Copper

For other uses, see Copper (disambiguation).

Copper is a chemical element with symbol Cu (from
Latin: cuprum) and atomic number 29. It is a ductile
metal with very high thermal and electrical conductivity.
Pure copper is soft and malleable; a freshly exposed surface has a reddish-orange color. It is used as a conductor
of heat and electricity, a building material, and a constituent of various metal alloys.
The metal and its alloys have been used for thousands of
years. In the Roman era, copper was principally mined
on Cyprus, hence the origin of the name of the metal as
yprium (metal of Cyprus), later shortened to uprum.
Its compounds are commonly encountered as copper(II)
salts, which often impart blue or green colors to minerals
such as azurite and turquoise and have been widely used
historically as pigments. Architectural structures built
with copper corrode to give green verdigris (or patina).
A copper disc (99.95% pure) made by continuous casting; etched
Decorative art prominently features copper, both by it- to reveal crystallites.
self and as part of pigments.
Copper is essential to all living organisms as a trace
dietary mineral because it is a key constituent of the
respiratory enzyme complex cytochrome c oxidase. In
molluscs and crustacea copper is a constituent of the
blood pigment hemocyanin, which is replaced by the
iron-complexed hemoglobin in sh and other vertebrates.
The main areas where copper is found in humans are
liver, muscle and bone.[2] Copper compounds are used as
bacteriostatic substances, fungicides, and wood preservatives.

1
1.1

Characteristics
Copper just above its melting point keeps its pink luster color when
enough light outshines the orange incandescence color.

Physical

Copper, silver and gold are in group 11 of the periodic

table, and they share certain attributes: they have one sorbital electron on top of a lled d-electron shell and are
characterized by high ductility and electrical conductivity. The lled d-shells in these elements do not contribute
much to the interatomic interactions, which are dominated by the s-electrons through metallic bonds. Unlike in
metals with incomplete d-shells, metallic bonds in copper
are lacking a covalent character and are relatively weak.
This explains the low hardness and high ductility of single
crystals of copper.[3] At the macroscopic scale, introduction of extended defects to the crystal lattice, such as grain

boundaries, hinders ow of the material under applied

stress, thereby increasing its hardness. For this reason,
copper is usually supplied in a ne-grained polycrystalline
form, which has greater strength than monocrystalline
forms.[4]
The softness of copper partly explains its high electrical
conductivity (59.6106 S/m) and thus also high thermal
conductivity, which are the second highest among pure
metals at room temperature.[5] This is because the resistivity to electron transport in metals at room temperature
mostly originates from scattering of electrons on thermal
1

CHARACTERISTICS

vibrations of the lattice, which are relatively weak for a

soft metal.[3] The maximum permissible current density
of copper in open air is approximately 3.1106 A/m2
of cross-sectional area, above which it begins to heat
excessively.[6] As with other metals, if copper is placed
against another metal, galvanic corrosion will occur.[7]
Together with caesium and gold (both yellow), and
osmium (bluish), copper is one of only four elemental
metals with a natural color other than gray or silver.[8]
Pure copper is orange-red and acquires a reddish tarnish
when exposed to air. The characteristic color of copper
results from the electronic transitions between the lled
3d and half-empty 4s atomic shells the energy dierence between these shells is such that it corresponds to The East Tower of the Royal Observatory, Edinburgh. The conorange light. The same mechanism accounts for the yel- trast between the refurbished copper installed in 2010 and the
green color of the original 1894 copper is clearly seen.
low color of gold and caesium.[3]

1.2

Chemical

ble, with 63 Cu comprising approximately 69% of naturally occurring copper; they both have a spin of 3 2 .[11]
The other isotopes are radioactive, with the most stable being 67 Cu with a half-life of 61.83 hours.[11] Seven
metastable isotopes have been characterized, with 68m Cu
the longest-lived with a half-life of 3.8 minutes. Isotopes
with a mass number above 64 decay by , whereas those
with a mass number below 64 decay by + . 64 Cu, which
has a half-life of 12.7 hours, decays both ways.[12]
62

Cu and 64 Cu have signicant applications. 64 Cu is a

radiocontrast agent for X-ray imaging, and complexed
with a chelate can be used for treating cancer. 62 Cu
is used in 62 Cu-PTSM that is a radioactive tracer for
positron emission tomography.[13]

1.4 Occurrence

Unoxidized copper wire (left) and oxidized copper wire (right).

Copper does not react with water but it does slowly react with atmospheric oxygen to form a layer of brownblack copper oxide which, unlike the rust which forms
when iron is exposed to moist air, protects the underlying copper from more extensive corrosion. A green
layer of verdigris (copper carbonate) can often be seen
on old copper constructions such as the Statue of Liberty.[9] Copper tarnishes when exposed to suldes, which
react with it to form various copper suldes.[10]
Native copper from the Keweenaw Peninsula Michigan about 2.5
inches (6.4 cm) long

1.3

Isotopes

Copper is synthesized in massive stars[14] and is present

in the Earths crust at a concentration of about 50 parts
Main article: Isotopes of copper
per million (ppm),[15] where it occurs as native copper or
in minerals such as the copper suldes chalcopyrite and
There are 29 isotopes of copper. 63 Cu and 65 Cu are sta- chalcocite, the copper carbonates azurite and malachite,

2.1

Reserves

and the copper(I) oxide mineral cuprite.[5] The largest

mass of elemental copper discovered weighed 420 tonnes
and was found in 1857 on the Keweenaw Peninsula in
Michigan, US.[15] Native copper is a polycrystal, with the
largest described single crystal measuring 4.43.23.2
cm.[16]

Production

3
Chuquicamata in Chile, Bingham Canyon Mine in Utah,
United States and El Chino Mine in New Mexico, United
States. According to the British Geological Survey, in
2005, Chile was the top mine producer of copper with
at least one-third world share followed by the United
States, Indonesia and Peru.[5] Copper can also be recovered through the In-situ leach process. Several sites in
the state of Arizona are considered prime candidates for
this method.[17] The amount of copper in use is increasing and the quantity available is barely sucient to allow
all countries to reach developed world levels of usage.[18]

2.1 Reserves
See also: Peak copper Reserves

Production in 106 tons / year

Chuquicamata in Chile is one of the worlds largest open pit copper mines.

18
16
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
1900 1920 1940 1960 1980 2000 2020
Year

World production trend

Copper has been in use at least 10,000 years, but more

than 96% of all copper ever mined and smelted has been
extracted since 1900, and more than half was extracted
in only the last 24 years. As with many natural resources,
the total amount of copper on Earth is vast (around 1014
tons just in the top kilometer of Earths crust, or about
5 million years worth at the current rate of extraction).
However, only a tiny fraction of these reserves is economically viable, given present-day prices and technologies. Various estimates of existing copper reserves available for mining vary from 25 years to 60 years, depending on core assumptions such as the growth rate.[19] Recycling is a major source of copper in the modern world.[20]
Because of these and other factors, the future of copper
production and supply is the subject of much debate, including the concept of peak copper, analogous to peak
oil.
The price of copper has historically been unstable,[21]
and it sextupled from the 60-year low of US$0.60/lb
(US$1.32/kg) in June 1999 to US$3.75 per pound
(US$8.27/kg) in May 2006. It dropped to US$2.40/lb
(US$5.29/kg) in February 2007, then rebounded to
US$3.50/lb (US$7.71/kg) in April 2007.[22] In February
2009, weakening global demand and a steep fall in commodity prices since the previous years highs left copper
prices at US$1.51/lb.[23]

2.2 Methods
Main article: Copper extraction techniques
The concentration of copper in ores averages only
0.6%, and most commercial ores are suldes, especially chalcopyrite (CuFeS2 ) and to a lesser extent chalSee also: List of countries by copper production
cocite (Cu2 S).[24] These minerals are concentrated from
crushed ores to the level of 1015% copper by froth otaMost copper is mined or extracted as copper suldes tion or bioleaching.[25] Heating this material with silica
from large open pit mines in porphyry copper deposits in ash smelting removes much of the iron as slag. The
that contain 0.4 to 1.0% copper. Examples include process exploits the greater ease of converting iron sulCopper prices 20032011 in USD per tonne

COMPOUNDS

des into its oxides, which in turn react with the silica to
form the silicate slag, which oats on top of the heated
mass. The resulting copper matte consisting of Cu2 S is
then roasted to convert all suldes into oxides:[24]

The alloy of copper and nickel, called cupronickel, is used

in low-denomination coins, often for the outer cladding.
The US 5-cent coin called a nickel consists of 75% copper and 25% nickel and has a homogeneous composition.
The alloy consisting of 90% copper and 10% nickel is remarkable for its resistance to corrosion and is used in var2 Cu2 S + 3 O2 2 Cu2 O + 2 SO2
ious parts that are exposed to seawater. Alloys of copper
The cuprous oxide is converted to blister copper upon with aluminium (about 7%) have a pleasant golden color
and are used in decorations.[15] Some lead-free solders
heating:
consist of tin alloyed with a small proportion of copper
and other metals.[30]
2 Cu2 O 4 Cu + O2
The Sudbury matte process converted only half the sulde
to oxide and then used this oxide to remove the rest of
the sulfur as oxide. It was then electrolytically rened
and the anode mud exploited for the platinum and gold it
contained. This step exploits the relatively easy reduction
of copper oxides to copper metal. Natural gas is blown
across the blister to remove most of the remaining oxygen
and electrorening is performed on the resulting material
to produce pure copper:[26]

4 Compounds

Cu2+ + 2 e Cu

2.3

Recycling

Like aluminium, copper is 100% recyclable without any

loss of quality, regardless of whether it is in a raw state or
contained in a manufactured product. In volume, copper
is the third most recycled metal after iron and aluminium.
It is estimated that 80% of the copper ever mined is
still in use today.[27] According to the International Resource Panel's Metal Stocks in Society report, the global
per capita stock of copper in use in society is 3555 kg.
Much of this is in more-developed countries (140300
kg per capita) rather than less-developed countries (30
40 kg per capita).
The process of recycling copper is roughly the same as is
A sample of copper(I) oxide.
used to extract copper but requires fewer steps. High purity scrap copper is melted in a furnace and then reduced See also: Category:Copper compounds
and cast into billets and ingots; lower purity scrap is rened by electroplating in a bath of sulfuric acid.[28]
Copper forms a rich variety of compounds, usually with
oxidation states +1 and +2, which are often called cuprous
and cupric, respectively.[31]

Alloys

See also: List of copper alloys

4.1 Binary compounds

Numerous copper alloys exist, many with important uses.

Brass is an alloy of copper and zinc. Bronze usually refers
to copper-tin alloys, but can refer to any alloy of copper
such as aluminium bronze. Copper is one of the most
important constituents of carat silver and gold alloys, and
carat solders are used in the jewelry industry, modifying the color, hardness and melting point of the resulting
alloys.[29]

As with other elements, the simplest compounds of copper are binary compounds, i.e. those containing only two
elements. The principal ones are the oxides, suldes,
and halides. Both cuprous and cupric oxides are known.
Among the numerous copper suldes, important examples include copper(I) sulde and copper(II) sulde.
The cuprous halides with chlorine, bromine, and iodine
are known, as are the cupric halides with uorine,

4.3

Organocopper chemistry

chlorine, and bromine. Attempts to prepare copper(II)

iodide give cuprous iodide and iodine.[31]
2 Cu2+ + 4 I 2 CuI + I2

4.2

Coordination chemistry

Ball-and-stick model of the complex [Cu(NH3 )4 (H2 O)2 ]2+ , illustrating the octahedral coordination geometry common for copper(II).

solution the presence of the sugar is signaled by a

color change from blue Cu(II) to reddish copper(I)
oxide.[33] Schweizers reagent and related complexes with
Copper(II) gives a deep blue coloration in the presence of ammo- ethylenediamine and other amines dissolve cellulose.[34]
nia ligands. The one used here is tetramminecopper(II) sulfate.
Amino acids form very stable chelate complexes with
copper(II). Many wet-chemical tests for copper ions exCopper, like all metals, forms coordination complexes ist, one involving potassium ferrocyanide, which gives a
with ligands. In aqueous solution, copper(II) exists as brown precipitate with copper(II) salts.
[Cu(H2 O)6 ]2+ . This complex exhibits the fastest water
exchange rate (speed of water ligands attaching and detaching) for any transition metal aquo complex. Adding
aqueous sodium hydroxide causes the precipitation of
light blue solid copper(II) hydroxide. A simplied equa- 4.3 Organocopper chemistry
tion is:
Cu2+ + 2 OH Cu(OH)2

Main article: Organocopper compound

Aqueous ammonia results in the same precipitate. Upon Compounds that contain a carbon-copper bond are
adding excess ammonia, the precipitate dissolves, form- known as organocopper compounds. They are very
reactive towards oxygen to form copper(I) oxide and
ing tetraamminecopper(II):
have many uses in chemistry. They are synthesized by
treating copper(I) compounds with Grignard reagents,
Cu(H2 O)4 (OH)2
+
4
NH3

terminal alkynes or organolithium reagents;[35] in par[Cu(H2 O)2 (NH3 )4 ]2+ + 2 H2 O + 2 OH

ticular, the last reaction described produces a Gilman
reagent. These can undergo substitution with alkyl
Many other oxyanions form complexes; these include halides to form coupling products; as such, they are
copper(II) acetate, copper(II) nitrate, and copper(II) important in the eld of organic synthesis. Copper(I)
carbonate. Copper(II) sulfate forms a blue crystalline acetylide is highly shock-sensitive but is an intermedipentahydrate, which is the most familiar copper com- ate in reactions such as the Cadiot-Chodkiewicz coupound in the laboratory. It is used in a fungicide called pling[36] and the Sonogashira coupling.[37] Conjugate adthe Bordeaux mixture.[32]
dition to enones[38] and carbocupration of alkynes[39] can
Polyols, compounds containing more than one alcohol also be achieved with organocopper compounds. Copfunctional group, generally interact with cupric salts. For per(I) forms a variety of weak complexes with alkenes
example, copper salts are used to test for reducing sug- and carbon monoxide, especially in the presence of amine
ars. Specically, using Benedicts reagent and Fehlings ligands.[40]

4.4

HISTORY

Copper(III) and copper(IV)

Copper(III) is most characteristically found in oxides. A

simple example is potassium cuprate, KCuO2 , a blueblack solid. The best studied copper(III) compounds are
the cuprate superconductors. Yttrium barium copper oxide (YBa2 Cu3 O7 ) consists of both Cu(II) and Cu(III)
centres. Like oxide, uoride is a highly basic anion and is
known to stabilize metal ions in high oxidation states. Indeed, both copper(III) and even copper(IV) uorides are
known, K3 CuF6 and Cs2 CuF6 , respectively.[31]
Some copper proteins form oxo complexes, which also
feature copper(III).[41] With di- and tripeptides, purplecolored copper(III) complexes are stabilized by the deprotonated amide ligands.[42]
Complexes of copper(III) are also observed as intermediates in reactions of organocopper compounds.

5
5.1

History
Copper Age

Main article: Copper Age

Copper occurs naturally as native copper and was known

Many tools during the Chalcolithic Era made use of copper, such
as for the blade of this replica of tzi's axe

A corroded copper ingot from Zakros, Crete, shaped in the form

of an animal skin typical in that era.

to some of the oldest civilizations on record. It has a

history of use that is at least 10,000 years old, and estimates of its discovery place it at 9000 BC in the Middle East;[43] a copper pendant was found in northern Iraq
that dates to 8700 BC.[44] There is evidence that gold and
meteoric iron (but not iron smelting) were the only metals
used by humans before copper.[45] The history of copper
metallurgy is thought to have followed the following sequence: 1) cold working of native copper, 2) annealing,
3) smelting, and 4) the lost wax method. In southeastern
Anatolia, all four of these metallurgical techniques appears more or less simultaneously at the beginning of the
Neolithic c. 7500 BC.[46] However, just as agriculture
was independently invented in several parts of the world
(including Pakistan, China, and the Americas) copper
smelting was invented locally in several dierent places.

Copper ore (chrysocolla) in Cambrian sandstone from

Chalcolithic mines in the Timna Valley, southern Israel.

It was probably discovered independently in China before

2800 BC, in Central America perhaps around 600 AD,
and in West Africa about the 9th or 10th century AD.[47]
Investment casting was invented in 45004000 BC in
Southeast Asia[43] and carbon dating has established mining at Alderley Edge in Cheshire, UK at 2280 to 1890
BC.[48] tzi the Iceman, a male dated from 33003200
BC, was found with an axe with a copper head 99.7%
pure; high levels of arsenic in his hair suggest his involvement in copper smelting.[49] Experience with copper has

5.3

Antiquity and Middle Ages

assisted the development of other metals; in particular,

copper smelting led to the discovery of iron smelting.[49]
Production in the Old Copper Complex in Michigan and
Wisconsin is dated between 6000 and 3000 BC.[50][51]
Natural bronze, a type of copper made from ores rich in
silicon, arsenic, and (rarely) tin, came into general use in
the Balkans around 5500 BC.

5.2

Bronze Age

Main article: Bronze Age

Alloying copper with tin to make bronze was rst practiced about 4000 years after the discovery of copper
smelting, and about 2000 years after natural bronze had
come into general use. Bronze artifacts from the Vina
culture date to 4500 BC.[52] Sumerian and Egyptian artifacts of copper and bronze alloys date to 3000 BC.[53] The
Bronze Age began in Southeastern Europe around 3700
3300 BC, in Northwestern Europe about 2500 BC. It
ended with the beginning of the Iron Age, 20001000 BC
in the Near East, 600 BC in Northern Europe. The transition between the Neolithic period and the Bronze Age
was formerly termed the Chalcolithic period (copperstone), with copper tools being used with stone tools.
This term has gradually fallen out of favor because in
some parts of the world the Chalcolithic and Neolithic
are coterminous at both ends. Brass, an alloy of copper
and zinc, is of much more recent origin. It was known
to the Greeks, but became a signicant supplement to
bronze during the Roman Empire.[53]

5.3

Antiquity and Middle Ages

Chalcolithic copper mine in Timna Valley, Negev Desert, Israel.

In Greece, copper was known by the name chalkos

(). It was an important resource for the Romans,
Greeks and other ancient peoples. In Roman times, it
was known as aes Cyprium, aes being the generic Latin
term for copper alloys and Cyprium from Cyprus, where
much copper was mined. The phrase was simplied to
cuprum, hence the English copper. Aphrodite and Venus
represented copper in mythology and alchemy, because
of its lustrous beauty, its ancient use in producing mirrors, and its association with Cyprus, which was sacred
to the goddess. The seven heavenly bodies known to the
ancients were associated with the seven metals known in
antiquity, and Venus was assigned to copper.[54]
Britains rst use of brass occurred around the 3rd2nd
century BC. In North America, copper mining began with
marginal workings by Native Americans. Native copper
is known to have been extracted from sites on Isle Royale
with primitive stone tools between 800 and 1600.[55]
Copper metallurgy was ourishing in South America,
particularly in Peru around 1000 AD; it proceeded at a
much slower rate on other continents. Copper burial ornamentals from the 15th century have been uncovered,
but the metals commercial production did not start until
the early 20th century.
The cultural role of copper has been important, particularly in currency. Romans in the 6th through 3rd centuries
BC used copper lumps as money. At rst, the copper itself was valued, but gradually the shape and look of the
copper became more important. Julius Caesar had his
own coins made from brass, while Octavianus Augustus
Caesar's coins were made from Cu-Pb-Sn alloys. With
an estimated annual output of around 15,000 t, Roman
copper mining and smelting activities reached a scale unsurpassed until the time of the Industrial Revolution; the
provinces most intensely mined were those of Hispania,
Cyprus and in Central Europe.[56][57]

In alchemy the symbol for copper was also the symbol for the
goddess and planet Venus.

The gates of the Temple of Jerusalem used Corinthian

bronze made by depletion gilding. It was most prevalent in Alexandria, where alchemy is thought to have
begun.[58] In ancient India, copper was used in the holis-

6 APPLICATIONS

tic medical science Ayurveda for surgical instruments

and other medical equipment. Ancient Egyptians (~2400
BC) used copper for sterilizing wounds and drinking water, and later on for headaches, burns, and itching. The
Baghdad Battery, with copper cylinders soldered to lead,
dates back to 248 BC to AD 226 and resembles a galvanic
cell, leading people to believe this was the rst battery; the
claim has not been veried.[59]

5.4

Modern period

bell tones. Flash smelting was developed by Outokumpu

in Finland and rst applied at Harjavalta in 1949; the
energy-ecient process accounts for 50% of the worlds
primary copper production.[64]
The Intergovernmental Council of Copper Exporting
Countries, formed in 1967 with Chile, Peru, Zaire and
Zambia, played a similar role for copper as OPEC does
for oil. It never achieved the same inuence, particularly
because the second-largest producer, the United States,
was never a member; it was dissolved in 1988.[65]

6 Applications
See also: Copper in renewable energy
The major applications of copper are in electrical wires

Assorted copper ttings

(60%), roong and plumbing (20%) and industrial machinery (15%). Copper is mostly used as a pure metal,
but when a higher hardness is required it is combined with
other elements to make an alloy (5% of total use) such as
brass and bronze.[15] A small part of copper supply is used
Acid mine drainage aecting the stream running from the disused in production of compounds for nutritional supplements
Parys Mountain copper mines
and fungicides in agriculture.[32][66] Machining of copper
is possible, although it is usually necessary to use an alloy
The Great Copper Mountain was a mine in Falun, Swe- for intricate parts to get good machinability characterisden, that operated from the 10th century to 1992. It pro- tics.
duced two thirds of Europes copper demand in the 17th
century and helped fund many of Swedens wars during
that time.[60] It was referred to as the nations treasury; 6.1 Wire and cable
Sweden had a copper backed currency.[61]
The uses of copper in art were not limited to currency: it Main article: Copper wire and cable
was used by Renaissance sculptors, in photographic technology known as the daguerreotype, and the Statue of
Liberty. Copper plating and copper sheathing for ships
hulls was widespread; the ships of Christopher Columbus were among the earliest to have this feature.[62] The
Norddeutsche Anerie in Hamburg was the rst modern electroplating plant starting its production in 1876.[63]
The German scientist Gottfried Osann invented powder
metallurgy in 1830 while determining the metals atomic
mass; around then it was discovered that the amount and
type of alloying element (e.g., tin) to copper would aect

Despite competition from other materials, copper remains the preferred electrical conductor in nearly all
categories of electrical wiring with the major exception being overhead electric power transmission where
aluminium is often preferred.[67][68] Copper wire is used
in power generation, power transmission, power distribution, telecommunications, electronics circuitry, and
countless types of electrical equipment.[69] Electrical
wiring is the most important market for the copper
industry.[70] This includes building wire, communications

6.4

Architecture

cable, power distribution cable, appliance wire, automotive wire and cable, and magnet wire. Roughly half of
all copper mined is used to manufacture electrical wire
and cable conductors.[71] Many electrical devices rely on
copper wiring because of its multitude of inherent benecial properties, such as its high electrical conductivity,
tensile strength, ductility, creep (deformation) resistance,
corrosion resistance, low thermal expansion, high thermal
conductivity, solderability, and ease of installation.

9
increases the electrical energy eciency of the motor. Copper motor rotors, a new technology designed
for motor applications where energy savings are prime
design objectives,[75][76] are enabling general-purpose
induction motors to meet and exceed National Electrical
Manufacturers Association (NEMA) premium eciency
standards.[77]

6.4 Architecture
6.2

Electronics and related devices

Main article: Copper in architecture

Copper has been used since ancient times as a

Copper roof on the Minneapolis City Hall, coated with patina

Copper electrical busbars distributing power to a large building

durable, corrosion resistant, and weatherproof architectural material.[78][79][80][81] Roofs, ashings, rain gutters,
downspouts, domes, spires, vaults, and doors have been
made from copper for hundreds or thousands of years.
Coppers architectural use has been expanded in modern times to include interior and exterior wall cladding,
building expansion joints, radio frequency shielding,
and antimicrobial indoor products, such as attractive
handrails, bathroom xtures, and counter tops. Some
of coppers other important benets as an architectural
material include its low thermal movement, light weight,
lightning protection, and its recyclability.

Integrated circuits and printed circuit boards increasingly

feature copper in place of aluminium because of its superior electrical conductivity (see Copper interconnect for
main article); heat sinks and heat exchangers use copper as a result of its superior heat dissipation capacity to
aluminium. Electromagnets, vacuum tubes, cathode ray The metals distinctive natural green patina has long been
tubes, and magnetrons in microwave ovens use copper, as coveted by architects and designers. The nal patina
is a particularly durable layer that is highly resistant to
do wave guides for microwave radiation.[72]
atmospheric corrosion, thereby protecting the underlying metal against further weathering.[82][83][84] It can be
a mixture of carbonate and sulfate compounds in vari6.3 Electric motors
ous amounts, depending upon environmental conditions
Main article: Copper in energy ecient motors
such as sulfur-containing acid rain.[85][86][87][88] Architectural copper and its alloys can also be 'nished' to emCoppers greater conductivity versus other metals en- bark a particular look, feel, and/or color. Finishes insurface treatments, chemical coloring,
hances the electrical energy eciency of motors.[73] This clude mechanical
[89]
and
coatings.
is important because motors and motor-driven systems
account for 43%46% of all global electricity consump- Copper has excellent brazing and soldering properties and
tion and 69% of all electricity used by industry.[74] In- can be welded; the best results are obtained with gas metal
creasing the mass and cross section of copper in a coil arc welding.[90]

10

6 APPLICATIONS
erties to destroy a wide range of microorganisms (e.g.,
E. coli O157:H7, methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus
aureus (MRSA), Staphylococcus, Clostridium dicile,
inuenza A virus, adenovirus, and fungi).[93] Some 355
copper alloys were proven to kill more than 99.9%
of disease-causing bacteria within just two hours when
cleaned regularly.[94] The United States Environmental
Protection Agency (EPA) has approved the registrations
of these copper alloys as antimicrobial materials with
public health benets,[94] which allows manufacturers to
legally make claims as to the positive public health benets of products made with registered antimicrobial copper alloys. In addition, the EPA has approved a long list
of antimicrobial copper products made from these alloys,
such as bedrails, handrails, over-bed tables, sinks, faucets,
door knobs, toilet hardware, computer keyboards, health
club equipment, shopping cart handles, etc. (for a comprehensive list of products, see: Antimicrobial copperalloy touch surfaces#Approved products). Copper doorknobs are used by hospitals to reduce the transfer of disease, and Legionnaires disease is suppressed by copper
tubing in plumbing systems.[95] Antimicrobial copper alloy products are now being installed in healthcare facilities in the U.K., Ireland, Japan, Korea, France, Denmark,
and Brazil and in the subway transit system in Santiago,
Chile, where copper-zinc alloy handrails will be installed
in some 30 stations between 20112014.[96][97][98]

Old copper utensils in a Jerusalem restaurant

6.5

Antibiofouling applications

6.7 Folk medicine

Main articles: Copper alloys in aquaculture and Copper

Copper is commonly used in jewelry, and folklore says
sheathing
that copper bracelets relieve arthritis symptoms.[99] In
alternative medicine, some proponents speculate that exCopper is biostatic, meaning bacteria will not grow on it. cess copper absorbed through the skin can treat some ailFor this reason it has long been used to line parts of ships ments, or that the copper somehow creates a magnetic
to protect against barnacles and mussels. It was originally eld, treating nearby tissue.
used pure, but has since been superseded by Muntz metal.
Similarly, as discussed in copper alloys in aquaculture, In various studies, though, no dierence is found between
copper alloys have become important netting materials arthritis treated with a copper bracelet, magnetic bracelet,
[100][101]
As far as medical science is
in the aquaculture industry because they are antimicrobial or placebo bracelet.
[91]
and prevent biofouling, even in extreme conditions and concerned, wearing copper has no known benet, for any
have strong structural and corrosion-resistant[92] proper- medical condition at all. A human being can have a dietary copper deciency, but this is very rare, because copties in marine environments.
per is present in many common foods, including legumes
(beans), grains, and nuts. [102]

6.6

Antimicrobial applications

There is no evidence that copper even can be absorbed

through the skin. But if it were, this could actually lead
Main articles: Antimicrobial properties of copper and to copper poisoning, which may actually be more likely
Antimicrobial copper-alloy touch surfaces
than benecial eects.[103]
More recently, some compression clothing has been sold
with copper woven into it, with the same folk medicine
claims being made. While compression clothing is a real
treatment for some ailments, therefore the clothing may
appear to work, the added copper may very well have no
Copper-alloy touch surfaces have natural intrinsic prop- benet beyond a placebo eect.[104]
Numerous antimicrobial ecacy studies have been conducted in the past 10 years regarding coppers ecacy to
destroy a wide range of bacteria, as well as inuenza A
virus, adenovirus, and fungi.[93]

8.1

6.8

Dietary needs

11

Other uses

Copper compounds in liquid form are used as a wood

preservative, particularly in treating original portion of
structures during restoration of damage due to dry rot.
Together with zinc, copper wires may be placed over nonconductive roong materials to discourage the growth of
moss. Textile bers use copper to create antimicrobial
protective fabrics,[105][106] as do ceramic glazes, stained
glass and musical instruments. Electroplating commonly
uses copper as a base for other metals such as nickel.
Copper is one of three metals, along with lead and silver,
used in a museum materials testing procedure called the Rich sources of copper include oysters, beef and lamb liver,
Oddy test. In this procedure, copper is used to detect Brazil nuts, blackstrap molasses, cocoa, and black pepper. Good
sources include lobster, nuts and sunower seeds, green olives,
chlorides, oxides, and sulfur compounds.
Copper is used as the printing plate in etching, engraving
and other forms of intaglio (printmaking) printmaking.

avocados, and wheat bran.

oxygen, these proteins hydroxylate substrates, illustrated

Copper oxide and carbonate is used in glassmaking and
by their role in the formation of lacquers.[111]
in ceramic glazes to impart green and brown colors.
Copper is also a component of other proteins associated
Copper is the principal alloying metal in some sterling
with the processing of oxygen. In cytochrome c oxidase,
silver and gold alloys. It may also be used on its own, or
which is required for aerobic respiration, copper and iron
as a constituent of brass, bronze, gilding metal and many
cooperate in the reduction of oxygen. Copper is also
other base metal alloys.
found in many superoxide dismutases, proteins that catalyze the decomposition of superoxides, by converting it
(by disproportionation) to oxygen and hydrogen peroxide:

Degradation

2 HO2 H2 O2 + O2
Chromobacterium violaceum and Pseudomonas uorescens can both mobilize solid copper, as a cyanide
compound.[107] The Ericoid Mycorrhizal Fungi Calluna,
Erica and Vaccinium can grow in copper metalliferous
soils.[107] The ectomycorrhizal fungi Suillus luteus protects young pine trees from copper toxicity. A sample
of the fungus Aspergillus niger was found growing from
gold mining solution; and was found to contain cyano
metal complexes; such as gold, silver, copper iron and
zinc. The fungus also plays a role in the solubilization of
heavy metal suldes.[108]

Several copper proteins, such as the blue copper proteins, do not interact directly with substrates, hence they
are not enzymes. These proteins relay electrons by the
process called electron transfer.[111]

Biological role

Main article: Copper in health

Copper proteins have diverse roles in biological electron transport and oxygen transportation, processes
that exploit the easy interconversion of Cu(I) and
Cu(II).[109][110][111] The biological role for copper commenced with the appearance of oxygen in earths
atmosphere.[112] The protein hemocyanin is the oxygen
carrier in most mollusks and some arthropods such as
the horseshoe crab (Limulus polyphemus).[113] Because
hemocyanin is blue, these organisms have blue blood, not
the red blood found in organisms that rely on hemoglobin
for this purpose. Structurally related to hemocyanin are
the laccases and tyrosinases. Instead of reversibly binding

Photosynthesis functions by an elaborate electron transport chain

within the thylakoid membrane. A central link in this chain is
plastocyanin, a blue copper protein.

8.1 Dietary needs

Copper is an essential trace element in plants and animals,
but not some microorganisms. The human body contains
copper at a level of about 1.4 to 2.1 mg per kg of body
mass.[114] Stated dierently, the RDA for copper in normal healthy adults is quoted as 0.97 mg/day and as 3.0

12

10

mg/day.[115] Copper is absorbed in the gut, then transported to the liver bound to albumin.[116] After processing in the liver, copper is distributed to other tissues in
a second phase. Copper transport here involves the protein ceruloplasmin, which carries the majority of copper
in blood. Ceruloplasmin also carries copper that is excreted in milk, and is particularly well-absorbed as a copper source.[117] Copper in the body normally undergoes
enterohepatic circulation (about 5 mg a day, vs. about
1 mg per day absorbed in the diet and excreted from the
body), and the body is able to excrete some excess copper,
if needed, via bile, which carries some copper out of the
liver that is not then reabsorbed by the intestine.[118][119]

REFERENCES

9 See also
Electroplating
Erosion corrosion of copper water tubes
Cold water pitting of copper tube
Metal theft
Operation Tremor
Smelter
Peak copper
Category:Copper mining companies
Anaconda Copper
Antofagasta PLC

8.2

Copper-based disorders

Bingham Canyon Mine

Codelco

Because of its role in facilitating iron uptake, copper deciency can produce anemia-like symptoms, neutropenia,
bone abnormalities, hypopigmentation, impaired growth,
increased incidence of infections, osteoporosis, hyperthyroidism, and abnormalities in glucose and cholesterol
metabolism. Conversely, Wilsons disease causes an accumulation of copper in body tissues.
Severe deciency can be found by testing for low plasma
or serum copper levels, low ceruloplasmin, and low red
blood cell superoxide dismutase levels; these are not sensitive to marginal copper status. The cytochrome c oxidase activity of leucocytes and platelets has been stated
as another factor in deciency, but the results have not
been conrmed by replication.[120]
Main article: Copper toxicity
Gram quantities of various copper salts have been taken
in suicide attempts and produced acute copper toxicity in
humans, possibly due to redox cycling and the generation
of reactive oxygen species that damage DNA.[121][122]
Corresponding amounts of copper salts (30 mg/kg) are
toxic in animals.[123] A minimum dietary value for
healthy growth in rabbits has been reported to be at
least 3 ppm in the diet.[124] However, higher concentrations of copper (100 ppm, 200 ppm, or 500 ppm)
in the diet of rabbits may favorably inuence feed conversion eciency, growth rates, and carcass dressing
percentages.[125]
Chronic copper toxicity does not normally occur in humans because of transport systems that regulate absorption and excretion. Autosomal recessive mutations in
copper transport proteins can disable these systems, leading to Wilsons disease with copper accumulation and
cirrhosis of the liver in persons who have inherited two
defective genes.[114]

Grasberg mine
El Boleo mine

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nutritional copper facts. Retrieved 3 April 2009.
as vegetables, potatoes, legumes (beans and peas), nuts
(peanuts and pecans), grains (wheat and rye) and fruits.
Supplementation is only needed in patients with serious [115] Copper. In: Recommended Dietary Allowances. Washington, D.C.: National Research Council, Food Nutrition
medical conditions that aect their gastrointestinal tract
Board, NRC/NAS. 1980. pp. 151154.
and impair their ability to absorb nutrients.
[116] Adelstein, S. J.; Vallee, B. L. (1961). Copper metabolism
[103] University of Arkansas for Medical Sciences:
in man. New England Journal of Medicine 265 (18):
Find the Truth Behind Medical Myths
892897. doi:10.1056/NEJM196111022651806.
While its never been proven that copper can copper be
absorbed through the skin by wearing a bracelet, research
has shown that excessive copper can result in poisoning, [117] M C Linder; Wooten, L; Cerveza, P; Cotton, S; Shulze, R;
Lomeli, N (1 May 1998). Copper transport. The Amercausing vomiting and, in severe cases, liver damage.
ican Journal of Clinical Nutrition 67 (5): 965S971S.
[104] Truth in Advertising
PMID 9587137.
Tommie Copper
So it seems possible that copper-infused compression [118] Frieden, E; Hsieh, HS (1976). Ceruloplasmin: The
copper transport protein with essential oxidase acclothing could help you recover from a tough workout, and
tivity.
Advances in enzymology and related arits also possible it could have some anti-bacterial propeas of molecular biology.
Advances in Enzymolerties in clothes. But as for the claims in the infomercial
ogy - and Related Areas of Molecular Biology 44:
about relieving joint pain and helping with everyday aches
187236. doi:10.1002/9780470122891.ch6. ISBN
any relief from copper-compression seems more likely
9780470122891. JSTOR 20170553. PMID 775938.
to be a placebo eect than anything else. Think carefully
before shelling out for Tommie Copper.
[119] S. S. Percival; Harris, ED (1 January 1990). Copper
[105] Copper and Cupron. Cupron.
transport from ceruloplasmin: Characterization of the cellular uptake mechanism. American Journal of Physiology
[106] Ergowear, Copper antimicrobial yarn technology used in
Cell Physiology 258 (1): C1406. PMID 2301561.
male underwear
[107] Georey Michael Gadd (March 2010).
Metals,
minerals and microbes:
geomicrobiology and
bioremediation.
Microbiology 156 (3): 609643.
doi:10.1099/mic.0.037143-0. PMID 20019082.

[120] Bonham, Maxine; O'Connor, Jacqueline M.; Hannigan,

Bernadette M.; Strain, J. J. (2002). The immune system as a physiological indicator of marginal copper status?". British Journal of Nutrition 87 (5): 393403.
doi:10.1079/BJN2002558. PMID 12010579.

[108] Harbhajan Singh (2006-11-17). Mycoremediation: Fun[121] Li, Yunbo; Trush, Michael; Yager, James (1994). DNA
gal Bioremediation. p. 509. ISBN 9780470050583.
damage caused by reactive oxygen species originating
from a copper-dependent oxidation of the 2-hydroxy cat[109] Vest, Katherine E.; Hashemi, Hayaa F.; Cobine, Paul
echol of estradiol. Carcinogenesis 15 (7): 14211427.
A. (2013). Chapter 13 The Copper Metallome in Eudoi:10.1093/carcin/15.7.1421. PMID 8033320.
karyotic Cells. In Banci, Lucia (Ed.). Metallomics and
the Cell. Metal Ions in Life Sciences 12. Springer.
doi:10.1007/978-94-007-5561-10_12. ISBN 978-94- [122] Gordon, Starkebaum; John, M. Harlan (April 1986).
Endothelial cell injury due to copper-catalyzed hydrogen
007-5560-4. electronic-book ISBN 978-94-007-5561-1
peroxide generation from homocysteine. J. Clin. Invest.
ISSN 1559-0836 electronic-ISSN 1868-0402
77 (4): 13706. doi:10.1172/JCI112442. PMC 424498.
[110] Vest, Katherine E.; Hashemi, Hayaa F.; Cobine, Paul A.
PMID 3514679.
(2013). Chapter 12 The Copper Metallome in Prokaryotic Cells. In Banci, Lucia (Ed.). Metallomics and [123] Pesticide Information Prole for Copper Sulfate. Cornell University. Retrieved 10 July 2008.
the Cell. Metal Ions in Life Sciences 12. Springer.

17

[124] Hunt, Charles E. and William W. Carlton (1965). Cardiovascular Lesions Associated with Experimental Copper Deciency in the Rabbit. Journal of Nutrition 87 (4):
385394. PMID 5841854.

The Copper Development Association has an extensive site of properties and uses of copper; it also
maintains a [http://www.brass.org web site dedicated to brass, a copper alloy.

[125] Ayyat M.S., Marai I.F.M., Alazab A.M.; Marai i.f.m.;

Alazab a.m.
(1995).
Copper-Protein Nutrition
of New Zealand White Rabbits under Egyptian ConWorld Rabbit Science 3 (3): 113118.
ditions.
doi:10.4995/wrs.1995.249.

The Third Millennium Online page on Copper

11

Notes

12

Further reading

Massaro, Edward J., ed. (2002). Handbook of Copper Pharmacology and Toxicology. Humana Press.
ISBN 0-89603-943-9.
"Copper: Technology & Competitiveness (Summary)
Chapter 6: Copper Production Technology. Oce
of Technology Assessment. 2005.
Current Medicinal Chemistry, Volume 12, Number
10, May 2005, pp. 11611208(48) Metals, Toxicity
and Oxidative Stress
William D. Callister (2003). Materials Science and
Engineering: an Introduction, 6th Ed. Table 6.1, p.
137: Wiley, New York. ISBN 0-471-73696-1.
Material: Copper (Cu), bulk, MEMS and Nanotechnology Clearinghouse.
Kim BE, Nevitt T, Thiele DJ; Nevitt; Thiele (2008).
Mechanisms for copper acquisition, distribution
and regulation. Nat. Chem. Biol. 4 (3): 17685.
doi:10.1038/nchembio.72. PMID 18277979.
Copper transport disorders: an Instant insight from
the Royal Society of Chemistry

13

External links

Copper at The Periodic Table of Videos (University

of Nottingham)
National Pollutant Inventory Copper and compounds fact sheet
Copper Resource Page. Includes several PDF les
detailing the material properties of various kinds of
copper, as well as various guides and tools for the
copper industry.
CDC NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards
Copper (dusts and mists)
CDC NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards
Copper fume

Price history of copper, according to the IMF

18

14

14
14.1

TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

Text

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14.2

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love you shasha, Neverquick, ChandlerMapBot, Secret, Puchiko, DragonBot, Kaphotics, Alexbot, CrazyChemGuy, Arundel39, Lukie1217,
OceanOgre4, Abrech, Gtstricky, Iac74205, Shinkolobwe, Coinmanj, Vansguy, Jotterbot, LarryMorseDCOhio, Nvvchar, Tnxman307, The
Red, Coreanwannub, Mikaey, Ottawa4ever, La Pianista, Weiyee87, Micheal321, Cfsporn, Thingg, Aitias, Jane Bennet, Tsp greenday, Versus22, Eliaseshete, Perdustin, DumZiBoT, EdChem, FastMarkets, MonoBot, Sirplu0, BarretB, Feldspaar, XLinkBot, Elementdc, Spitre,
Huggle, Mj2689, Isaac08, 07ireland07, Ghossein, Rror, Feinoha, Pero Despotovic, Rreagan007, Skarebo, Rinkudj84, Badgernet, Gazimo, 15236hb, Sskkalessk, Ejosse1, Substitutesc, Jadtnr1, HexaChord, Pyfan, JPINFV, Willking1979, Some jerk on the Internet, DOI
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MAST3R, Doulos Christos, Metallica6969, Copperfan, Detroit3k, Dougofborg, Thehelpfulbot, FengRail, DeNoel, Ndaren, R8R Gtrs, Shuy, Prari, FrescoBot, Canton Viaduct, Meltedbutter, Archaeodontosaurus, Nick0597n, Eldin raigmore, Hailleeedot, GreenRoot, ZenerV,
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Stretch0069, Satellizer, Joe1913, Chronolith, Centallith, Lanthanum-138, M11101, Primergrey, Monsoon Waves, Parcly Taxel, Makscf,
Helpful Pixie Bot, JohnSRoberts99, Gob Lofa, Bibcode Bot, Gauravjuvekar, Lowercase sigmabot, XV DEaD ShOT xV, Paradoxiality, The
Mark of the Beast, Registreernu, Hallows AG, Zyxwv99, David Alan Sherwood, FutureTrillionaire, SmellyLilYou, Puggie4276, Soerfm,
Mmanto, Mimzy89, Franspinale, Hugorj42, Larimes, Tibanar, Tyrael123, Elite6809, Nitrobutane, Haleiwahi, Hergilei, DarafshBot, Hebert
Per, Many Minerals, Dexbot, Pineapple89304, JZNIOSH, Andrew Barriskell, Riccardo Rovinetti, Detabudash, CorinneSD, Jnargus, Bellapenmanowens, Corn cheese, Kilabotzx987, Reatlas, AlbertEinstein1939, Epicgenius, Eyesnore, CensoredScribe, John Mortimore, Kogge,
Jackmcbarn, Ramendoctor, Kind Tennis Fan, Anrnusna, Qwertyxp2000, Pmblair2 and Anonymous: 1482

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