Learning, Media and Technology

Vol. 34, No. 2, June 2009, 175183

ISSN 1743-9884 print/ISSN 1743-9892 online
2009 Taylor & Francis
DOI: 10.1080/17439880902923655
[Link]
The effects of teacher self-disclosure via Facebook on teacher
credibility
Joseph P. Mazer
a
*, Richard E. Murphy
b
and Cheri J. Simonds
c
a
School of Communication Studies, Ohio University, Athens, USA;
b
Department of
Communication Arts, Wayne State College, Nebraska, USA;
c
School of Communication,
Illinois State University, Normal, USA
Taylor and Francis CJEM_A_392537.sgm
(Received 11 August 2008; final version received 25 March 2009)
10.1080/17439880902923655 Learning, Media and Technology 1743-9884 (print)/1743-9892 (online) Original Article 2009 Taylor & Francis 34 20000002009 JosephMazer jm161106@[Link]
Research suggests that teachers who personalize their teaching through the use of
humor, stories, enthusiasm, and self-disclosure are perceived by their students to
be effective in explaining course content. This experimental study examined the
effects of computer-mediated teacher self-disclosure on perceptions of teacher
credibility. Participants who accessed the Facebook website of a teacher high in
self-disclosure reported higher levels of teacher credibility than participants who
viewed a low self-disclosure Facebook website. Implications for classroom
pedagogy, technology use, and areas for future research are discussed.
Keywords: self-disclosure; Facebook; competence; trustworthiness; caring;
teacher credibility
Introduction
In the classroom, teachers spend a considerable amount of time covering course
content; however, they are also likely to self-disclose by sharing information about
themselves, telling personal stories, and conveying their personal beliefs (Nussbaum,
Comadena, and Holladay 1987). Wheeless and Grotz define self-disclosure as any
message about the self that a person communicates to another (1976, 47). Fusani
contends that teacher self-disclosure is a rich personal source of student-faculty
communication (1994, 249). Research suggests that teachers who personalize their
teaching through the use of humor, stories, enthusiasm, and self-disclosure are
perceived by their students to be effective in explaining course content (Andersen,
Norton, and Nussbaum 1981; Bryant, Comiskey, and Zillman 1979; Bryant et al. 1980;
Civikly 1986; Norton and Nussbaum 1980). Recent research has explored the perceived
benefits of teacher self-disclosure via Facebook on student outcomes (Mazer, Murphy,
and Simonds 2007). The present study examines the impact of computer-mediated
teacher self-disclosure on students perceptions of teacher credibility.
1
Teacher communication behavior
Research suggests that teachers who relate well with their students are more likely to
be perceived as a credible source (Teven and Hanson 2004). Credibility refers to a
*Corresponding author. Email: jm161106@[Link]
176 J.P. Mazer et al.
receivers perception of the degree to which a source is perceived as believable
(McCroskey 1992). McCroskey and Teven (1999) argue that teacher credibility is the
degree to which students perceive the instructors level of competence, trustworthi-
ness, and caring. Competence refers to the extent to which a teacher is perceived to
know what he or she is talking about, whereas trustworthiness is the degree to which
the teacher is perceived as honest. Caring refers to the extent to which the teacher is
perceived to have the students best interests in mind.
Research has revealed that teachers who are high in immediacy nonverbal
behaviors such as gesturing, smiling at the class, and speaking with vocal variation
that signal closeness (Mehrabian 1971) are often perceived as having greater credi-
bility than non-immediate teachers (Thweatt and McCroskey 1998). McBride and
Wahl (2005) argue that self-disclosure is one strategy that teachers can use to increase
immediacy. Although much research has examined teacher self-disclosure in the face-
to-face classroom environment, scholars have examined the construct via computer-
mediated communication (OSullivan, Hunt, and Lippert 2004). OSullivan, Hunt,
and Lippert examined mediated immediacy the communicative cues in mediated
channels that can shape perceptions of psychological closeness between interactants
and found that factors such as font-use, language, and punctuation all affect student
perceptions of teacher immediacy via computer-mediated channels (2004, 471).
Furthermore, they found students who viewed a teachers website with high levels of
mediated immediacy, including forms of self-disclosure, reported high levels of moti-
vation and affective learning, indicating positive attitudes toward the course, recom-
mended behaviors, and the teacher. Therefore, teachers can increase mediated
immediacy by including forms of self-disclosure on personal web pages; however, to
date, research has not explored the effects of teacher self-disclosure on student percep-
tions of teacher credibility via virtual social networks.
Teacher communication via Facebook
Social networks, such as Friendster, MySpace, and Facebook, offer users a medium
to create a virtual identity and network with friends and family. Facebook, in particu-
lar, has become increasingly popular on college campuses as the network once oper-
ated exclusively for those in an academic community. As the fourth most trafficked
website in the world, over 90 million active users in over 55,000 regional, work-
related, and school-related networks use Facebook to post personal information such
as pictures, hobbies, and messages to communicate with friends and family (Facebook
2008). The Facebook network is increasingly being used not only by students but also
by teachers (Mazer, Murphy, and Simonds 2007).
The Facebook experience is quite different than an instructors typical university-
housed website students and teachers can easily communicate with one another
based on their network affiliation through Facebook. Facebook is a highly interactive
virtual social network. Although it may be simple to query a teachers website on a
standard search engine, any Facebook user can easily search and view any other users
page through the Facebook network. Additionally, Facebook friends can post
messages on a users Wall, a discussion-board like device that allows users to
communicate through the network.
Scholars have begun to explore the benefits and limitations associated with a
teachers use of Facebook. In a recent study, Mazer, Murphy, and Simonds (2007)
found that students exposed to a high self-disclosing teacher on Facebook reported
Learning, Media and Technology 177
higher levels of motivation, affective learning, and evaluated the climate of the
teachers classroom more positively than students who viewed a teachers Facebook
page featuring limited self-disclosures. Although students encouraged teachers to use
Facebook, they also suggested that instructors practice restraint by managing the
boundaries of public and private information (Petronio 2002) and avoid spying on
students. Absent from this line of research is how a teachers use of Facebook might
impact students perceptions of his or her credibility.
Summary and research hypothesis
Research suggests that highly immediate teachers are viewed as more caring and
credible (Thweatt and McCroskey 1998) and caring teachers are often likely to receive
positive evaluations (Teven and McCroskey 1997). In addition, students report
positive perceptions of teachers who exhibit high levels of mediated immediacy
(OSullivan, Hunt, and Lippert 2004). Teachers may enhance their credibility if they
use Facebook, showing they care about their students and understand contemporary
student interests. Teven and Hanson argue that a teacher who relates well with
students is more likely to be perceived as a credible source (2004, 40). They suggest
that nonverbally immediate and caring teachers generate more positive student
perceptions of credibility. Students may perceive a teachers use of Facebook as an
attempt to foster positive relationships with his or her students, and as a method of
increasing mediated immediacy (OSullivan, Hunt, and Lippert 2004), both of which
may have a positive effect on the teachers credibility. Therefore, we advanced the
following research hypothesis:
H
1
: Participants who view a Facebook website of a teacher high in self-disclosure will
report higher levels of teacher competence, trustworthiness, and caring (credibility)
than participants who view a low self-disclosure Facebook website.
Method
Participants
The participants were 129 undergraduate students (122 first-year students, 4 sopho-
mores, 3 juniors) enrolled in sections of the basic communication course at a large
Midwestern university. The participants represented various academic disciplines, as
the course is required of all students at the university. The sample consisted of 38
males and 91 females, with an average age of 18.74 years (ranging from 18 to 31
years). The racial/ethnic distribution was 86% Caucasians, 6.2% African-Americans,
2.3% Asian Pacific Islanders, and 4.7% Hispanics.
Manipulation
Teacher self-disclosure on Facebook was manipulated in photographs, biographical
information, and posts on The Wall in three experimental groups (high, medium,
and low self-disclosures). The teacher on the Facebook website, a female graduate
teaching assistant who taught the basic communication course, voluntarily provided
all photographs. Photographs in the high self-disclosure condition showed the
confederate in various social situations with friends and family in public locations.
In this condition, the confederate also offered personal information about favorite
178 J.P. Mazer et al.
books, movie quotes, and relationship status. She also indicated that she was a
member of several campus groups such as Cubs Fans and Will Farrell Lovers.
Communication graduate teaching assistants were also asked to post fictitious
comments on the The Wall that highlighted social gatherings (e.g., dancing,
weekend get-togethers) the confederate attended. In the medium self-disclosure
condition, the photographs were limited to the confederate with family at her home.
The confederate only disclosed favorite movies, books, and quotes. The low self-
disclosure page featured only a face-shot of the confederate. She only disclosed
information about her position at the university. In order to provide a large amount
of self-disclosure in the high condition, no comments were made on The Wall in
either the medium or low self-disclosure web pages.
Procedures
The instructors of record offered participants extra credit for participation in the
study. Participants came to a campus computer lab during set times on weekday
evenings and, upon entering, were randomly assigned to one of the three conditions.
In terms of the randomization process, the first participant to enter the lab was
assigned to the first condition, the second person to the second condition, the third
person to the third condition, the fourth person to the first condition, etc. This
process continued until all participants were randomly assigned to a condition. Each
participant sat at a computer station and logged into their Facebook account (all
participants had Facebook accounts). After reading an informed consent passage,
the participants were then told that they would be viewing a Facebook site of an
instructor at the university. The researchers provided each participant with the
pseudonym of an instructor and asked each participant to locate the teachers
Facebook website. The researchers then instructed each participant to browse the
Facebook site and develop an impression of what it would be like to be a student in
a class with the teacher. Participants were then instructed to complete the research
questionnaire.
Measurement credibility
Teacher credibility was operationalized using Teven and McCroskeys (1997)
measure of credibility. The instrument is composed of 18, seven-step semantic-differ-
ential scales, six each for the competence (intelligent/unintelligent, inexpert/expert,
competent/incompetent, uninformed/informed, bright/stupid, untrained/trained);
trustworthiness (untrustworthy/trustworthy, phony/genuine, dishonest/honest, moral/
immoral, honorable/dishonorable, unethical/ethical); and caring (insensitive/sensi-
tive, cares about me/does not care about me, self-centered/not self-centered,
concerned with me/not concerned with me, not understanding/understanding, has my
interests at heart/does not have my interests at heart) dimensions. For each bipolar
adjective pair, participants were asked to place an X on a blank closest to the term
that best represented their perceptions of the instructor they evaluated. The middle
blank was considered neutral. The items were reverse coded to reduce participant
response bias. The measures had alpha reliabilities of .81 for competence (M = 30.17,
SD = 5.06), .78 for trustworthiness (M = 31.12, SD = 4.90), and .72 for caring (M =
28.19, SD = 5.08).
Learning, Media and Technology 179
Manipulation check
Participants responded to two items designed to assess the effectiveness of the
independent variable manipulation: The instructor described on the Facebook
website provided photographs (high: M = 4.59, SD = .82; medium: M = 3.39, SD =
1.28; low: M = 2.66, SD = 1.43) and The instructor described on the Facebook
website reveals personal information about her personal life (high: M = 4.50, SD =
.51; medium: M = 3.75, SD = .81; low: M = 1.68, SD = .93). The items contained a
five-point Likert scale with options ranging from strongly disagree to strongly
agree.
Results
A one-way ANOVA performed on the manipulation check revealed a statistically
significant difference between the three groups on the photograph item (F(2, 126) =
28.45, p < .05,
2
= .31) and personal information item (F(2, 126) = 152.28, p <
.05,
2
= .71). Participants who viewed the teachers Facebook site with high self-
disclosure reported higher mean scores than participants who viewed the teachers
Facebook page containing low self-disclosure, indicating that the manipulation of
teacher self-disclosure was successful. Table 1 provides cell means and standard
deviations.
The hypothesis predicted that participants who viewed the Facebook website of a
teacher high in self-disclosure would report higher levels of teacher competence,
trustworthiness, and caring (credibility) than participants who viewed the low self-
disclosure Facebook page. This hypothesis was partially supported. A one-way
ANOVA revealed a significant difference between the high self-disclosure and low
self-disclosure conditions, F(2, 124) = 4.62, p < .05,
2
= .07. Participants in the high
self-disclosure condition reported higher levels of trustworthiness (M = 32.16, SD =
5.17), F(2, 126) = 3.81, p < .05,
2
= .05, and caring (M = 29.36, SD = 5.51), F(2,
125) = 5.41, p < .05,
2
= .08, than participants in the low self-disclosure group
(trustworthiness: M = 29.44, SD = 3.80; caring: M = 26.12, SD = 4.09). Analysis failed
to reveal a significant difference between the high condition (M = 31.14, SD = 4.83)
and low condition (M = 29.02, SD = 4.20) on competence, F(2, 125) = 1.88, p > .05,

2
= .03. Table 2 provides cell means and standard deviations.
Discussion
The primary purpose of this study was to explore the impact of teacher self-disclosure
via Facebook on students perceptions of teacher credibility. The findings suggest that
teachers who exhibit high levels of self-disclosure on a Facebook website may appear
Table 1. Descriptive statistics for manipulation check by experimental condition.
High self-disclosure Medium self-disclosure Low self-disclosure
Instructor provided
photographs
M = 4.59
a
SD = .82
M = 3.39
a
SD = 1.28
M = 2.66
a
SD = 1.43
Instructor reveals
personal information
M = 4.50
b
SD = .51
M = 3.75
b
SD = .81
M = 1.68
b
SD = .93
Note: Means with a common subscript are signicantly different at the .05 level.
180 J.P. Mazer et al.
more credible than teachers low in computer-mediated self-disclosure. However,
given the nature of the Facebook network and the small to moderate effect sizes
reported here, we recommend that teachers approach the use of Facebook cautiously.
The present study suggests, however, that when a teacher self-discloses certain infor-
mation, such as personal pictures, messages from friends and family, and opinions on
certain topics, students might perceive similarities between themselves and the
instructor. This invites a rich area of future research in terms of the relationship
between mediated self-disclosure and other important student perceptions, such as
immediacy and homophily.
The results of this study contribute to prior research that suggests teacher self-
disclosure has a positive influence on important variables such as teacher clarity
(Wamback and Brothen 1997), student participation (Fusani 1994; Goldstein and
Benassi 1994), and student motivation, affective learning, and classroom climate
(Mazer, Murphy, and Simonds 2007; Sorensen 1989). Teachers can present
themselves through Facebook as individuals who function outside of the classroom in
social situations unlike the traditional face-to-face classroom environment.
Although our findings reveal a positive association between teacher self-disclosure
and perceptions of teacher credibility, instructors should be consistent with their self-
disclosure on Facebook and their teaching style in the classroom. Teachers who
exhibit a relaxed personality on Facebook with informal photographs and entertaining
messages, but operate their classrooms strictly, may create violated expectations
resulting in negative effects on students. Future research might address the relation-
ship between the instructors self-disclosure on Facebook and their teaching style in
the classroom to examine if inconsistencies have adverse effects on their credibility or
on important student outcomes such as motivation and learning. Scholars must also
explore if a curvilinear relationship exists in terms of teacher self-disclosure on
Facebook. In other words, can teacher self-disclosure reach an exceedingly high level
and result in negative student perceptions?
Certain forms of face-to-face self-disclosure can have disastrous effects on teacher
credibility (Kearney et al. 1991); however, the nature of computer-mediated commu-
nication allows teachers to determine how they appear on Facebook. Teachers can
strategically reveal photographs and personal information that present them as compe-
tent, trustworthy, and caring instructors. Scholars might explore how certain forms of
mediated self-disclosure, such as photographs, personal beliefs, and relationship
status, affect student perceptions of teacher credibility.
Despite the benefits of Facebook, there is a potential hazard Facebook friends
can post messages on a users Wall, a discussion-board like device that allows users
Table 2. Descriptive statistics for teacher credibility by experimental condition.
High self-disclosure Medium self-disclosure Low self-disclosure
Competence M = 31.14
SD = 4.83
M = 30.30
SD = 5.86
M = 29.02
SD = 4.20
Trustworthiness
M = 32.16
b
SD = 5.17
M = 31.64
SD = 5.21
M = 29.44
b
SD = 3.80
Caring
M = 29.36
c
SD = 5.51
M = 28.95
d
SD = 4.98
M = 26.12
cd
SD = 4.09
Note: Means with a common subscript are signicantly different at the .05 level.
Learning, Media and Technology 181
to communicate through the network. Although teachers might have control over the
content they disclose on their university-housed web pages, friends, strangers, or other
students can post defamatory messages on users Facebook websites, heightening
concerns about its impact on teacher credibility. Instructors may violate student
expectations of proper teacher behaviors and damage their credibility if they self-
disclose on Facebook while communicating with students. Kearney et al. (1991)
reported that students react negatively if teachers misbehave and stray from the
subject while sharing personal information in the classroom. However, Thweatt and
McCroskey found that highly immediate teachers were viewed as more caring and
credible than non-immediate teachers regardless if misbehaviors were noted. In fact,
they note that high teacher immediacy tends to soften the negative impact of teacher
misbehaviors (1998, 348). With this in mind, teachers who potentially engage in
negative self-disclosure via Facebook might be rated favorably simply due to their
presence in the virtual social network.
It is important to note that our findings do not indicate a significant difference
between the high and low self-disclosure conditions on competence. However,
scholars note that teacher immediacy and caring can have significant effects on an
instructors credibility, specifically competence and trustworthiness (Teven and
Hanson 2004). If teachers present themselves on Facebook as highly immediate and
caring, they may positively affect student perceptions of teacher competence. It is
important to note, however, that certain self-disclosures can have negative effects on
teacher competence (Kearney et al. 1991). The nature of the Facebook network allows
teachers to determine how they appear to student users. Teachers can strategically
reveal photographs and personal information that would unlikely have negative
ramifications on their perceived level of competence. Future research might further
explore how computer-mediated teacher self-disclosure can impact the three
dimensions of teacher credibility competence, caring, and trustworthiness (Teven
and McCroskey 1997).
This study is not without limitations. This study explored participants reactions to
a female teachers use of Facebook as the confederate was a female graduate teaching
assistant. Scholars must examine how a teachers sex, age, and status (e.g., graduate
teaching assistant or a tenured professor) affect student perceptions and learning
outcomes. In the present study, participants reported their perceptions of a teacher
they did not know. Without a doubt, teacher-student relationships evolve throughout
the course of an academic term. Future research might explore how student
evaluations of a teachers use of Facebook might differ according to their familiarity
with the instructor and how specific types of teacher self-disclosure (e.g., relationship
disclosures, photographs, political beliefs, etc.) can influence student perceptions
(Kearney et al. 1991).
Emerging as a contemporary technological tool, Facebook offers substantial
benefits for students and their instructors. Teachers may utilize Facebook as a way to
foster their relationships with students; however, they should proceed with caution.
The large amount of social software options that are available to users (e.g., Facebook,
MSN, Friendster) can increase the likelihood that one teacher who appears on one
virtual social network might also appear on another application. Therefore, teachers
who are part of virtual social networks should remain attuned to the technological
complexities that accompany participation in these networks. At the same time, we
anticipate that students can learn from Facebook using teachers who present
themselves in a positive light on this virtual social network and others. In the end, we
182 J.P. Mazer et al.
hope that this study offers instructors a unique method to nurture communication in
the traditional classroom and in the online environment, while at the same time
appearing as competent, trustworthy, and caring teachers.
Note
1. A prior version of this article was included in a proceeding of the Russian Communication
Association, 2008.
Notes on contributors
Joseph P. Mazer (M.S., Illinois State University, 2006) is a doctoral candidate in the School of
Communication Studies at Ohio University.
Richard E. Murphy (M.S., Illinois State University, 2006) is an instructor in the Department of
Communication Arts at Wayne State College, Nebraska, USA.
Cheri J. Simonds (PhD, University of Oklahoma, 1995) is a professor in the School of
Communication at Illinois State University.
References
Andersen, J.F., R.W. Norton, and J.F. Nussbaum. 1981. Three investigations exploring
relationships between perceived teacher communication behaviors and student learning.
Communication Education 30: 37792.
Bryant, J., P. Comiskey, J. Crane, and D. Zillman. 1980. Relationships between humor in the
classroom and students evaluation of their teachers. Journal of Educational Psychology
72: 51119.
Bryant, J., P. Comiskey, and D. Zillman. 1979. Teachers humor in the college classrooms.
Communication Education 28: 11018.
Civikly, J.M. 1986. Humor and the enjoyment of college teaching. In Communicating in
college classrooms, ed. J. Civikly, 6170. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
Facebook. 2008. Statistics. [Link] (accessed August 8, 2008).
Fusani, D.S. 1994. Extra-class communication: Frequency, immediacy, self-disclosure, and
satisfaction in student-faculty interaction outside the classroom. Journal of Applied
Communication Research 22: 23255.
Goldstein, G.S., and V.A. Benassi. 1994. The relation between teacher self-disclosure and
student classroom participation. Teaching of Psychology 21: 21216.
Kearney, P., T.G. Plax, E.R. Hays, and M.J. Ivey. 1991. College teacher misbehaviors:
What students dont like about what teachers say and do. Communication Quarterly 39:
30924.
Mazer, J.P., R.E. Murphy, and C.J. Simonds. 2007. Ill see you on Facebook: The effects of
computer-mediated teacher self-disclosure on student motivation, affective learning, and
classroom climate. Communication Education 56: 117.
McBride, M.C., and S.T. Wahl. 2005. To say or not to say? Teachers management of
privacy boundaries in the classroom. Texas Speech Communication Journal 30: 822.
McCroskey, J.C. 1992. An introduction to communication in the classroom. Edina, MN:
Burgess International Group.
McCroskey, J.C., and J.J. Teven. 1999. Goodwill: A re-examination of the construct and its
measurement. Communication Monographs 66: 90103.
Mehrabian, A. 1971. Silent messages. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.
Norton, R.W., and J.F. Nussbaum. 1980. Dramatic behaviors of the effective teacher. In
Communication yearbook 4, ed. D. Nimmo, 56579. New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction.
Nussbaum, J.F., M.E. Comadena, and S.J. Holladay. 1987. Classroom verbal behaviors of
highly effective teachers. Journal of Thought 22: 7380.
Learning, Media and Technology 183
OSullivan, P.B., S. Hunt, and L. Lippert. 2004. Mediated immediacy: A language of
affiliation in a technological age. Journal of Language and Social Psychology 23: 46490.
Petronio, S. 2002. Boundaries of privacy: Dialectics of disclosure. Albany, NY: State
University of New York Press.
Sorensen, G. 1989. The relationship among teachers self-disclosive statements, students
perceptions, and affective learning. Communication Education 38: 25976.
Teven, J.J., and T.L. Hanson. 2004. The impact of teacher immediacy and perceived caring on
teacher competence and trustworthiness. Communication Quarterly 52: 3953.
Teven, J.J., and J.C. McCroskey. 1997. The relationship of perceived teacher caring with
student learning and teacher evaluation. Communication Education 46: 19.
Thweatt, K.S., and J.C. McCroskey. 1998. The impact of teacher immediacy and
misbehaviors on teacher credibility. Communication Education 47: 34858.
Wamback, C., and T. Brothen. 1997. Teacher self-disclosure and student classroom
participation revisited. Teaching of Psychology 24: 26263.
Wheeless, L.R., and J. Grotz. 1976. Conceptualization and measurement of reported self-
disclosure. Human Communication Research 2: 33846.