Hofstede's Dimensions of Culture
Geert H. Hofstede was born on October 2, 1928 in Haarlem, the Netherlands. He received his M.Sc. from
the Delft Institute of Technology in 1953, his Ph.D. (cum laude) from Groningen University in 1967.
Hofstede served in the Netherlands Army from 1953 to 1955. In 1955, he married Maaike A. Van den
Hoek. They've also "lived happily ever after", but I'm not sure where (probably Brussels, Belgium).
Hofstede is most well-known for his work on four dimensions of cultural variability, commonly referred
to as "Hofstede's Dimensions." These include: Uncertainty Avoidance, Power Distance, MasculinityFemininity, Individualism-Collectivism, Confucian Dynamism. These dimensions were arrived in his
1980 publication, "Culture's consequences: International differences in work-related values." The
study took existing survey data (sample size of 116,000) collected from a multinational corporation
(IBM). The result was a score in each of the dimensions for 40 different countries.
During 1978-83, the Dutch cultural anthropologist Geert Hofstede conducted detailed interviews with
hundreds of IBM employees in 53 countries. Through standard statistical analysis of fairly large data
sets, he was able to determine patterns of similarities and differences among the replies. From this
data analysis, he formulated his theory that world cultures vary along consistent, fundamental
dimensions. Since his subjects were constrained to one multinational corporation's world-wide
employees, and thus to one company culture, he ascribed their differences to the effects of their
national cultures. (One weakness is that he maintained that each country has just one dominant
culture.)
In the 1990s, Hofstede published a more accessible version of his research publication in Cultures
and Organizations: Software of the Mind [Hofstede]. His focus was not on defining culture as
refinement of the mind (or "highly civilized" attitudes and behavior) but rather on highlighting essential
patterns of thinking, feeling, and acting that are well-established by late childhood. These cultural
Assignment
HOFSTEDE'S DIMENSIONS OF CULTURE
..
NAME - VISHAL SINGH
JASWAL
MBA 2013-15 (B)
AGBS NOIDA
differences manifest themselves in a culture's choices of symbols, heroes/heroines, rituals, and
values.
Hofstede identified five dimensions and rated 53 countries on indices for each dimension, normalized
to values (usually) of 0 to 100. His five dimensions of culture are the following:
Power-distance
Power Distance reflects the degree to which a culture believes how institutional and
organizational power should be distributed (equally or unequally) and how the decisions
of the power holders should be viewed (challenged or accepted). In other words, people
in high power distance cultures are much more comfortable with a larger status
differential than low power distance cultures.
Predictors of Power Distance:
Climate, measured by geographical latitude. Cultures in high-latitude climate
(moderate or cold climates) tend to have low PDI scores. Cultures that have tropical
climate tend to have high PDI scores.
Population. Generally, the more people within the culture, the greater the power
distance is likely to be.
Distribution of Wealth. The more unequally the wealth is distributed within a
culture, the greater the culture's power distance.
Consequences of Power Distance: most evident are family customs, the relationships
between students and teachers, the young and the elderly, language systems and
organizational practices.
Collectivism vs. individualism
Individualism-Collectivism describes the degree to which a culture relies on and has
allegiance to the self or the group.
Predictors:
Economic development. Wealthy cultures tend to be individualistic, whereas poor
cultures tend to be collectivistic.
Climate. Cultures in colder climate tend to be individualistic, whereas cultures in
warmer climates tend to be collectivistic.
Note: Hofstede found a strong negative correlation between a culture's scores on the
power distance index and its scores on the individualism-collectivism index. High PDI
cultures tend to be collectivistic, whereas low PDI cultures tend to be individualistic.
Consequences: Collectivistic cultures tend to be group-oriented, impose a large
psychological distance between in-group and out-group members and in-group members
are expected to have unquestioning loyalty to their group. In a conflict situation,
members of the collectivistic cultures are likely to use avoidance, intermediaries, or
other face-saving techniques. Conversely, people in the individualistic cultures do not
perceive a large psychological distance between in-group and out-group members. They
value self-expression, see speaking out as a means of resolving problems, and are likely
to use confrontational strategies when dealing with interpersonal problems.
Femininity vs. masculinity
Masculinity-Femininity (alternative label is achievement-nurturance) indicates
the degree to which a culture values such behaviors as assertiveness, achievement,
acquisition of wealth or caring for others, social supports and the quality of life. This
dimension tends to draw unwarranted criticism for its name alone. It basically refers
expected gender roles in a culture. According to Hofstede, people in high masculinity
index (MAS) believe in achievement and ambition, in ostentatious manliness, with very
specific behaviors and products associated with male behavior. The cultures that scored
towards what Hofstede referred to as "masculine" tend to have very distinct expectations
of male and female roles in society. Low MAS cultures believe less in external
achievements and/or manliness, and more in quality of life such as helping others and
sympathy for the unfortunate. Feminine cultures also prefer equality between male and
female and less prescriptive role behaviors associated with each gender. The more
"feminine" cultures have a greater ambiguity in what is expected of each gender.
Predictors:
Climate. Masculine cultures tend to live in warmer climate near the equator and
feminine cultures are likely to locate in colder climates away from the equator.
Consequences: Members of high MAS cultures believe that men should be assertive
and women should be nurturant. Sex roles are clearly differentiated, and sexual
inequality is seen as beneficial. The reverse is true for members in the feminine cultures.
Uncertainty avoidance
Uncertainty Avoidance refers to the extent to which a culture feels threatened by
ambiguous, uncertain situations and tries to avoid them by establishing more structure.
The high positive scores on the uncertainty avoidance index (UAI) indicate low tolerance
for ambiguity. These cultures prefer to avoid uncertainty and dissent as a cultural value
and desire consensus. As a result, HIGH uncertainty avoidance cultures prefer formal
rules and any uncertainty can express itself in higher anxiety than those from low
uncertainty avoidance cultures. Cultures with low UAI scores have a high tolerance for
uncertainty and ambiguity, believe in accepting and encouraging dissenting views
among cultural members and in taking risks and trying new things. Thus, cultures which
ranked low (compared to other cultures), feel much more comfortable with the unknown.
Predictors of Uncertainty Avoidance: No clear-cut predictors. But in general, high UAI
cultures tend to be those that are beginning to modernize and are characterized by a
high rate of change. Conversely, low UAI cultures tend to have reached the level of
modernization and have more stable or predictable in their rate of change.
Consequences: High UAI cultures tend to develop many rules to control social
behaviors. Low UAI cultures need few rules to control social behaviors.
Long- vs. short-term orientation
Also known as Confucian Dynamism - It ranges from long term to orientation to
short term orientation.
Later work with Bond (see Hofstede & Bond, 1987), produced another dimension meant
to explain the rapid economic development of many Asian countries. This dimension
refers to the selective promotion of particular set of ethics found in Confucian teachings.
Particular teachings that lead to economic development include thrift, perseverance, a
sense of shame, and following a hierarchy. Other Confucian teachings are less
emphasized such as tradition, and protecting face.
Hofstedes' Cultural Dimension Summary
Country
Arabic World
(ARA)
Argentina
(ARG)
Power
Distance
Uncertainty
Avoidance
Individualism
Masculinity
80
68
38
52
49
86
46
56
Confucian
Dynamism
Australia (AUL)
36
51
90
61
31
11
70
55
79
65
94
75
54
69
76
38
49
65
39
48
80
52
23
63
86
23
28
67
80
13
64
35
86
15
21
18
23
74
16
64
52
27
41
78
67
63
66
94
19
40
33
59
63
26
68
86
71
43
35
65
67
66
Austria (AUT)
Belgium (BEL)
Brazil (BRA)
Canada (CAN)
Chile (CHL)
Columbia
(COL)
Costa Rica
(COS)
Denmark
(DEN)
Eastern Africa
(EAF)
25
Ecuador (ECA)
Elsalvador
(SAL)
Finland (FIN)
France (FRA)
Germany
(FRG)
31
Great Britain
(GBR)
35
35
89
66
25
60
112
35
57
95
101
37
68
29
25
57
96
77
40
48
56
61
78
48
14
46
58
59
41
43
28
35
70
68
13
81
54
47
50
75
76
70
45
13
39
68
54
92
46
95
80
60
85
18
39
75
104
36
26
50
81
82
30
69
Greece (GRE)
Guatemala
(GUA)
Hong Kong
(HOK)
India (IND)
Indonesia
(IDO)
Iran (IRA)
Ireland (IRE)
Israel (ISR)
Italy (ITA)
Jamaica (JAM)
Japan (JPN)
South Korea
(KOR)
Malaysia (MAL)
Mexico (MEX)
Netherlands
(NET)
New Zealand
(NZI)
38
53
80
14
44
22
49
79
58
30
31
50
69
55
70
14
50
95
86
11
44
64
87
16
42
94
44
32
64
63
104
27
31
90
70
42
37
74
20
48
49
49
65
63
57
86
51
42
31
29
71
34
58
68
70
58
69
17
45
87
64
64
20
34
56
Norway (NOR)
Pakistan (PAK)
0
Panama (PAN)
Peru (PER)
Philippines
(PHI)
19
Portugal (POR)
Russia (RUS)
Singapore
(SIN)
South Africa
(SAF)
48
Spain (SPA)
Sweden (SWE)
Switzerland
(SWI)
33
Taiwan (TAI)
Thailand (THA)
Turkey (TUR)
United States
(USA)
66
85
37
45
40
46
91
62
61
100
36
38
81
76
12
73
77
54
20
46
29
Uruguay (URU)
Venezuela
(VEN)
West Africa
(WAF)
16
SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY
Hofstede, G. (1980). Culture's consequences: International differences in work-related
values. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
Hofstede, G. (1986). Cultural differences in teaching and learning. International Journal of
Intercultural Relations, 10, 301-320.
Hofstede, G. (1991). Cultures and organizations: Software of the mind. London: McGrawHill.
Hofstede, G. (1980). Culture's consequences: International differences in work-related
values. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.
Hofstede, G., & Bond, M. H. (1988). Confucius & economic growth: New trends in
culture's consequences. Organizational Dynamics, 16 (4), 4-21.
