Electromagnetism

Physics 15b
Lecture #22
Maxwells Equations in Dielectrics

Purcell 10.1110.15

What We Did Last Time

2p cos

A dipole generates electric field Er =

r3
A dipole in an electric field receives:
Torque N = p E
If E is non-uniform, net force F = (p )E

, E =

p sin
r3

Dipoles are attracted to stronger E field

Density of polarization P = Np
Small volume dv of dielectric looks like a dipole Pdv
A cylinder parallel to P looks like charge density P
on the ends
Average electric field inside the cylinder is E = 4P

A uniformly polarized sphere

External field looks like produced by a dipole VP

Internal field E = (4/3)P

Todays Goals
Connect polarization P and the dielectric constant
Continue discussion of polarized sphere
Boundary condition at the surface
How to make a sphere polarized uniformly

Examine the effects of non-uniform polarization

Non-uniform P creates bound charge distribution

Charge screening, electric displacement

Discuss time-dependent E field in dielectrics

Modified Maxwells equations
Electromagnetic waves in dielectrics

Dielectric Constant
How does P relate to the dielectric constant ?
Consider the filled capacitor again

+Q

Electric field is reduced by factor 1/

E=

4
= 4 4 P

Field from charge

on the plates

Field from polarization

P 1
=
e electric
susceptibility
E
4
d
Polarization density P is related to the average electric field
E that causes it by:
1
E = E 4 P

This is an empirical law, and

is correct within limits

P = eE =

Uniformly Polarized Sphere

A dielectric sphere is uniformly polarized along +z

It contains dipoles p = qs with density N

P = Np = Nqs

This can be seen as two overlapping spheres

Charge densities are +Nq and Nq
Centers are separated by distance s

From outside, each sphere looks like a point

charge (recall Gauss) +NqV and NqV

Field outside is identical to that generated by a single

dipole moment NqVs = V P
We know this field
V P r VP cos
=
from the last lecture: (r > R) =
r2
r2

Uniformly Polarized Sphere

Inside the sphere, there is no net charge
The field must obey Laplaces eqn.

We also need the boundary condition,

i.e., values of at the surface,
which we know from the outside field

(r = R) =

VP cos V
4
= 3 Pr cos =
Pz
2
3
R
R

A uniform electric field along +z works

(r < R) =

4
Pz
3

E(r < R) =

4
P
3

The field due to a uniformly polarized sphere is

Inside: E = (4/3)P
Outside: identical to the field generated by a dipole (4/3)R3P

Boundary Conditions
Electric potential is a continuous function of space

Otherwise there would be infinite electric field

As a result, electric field has to satisfy the following

conditions on the surface of the dielectric
E|| parallel to the surface is continuous
E perpendicular to the surface
may be discontinuous

Check this with the uniformly

polarized sphere:

8
4
P cos
P cos
Er =
Er =
3
3
Outside
Inside
E = 4 P sin
E = 4 P sin

3
3

Dielectric Sphere in E Field

How does a dielectric sphere get uniformly polarized?
Try the simplest way put it in a uniform external field E0
Suppose this leads to a uniform polarization P
4
P generates a uniform field inside: E =
P
3
4
Total field inside is Einside = E0 + E = E0
P
3
Resulting polarization is
1
4
P = eEinside =
E0
P

4
3

We can solve this to find

3
E =
E
+ 2 0

and

P=

3 1
E
4 + 2 0

Uniform external field polarizes the sphere uniformly

Bound Charge
Consider a small area da inside a dielectric

da

Polarization P = Nqs
How many dipoles straddle this area?

Charge qNsda = Pda is split from the corresponding negative

charge by the area da

Integrate this over a closed surface S

da

How much (negative) charge remains inside?

Q = P da
S

Use the Divergence Theorem

charge distribution
= div P Bound
due to non-uniform polarization

Free and Bound Charges

Inside dielectric, two types of charges may exist:

Bound charge bound belongs to the dielectric material

Appears only when E field polarizes the dielectric

bound = div P

P=

1
E
4

Free charge free is brought in from outside

Both bound and free charges create E field

div E = 4 ( free + bound )

For a given free distribution and a constant

4free

E follows Gausss Law with free except for a factor 1/

div E = 4free ( 1) div E

div E =

Screening
A point charge Q is inside a dielectric
Q

is the only free charge here

E field at distance r from the charge is

Q
r Coulomb reduced by 1/
r 2
Polarization density P due to this field is
1
( 1)Q
P=
E=
r
4
4 r 2
r
( 1)Q
div 2
This creates bound charge density bound = div P =
4
r
This div is zero everywhere except at the origin
Integrate inside a very small sphere around Q
1
V bounddV = S P da = Q Negative charge surrounds Q
E=

Polarization creates a screen around free charges

Electric Displacement
Electric displacement D is defined by D E + 4 P

For electric field inside an isotropic dielectric

1
P=
E
D = E
4

D satisfies Gausss Law with free charge:

div D = 4free

Importance of D is more historic than practical

Its easy to calculate only in linear, isotropic dielectric
In that case, writing D instead of E saves only a little ink
In a more complex medium, its safer to use E and 4P, and keep
track of how the material reacts to E

Bound-Charge Current
In a non-static system, P may vary with time
Imagine
Charges

s changing in response to changing E

+q and q move bound current

dr
dr
ds P
Jbound = N q + q = Nq
=
dt
dt
t
dt

Jbound adds to the free current J in generating B

B =
For

4
c

P 1 E 4
1
J + t + c t = c J + c t E + 4 P

= D if you like

a linear isotropic dielectric,

B =

4
E
J+
c
c t

Electromagnetic Waves
Inside a dielectric with no free charge and no free current
1 B
E = 0 E =
c t
E
B = 0 B =
c t
Same

technique used in Lecture #18 turn them into

2E =
Solutions

2E
2B
2
and

B
=
c 2 t 2
c 2 t 2

are waves propagating with speed

<c

EM waves travel slower in a dielectric by factor n =

n is the index of refraction of the material

Electromagnetic Waves
Plane wave solutions of the Maxwells eqns. are
E = E0 sin(k r t) B = B0 sin(k r t)

Wave equation:

2E =

2E
c 2 t 2

Divergence:

E = 0

Curl:

B = 0

k2 =

c2
k E0

c
=
k

k B0

B
c 0
Similar to the vacuum solutions except:
E =

1 B
c t

k E0 =

1
k E0 =
B0

Propagation velocity is reduced by 1

|E| is smaller than |B| by the same factor

Frequency Dependence
Discussion so far applies to any dielectric = any insulator
All insulators are transparent, with n =
Index of refraction of water is 80 = 8.9

Wrong!

When E changes, it takes time for dielectrics to polarize

Dielectric constant is constant only for static/slowly-changing field

Especially true for liquid of polar molecules, e.g. water

Molecules must rotate Takes ~1011 seconds
large up to 1010 Hz, then drops to an ordinary value of 1.78
Index of refraction of water for visible light is 1.33

Ordinary Dielectrics
Inside insulators are electrons bound to atoms
They behave as mass-spring oscillators
EM waves drive them with F = eE
If the frequency is close to the resonance
frequency 0, the electrons oscillate strongly
They absorb the incoming waves

Typical 0 for bound electrons are

atom

light
E

10151016

0 =

k
me

Hz

In the visible to ultraviolet (UV) region

Loosely bound electrons (small k small 0) make material
opaque in visible light

Positively charged hydrogen atoms in molecules oscillate at

lower 0 because of larger m

Microwave is absorbed by water and organic compounds

Summary
Electric susceptibility of a dielectric P =

At boundaries of dielectrics,
E|| is continuous, but E may not be

eE =

1
E
4

If P is not uniform, bound charge bound = div P appears

4free
div E = 4 ( free + bound ) =
for linear, isotropic dielectric

4
E
In such a medium, Maxwells
B =
J+
equation is modified as:
c
c t

Wave solutions propagate with a reduced speed c

Frequency dependence of makes the solutions more complex