NagpurInstituteofTechnology,Nagpur

Subject Heat Transfer (v th semester [Link].)

QUESTION BANK WITH

B.E. V Semester
Mechanical Engineering

HeatTransfer
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NagpurInstituteofTechnology,Nagpur

Subject Heat Transfer (v th semester [Link].)

Q.1Explaindifferentmodesofheattransferwiththeirgoverninglaw
1)Conduction:Itisaprocessofheattransferfromaregionofhighertemperaturetoaregionoflower
[Link]
solidthermalenergytransferredbymeansofelectronswhicharefreetomovethroughlatticestructure
ofmaterial.
Forexample,whenarodofmetalisheatedatoneend,theheatenergywillbetransferalongthelength
[Link].

Forthiscaserateofheatflowbetweentwoendsofmetalroddependupontemperature
differencebetweentwoends,lengthofrodandphysicalandchemicalcompositionofbarmaterial.
ItisgovernedbyFouriersLaw
Statement:Theratethroughasolidisdirectlyproportionaltotheareaofthesectioninadirection
perpendiculartothedirectionofheatflow,[Link].
Overwhichtheheattransfertakesplace.
Thevesignisusedbecausetemperaturegradient .

Q A.

dt
isnegativealongpositivexdirection.
dx

dt
dt
=K.A.

dx
dx

WhereKiscalledthermalconductivityofthematerial..
Thenegativesignisusedbecausetemperaturegradient

dt
isnegativealongpositivexdirection
dx

2]Convection:

[Link]
mediumandisdirectlylinkedwithtransportofmediumitself.
[Link]
[Link]
isessential.
Naturalconvectionisoneinwhichfluidcirculatesbyvirtueofnaturaldifferenceindensitiesofhotand
coldfluids.
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Subject Heat Transfer (v th semester [Link].)

Thehotfluidhavelessdensitysobecomelighteranditisdisplacedbycoldfluidhavingmoredensity
duringtheprocessofheattransferconvection.
[Link].
Forcedconvection;Flowoffluidcausedbyapumporfanthenconvectioniscalledforcedconvection.
Themechanicaldevicesusedforcirculatingthefluid,increasestheheattransferratebyspeedingup
themovementoffluid.
GoverningLaw;
ItisgovernedbyNewtonsLaw
Newtonslawofcooling,Q=h.A.(tsurfacetfluid)
Thisequationgivestherateofheattransferinconvection,wherehisheattransfercoefficient,ts
Surfacetemperature,tffluidtemperatureandAsurfacearea.
3]Radiation:Itistransmissionofheatintheformofradientenergyorwavemotionfromonebodyto
[Link]
mediumbetweenheatsourceandreceiver.

Energyreleasedfrombodyinformofsuccessiveandseparatepacketsorquantaofenergy
[Link].
Theheattransferbyradiationisgivenby,thetransferofheatQ=.A.(T14T24)inradiationisgoverned
bytheequation.
Q.2Explainthetermthermalconductivityandthermaldiffusivity:
[Link]
providesanindicationofrateatwhichheatenergyistransferredthroughamediumbyconduction
[Link],moisturecontentanddensityof
materialandoperatingconditionofpressureandtemperature.

ItsunitisW/moKorW/moC

Thermalconductivityofamaterialisduetothemigrationoffreeelectronsandlattice
[Link]
[Link],freeelectronmovementisnegligiblysmallandthereforethermalconductionresults
[Link]
ofmetal.

HeatTransfer
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Subject Heat Transfer (v th semester [Link].)

[Link]
insulatingmaterial(concrete,stone,brick,glasswooletc)thermalconductivitymayvaryfromsample
tosampleduetovariationinstructure,composition,densityandporosity.

Thermalconductivityofporousmaterialdependsontypeofgasorliquidexistinginvoids.
Presenceofairfilledporesandcavitiesreducesthermalconductivity.
Thermaldiffusivity( ):

Itistheratioofthermalconductivityofmaterialtoitsthermalstoragecapacity(.C)Theheat
[Link]
[Link]
thermalconductivityorfromlowvalueofthermalcapacity.
Thermaldiffusivityindicatetherateatwhichheatisdistributedinamaterialandthisratedependsnot
onlyonkbutalsoonrateatwhichheatenergycanbestored.

Liquidhavelowthermalconductivity,highthermalcapacityandhencesmallthermaldiffusivity.
Metalposseshighthermalconductivity,lowthermalinertiaandhencealargethermaldiffusivity.
Thermal Contact Resistance

Theresistancethataninterfaceofferstoheattransferperunitinterfaceareaiscalledthermal
contact resistance, Rc . The inverse of thermal contact resistance is called the thermal contact
conductance.
The thermal contact resistance will be greater for rough surfaces because an interface with rough
surfaceswillcontainmoreairgapswhosethermalconductivityislow.
Aninterfaceactslikeaverythinlayerofinsulation,andthusthethermalcontactresistanceissignificant
for highly conducting materials like metals. Therefore, the thermal contact resistance must be
consideredfortwolayersofmetalspressedagainsteachother.
[Link]
eliminatesheattransferbyconduction,andthusincreasesthethermalcontactresistance.
Thermalcontactresistancecanbeminimizedby(1)applyingathermallyconductingliquidonthe
surfacesbeforetheyarepressedagainsteachother,(2)byreplacingtheairattheinterfacebyabetter
conductinggassuchasheliumorhydrogen,(3)byincreasingtheinterfacepressure,and(4)byinserting
asoftmetallicfoilsuchastin,silver,copper,nickel,oraluminumbetweenthetwosurfaces.

HeatTransfer
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NagpurInstituteofTechnology,Nagpur

Subject Heat Transfer (v th semester [Link].)

Q.3DerivetheGeneralHeatConditionEquationinCartesiancoordinates.

Consider flow of heat through an infinite small rectangular parallelepiped volume element
oriented in a three dimensional coordinate system sides dx, dy, & dz parallel to x, y & z axis
respectively.
.Thenchangeoftempthroughdistancedxwillbedx0
kx thermal conductivity at left face. Quantity of heat flowing into control volume through left face
duringtimeintervald isgivenby,

HeatinfluxQx=

____a)

Duringsametimeintervalfeatflowoutofrightfaceofparallelepipedis

Heatefflux,Qx+dx=

____b)

Accumulationofheatinparallelepipedduetoheatflownxdirectionisgivenbydifferencebetweenheat
influx&heatefflux.
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Subject Heat Transfer (v th semester [Link].)

ThereforeHeataccumulationduetoheatflowinxdirection

--------c
Similarlywecancalculateheataccumulationincontrolvolumeduetoheatflowalongy&zdirection.
Forheatflowalongy&zdirection

d,e
Totalaccumulationofheatisgivenby

f
supposedgisheatgeneratedperunitvolume&[Link]
volmequalto=qgdxdydzd g
Totalheatwhichisstoredinbodywillbeutilizedforincreasingtempofbody&isgiven
=[Link] .

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Subject Heat Transfer (v th semester [Link].)

h
FromenergyBalanceEqn

dividingbothsidesbydxdydzd

generalheatconductionequationusingvectoroperator

ForHomogenous&isotropicmaterialthermalconductivityissameateverypoint&inalldirections
kx=ky=kz=k

Where

calledthermaldiffusivity

HeatTransfer
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Subject Heat Transfer (v th semester [Link].)

Differentcases:
1) Heatflowissteadystatecondition

2) Absenceofinternalheatgeneration

LaplaceEqn.

3) Unsteadyheatflowwithnointernalheatgeneration

FourierEqn.
Q.4Acertainbuildingwallconsistsof0.15mofconcrete(k=1.2W/m0C),0.05moffiberglass
insulationand10mmofgypsumboard(k=0.05W/m0C).Theinsideandoutsideconvectioncoefficient
is10and40W/m2oC,respectively.Theoutsideairtemperatureis60Candtheinsidetemperatureis
[Link],theRvalue,andtheheatlossper
area.
Ans:
Theoverallheattransfercoefficientforthewall,

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NagpurInstituteofTechnology,Nagpur

Subject Heat Transfer (v th semester [Link].)

Rtotal =

L
L
L
1
1
1
=
+ X + Y + Z +

U hhf K X K Y K Z hcf

Rtotal =

1 1 0.15 0.05 0.01 1

+
+
+
+
U 10 1.2
0.7 0.05 40

Rtotal =

1
=0.52
U

U=1.91W/m20C
Heatlossperunitarea
Q/A=UA T
Q/A=1.91*[22(6)]
Q/A=53.48W/m2

Q.5DiscussthesignificanceofBinumber&fonumber
ThenondimensionalfactorhLc/KiscalledBiotnumberBi=hLc/k
[Link]
[Link],itindicatesthatsystemhasa
smallinternalresistanceandsmallinternalresistancemeansrelativelysmalltemperaturegradient
Theconvectiveresistancethenpredominatesandheattransferiscontrolledbyconvectiveheat
exchange.
IfBi

0.1thelumpedheatcapacityapproachcanbeusedtoadvantagewithsimpleshapelikeplates,

cylinderssphere&cubes.
2
Thenondimensionalfactor T/Lc iscalledFouriernumber,representedbyfo

fo= /Lc

[Link]
throughasolid.
Q. 6 Explain Critical Thickness of Insulation and Write down the equation for critical radius for
cylinder.
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NagpurInstituteofTechnology,Nagpur

Subject Heat Transfer (v th semester [Link].)

Insulationisamaterialwithreasonableeffectivenesstoretardstheflowofheat.

Conductive thermals resistance increases with addition of insulation. But in cases where fluid

flowsthroughcylinder&sphere,totalthermalresistanceismadeofconductivethermalresistance(Rth.
cond)&convectionthermalresistance([Link]),theadditionofinsulationwillincreasethesurfacearea
[Link]
canbeincreasedbyreducingtotalthermalsresistance.

The thickness up to which heat flow increases and after which heat flow decrease is called as

criticalthicknessofinsulationorcriticalradiusincaseofsphere&cylinder.

Thisisrelationforcriticalradiusforcylinder;itshowsconditionforminimumresistanceandmaxmheat
[Link](rc)

The critical radius rc, is depend on thermal conductivity & heat transfer coefficient and is

independentofcylinderradius
[Link].
Fins are nothing but extended surfaces that are used for Increasing the rate of heat transfer
fromasurfacebyincreasingtheheattransfersurfacearea.
The fin efficiency is defined as the ratio of actual heat transfer rate from the fin to the ideal heat
transferratefromthefiniftheentirefinwereatbasetemperature,[Link]
effectivenessisdefinedastheratioofheattransferratefromafinnedsurfacetotheheattransferrate
fromthesamesurfaceiftherewerenofins,anditsvalueisexpectedtobegreaterthan1.
Heat transfer rate will decrease since a fin effectiveness smaller than 1 indicates that the fin acts as
insulation.
Finsenhanceheattransferfromasurfacebyincreasingheattransfersurfaceareaforconvectionheat
[Link],addingtoomanyfinsonasurfacecansuffocatethefluidandretardconvection,and
thusitmaycausetheoverallheattransfercoefficientandheattransfertodecrease.
Effectivenessofasinglefinistheratiooftheheattransferratefromtheentireexposedsurfaceofthe
fin to the heat transfer rate from the fin base area. The overall effectiveness of a finned surface is
definedastheratioofthetotalheattransferfromthefinnedsurfacetotheheattransferfromthesame
surfaceiftherewerenofins.
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Subject Heat Transfer (v th semester [Link].)

Finsshouldbeattachedontheairsidesincetheconvectionheattransfercoefficientislowerontheair
sidethanitisonthewaterside.
Finsshouldbeattachedtotheoutsidesincetheheattransfercoefficientinsidethetubewillbehigher
due to forced convection. Fins should be added to both sides of the tubes when the convection
coefficientsattheinnerandoutersurfacesarecomparableinmagnitude.
Q.8Athermometerwell22mindiameterand0.5mmthickismadeofsteel(k=27W/m2 0K)anditis
to be used to measure the temperature of steam flowing through a pipe. Calculate the minimum
lengthofthewellsothattheerrorislessthan0.5%ofthedifferencebetweenthepipewallandfluid
temperature.Takesteamtemperatureas2500Candheattransfercoefficientas98W/m2oK.
Ans:

hP
h
=

KA
K

m=

98
=85.20
27 * 0.5
1000

m=

Tx t 0.5
1
=
= mL

T 0 t 100 e + e mL
2

mL

2
= 0.005
+ e mL

e mL =0.0025or399.997
L=7.03cm
Q.9Awireof6.5mmdiameteratatemperature of60 oCistobeinsulatedbyamaterialhavingk =
0.174W/m0C,convectionheattransfercoefficient=8.722W/m2 0C.Theambienttemperatureis20oC.
formaximumheatloss,whatistheminimumthicknessofinsulationandtheheatlosspermeterlength
?Alsofindpercentageincreaseinheatdissipation.
Ans:
D=6.5mm,thereforer=3.25mm,k=0.174W/m0C,h=8.722W/m20C
1]Minimumthicknessofinsulation

HeatTransfer
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Subject Heat Transfer (v th semester [Link].)

rc=k/h=0.174/8.722=0.01995m=19.95mm
Thereforeminimumthicknessofinsulation=rcr=19.953.25=16.7mm
2]Percentageincreaseinheatdissipationrate
Heattransferwithoutinsulation
Q1=

Q1=

2 L(ts tair )

1
hr
2 *1 * (60 20)

1
8.722 * 0.00325

Q1=7.124W/m
Withinsulation
Q2=

Q2=

2 L(ts tair )

1 log(rc / r )
+
hrc
k

2 *1 * (60 20)

1
log(0.01995 / 0.00325)
+
8.722 * 0.01995
0.174

Q2=15.537W/m
ThereforePercentageincreaseinheatdissipationrate=(Q2Q1)/Q1*100

=118.09%

Q.10Writeshortnotesonfollowing
1]HeislerCharts(forunsteadystateproblem)
[Link]
parameterkeepingtheothertwoparameterconstant(parameterlike,fi,bi,&x/lorr/R),suchchartsare
constructedbyHeisler&Grober.
Heislerchartsarecommonlyusedinpracticeforplates,cylinderandspheres.
firstchartdrawnbyHeisler, 0/ 1=T0Ta/TiTa
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Subject Heat Transfer (v th semester [Link].)

plottedagainstfi=fouriernumber= t/Lc2usingconstantparameter1/Bi
Insecondchart 0/ 1Isplottedagainst1/Bitakingx/Lasaparameter
ThirdtypeofgraphsarebetweenQ/Q0againstBiandtakingfiasaparameter
Q0totalheatcontentperunitareaofslab.
Qtotalchangeininternalenergyperunitarea,Heislerhasalsogiventheseparatechartsforproblem
when1/Bi

100andfo

[Link]

[Link]=0and
itbecomesafunctionoftimeonly.
2]Lumpedparameteranalysis

Allsolidshavefinitethermalconductivityandthereexistsatemperaturegradientinsidesolid
wheneverthereisaheatisadditionorremovalfromsolid.

Howeverforsolidsoflargethermalconductivitywithproportionatelylargesurfacearearelative

totheirvolume,internalresistance(
resistance(

K. A

)canbeassumedtobesmallincomparisonwithconvective

1
)atthesurface.
h. A

Theprocessinwhichinternalresistanceisassumednegligibleincomparisonwithitssurface
resistanceiscalledNewtonianheatingorcoolingprocess.

Theprocessinwhichtemperatureisconsideredtobeuniformatagiventime,suchananalysis
[Link]
functionofitstemperatureandtotalheatcapacityistreatedasonelump.
Q.11DefinefollowingDimensionlessnumberandgivetheirphysicalsignificance
1]Reynoldsnumber:[Link].
Re=

inertiaforce V 2 L 2 VL V
=
=
=

Viscousforce
VL

densityoffluid,Vfreestreamvelocity,Llengthofplate
Ddiameterofpipe, kinematicviscosity, dynamicviscosity
Reisalsowrittenas=

G.d

HeatTransfer
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Subject Heat Transfer (v th semester [Link].)

Wheregisthemassvelocity=m/A
(1)Reistakenasanimportantcriterionofdynamiticsimilaritiesinforcedconvectionheattransfer.
(2)Reisusedtodecideswhethertheflowislaminarorturbulent.
2]Nusseltnumber:
Itisdefinedastheratioofheatflowratebyconvectionprocessunderaunittemperaturegradientto
theheatflowratebyconductionprocessunderaunittemperaturegradientthroughastationary
thicknessofLmeters.
Nu=

Qconvection h hl
= =
Qconduction k k
L

Itistheratioofcharacteristiclengthtothethicknessofastationaryfluidlayerconductingtheheatat
[Link].
Q=K

t
=ht
x

x=h/k
[Link]
[Link]
thefluidandinverselyproportionaltothelength.
3]Prandtlnumber(Pr):itistheratioofkinematicviscositytothethermaldiffusivity.
Pr=

.Cp
K

. .Cp
K

Significance(1)[Link]
momentumtransportbydiffusion.
(2)[Link],anditsvalueaffectsrelative
growthofvelocityboundarylayerandthermalboundarylayers.
4]Grashoffnumber(Gr):.Itisdefinedastheratiooftheproductofinertiaforceandbuoyancyforceto
[Link].
Gr=

Inertiaforce * Buoyancyforce 2. .g.t.L3

Viscous. force * Viscous. force

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Subject Heat Transfer (v th semester [Link].)

Significance:(1)ItplaysthesameroleasthatofReynoldno.
(2)FreeconvectionisusuallysuppressedatsufficientlysmallGr,beginsatsomecriticalvalueofGr
dependinguponthearrangementamdthenbecomesmoreandmoreeffectivewithincreasingGr.
5]Stantonnumber(St):

[Link].

Italsoindicatestheratioofheattransfercoefficienttotheflowofheatperunittemperaturerisedue
tothevelocityofthefluid.
St=

h
Nu
hL / K
=
=

.V .Cp VL .Cp Re* Pr

Itisusedonlyincorrelatingforcedconvectiondata.
6]Pecletno.(Pe):Itistheratioofmassheatflowratebyconvectiontotheflowratebyconduction
underaunittemperaturegradientandthroughathicknessL.
Pe=

Qconvection .Cp.L..V L.V

ItisaproductofReynoldno.&[Link].
7]Graetznumber(G):

Itisdefinedastheratioofheatcapacityoffluidflowingthroughthepipeperunitlengthofthe
pipetotheconductivityofthepipe.
G=

[Link]
D
=Pe.

Lk
4

[Link].
Itisrelatedonlyfortheheatflowtothefluidflowingthroughacircularpipe.
Q.12Discussthermal&Hydrodynamicboundarylayer.
Thermalboundarylayer
Wheneveraflowoffluidtakesplacepastaheatedorcoldsurface,atempfieldissetupinthefield
[Link],thereisatempthereisatemp
[Link]
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Subject Heat Transfer (v th semester [Link].)

.thethermalboundarylayerthicknessdefinedasthedistanceoffromtheplatesurfaceatwhichtst/ts
t =0.99

Temperatureprofileofthethermalboundarylayerdependsupontheviscosity,velocityofflow,specific
heat,andthermalconductivityofthefluid.
Therelativemagnitudeof & thareaffectedbythethermophysicalpropertiesofthefluid.
Thegoverningparameterisaprandtlno,iePr= cp/k

th= whenPr=1
th whenPr 1
th whenPr 1
Hydrodynamicboundarylayer.

WhenairwithfreestreamvelocityUflowsoveraflatplate,thelayerofairgettingcontactwithplate
[Link]
[Link]

HeatTransfer
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NagpurInstituteofTechnology,Nagpur

Subject Heat Transfer (v th semester [Link].)

boundarylayerisarbitrarydefinedasthatdistancefromtheboundaryinwhichthevelocityreaches
99%ofthevelocityoffreestream( =0.99U).Itisalsocallednormalthicknessoftheboundarylayer.
Displacementthickness:
Itisthedistance,measuredperpendiculartotheboundarybywhichthemainfreestreamisdisplaced
[Link]
Itisanadditionalwallthicknessthatwouldhavetobeaddedtocompensateforthereducedflowrate
anaccountofboundarylayerformation.
Momentumthickness:
Itmayalsobedefinedasthedistance,measuredperpendiculartotheboundaryofthesolidbody,by
whichtheboundaryshouldbedisplacedtocompensateforreductionin,momentumoftheflowingfluid
anaccountofboundarylayerformation.
Q.13Inacertainprocess,asquareglassplateisheateduniformlyto80 0Candiscooledbyairat300C
flowingoverbothsidesparalleltotheplateat2m/s.theplateishavingtheareaof1m2andthickness
of 4 mm. Calculate the initial rate of cooling the plate. Heats lost by plate instantaneously. Neglect
temperaturegradientinglassplateandconsideronlyforcedconvection.
Takeforglass=2500kg/m3 ,Cp=0.07KJ/kgK
Forair=1.076kg/m3,Cp=1008J/kgk,K=0.0286W/m0C,=19.8x106Ns/m2.
Ans:
Nu=

hL
=0.664*(Re)1/2*(Pr)1/3
K

Rel=

Pr=

.V .L 1.076 * 2 * 1
=
=1.0868*105
6

19.8 * 10
.Cp
K

19.8 *10 6 *1008

hL/K=0.664*(1.63*105)1/2*(0.0698)1/3

=194.19

h=0.0286*194.19=5.55W/m2oC
Qforbothsideofplate
HeatTransfer
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Subject Heat Transfer (v th semester [Link].)

Q=2hAs(tst )
=2*5.55*1*(9020)
=777W
Heatlostbyplateinstantaneously
Q=[Link] t
m=area*thickness*
1*4*2500/1000=10kg

777=10*0.67*103* t

t=0.116oC/s
Q.14Inacertainprocess,castoroilat300Cflowspastaflatplate.Thevelocityofoilis0.08m/[Link]
[Link]
1)Hydrodynamicandthermalboundarylayerthicknessatthetrailingedgeofplate.2)Totaldragforce
perunitwidthononesideoftheplate.
Usefollowingcorrelation
Nu=0.332(Re)1/2(Pr)1/3
Takepropertiesas
=956.8kg/m3,k=0.2132W/mK,=7.2*108m2/s,=0.65*104m2/s
Ans:
Re=

U.L

0.08 * 5
=6153
0.65 * 10 4

Thereforeflowislaminar

5*5
= 0.32 m
6153

th =

(Pr)1 / 3

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th =

Subject Heat Transfer (v th semester [Link].)

(Pr)1 / 3

Pr=/=902.78
Therefore th =

Cf=1.328/

0.32
= 0.033m
(902.78)1 / 3

6153=0.0169

FD=Cf*1/2**Areaofplate*U2
=0.2587Npermwidth
Q.15Explaintheregimesofboilingonnucleatecurvewithneatsketch.

[Link]:
Thefirstregionisofinterfaceevaporation,whereevaporationtakesplaceatliquidvaporinterface
[Link]
evaporated,theconvectioncurrentisdevelopedwhichmovestheflowitandevaporationtakesplaceat
liquidsurface.Inthisregiontheexcesstemperatureisupto5oC
[Link]:
NucleateboilingexistinregionsIIandIIIwithincreaseinexcesstemperature,inregionIIthe
[Link],travelsthroughtheliquidand
HeatTransfer
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Subject Heat Transfer (v th semester [Link].)

[Link]
thebubblesareformedmorerapidlyandrisetothesurfaceoftheliquidresultinginrapidevaporation
in region III. Thus the nucleate boiling consist of formation of bubbles at specific location and that
results in liquid agitation. The bubble agitation causes fluid mixing and that promotes substantial
increaseinheattransfercoefficientandheatflux.
Nucleateboilingexistuptote 50oC
Themaximumheatfluxknownascriticalheatflux,occursatpointX.
[Link]:
FilmboilingcomprisesofregionsIV,[Link]
the bubbles covers the heating surface and prevent liquid from taking their place. The bubble break
down,[Link].
Withinthetemperaturerangeof50oC<te<150oCconditionoscillatesbetweennucleateboilingfilm
boilingandthephaseisrefusedastransitionboiling,unstableboilingorpartialboiling.
Withfurtherincreaseintethevapourfilmisestablishedandtheheatingsurfaceiscompletely
coveredbyavapourfilmandtheheatfluxisminimuminregionV.

Tomaintainastablefilmatsurface,thesurfacetemperaturerequiredtomaintainishighand
duetothis,considerableamountofheatislostbythesurfaceduetoradiationasinregionVI.
Q.16Whatismeanbycriticalheatfluxorburnoutpoint
The critical heat flux or burn out point is the point of maximum heat flux at which transition
from nucleate boiling to film boiling takes place. The boiling process beyond critical heat flux point is
unstable so it is called as boiling crisis .the boiling equipment design to operate close to this point ,
because beyond this point the surface temp. reached may be above the melting point of equipment
material.
Q.17DiscusstheFactorsaffectingnucleateboiling:
[Link]
The dynamic viscosity of fluid affect the size of bubbles . with increase in dynamic viscosity size of
[Link],[Link]
resultsinreducedheattransfer.
[Link]
Theheattransferrateorboilingheattransfercoefficientgreatlydependsonthematerialoftheheating
[Link]
HeatTransfer
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Subject Heat Transfer (v th semester [Link].)

[Link]
heatingsurfacealsoaffectstransmissionofheat.
[Link]
The pressure affect the rate of bubble growth and in turn also affects the temperature difference
causing heat flow. For a boiling liquid up to the critical pressure, the maximum allowable heat flux
increasesandafterthatitdeclines.
[Link]
Theheattransferrateincreaseswiththeincreaseindegreeofagitation.
Q.18Influenceofpresenceofnoncondensablegasesoncondensation

The presence of non condensable gas such as air in a condensing vapour produces a
detrimental effect on the heat transfer coefficient. Even few percent by volume of air in steam, the
condensationheattransfercoefficientisreduced bymorethan50%.Thisisbecauseofdepositionof
[Link]
[Link]
reduce the heat transfer rate which results in reduced condensation rate. The rate of condensation
decreases remarkably even with presence of small amount of non condensable gas in condensing
vapour. . Any further condensation at the surface will occur only after incoming vapour has diffused
through this non condensable gas collected in the vicinity of the surface. The non condensable gas
adjacent to the surface acts as a thermal resistance to the condensation process. The rate of
condensation decreases greatly when the condensable vapour is contaminated with even very small
amountofnoncondensablegases.
Q.19DifferentiatebetweenFilmwiseandDropwiseCondensation
If the condensate tends to wet the surface and thereby forms a liquid film then the
condensation process is known as film condensation. In film condensation, condensate film exists
[Link]
coolingsurfacetemperatureduetowhichavailabletemperaturedifferenceforheattransferdecreases.

HeatTransfer
Page21

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NagpurInstituteofTechnology,Nagpur

Subject Heat Transfer (v th semester [Link].)

So in case of film condensation heat transfer rate are smaller. As the film thickness increases
furthertheheattransferratedecreases.
In dropwise condensation the vapour condenses as small liquid droplets of various sizes. The
drop of condensate forms in pits and cracks in the surface, grow there and leave the surface without
formingacontinuousfilmofcondensateonthecoolingsurface.

Indropwisecondensationhigherratesofheattransferandthushigherrateofcondensationae
achieved because large surface area is directly exposed to vapour without any intermediate film of
condensate between them The coefficient of heat transfer in this condensation is upto 5 to 10 times
than that in film condensation. For dropwise condensation to occur either highly polished surfaces or
surfaces contaminated with impurities are required. Use of additives or painting of surface may be
employedtoachievedropwisecondensation.
Q.20Acondenserisdesignedtocondense500kg/[Link]
array of 400 tubes, 6 mm in diameter is used. The tubes surface is maintained at 24 0C by flowing
[Link].
Ans:
D=6mm=0.006m,ts=24oC,m=500kg/hr
Fromsteamtable
Propertiesofvapourare

HeatTransfer
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NagpurInstituteofTechnology,Nagpur

Subject Heat Transfer (v th semester [Link].)

tsat=45.7oCv=0.0677kg/m3,hfg=2393kJ/kg
meanfilmtemperaturetf=

45.7 + 24
=34.85oC
2

Propertiesofwaterattf

l=993.95kg/m3, =728.15*106Ns/m2,K=0.6253W/moC
[Link]
N= 400 =20

l ( l v)k 3 .g.h fg
h=0.725

N l (t sat t s ) D

1/ 4

993 .95(993 .95 0.0677 )(0.6253) 3 .9.81. * 2393 * 10 3

20 * 728 .15 * 10 6 ( 45.7 24) * 0.006

h=0.725

1/ 4

h=5355.124W/m2oC
Now
Q=h.A.(tsatts)
500/3600*2393*1000=5355.124*3.14*400*0.006*L*(45724)

L=0.38m
Q.21Averticaltubeof60mmoutsidediameterand2mlongisexposedtosteamatatmospheric
pressure.Theoutersurfaceofthetubeismaintainedatatemperatureof84oCbycirculatingcoolwater
[Link]
propertiesofwater.
=963.4kg/m3,K=67.7x102W/m0K,=306X106kg/ms,hfg=2257KJ/[Link]=100oC
v=0.598kg/m3
L=500mm=0.5m,B=1m,ts=30oC
(1)RateofHeatTransfer

HeatTransfer
Page23

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NagpurInstituteofTechnology,Nagpur

Subject Heat Transfer (v th semester [Link].)

h=1.13

1/4

afterputtingvalues
h= 1.13[

9.81 * 963.4 * (963.4 0.598) * 0.677 3 * 2257 *1000

306 *10 6 * (100 84) * 2

h=5707.21W/m2oK
Q=hA(tsatts)
=5707.21*0.06*2*3.14*(10084)
=34425.072W
m=34425.072/2257*1000
=0.01525kg/s
Q.22DeriveanexpressionforLMTDforcounterflowheatexchanger:
Consideringasinglepasscounterflowheatexchangerarrangement
ConsideringtherateflowofheatthroughanelementaryareadAoftheheatexchanger.

HeatTransfer
Page24

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NagpurInstituteofTechnology,Nagpur

Subject Heat Transfer (v th semester [Link].)

IntegratingfromA=otoA=A

1 1

cn cc

Loge( 2/ 1)= U . A.

HeatTransfer
Page25

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NagpurInstituteofTechnology,Nagpur

Subject Heat Transfer (v th semester [Link].)

AMTD:
When temperature variations of the fluids are relatively small, then temp variation lines are
approximatelystraightlinesthenAMTDcanbetakenforadequalityaccurateresult.

LMTDisusedwhen

1
1.7
2
[Link]
coefficientconsideringfoulingofheatexchanger
Itmaypossiblethatfluidsflowingthroughheatexchangercontainsimpuritiesandduringflow
ofthisfluidcontainingimpuritiesthroughheatexchanger,theimpuritiesgetdepositedonthesurface
oftubes.

Thisphenomenonofformationanddepositionoffluidimpuritiesonthetubesurfacesiscalled
[Link],thethermalresistance
increaseswhichtendtoreducetheefficiencyofheatexchanger.

Theeffectofscaleonheattransferisconsideredbyspecifyinganequivalentscaleheattransfer
coefficient,hs
Consideringscaleformationonbothsidesofheatexchangertubes
Let
hsiheattransfercoefficientforthescaleformedontheinside
hsoheattransfercoefficientforthescaleformedontheoutsidesurface
Aiinsidesurfacearea
HeatTransfer
Page26

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NagpurInstituteofTechnology,Nagpur

Subject Heat Transfer (v th semester [Link].)

Aooutsidesurfacearea
ThereforeRsi=

1
=Thermalresistanceoninsidesurface
[Link]

AndRso=

1
=Thermalresistanceonoutsidesurface
[Link]

Then
UA=

1
1
1
1
1
1
log(ro / ri ) +
+
+
+
Aihi [Link] 2 KL
[Link] [Link]

Kthermalconductivityoftubematerial
Fortheinnersurface
Ui=

1
1
1
1
1
1
+
+ ri log(ro / ri) + ri / ro
+ ri / ro
hi hsi
K
ho
hso

Fortheoutersurface
Uo=

1
1
1
1
1
1
(ro / ri) + (ro / ri)
+ ro log(ro / ri) +
+
hi
hsi
K
ho hso

Neglectingscaleresistanceandresistanceduetomaterialweget
Uo=

1
1
(ro / ri) +
hi ho

Ifro=ri
Uo=

Uo=

1
1
1
+
hi ho

[Link]
ho + hi

HeatTransfer
Page27

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NagpurInstituteofTechnology,Nagpur

Subject Heat Transfer (v th semester [Link].)

Q.24Discussthedesignaspectsofheatexchanger
Depending on the use of the heat exchanger there are various criterion for selection of a
particular type of heat exchanger. But in general following points to be considered while selecting a
heatexchanger
1)heattransferrequirement:Theheattransferrequirementmustbemetintheselectionordesignof
anyheatexchanger.
2)Fluidtemperatures: The fluid temperature are also important while selecting a type of heat
exchanger,sodueconsiderationmustbegiventoinletandoutlettemperaturesflowingfluids..
2)Physicalsize:Tubesize,tubethickness,numberoftubesallinfluencetheheattransferinexchanger,
[Link],thesurfaceareaof
the exchanger can be increased. But while selecting the dimensions of heat exchanger consideration
mustbegiventospaceavailableandcost.
3)Pressuredropcharacteristics:Whileaimingtoincreaseheattransferbyincreasingfluidvelocity,the
pressuredropshouldbetakenintoconsideration.
scaleformation,scalethicknessandresultingpressuredropmustbeconsideredwhiledesigning.
4)Typeoffluid:[Link]
selectingatypeofheatexchanger.
5)Tubelayouts:[Link]
incleaningwhichreducestheheattransfer.
Q.25Writeshortnoteson
1]EffectivenessNTUmethodorDiscusseffectivenessofheatexchanger
When inlet and outlet temperatures of fluids flowing through the heat exchanger are known,
[Link]
and outlet temperature are unknown, the method based on effectiveness of heat exchanger gives an
[Link]
exchangersforselectingatypebestsuitedforaparticularheattransferobjective.

The heat exchanger effectiveness is defined as the ratio of heat transfer to the maximum
[Link].
Effectiveness==Actualheattransfer/maximumpossibleheattransfer

HeatTransfer
Page28

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NagpurInstituteofTechnology,Nagpur

Subject Heat Transfer (v th semester [Link].)

Qactual

Q max imum

Theactualheattransfer=theheatlostbyhotfluid=byheatgainbycoldfluid.
Qact=mhCph(th1th2)=mcCpc(tc2tc1)

Since mass flow rate and specific heat of fluids remains constant, the maximum heat transfer
related to maximum temperature difference available in heat exchanger. The fluid for which capacity
rateisminimumwillundergothismaximumtemperaturedifference.
Therefore Q max is the product of minimum heat capacity rate and maximum temperature difference
availableinheatexchanger
Qmax=(m.c)min(thinlettcinlet)

=(m.c)min(th1tc1)

ThefluidhavingminimumcapacityrateI.e(m.c)min=Cminiscalledminimumfluid
[Link]
[Link]
Theminimumheatcapacityfluidmaybehotfluidorcoldcluid
[Link]<[Link]<CcthenCmin=ChandCmax=Cc
[Link]<[Link]<ChthenCmin=CcandCmax=Ch
Ifhotfluidisminimumfluid

C h (t h1 t h 2 )
t t
= h1 h 2
C min (t h1 t c1 )
t h1 t c1

Ifcoldfluidisminimumfluid

t c 2 t c1

t h1 t c1

Ingeneral

t (min fluid )
.
max [Link] c [Link]
m

HeatTransfer
Page29

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NagpurInstituteofTechnology,Nagpur

Subject Heat Transfer (v th semester [Link].)

Theminimumfluidisalwaystheoneexperiencingthelargertempdifferenceintheheatexchangerand
themaximumtemperaturedifferenceintheheatexchangerisalwaysthedifferenceintheinlet
temperaturesofthehotandcoldfluids.
Q.26Acounterflowheatexchangerisemployedtocool0.55kg/s(Cp=2.45KJ/kgoC)ofoilfrom115oC
to40oCbytheuseofwater.Theinletandoutlettemperaturesofcoolingwaterare15oCand75oC
respectively.Theoverallheattransfercoefficientisexpectedtobe1450W/[Link],
calculatetheFollowing
(i)themassflowrateofwater
(ii)theeffectivenessoftheheatexchanger
(iii)thesurfacearearequired.
moil=0.55kg/s,Cph=2.45KJ/kgoC,th1=115oC,th2=40oC
tc1=15oCtc2=75oCU=1450W/m2oC
mw=
mhCph(th1th2)=mwCpw(tc2tc1)
.55*2.45*(11540)=mw*4.18*(7515)
mw=0.4kg/s
(ii)Theeffectiveness
Cc=mw*Cpw
=0.4*4.18=1.672KW
Ch=mh*Cph
=0.55*2.45=1.347KW

AsCh<Ccthereforehotfluidisaminimumfluid
Therefore
=

th1 th 2

th1 tc1

=0.75

HeatTransfer
Page30

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NagpurInstituteofTechnology,Nagpur

Subject Heat Transfer (v th semester [Link].)

(iii)Surfacearearequired
Cmax=1.672KW
Cmin=1.347KW
R=1.347/1.672=0.806

1 exp[ NTU (1 R)]

1 Re xp[ NTU (1 R)]

1
= exp[ NTU (1 R )]
R 1
0.75 1
= exp[ NTU (1 0.806)]
0.750 * 806. 1
NTU=2.365
2.365=1450*A/1.347*1000
A=2.197m2
Q.27Aparallelflowofheattransferuse1500kg/hrofcoldwaterenteringat25 oCtocool600kg/hrof
hotwaterat70 oC.Theexittemperatureonhotsideisrequiredtobe50 [Link]
thefollowingfactor,[Link]
transfercoefficientonbothsideare1600W/[Link]
separately. Also calculate the exit temperature of hot and cold stream if the flow of hot water is
doubled. i.e. 1200 kg/hr. it has been state that individual heat transfer coefficient proportional to .8th
[Link]=4180J/kgK.

mh=600kg/hrmc=1500kg/hr
th1=70oCth2=50oCtc1=25oCtc2=?U=2270W/m2oKC=4180J/KgK
Q=mhCph(th1th2)=mcCpc(tc2tc1)
600/3600*4.187*(7050)=1500/3600*4.187*(tc225)
tc2=33oC
1=7025=45oC
2=5033=17oC

HeatTransfer
Page31

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NagpurInstituteofTechnology,Nagpur

Subject Heat Transfer (v th semester [Link].)

LMTD=(12)/In(1/2)=28.76oC

1
1
1

= +
U hi ho
1
1
1

=
+
U 1600 1600
U=800W/m2K
Q=[Link]
ThereforeA=.6m2
ByNTUapproach

th1 th 2 70 50
=
= 0.54
th1 Tc1 70 33

1 e 2 NTU
=

2
NTU=1.25
NTU=UA/m*Cph
A=1m2Q
Q.28Stateandexplainfollowinglawsofradiation
1]Wiensdisplacementlaw

[Link]
arelationshipbetweentemperatureofbodyandthewavelengthatwhichthemaximumvalueof
monochromaticemissivepoweroccurs.
A/ctoWienslaw

max.T=constant

max.T=2898mk

Itisusedtopredictveryhightemperaturethroughmeasurementofwavelength.
2]Lambertscosinelaw
HeatTransfer
Page32

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NagpurInstituteofTechnology,Nagpur

Subject Heat Transfer (v th semester [Link].)

ThislawstatesthattotalemissivepowerEfromadiffuseradiatingsurfaceinanyparticular
directionisdirectlyproportionaltothecosineoftheanglebetweenthedirectionunderconsideration
andnormaltothesurface()
LetEnbetotalemissivepowerofthesurfaceinthedirectionnormaltoitssurfacethen,
E=EnCos
3]Kirchoffslaw
TheKirchoffslawstatesthatatthermalequilibrium,theratiooftotalemissivepowerEtothetotal
absorptivity isaconstantforallsubstances.
Thusatequilibrium
A1E1= 1A1Ebforbody1Ebemissivepowerofblackbody
Ifbody1isreplacedbybody2then
A1E1= 2A2Eb
Thereforewecanwrite
Eb=E1/ 1=E2/

2=E/

But=E/Eb
Eb=E/

Kirchoffslawalsostatesthattheemissivityofablackbodyisequaltoitsabsorptivitywhenthe
bodyremainsinthermalequilibriumwithitssurrounding.
Q.29Shapefactor
Theshapefactorisusefulinanalysisofheatexchangebyradiationbetweentwosurfaces.

HeatTransfer
Page33

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NagpurInstituteofTechnology,Nagpur

Subject Heat Transfer (v th semester [Link].)

ConsidertwosurfaceswithareaAi&[Link].

i& jaretheanglesmadebynormaltotheAi&Aj
RateofenergyradiatedbyAi
Qi
RateofradiantenergyemittedbyAiandthatfallsonAj

Q ij
Fij(Shapefactorforbodyiwrtoj)
Fijiscalledconfigurationfactor,viewfactororshapefactor.
DefinitionItdefinedasthefractionofradiativeenergythatisdiffusedfromonesurfaceandstrikes
theothersurfacedirectlywithnointerveningreflections.
SimilarFjiistheshapefactorforbodyjwithrespecttoi
AiFij=AjFji
Thisisknownasreciprocitytherom.
Q.30DiscussRadiationshield
[Link]
beachievedeitherbyusingmaterialswhicharehighlyreflectiveorbyusingradiationshieldsbetween
[Link]
overallsystembutiteffectivelyincreasesthesurfaceresistancetoreducetheradiationheattransfer.
thinshieldsofplasticcoatedwithhighlyreflectingmetallicfilmsonbothsidesservesasveryeffective
radiationshield.
Theshieldsareusedinthetemperaturemeasurementofafluidbyathermometerorathermocouple
whichisshieldtoreducetheeffectofradiation.
Q31Twoverylargeparallelplates,aremaintainedatuniformtemperature800Kand500Kandhave
emissivities1=0.2,and2=[Link]
unitsurfaceareaoftheplates.
Ans:
heattransferbetweenthetwosurfacesperunitsurfacearea

HeatTransfer
Page34

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NagpurInstituteofTechnology,Nagpur

Subject Heat Transfer (v th semester [Link].)

T1 T2 5.67 (800) (500) x108

1
1
A
+ 1
+
1
4

1 2

0.2 0.7

q12 =3625W/m2

Q.32Twoparallelsquareplates,each4m2areaarelargecomparedtoagapof5mmseparatingthem.
Oneplatehasatemperatureof800oKandsurfaceemissivityof0.6,whiletheotherhasatemperature
[Link].
Ifathinpolishedmetalchipofsurfaceemissivity0.1onbothsidesisnowlocatedcentrallybetweenthe
twoplates,whatwillbeitssteadystatetemperature?Howtheheattransferwouldbealtered?Neglect
theconvectionandedgeeffects,[Link].
Ans:
1=0.6,T1=800 2=0.9,T2=300oK

Heattransferwhenthereisnoshield

Q=

1 2
Q=

* A* (T14 T24 ) 5.67* 4 * 4 * (800)4 (300)4 x108

1
1
+
1
0.6 0.9

91060.2
= 51211.76watts
1.667 + 1.111 1

Heattransferwithshield

T14 T24
Q
=
1 1
1
1
A
( + 1) + (
+
1)
1 2
31 32

Q
5.67*108 8004 3004
= 1095.6watts/ m2
=
1
1
1
1
A
( +
1) + ( + 1)
0.6 0.9
0.1 0.1
Fortemperatureofshield
HeatTransfer
Page35

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NagpurInstituteofTechnology,Nagpur

Subject Heat Transfer (v th semester [Link].)

(T3 T2 )
Q T14 T34
=
=

1
1
1
1
A
( +
1)
+ 1
1 31
32 2

Q 8004 T34 (T3 3004 )

A
(10.66)
10.11
4

T3=671.67oK
Q.33Discussthefollowing
1)Heatpipe:

[Link]
[Link]
[Link]
addedtooneendofpipe,liquidisvaporizedinthewickandthepipeheatisremovedandthevapour
[Link].

Thebasicconceptofheatpipewillworkintheabsenceofgravity,theheatpipemaybetiltedso
[Link]
[Link],
whenthecondenserisplacedatalowerelevationthantheevaporatortheactionofgravitywillimpede
theflowofliquidinthewickandtheheatpipeissaidtohaveadversetilt.

Heatpipeisparticularlyusefulinenergyconservationequipmentwhereitisdesiredtorecover
heatfromhotgasesforairpreheaterorsupplementalheatingapplication.
2)thermalresistance
When two physical systems are described by similar equation and have similar boundary conditions,
[Link]
electricityinanelectricalresistance.
AsperOhmslaw,current(I)=

potential .differance (dV )

Electrical .resis tan ce

Byanalogy,fromFourierequationforheatflow
HeatflowrateQ=

[Link](dt )

K .A
HeatTransfer
Page36

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NagpurInstituteofTechnology,Nagpur

Subject Heat Transfer (v th semester [Link].)

HereIisanaloguestoQ

dVisanaloguestodt

Risanaloguesto

Rth=

K .A

K .A

andthisquantityiscalledthermalresistance

UnitwillbeoC/WoroK/W
Reciprocalofthermalresistanceiscalledthermalconductance.

HeatTransfer
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