Technical Note

Why Quadratic Mean Diameter?

Robert 0. Curtis and David D. Marshall, Pacific Northwest Research Station,
3625-93rd Avenue SW, Olympia WA 98512-9193.

ABSTRACT: Quadratic mean diameter is the measure of average tree diameter conventionally used in
forestry, rather than arithmetic mean diameter. The historical and practical reasons for this convention are
reviewed. West. J. Appl. For.

Average

15(3):137-139.

diameter is a widely used stand statistic that

units used (0.005454 forB in square feet and QMD in inches;

appears in virtually all yield tables, simulator outputs, stand

0.0000785 forB in square meters and QMD in centimeters).

summaries, and much inventory data. To most people, "aver

age" is synonymous with the arithmetic mean, defined as
arithmetic mean= x

(:E

x;) In

where the xi are the individual measurements and n is the total

number of measurements.
But there are in fact some half dozen different kinds of
averages (= means

In angle-gauge sampling, it can also be calculated directly

(B uckingham 1969) as:

measures of central tendency), each

appropriate to specific uses. One of these is the quadratic

mean (Kendall and Buckland 1967, Iles and Wilson 1977),
defined as

where the di are the diameters and ns is the number of "in"

trees in the angle-gauge sample.
Past usage of the phrase "average diameter" has often been
very loose, and unwary readers often take it to mean the
arithmetic mean, when in fact the value given is the quadratic
mean. It is therefore good practice for authors to be specific
(Curtis 1968). The quadratic mean gives greater weight to

quadratic mean=

(:Exf) In

which is the square root of the arithmetic mean of squared

larger trees and is equal to or greater than the arithmetic mean

by an amount that depends on the variance according to the
relationship

values. Other generally recognized means sometimes en

(QMD)2

countered in forestry are the geometric mean, harmonic

mean, median, and mode.
The expression of average stand diameter conventionally
used in forestry is not the arithmetic mean of diameters, but
the quadratic mean,

(:E d;2)In

where di is the diameter at breast height of an individual tree,

and n is the total number of trees. Quadratic mean diameter
is commonly symbolized as QMD, Dq, or Dg. Dg, in which
the subscript stands for "Grundtlache," German for basal
area, is widely used in Europe and is the symbol recom
mended by the International Union of Forest Research Orga
nizations (Van Soest et al. 1959) .
QMD is often calculated by the equivalent equation:
BI(k*n)

where B is stand basal area, n is corresponding number of

trees, and

J2 + s2

is arithmetic mean diameter and s2 is the variance

of diameters.
In stands of small diameter and narrow range in diam
eters, the differences are slight. In stands with large diam

quadratic mean diameter =

QMD=

where

k is a constant that depends on the measurement

eters and a wide range of diameters present or with strongly

skewed diameter distributions, the differences between
arithmetic mean and quadratic mean diameters can be
substantial (Figure 1).
People not strongly grounded in forest mensuration are
often unaware of the distinction between arithmetic and
quadratic means. When this distinction is pointed out, they
naturally wonder how and why such a strange "average"
came to be adopted and why it is still used. After all, it is rarely
mentioned in introductory statistics courses.
The answer is partly a matter of custom and historical
precedent, but QMD also has certain practical advantages
that still hold true.
Use of the quadratic mean of diameters is a very old
practice in forestry, which goes back to 19th century
Germany and possibly earlier. It has been standard prac

NoTE: Robert 0. Curtis is the corresponding author andean be reached at (360)

tice in the United States from the earliest days of North

753-7669; Fax: (360) 956-2346; E-mail: [email protected].

American forestry. Most standard U.S. mensuration texts,

WJAF 15(3) 2000

137

Median, Arithmetic and Quadratic maans

Median, Arithmetic and Quadratic means

lor a 5-yr-old poplar plantation

for some typical inventory data

---------

--

!Median dbh = 17.3 in.

meandbh = 17.67

/Arillunetic

---

- 19. ---j

DBH dass

4
inches

O r+
6

8 10 12 14

26

28
16 18 20 22 24
DBH class - i nches

30 32

34

(8)

(A)

Figure 1. Median, arithmetic mean, and quadratic mean diameters for stands with (A} small diameters and nearly symmetrical diameter
distribution, and (B) larger diameters and somewhat asymmetrical diameter distribution.

starting with Graves ( 1908), define average stand diam

where f= stand form factor, which for a given species and

eter as the diameter corresponding to the tree of arithmetic

stand condition has only a very limited range of variation and

mean basal area, which is the quadratic mean diameter.

can often be treated as constant.

Braathe' s ( 1957) summary of European thinning literature

specifically defines average diameter as the quadratic
mean. QMD is commonly used in silviculture research
data summaries and reports. Virtually all normal yield
tables prepared in the United States in the period from

number of trees Iunit area

Bmn = arithmetic mean basal area Itree, and

H

= some "average" height.

around 1920 through the mid- 1960s use quadratic mean

In an existing stand we cannot directly measure either total

diameters (Schnur 1937, McArdle et al. 1961, Barnes

stand volume or mean volume/tree, but must estimate these

1962), sometimes referred to in older publications as

"average diameter by basal area." This usage of QMD is

from measurements of their components. It is often conve

nient to describe stands in terms of means of these compo

also common in current stand simulation programs (Curtis

nents: namely, number of trees, arithmetic mean basal area,

et al. 198 1, Hann et al. 1997). Reineke's ( 1933) SDI is

and some average height.

based on QMD, as are the various relative density mea

People do not usually think in terms of basal area of a tree

sures and stand management diagrams derived from the

( cross-sectional area at breast height). It is much easier to

visualize a tree of 19 in. dbh than one of 2.0 ft2cross-sectional

Reineke relationship (Curtis 1982, Long et al. 1988).

In the Germany of some 150 or more years ago, there

area. It is therefore common to describe stands by QMD ( a

were a number of so-called mean tree methods in use for

surrogate for arithmetic mean basal area) rather than by

estimating volume of wood in forest stands. These also

arithmetic mean basal area. In these terms,

had some limited use in the early days of North American

forestry (Graves 1908, p. 224ff.). The basic idea, in sim
plest form, was that the forester would select a tree(s)
considered average for the stand, cut it and measure its
wood content, and then multiply by the number of trees.
The obvious difficulty was in selecting an average tree(s),

Volume Iunit area= f*

N * [k *

2
(QMD) ]

*H

The correct average height in these equations is not the

(HL' named after a 19th

century German forester). This is a weighted mean,
arithmetic mean, but Lorey's height

whose volume would approximate overall arithmetic mean

volumeItree. In regular even-aged stands, diameter of the
tree of arithmetic mean volume is generally close to that of
the tree of arithmetic mean basal area (which is also the
tree of quadratic mean diameter). Thus, a basis was pro
vided for selecting sample trees for analysis.
Such procedures are now ancient history.But justification
for use of QMD also arises from the general relationship
between stand volume and other, directly measurable, stand
attributes.
In any reasonably regular stand, there is a general
relationship
volume Iunit area= f*

138

WJAF

15(3) 2000

N * Bm/ H

where,

bi is the basal area of an individual tree and di is the

diameter of an individual tree.

HL is somewhat inconvenient to calculate from a fixed

area sample or stand table, although with angle-gauge sam
pling it can be easily obtained as the arithmetic mean of
heights of the count trees. A common approximation is the
height corresponding to QMD, as estimated by a height
diameter curve or equation for the individual stand. ( Stand
average height is of course a different statistic from the top
height or dominant height used for other purposes, though
highly correlated with these in unthinned stands.)

Expressions of the above form are not commonly used

be conscious of the difference between quadratic and

today to calculate stand volumes, although they are valid and

arithmetic mean diameters (which usually is not large) and

are sometimes used in stand simulation programs. We gener

be specific in defining the value used.

ally apply tree volume equations directly and sum over all
trees, rather than first calculating these means. But there is
another strong reason for using QMD. This stems from the
relationship

B=k*N*

(QMD) 2

This is an exact relationship. Therefore, knowledge of any

two of the variables automatically confers knowledge of the
third. In contrast, there is no equivalent exact relationship for
the arithmetic mean, and conversions using the arithmetic
mean also require knowledge of the variance. It is a great deal
easier to make consistent estimates and projections for two
variables than for three, and the exact relationship that exists
when QMD is used markedly simplifies construction of yield
tables and stand simulators, stand projections, and some
inventory computations.
This direct convertibility also simplifies the construction
and use of stand management diagrams based on number of
trees, basal area, and average diameter (Long et a!. 1988,
Gingrich 1967, Ernst and Knapp 1985). Because of this
convertibility, they can be expressed in terms of any two of

the three variables N, basal area, and QMD.

The arithmetic mean is the measure of central tendency

most widely used in general statistics, and is essential to a
few procedures (such as defining a normal probability
distribution). But most procedures in common use in
forestry do not specifically require the use of the arith
metic mean. Both the mensurational advantages men
tioned above and long-standing precedent make the qua
dratic mean of diameters the preferred "average diameter"
for expressing stand attributes. In any case, users should

Literature Cited
BARNES, G.H. 1962. Yield of even-aged stands of western hemlock. USDA
For. Serv. Tech. Bull. No. 1273. 52 p.
BRAATHE, P. 1957. Thinnings in even-aged stands: A summary of European
literature. Faculty of For., Univ. of New Brunswick, Fredericton. 92 p.
BucKINGHAM, F.M. 1969. The harmonic mean in forest mensuration. For.
Chron. 45(2):104-106.
CuRTIS, R.O. 1968. Which average diameter? J. For. 66:570.
CuRTIS, R.O. 1982. A simple index of stand density for Douglas-fir. For. Sci.
28:92-94.
CURTIS, R.O., G.W. CLENDENEN, AND D.J . DEMARS. 1981. A new stand
simulator for coast Douglas-fir: DFSIM user's guide. USDA For. Serv.
Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW- 128.
ERNST, R.L., AND W.H. KNAPP.

79 p.
1985. Forest stand density and stocking:

Concepts, terms, and the use of stocking guides. USDA For. Serv. Gen.
Tech. Rep. W0-44. 8p.
GINRICH [GINGRICH], S.F.

1967. Measuring and evaluating stocking and

stand density in upland hardwood forests in the central states. For.

Sci.

13:38-53.

GRAVES, H.S. 1908. Forest mensuration. Wiley, New York. 458 p.

HANN, D.W., A.S. HE STER, ANDC.L. O LsEN. 1997. ORGANON user's manual,

6.0. Oregon State Univ., Corvallis. 133 p.

K., AND L.J. WILSON. 1977. A further neglected mean. Math. Teach.
70:27-28.
KENDALL, M.G., AND W.R. BUCKLAND. 1967. A dictionary of statistical terms.
Ed. 2. Hafner Publishing Co., New York. 575 p.
LoNG, J.N., J.B. M cCAR TER , AND S.B. J ACK. 1988. A modified density
Version

lLES,

management diagram for coastal Douglas-fir. West. J. Appl. For.

3(3):88-89.
McARDLE, R.E., W.H.

MEYER, AND D. BRUCE. 1961 (rev.). The yield of

201

Douglas-fir in the Pacific Northwest. USDA Tech. Bull. No.

72 p.
1933. Perfecting a stand-density index for even-aged forests.
J. Agric. Res. 46(7):627-637.
SCHNUR, G.L. 1937. Yield, stand, and volume tables for even-aged upland oak
forests. USDA For. Serv. Tech. Bull. No. 560. 88 p.
VAN SoEST, P.A., R. ScHOBER, AND F.C. HUMMEL 1959. The standardization
of symbols in forest mensuration. IUFRO. 32 p. [Reprinted 1965 as Tech.
Bull. 15 of the Maine Agric.Exp. Sta., Orono.
(rev.).

REINEKE, L.H.

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