered as
part of any water efficiency audit. Care must be taken to avoid unneccesary pressure
drops or energy use will have to increase to maintain effectiveness.
n) Heat recovery - it may be feasible for heat from condenser water flows to be
recovered via heat exchangers and used elsewhere in the building (such as pre-heating
the supply to hot water boilers). Energy cost savings can then be made available for
funding water saving measures.
Recommendation
Use any means of heat extraction by the heat exchanger which will reduce the tower
cooling load and thereby directly reduce tower water consumption.
p) Consumption monitoring - fitting sub meters to tower makeup water supply and the
blow down lines, with regular monitoring via the Building Management System (BMS) or
a specialist water monitoring system, is an effective way of keeping a focus on
performance and getting an early warning of problems. Failing this, meter readings
should be recorded weekly. Either way, the consumption should be reviewed weekly, or
performance assessed based on the floor area (m2) cooled, the operating hours and
the climatic conditions. A history of data will allow future anomalies to be quickly
identified and acted on. Towers can also be benchmarked to assess relative
performance. Fitting a sub meter to the bleed off or blow down system is also useful for
two other reasons it allows closer monitoring and control of expensive chemical
dosing and provides data that may support a claim to reduce the site sewerage use
discharge factor and so save on sewerage charges.
Recommendation
Fix sub meters to tower makeup water supply and the blow down lines, with regular
monitoring via the Building Management System (BMS) or a specialist water monitoring
system
1.2.4 Amenities (30-40% of building consumption)
1.2.4.1 Background and standards
Urinals, toilets and taps are all common sources of water waste and maintenance costs
in office and public buildings. Some buildings also provide shower facilities although this
is not common and usage by occupants may be low.
a) Water closets
Water closets (WCs) or toilets can use anywhere from 11 litres per flush for the older
