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9. DGSETSYSTEM
9.1Introduction
Diesel engine is the prime mover, which drives an alternator to produce electrical energy. In the diesel
engine, air is drawn into the cylinder and is compressed to a high ratio (14:1 to25:1). During this
compression, the air is heated to a temperature of 700900C. A metered quantity of diesel fuel is then
injected into the cylinder, which ignites spontaneously because of the high temperature. Hence, the
diesel engine is also known as compression ignition (CI) engine. DG set can be classified according to
cycle type as: two stroke and four stroke. However, the bulk of IC engines use the four stroke cycle. Let
us look at the principle of operation of the four-stroke diesel engine.
Four Stroke - Diesel Engine
The 4 stroke operations in a diesel engine are: induction stroke, compression stroke, ignition and power
stroke and exhaust stroke.
1st: Induction stroke - while the inlet valve is open, the descending piston draws in fresh air.
2nd: Compression stroke - while the valves are closed, the air is compressed to a pressure of up to 25
bar.
3rd: Ignition and power stroke - fuel is injected, while the valves are closed (fuel injection actually starts
at the end of the previous stroke), the fuel ignites spontaneously and the piston is forced downwards by
the combustion gases.
4th: Exhaust stroke - the exhaust valve is open and the rising piston discharges the spent gases from the
cylinder.


Since power is developed during only one stroke, the single cylinder four-stroke engine has a low degree
of uniformity. Smoother running is obtained with multi cylinder engines because the cranks are
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staggered in relation to one another on the crankshaft. There are many variations of engine
configuration, for example. 4 or 6 cylinder, in-line, horizontally opposed, vee or radial configurations.
DG Set as a System
A diesel generating set should be considered as a system since its successful operation depends on the
well-matched performance of the components, namely: a) The diesel engine and its accessories. b)The
AC Generator. c) The control systems and switchgear. d) The foundation and power house civil works. e)
The connected load with its own components like heating, motor drives, lighting etc. It is necessary to
select the components with highest efficiency and operate them at their optimum efficiency levels to
conserve energy in this system.

Fig 9.2 DG Set System
Selection Considerations
To make a decision on the type of engine, which is most suitable for a specific application, several
factors need to be considered. The two most important factors are: power and speed of the engine. The
power requirement is determined by the maximum load. The engine power rating should be 10 20 %
more than the power demand by the end use. This prevents overloading the machine by absorbing extra
load during starting of motors or switching of some types of lighting systems or when wear and tear on
the equipment pushes up its power consumption. Speed is measured at the output shaft and given in
revolutions per minute (RPM). An engine will operate over a range of speeds, with diesel engines
typically running at lower speeds (1300 3000 RPM). There will be an optimum speed at which fuel
efficiency will be greatest. Engines should be run as closely as possible to their rated speed to avoid poor
efficiency and to prevent build up of engine deposits due to incomplete combustion which will lead to
higher maintenance and running costs. To determine the speed requirement of an engine, one has to
again look at the requirement of the load. For some applications, the speed of the engine is not critical,
but for other applications such as a generator, it is important to get a good speed match. If a good
match can be obtained, direct coupling of engine and generator is possible; if not, then some form of
gearing will be necessary - a gearbox or belt system, which will add to the cost and reduce the efficiency.
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There are various other factors that have to be considered, when choosing an engine for a given
application. These include the following:
cooling system,
abnormal environmental conditions (dust, dirt, etc.), fuel quality,
speed governing (fixed or variable speed),
poor maintenance,
control system,
starting equipment,
drive type,
ambient temperature, altitude, humidity, etc.
Suppliers or manufacturers literature will specify the required information when purchasing an engine.
The efficiency of an engine depends on various factors, for example, load factor (percentage of full
load), engine size, and engine type.
Diesel Generator Captive Power Plants
Diesel engine power plants are most frequently used in small power (captive non-utility) systems. The
main reason for their extensive use is the higher efficiency of the diesel engines compared with gas
turbines and small steam turbines in the output range considered. In applications requiring low captive
power, without much requirement of process steam, the ideal method of power generation would be by
installing diesel generator plants. The fuels burnt in diesel engines range from light distillates to residual
fuel oils. Most frequently used diesel engine sizes are between the range 4 to 15 MW. For continuous
operation, low speed diesel engine is more cost-effective than high speed diesel engine. Advantages of
adopting Diesel Power Plants are:
Low installation cost
Short delivery periods and installation period
Higher efficiency (as high as 43 45%)
More efficient plant performance under part loads
Suitable for different type of fuels such as low sulphur heavy stock and heavy fuel oil in case of large
capacities.
Minimum cooling water requirements,
Adopted with air cooled heat exchanger in areas where water is not available
Short start up time

A brief comparison of different types of captive power plants (combined gas turbine and steam turbine,
conventional steam plant and diesel engine power plant) is given in Table [Link] can be seen from the
Table that captive diesel plant wins over the other two in terms of thermal efficiency, capital cost, space
requirements, auxiliary power consumption, plant load factor etc.
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Diesel Engine Power Plant Developments
The diesel engine developments have been steady and impressive. The specific fuel consumption has
come down from a value of 220 g/kWh in the 1970s to a value around 160 g/kWh in present times. Slow
speed diesel engine, with its flat fuel consumption curve over a wide load range (50%100%), compares
very favourably over other prime movers such as medium speed diesel engine, steam turbines and gas
turbines. With the arrival of modern, high efficiency turbochargers, it is possible to use an exhaust gas
driven turbine generator to further increase the engine rated out-put. The net result lower fuel
consumption per kWh and further increase in overall thermal efficiency. The diesel engine is able to
burn the poorest quality fuel oils, unlike gas turbine, which is able to do so with only costly fuel
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treatment equipment. Slow speed dual fuel engines are now available using high-pressure gas injection,
which gives the same thermal efficiency and power output as a regular fuel oil engine.
9.2 Selection and Installation Factors
Sizing of a Genset:
a) If the DG set is required for 100% standby, then the entire connected load in HP/ kVA should be
added. After finding out the diversity factor, the correct capacity of a DG set can be found out.
Example :
Connected Load=650 kW Diversity Factor=0.54(Demand / connected load) Max. Demand=650 x 0.54 =
350 kW, % Loading=70, Set rating=350/0.7 = 500 kW At 0.8 PF, rating=625 kVA

b) For an existing installation, record the current, voltage and power factors (kWh / kVAh) reading at the
main bus-bar of the system at every half-an-hour interval for a period of 23 days and during this period
the factory should be having its normal operations. The non-essential loads should be switched off to
find the realistic current taken for running essential equipment. This will give a fair idea about the
current taken from which the rating of the set can be calculated. For existing installation:
kVA= 3 VI
kVARating= kVA/ Load Factor
where Load factor= Average kVA/ Maximum kVA

c) For a new installation, an approximate method of estimating the capacity of a DG set is to add full
load currents of all the proposed loads to be run in DG set. Then, applying a diversity factor depending
on the industry, process involved and guidelines obtained from other similar units, correct capacity can
be arrived at.

High Speed Engine or Slow/Medium Speed Engine
The normal accepted definition of high speed engine is 1500 rpm. The high speed sets have been
developed in India, whereas the slow speed engines of higher capacities are often imported. The other
features and comparison between high and medium / slow speed engines are mentioned below:
Factor Slow speed engine High speed engine

Break mean effective pressure
therefore wear and tear and
consumption of spares
Low High
Weight to power ratio- therefore
sturdiness and life
More Less
Space High Less
Type of use Continuous use Intermittent use
Period between overhauls* 8000 hours 3200
Direct operating cost (includes
lubricating oils, filters etc.

Less High
*Typical recommendations from manufacturers
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Keeping the above factors and available capacities of DG set in mind, the cost of economics for both the
engines should be worked out before arriving at a decision.
Capacity Combinations
From the point of view of space, operation, maintenance and initial capital investment, it is certainly
economical to go in for one large DG set than two or more DG sets in parallel. Two or more DG sets
running in parallel can be a advantage as only the short-fall in powerdepending upon the extent of
power cut prevailing - needs to filled up. Also, flexibility of operation is increased since one DG set can
be stopped, while the other DG set is generating at least 50% of the power requirement. Another
advantage is that one DG set can become 100%standby during lean and low power-cut periods.
Air Cooling Vs. Water Cooling
The general feeling has been that a water cooled DG set is better than an air cooled set, as most users
are worried about the overheating of engines during summer months. This is to some extent is true and
precautions have to be taken to ensure that the cooling water temperature does not exceed the
prescribed limits. However, from performance and maintenance point of view, water and air cooled sets
are equally good except that proper care should be taken to ensure cross ventilation so that as much
cool air as possible is circulated through the radiator to keep its cooling water temperature within limits.
While, it may be possible to have air cooled engines in the lower capacities, it will be necessary to go in
for water cooled engines in larger capacities to ensure that the engine does not get over-heated during
summer months.
Safety Features
It is advisable to have short circuit, over load and earth fault protection on all the DG sets. However, in
case of smaller capacity DG sets, this may become uneconomical. Hence, it is strongly recommended to
install a circuit protection. Other safety equipment like high temperature, low lube oil pressure cut-outs
should be provided, so that in the event of any of these abnormalities, the engine would stop and
prevent damage. It is also essential to pro-vide reverse power relay when DG sets are to run in parallel
to avoid back feeding from one alternator to another.
Parallel Operation with Grid
Running the DG set in parallel with the mains from the supply undertakings can be done in consultation
with concerned electricity authorities. However, some supply undertakings ask the consumer to give an
undertaking that the DG set will not be run in parallel with their supply. The reasons stated are that the
grid is an infinite bus and paralleling a small capacity DG set would involve operational risks despite
normal protections like reverse power relay, voltage and frequency relays.
Maximum Single Load on DG Set
The starting current of squirrel cage induction motors is as much as six times the rated current for a few
seconds with direct-on-line starters. In practice, it has been found that the starting current value should
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not exceed 200 % of the full load capacity of the alternator. The voltage and frequency throughout the
motor starting interval recovers and reaches rated values usually much before the motor has picked up
full speed.
In general, the HP of the largest motor that can be started with direct on line starting is about 50 % of
the kVA rating of the generating set. On the other hand, the capacity of the induction motor can be
increased, if the type of starting is changed over to star delta or to auto transformer starter, and with
this starting the HP of the largest motor can be upto 75 %of the kVA of Genset.
Unbalanced Load Effects
It is always recommended to have the load as much balanced as possible, since unbalanced loads can
cause heating of the alternator, which may result in unbalanced output voltages. The maximum
unbalanced load between phases should not exceed 10 % of the capacity of the generating sets.
Neutral Earthing
The electricity rules clearly specify that two independent earths to the body and neutral should be
provided to give adequate protection to the equipment in case of an earth fault, and also to drain away
any leakage of potential from the equipment to the earth for safe working.
Site Condition Effects on Performance De-rating
Site condition with respect to altitude, intake temperature and cooling water temperature de-rate diesel
engine output as shown in following Tables: 9.2 and 9.3.
TABLE 9.2 ALTITUDE AND INTAKE TEMPERATURE CORRECTIONS
Correction Factors For Engine Output
Altitude Correction Temperature Correction
Altitude Meters
over MSL
Non Super
Charged
Super Charged Intake C Correction Factor

610 0.980 0.980 32 1.000
915 0.935 0.950 35 0.986
1220 0.895 0.915 38 0.974
1525 0.855 0.882 41 0.962
1830 0.820 0.850 43 0.950
2130 0.780 0.820 46 0.937
2450 0.745 0.790 49 0.925
2750 0.712 0.765 52 0.913
3050 0.680 0.740 54 0.900
3660 0.612 0.685
4270 0.550 0.630
4880 0.494 0.580
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TABLE 9.3 DERATING DUE TO AIR INTER COOLER WATER INLET TEMPERATURE
Water Temperature C Flow % Derating %
25 100 0
30 125 3
35 166 5
40 166 8

9.3Operational Factors
Load Pattern & DG Set Capacity
The average load can be easily assessed by logging the current drawn at the main switchboard on an
average day. The 'over load' has a different meaning when referred to the D.G. set. Overloads, which
appear insignificant and harmless on electricity board supply, may become detrimental to a [Link], and
hence overload on D.G. set should be carefully analysed. Diesel engines are designed for 10% overload
for 1 hour in every 12 hours of operation. The A.C. generators are designed to meet 50% overload for 15
seconds as specified by standards. The D.G. set /s selection should be such that the overloads are within
the above specified limits. It would be ideal to connect steady loads on DG set to ensure good
performance. Alongside alternator loading, the engine loading in terms of kW or BHP, needs to be
maintained above 50%. Ideally, the engine and alternator loading conditions are both to be achieved
towards high efficiency. Engine manufacturers offer curves indicating % Engine Loading vs fuel
Consumption in grams/BHP. Optimal engine loading corresponding to best operating point is desirable
for energy efficiency. Alternators are sized for kVA rating with highest efficiency attainable at a loading
of around 70% and more. Manufacturers curves can be referred to for best efficiency point and
corresponding kW and kVA loading values.
Sequencing of Loads
The captive diesel generating set has certain limits in handling the transient loads. This applies to both
kW (as reflected on the engine) and kVA (as reflected on the generator). In this context, the base load
that exists before the application of transient load brings down the transient load handling capability,
and in case of A.C. generators, it increases the transient voltage dip. Hence, great care is required in
sequencing the load on [Link]/s. It is advisable to start the load with highest transient kVA first
followed by other loads in the descending order of the starting kVA. This will lead to optimum sizing and
better utilization of transient load handling capacity of D.G. set.
Load Pattern
In many cases, the load will not be constant throughout the day. If there is substantial variation in load,
then consideration should be given for parallel operation of D.G. sets. In such a situation, additional D.G.
set(s) are to be switched on when load increases. The typical case may be an establishment demanding
substantially different powers in first, second and third shifts. By parallel operation, D.G. sets can be run
at optimum operating points or near about, for optimum fuel consumption and additionally, flexibility is
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built into the system. This scheme can be also be applied where loads can be segregated as critical and
non-critical loads to provide standby power to critical load in the captive power system.
Load Characteristics
Some of the load characteristics influence efficient use of [Link]. These characteristics are entirely load
dependent and cannot be controlled by the [Link]. The extent of detrimental influence of these
characteristics can be reduced in several cases.
Power Factor:
The load power factor is entirely dependent on the load. The A.C. generator is designed for the power
factor of 0.8 lag as specified by standards. Lower power factor demands higher excitation currents and
results in increased losses. Over sizing A.C. generators for operation at lower power factors results in
lower operating efficiency and higher costs. The economical alternative is to provide power factor
improvement capacitors.
Unbalanced Load:
Unbalanced loads on A.C. generator leads to unbalanced set of voltages and additional heating in A.C.
generator. When other connected loads like motor loads are fed with unbalanced set of voltages
additional losses occur in the motors as well. Hence, the load on the A.C. generators should be balanced
as far as possible. Where single phase loads are predominant, consideration should be given for
procuring single phase A.C. generator.
Transient Loading:
On many occasions to contain transient voltage dip arising due to transient load application, a specially
designed generator may have to be selected. Many times an unstandard combination of engine and A.C.
generator may have to be procured. Such a combination ensures that the prime mover is not
unnecessarily over sized which adds to capital cost and running cost.
Special Loads:
Special loads like rectifier / thyristor loads, welding loads, furnace loads need an application check. The
manufacturer of diesel engine and AC generator should be consulted for proper recommendation so
that desired utilisation of DG set is achieved without any problem. In certain cases of loads, which are
sensitive to voltage, frequency regulation, voltage wave form, consideration should be given to
segregate the loads, and feed it by a dedicated power supply which usually assumes the form of DG
motor driven generator set. Such an alternative ensures that special design of AC generator is restricted
to that portion of the load which requires high purity rather than increasing the price of the [Link] by
specially designed AC generator for complete load.


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Waste Heat Recovery in DG Sets
A typical energy balance in a DG set indicates following break-up:
Input : 100% Thermal Energy
Outputs : 35%Electrical Output
4% Alternator Losses
33%Stack Loss through Flue Gases
24%Coolant Losses
4%Radiation Losses

Among these, stack losses through flue gases or the exhaust flue gas losses on account of existing flue
gas temperature of 350C to 550C, constitute the major area of concern towards operational economy.
It would be realistic to assess the Waste Heat Recovery (WHR) potential in relation to quantity,
temperature margin, in kcals/Hour as: Potential WHR=(kWh Output/Hour) x (8 kg Gases / kWh Output)x
0.25 kcal/kgC x (tg 180C)Where, tg is the gas temperature after Turbocharger, (the criteria being that
limiting exit gas temperature cannot be less than 180C, to avoid acid dew point corrosion), 0.25 being
the specific heat of flue gases and kWh output being the actual average unit generation from the set per
hour. For a 1100 KVA set, at 800 KW loading, and with 480C exhaust gas temperature, the waste heat
potential works out to:800 kWh x 8 kg gas generation / kWh output x 0.25 kCal/kgCx (480 180), i.e.,
4,80,000 kCal/hr While the above method yields only the potential for heat recovery, the actual
realizable potential depends upon various factors and if applied judiciously, a well configured waste heat
recovery system can tremendously boost the economics of captive DG power generation. The factors
affecting Waste Heat Recovery from flue Gases are: a)DG Set loading, temperature of exhaust gases
b)Hours of operation and c)Back pressure on the DG set*Consistent DG set loading (to over 60% of
rating) would ensure a reasonable exit flue gas quantity and temperature. Fluctuations and gross under
loading of DG set results inerratic flue gas quantity and temperature profile at entry to heat recovery
unit, there by leading to possible cold end corrosion and other problems.

TABLE 9.4 TYPICAL FLUE GAS TEMPERATURE AND FLOW PATTERN IN A 5-MW DG SET AT VARIOUS
LOADS
100% Load11.84 kgs/Sec370C90% Load10.80 kgs/Sec350C70% Load9.08 kgs/Sec330C60% Load7.50
kgs/Sec325CIf the normal load is 60%, the flue gas parameters for waste heat recovery unit would be
320C inlet temperature, 180C outlet temperature and 27180 kgs/Hour gas flow. At 90% loading,
however, values would be 355C and 32,400 kgs/Hour, respectively
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*Number of hours of operation of the DG Set has an influence on the thermal performance of waste
heat Recovery unit. With continuous DG Set operations, cost benefits are favourable.
*Back pressure in the gas path caused by additional pressure drop in waste heat recovery unit is another
key factor. Generally, the maximum back pressure allowed is around 250300 mm WC and the heat
recovery unit should have a pressure drop lower than that. Choice of convective waste heat recovery
systems with adequate heat transfer area are known to provide reliable service.
The configuration of heat recovery system and the choice of steam parameters can be judiciously
selected with reference to the specific industry (site) requirements. Much good work has taken place in
Indian Industry regarding waste heat recovery and one interesting configuration, deployed is installation
of waste heat boiler in flue gas path along with a vapour absorption chiller, to produce 8C chilled water
working on steam from waste heat. The favourable incentives offered by Government of India for
energy efficient equipment and technologies (100% depreciation at the end of first year), make the
waste heat recovery option. Payback period is only about 2 years
9.4 Energy Performance Assessment of DG Sets
Routine energy efficiency assessment of DG sets on shop floor involves following typical steps:
1) Ensure reliability of all instruments used for trial.
2) Collect technical literature, characteristics, and specifications of the plant.
3) Conduct a 2 hour trial on the DG set, ensuring a steady load, wherein the following measurements are
logged at 15 minutes intervals.
a) Fuel consumption (by dip level or by flow meter)
b) Amps, volts, PF, kW, kWh
c) Intake air temperature, Relative Humidity (RH)
d) Intake cooling water temperature
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e) Cylinder-wise exhaust temperature (as an indication of engine loading)
f) Turbocharger RPM (as an indication of loading on engine)
g) Charge air pressure (as an indication of engine loading)
h) Cooling water temperature before and after charge air cooler (as an indication of cooler
performance)
i) Stack gas temperature before and after turbocharger (as an indication of turbocharger performance)

4) The fuel oil/diesel analysis is referred to from an oil company data.

5) Analysis: The trial data is to be analysed with respect to:
a) Average alternator loading.
b) Average engine loading.
c) Percentage loading on alternator.
d) Percentage loading on engine.
e) Specific power generation kWh/liter.
f) Comments on Turbocharger performance based on RPM and gas temperature difference.
g) Comments on charge air cooler performance.
h)Comments on load distribution among various cylinders (based on exhaust temperature, the
temperature to be 5% of mean and high/low values indicate disturbed condition).
i) Comments on housekeeping issues like drip leakages, insulation, vibrations, etc.
A format as shown in the Table 9.5 is useful for monitoring the performance
DG Electricity Derated Type of Average Specific Set Generating Electricity Fuel Load as %Fuel Cons. Lube
Oil No. Capacity Generating used of Derated Lit/kWh Cons.(Site), kW Capacity, kW Capacity Lit/kWh
TABLE 9.5TYPICAL FORMAT FOR DG SET MONITORING
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9.5 Energy Saving Measures for DG Sets
a) Ensure steady load conditions on the DG set, and provide cold, dust free air at intake (use of air
washers for large sets, in case of dry, hot weather, can be considered).
b) Improve air filtration.
c) Ensure fuel oil storage, handling and preparation as per manufacturers' guidelines/oil company data.
d) Consider fuel oil additives in case they benefit fuel oil properties for DG set usage.
e) Calibrate fuel injection pumps frequently.
f) Ensure compliance with maintenance checklist.
g) Ensure steady load conditions, avoiding fluctuations, imbalance in phases, harmonic loads.
h) In case of a base load operation, consider waste heat recovery system adoption for steam generation
or refrigeration chiller unit incorporation. Even the Jacket Cooling Water is amenable for heat recovery,
vapour absorption system adoption.
i) In terms of fuel cost economy, consider partial use of biomass gas for generation. Ensuretar removal
from the gas for improving availability of the engine in the long run.
j) Consider parallel operation among the DG sets for improved loading and fuel economy thereof.
k) Carryout regular field trials to monitor DG set performance, and maintenance planning as per
requirements.