I. WHAT IS LEADERSHIP?

A. Defined
1. Leadership is the ability to influene a !roup to"ard the ahie#e$ent of
!oals.
a% This influene $ay be for$al& suh as that pro#ided by the possession
of $ana!erial ran' in an or!ani(ation.
b% )onsantioned leadership is the ability to influene that arises outside
of the for$al struture of the or!ani(ation.
*. The leadership literature is #olu$inous& and $uh of it is onfusin! and
ontraditory.
II. TRAIT THE+RIES
A. Introdution
1. +n the basis of the !eneral onnotations in today,s $edia& one $i!ht list
-ualities suh as intelli!ene& haris$a& deisi#eness& enthusias$&
stren!th& bra#ery& inte!rity& [Link]& and so on.
*. The searh for harateristis /suh as those listed% that "ould differentiate
leaders fro$ nonleaders oupied the early psyholo!ists "ho studied
leadership.
0. Researh efforts at isolatin! these traits resulted in a nu$ber of dead ends.
1. Ho"e#er& atte$pts to identify traits onsistently assoiated "ith leadership
ha#e been $ore suessful.
2. Si3 traits on "hih leaders differ fro$ nonleaders4
a% Dri#e and a$bition.
b% The desire to lead and influene others.
% Honesty and inte!rity.
d% [Link].
e% Intelli!ene.
f% [Link] tehnial 'no"led!e related to their area of responsibility.
5. Traits alone are not suffiient for e3plainin! leadership.
6. Their pri$ary failin! is that they i!nore situational fators.
III. 7EHA8I+RAL THE+RIES
A. Introdution
1. The inability to find traits led researhers to loo' at the beha#iors that
speifi leaders e3hibited.
*. Researhers hoped the beha#ioral approah "ould pro#ide $ore definiti#e
ans"ers and ha#e so$e pratial i$pliations -uite different fro$ those of
the trait approah.
a% If beha#ioral studies "ere to turn up ritial beha#ioral deter$inants of
leadership& "e ould train people to be leaders.
b% The differene bet"een trait and beha#ioral theories& in ter$s of
appliation& lies in their underlyin! assu$ptions.
/1% If trait theories "ere #alid& then leaders "ere basially born.
/*% If there "ere speifi beha#iors that identified leaders& then "e
ould teah leadership.
0. A nu$ber of studies loo'ed at beha#ioral styles. The t"o $ost popular
studies are the +hio State !roup and the 9ni#ersity of :ihi!an !roup.
7. +hio State Studies
1. The $ost o$prehensi#e and repliated of the beha#ioral theories resulted
fro$ researh that be!an at +hio State 9ni#ersity in the late 1;1<s.
a% Researhers sou!ht to identify independent di$ensions of leader
beha#ior.
b% They narro"ed o#er a thousand di$ensions into t"o ate!ories that
substantially aounted for $ost of the leadership beha#ior desribed
by subordinates.
/1% initiatin! struture
/*% onsideration
*. Initiatin! struture refers to the e3tent to "hih a leader is li'ely to define
and struture his or her role and those of subordinates in the searh for
!oal attain$ent.
a% +r!ani(e "or'& "or' relationships& and !oals
0. =onsideration is desribed as the e3tent to "hih a person is li'ely to ha#e
>ob relationships harateri(ed by $utual trust& respet for subordinates?
ideas& and re!ard for their feelin!s.
a% Sho"in! onern for his follo"ers, o$fort& "ell bein!& status& and
satisfation
1. Researh found that leaders hi!h in initiatin! struture and onsideration
tended to ahie#e hi!h subordinate perfor$ane and satisfation $ore
fre-uently than those "ho rated lo" on either initiatin! struture&
onsideration& or both.
2. 7ut the hi!h hi![Link] did not al"ays result in positi#e onse-uenes@it
led to !reater rates of !rie#anes& absenteeis$& and turno#er and lo"er
le#els of >ob satisfation for "or'ers perfor$in! routine tas's.
5. The +hio State studies su!!ested that the hi!h hi![Link] !enerally
resulted in positi#e outo$es& but enou!h e3eptions "ere found to
indiate that situational fators needed to be inte!rated into the theory.
=. 9ni#ersity of :ihi!an Studies
1. 9ni#ersity of :ihi!an,s Sur#ey Researh =enter studies "ere done at
about the sa$e ti$e as those bein! done at +hio State "ith si$ilar re.
searh ob>eti#es.
*. The :ihi!an !roup a$e up "ith t"o di$ensions of leadership beha#ior4
a% e$[Link]
b% [Link]
0. Leaders "ho "ere e$[Link] "ere desribed as e$phasi(in!
interpersonal relationsA they too' a personal interest in the needs of their
subordinates and aepted indi#idual differenes a$on! $e$bers.
1. The [Link] leaders& in ontrast& tended to e$phasi(e the
tehnial or tas' aspets of the >ob@their $ain onern "as in
ao$plishin! their !roup,s tas's& and the !roup $e$bers "ere a $eans
to that end.
2. Researhers stron!ly fa#ored the leaders "ho "ere e$[Link] in
their beha#ior.
a% E$[Link] leaders "ere assoiated "ith hi!her !roup
produti#ity and hi!her >ob satisfation.
b% [Link] leaders tended to be assoiated "ith lo" !roup
produti#ity and lo" "or'er satisfation.
D. The :ana!erial Brid
1. Robert 7la'e and Cane :outon de#eloped a !raphi portrayal of a t"o.
di$ensional #ie" of leadership styles.
*. They proposed a $ana!erial !rid based on the styles of Donern for
peopleE and Donern for prodution&E "hih essentially represents the
+hio State di$ensions of onsideration and initiatin! struture or the
:ihi!an di$ensions of e$[Link] and [Link].
0. The Brid
a% See E3hibit 1<.1.
b% )ine possible positions alon! eah a3is.
% Ei![Link] different positions.
d% Sho"s the fators that do$inate a leader,s thin'in! in re!ard to !ettin!
results.
1. =onlusions
a% :ana!ers perfor$ best under a ;&; style.
b% The !rid offers a better fra$e"or' for oneptuali(in! leadership style
than for presentin! any tan!ible ne" infor$ation.
E. Su$$ary of 7eha#ioral Theories
1. There "as #ery little suess in identifyin! onsistent relationships
bet"een patterns of leadership beha#ior and !roup perfor$ane.
*. What "as $issin! "as onsideration of the situational fators that
influene suess or failure.
I8. =+)TI)BE)=F THE+RIES
A. Introdution
1. It bea$e inreasin!ly lear that preditin! leadership suess "as $ore
o$ple3 than isolatin! a fe" traits or preferable beha#iors.
*. The failure to obtain onsistent results led to a ne" fous on situational
influenes.
0. Three ontin!eny theories ha#e reei#ed the bul' of attention4 Giedler&
path.!oal& and [Link].
1. We also ta'e a loo' at !ender as a ontin!eny #ariable.
7. The Giedler :odel
1. Gred Giedler de#eloped the first o$prehensi#e ontin!eny $odel for
leadership.
*. His $odel proposes that effeti#e !roup perfor$ane depends on the
proper $ath bet"een the leader,s style of interatin! "ith his or her
subordinates and the de!ree to "hih the situation !i#es ontrol and
influene to the leader.
a% [Link] o."or'er /LP=% -uestionnaire purports to $easure
"hether a person is tas' oriented or relationship oriented.
b% He isolated three situational riteria@leader.$e$ber relations& tas'
struture& and position po"er@that he belie#ed an be $anipulated so
as to reate the proper $ath "ith the beha#ioral orientation of the
leader.
% Giedler "ent si!nifiantly beyond trait and beha#ioral approahes by
atte$ptin! to isolate situations& relatin! his personality $easure to his
situational lassifiation& and then preditin! leadership effeti#eness
as a funtion of the t"o.
0. Giedler :odel
a% An indi#idual,s basi leadership style is a 'ey fator in leadership
suess.
b% To find the basi style Giedler reated the LP= -uestionnaire.
/1% It has si3teen ontrastin! ad>eti#es.
/*% The -uestionnaire as's the respondent to thin' of all the o.
"or'ers he or she has e#er had and to desribe the one person
heHshe least en>oyed "or'in! "ith by ratin! that person on a sale
of 1 to I for eah of the si3teen sets of ontrastin! ad>eti#es.
% Giedler,s pre$ise "as that "hat you say about others tells $ore about
you than it tells about the people you,re desribin!.
/1% If the [Link] o."or'er "as desribed in relati#ely positi#e
ter$s /a hi!h LP= sore%& then the respondent "as pri$arily inter.
ested in !ood personal relations "ith o."or'ers.
/*% In ontrast& if the [Link] o."or'er is seen in relati#ely
unfa#orable ter$s /a lo" LP= sore%& the respondent is pri$arily
interested in produti#ity and thus "ould be labeled tas'.oriented.
d% Giedler assu$ed that an indi#idual,s leadership style is fi3ed& either
[Link] or tas'.oriented.
e% This assu$ption $eans that if a situation re-uires a tas'.oriented
leader and the person in that leadership position is relationship.
oriented& either the situation has to be $odified or the leader replaed.
1. After an indi#idual,s basi leadership style has been assessed throu!h the
LP=& it is neessary to $ath the leader "ith the situation.
2. The three situational fators& or ontin!eny di$ensions& "ere identified
by Giedler4
a% Leader.$e$ber relations are the de!ree of onfidene& trust& and
respet subordinates ha#e in their leader.
b% Tas' struture is the de!ree to "hih the >ob assi!n$ents of
subordinates are strutured or unstrutured.
% Position po"er is the de!ree of influene a leader has o#er po"er
#ariables suh as hirin!& firin!& disipline& pro$otions& and salary
inreases.
5. The ne3t step is to e#aluate the situation in ter$s of the three ontin!eny
#ariables.
a% Leader.$e$ber relations are either !ood or poor.
b% Tas' struture either hi!h or lo".
% Position po"er either stron! or "ea'.
6. Giedler stated that the better the leader.$e$ber relations& the $ore hi!hly
strutured the >ob& and the stron!er the position po"er& the $ore ontrol or
influene the leader had.
I. 7y $i3in! the three ontin!eny #ariables& there are potentially ei!ht
different situations or ate!ories in "hih a leader ould find hi$self or
herself.
a% With 'no"led!e of an indi#idual,s LP= and an assess$ent of the three
ontin!eny #ariables& the Giedler $odel proposes $athin! the$ up
to ahie#e $a3i$u$ leadership effeti#eness.
;. Giedler studied $ore than 1&*<< !roups& o$parin! relationship #s. tas'.
oriented leadership styles in eah of the ei!ht situational ate!ories.
a% Tas'.oriented leaders tended to perfor$ better than relationship.
oriented leaders in situations that "ere #ery fa#orable to the$ and in
situations that are #ery unfa#orable.
b% See E3hibit 1<.*.
1<. In reent years Giedler has ondensed these ei!ht situations do"n to three.
a% Tas'.oriented leaders perfor$ best in situations "ith hi!h and lo"
ontrol
b% [Link] leaders perfor$ best in $oderate ontrol
situations
11. Researh finds onflitin! results dependin! on the type of studies used.
a% A !enerally positi#e onlusion is that there is onsiderable e#idene
to support the $odel.
b% 7ut additional #ariables are probably needed.
/1% There are proble$s "ith the LP= and the pratial use of the
$odel that need to be addressed.
/*% =ontin!eny #ariables are o$ple3 and diffiult for pratitioners to
assess.
1*. Giedler has learly $ade an i$portant ontribution to"ard understandin!
leadership effeti#eness.
a% His $odel has been the ob>et of $uh ontro#ersy and probably "ill
ontinue to be.
=. Leader.:e$ber E3han!e /L:J% Theory
1. L:J ar!ues that leaders establish a speial relationship "ith a s$all
!roup of their follo"ers.
a% The leader,s in.!roup@people "ho$ the leader trusts& "ho !et a
disproportionate a$ount of his or her ti$e& and "ho are $ore li'ely to
reei#e speial pri#ile!es.
b% +ut.!roup@other follo"ers "ho !et less of the leader,s ti$e& less of
the preferred re"ards that the leader ontrols& and ha#e [Link]"er
relations based on for$al authority interations.
*. Early in the history of the leader.$e$ber relationship& the leader
i$pliitly ate!ori(es the follo"er as an DinE or an DoutE and that the
relationship is relati#ely stable o#er ti$e.
a% Ho" the leaders hoose "ho falls into eah ate!ory is unlear.
b% E#idene indiates that leaders tend to hoose in.!roup $e$bers
beause they ha#e attitude and personality harateristis that are
si$ilar to the leader,s or that they ha#e a hi!her le#el of o$petene
than out.!roup $e$bers.
0. Studies onfir$ se#eral L:J theory preditions4
a% Leaders do differentiate a$on! follo"ers.
b% Disparities are far fro$ rando$.
% Gollo"ers "ith in.!roup status ha#e hi!her perfor$ane ratin!s& lo"er
turno#er intentions& !reater satisfation "ith their superiors& and hi!her
o#erall satisfation than those in the out.!roup.
8. TRAIT THE+RIES 9PDATED4 =HARIS:ATI= LEADERSHIP
A. Transational Leaders
1. These people !uide or $oti#ate their follo"ers in the diretion of
established !oals by larifyin! role and tas' re-uire$ents.
*. There is another type of leader "ho inspires follo"ers to transend their
o"n [Link] for the !ood of the or!ani(ation and "ho is apable of
ha#in! a profound and e3traordinary effet on his or her follo"ers.
a% These are haris$ati or transfor$ational leaders.
b% Cesse Ca'son& Winston =hurhill& Beneral Dou!las :aArthur& and
Gran'lin D. Roose#elt are of this latter type.
% 7y the fore of their personal abilities& they transfor$ their follo"ers
by raisin! the sense of the i$portane and #alue of their tas's.
7. =harateristis that Differentiate =haris$ati Leaders fro$ )onharis$ati
Leaders
1. [Link]
a% They ha#e o$plete onfidene in their >ud!$ent and ability.
*. A #ision
a% An ideali(ed !oal that proposes a better future than the status -uo.
0. Stron! on#itions in that #ision
a% Perei#ed as "illin! to ta'e on hi!h personal ris'& inur hi!h osts& and
en!a!e in [Link] to ahie#e their #ision.
1. E3traordinary beha#ior
a% En!a!e in beha#ior that is perei#ed as no#el& unon#entional& and
ounter to nor$s.
2. I$a!e as a han!e a!ent
a% Perei#ed as a!ents of radial han!e rather than as areta'ers of the
status -uo.
5. =haris$ati leaders i$pat their follo"ers, attitudes and beha#ior.
a% Gollo"ers of haris$ati leaders "ere $ore [Link]& e3periened
$ore $eanin!fulness in their "or'& reported $ore support fro$ their
leaders& "or'ed lon!er hours& sa" their leaders as $ore dyna$i& and
had hi!her perfor$ane ratin!s than the follo"ers of nonharis$ati&
but effeti#e& leaders.
b% People "or'in! under haris$ati leaders "ere $ore produti#e and
satisfied than those "or'in! under leaders "ho relied on the $ore
traditional transational beha#iors of initiatin! struture and
onsideration.
6. These li$ited studies pro#ide only a li$ited ability to !enerali(e.
8I. 8ISI+)ARF LEADERSHIP
A. Definition
1. 8isionary leadership !oes beyond haris$a.
*. 8isionary leadership is the ability to reate and artiulate a realisti&
redible& attrati#e #ision of the future for an or!ani(ation or
or!ani(ational unit that !ro"s out of and i$pro#es upon the present.
0. A re#ie" of #arious definitions finds that a #ision differs fro$ other for$s
of [Link]! in se#eral "ays4
a% A #ision has lear and o$pellin! i$a!ery that offers an inno#ati#e
"ay to i$pro#e& "hih reo!ni(es and dra"s on traditions& and
onnets to ations that people an ta'e to reali(e han!e.
b% 8ision taps people,s e$otions and ener!y.
1. The 'ey properties of a #ision see$ to be inspirational possibilities that are
#alue entered& reali(able& "ith superior i$a!ery and artiulation.
a% A #ision is li'ely to fail if it doesn,t offer a #ie" of the future that is
learly and de$onstrably better for the or!ani(ation and its $e$bers.
b% 8isions that ha#e lear artiulation and po"erful i$a!ery are $ore
easily !rasped and aepted.
2. E3a$ples
a% :ary Kay Ash,s #ision of "o$en as entrepreneurs sellin! produts
that i$pro#e their self.i$a!e !a#e i$petus to her os$etis o$pany.
b% Cohn =ha$bers& =E+ of =iso Syste$s& is reatin! a #ision of ho"
net"or's an transfor$ business fir$s.
% Ste#e =ase& =E+ of A+L& en#isions his fir$ leadin! the infor$ation
re#olution by $er!in! A+L "ith Ti$e Warner.
5. S'ills of #isionary leaders.
a% The ability to e3plain the #ision to others.
b% The ability to e3press the #ision not >ust #erbally but throu!h the
leader,s beha#ior.
% The ability to e3tend the #ision to different leadership onte3ts.
8II. TEA: LEADERSHIP
8III. IS LEADERSHIP ALWAFS RELE8A)T?
A. Leadership :ay )ot Al"ays 7e I$portant
1. )u$erous studies de$onstrate that& in $any situations& "hate#er
beha#iors leaders e3hibit are irrele#ant.
a% =harateristis of subordinates suh as their e3periene& trainin!&
professional orientation& or need for independene an neutrali(e the
effet of leadership.
b% People in >obs that are inherently una$bi!uous and routine or that are
intrinsially satisfyin! $ay ha#e little need for a leader.
% +r!ani(ational harateristis suh as e3pliit for$ali(ed !oals& ri!id
rules and proedures& or ohesi#e "or' !roups an at in the plae of
for$al leadership.
*. Supporters of the leadership onept ha#e tended to plae an undue burden
on this #ariable for e3plainin! and preditin! beha#ior.
a% It,s too si$plisti to onsider subordinates as bein! !uided to !oal
ao$plish$ent solely on the basis of the beha#ior of their leader.
b% It,s i$portant& therefore& to reo!ni(e e3pliitly that leadership is
$erely another independent #ariable in e3plainin! or!ani(ational
beha#ior.
0. E#en haris$ati leadership $ay not be a panaea.
a% =haris$ati leaders $ay be ideal for pullin! a !roup or or!ani(ation
throu!h a risis& but they often perfor$ poorly after the risis subsides
and ordinary onditions return.
b% =haris$ati $ana!ers are often [Link]& autorati& and !i#en
to thin'in! that their opinions ha#e a !reater de!ree of ertainty than
they $erit.
/1% These beha#iors then tend to dri#e !ood people a"ay and an lead
their or!ani(ations do"n dan!erous paths.
S9::ARF
1. Leadership is the ability to influene a !roup to"ard the ahie#e$ent of !oals. This
influene $ay be for$al& suh as that pro#ided by the possession of $ana!erial ran'
in an or!ani(ation.
*. The searh for harateristis /suh as those listed% that "ould differentiate leaders
fro$ nonleaders oupied the early psyholo!ists "ho studied leadership.
0. The inability to find traits led researhers to loo' at the beha#iors that speifi leaders
e3hibited. The t"o $ost popular studies are the +hio State !roup and the 9ni#ersity
of :ihi!an !roup. The +hio State 9ni#ersity studies narro"ed o#er a thousand
di$ensions into t"o ate!ories4 initiatin! struture and onsideration. The 9ni#ersity
of :ihi!an,s Sur#ey Researh =enter studies a$e up "ith t"o di$ensions of
leadership beha#ior4 e$[Link] and [Link].
1. Robert 7la'e and Cane :outon proposed a $ana!erial !rid based on the styles of
Donern for peopleE and Donern for prodution&E "hih essentially represent the
+hio State di$ensions of onsideration and initiatin! struture or the :ihi!an
di$ensions of e$[Link] and [Link].
2. There "as #ery little suess in identifyin! onsistent relationships bet"een patterns
of leadership beha#ior and !roup perfor$ane. What "as $issin! "as onsideration
of the situational fators that influene suess or failure.
5. The failure to obtain onsistent results led to a ne" fous on situational influenes.
Three ontin!eny theories ha#e reei#ed the bul' of attention4 Giedler& path.!oal&
and [Link]. Gred Giedler,s $odel proposes that effeti#e !roup
perfor$ane depends on the proper $ath bet"een the leader,s style of interatin!
"ith his or her subordinates and the de!ree to "hih the situation !i#es ontrol and
influene to the leader.
6. The leader.$e$ber e3han!e /L:J% theory ar!ues that leaders establish a speial
relationship "ith a s$all !roup of their follo"ers /in.!roup%. Studies onfir$ se#eral
L:J theory preditions4 Leaders do differentiate a$on! follo"ersA these disparities
are far fro$ rando$A and follo"ers "ith in.!roup status ha#e hi!her perfor$ane
ratin!s& lo"er turno#er intentions& !reater satisfation "ith their superiors& and hi!her
o#erall satisfation than those in the out.!roup.
I. Path.!oal theory is one of the $ost respeted approahes to leadership. De#eloped by
Robert House& the essene of the theory is that it,s the leader,s >ob to assist his or her
follo"ers in attainin! their !oals and to pro#ide the diretion or support needed to
ensure that their !oals are o$patible "ith the o#erall ob>eti#es of the !roup or
or!ani(ation.
;. Another ontin!eny $odel is the [Link] $odel de#eloped in 1;60 by
8itor 8roo$ and Phillip Fetton. These researhers ar!ued that leader beha#ior $ust
ad>ust to reflet the tas' struture. 9nfortunately& the $odel is far too o$ple3 for the
typial $ana!er. 8roo$ and Ca!o ha#e de#eloped a o$puter pro!ra$ to !uide
$ana!ers throu!h all the deision branhes in the re#ised $odel.
1<. An e3tensi#e re#ie" of the literature su!!ests t"o onlusions re!ardin! !ender and
leadership. 1% The si$ilarities tend to out"ei!h the differenes. *% Wo$en prefer a
de$orati leadership style& "hereas $en feel $ore o$fortable "ith a direti#e
style. Studies also indiate so$e differenes in the inherent leadership styles of
"o$en and $en. Wo$en enoura!e partiipation& share po"er and infor$ation& and
atte$pt to enhane follo"ers, self."orth. :en& on the other hand& are $ore li'ely to
use a direti#e o$$[Link] style.
11. The transational leaders !uide or $oti#ate their follo"ers in the diretion of
established !oals by larifyin! role and tas' re-uire$ents. Transfor$ational leaders
inspire follo"ers to transend their o"n [Link] for the !ood of the or!ani(ation
and "ho is apable of ha#in! a profound and e3traordinary effet on his or her
follo"ers.
1*. Another type of leader is the #isionary leader. 8isionary leadership is the ability to
reate and artiulate a realisti& redible& attrati#e #ision of the future for an
or!ani(ation or or!ani(ational unit that !ro"s out of and i$pro#es upon the present.
10. While a !reat deal is "ritten about leadership& it $ay not al"ays be i$portant.
)u$erous studies de$onstrate that& in $any situations& "hate#er beha#iors leaders
e3hibit are irrele#ant.