A-Z of Psychology

Emotions
1. Definition of the concept emotion

Emotions are one type of feeling

Emotions are:

a)

feelings clearly linked to the meaning of

b)

a particular situation

The way people express, describe, define and recognise their emotions depends on
factors like:

1.1

1)

gender

2)

age

3)

cultural factors

4)

the situation they are in

Emotion means to move thus and emotion can move us to do something

E.g. fear can move us to run away etc.

Definition of emotion =

a)

combination of physiological arousal (change in heart rate, blood pressure etc.)

b)

combined with

c)

perceptual-cognitive processes and (thinking and subjective experience)

d)

observable behavioural expressions ( crying or laughing)

Components of emotion
These components include: physiological; cognitive-perceptual and behavioural components

1.1.1 Physiological component

Regulated by
automatic nervous
system

Restore
balance &
help build up
and conserve
energy

Responsible for
activity of smooth
muscles, glands and
blood vessels

Then parasymphetic
system counter the
actions of arousal

Lead to bodily
changes to
survival

Divided into
sympathetic &
parasymphetic systems

Emotion = arousal
leads sympathetic
system to activate
body for action

In very intense emotion the effects of sympathetic nervous system can be so strong that it
can lead to heart attacks or sudden death in older persons or people with heart problems

Continued effects of sympathetic system can be damaging to the body

If the parasympathetic system continues its effects it can lead to lower blood pressure,
dizziness, fainting and even death = this is called parasymphetic rebound

Connection between arousal and emotion provide basis for things like lie detector tests

Device does not actually detect lies but rather measures emotional arousal by monitoring
changes in heart rate, breathing rate, amount of sweat on hands etc.

1.1.2

Idea is lying will increase physiological arousal seen in above changes

Cognitive-perceptual component
Emotions are very personal and rely on subjective experience (how you as an individual
interpret the situation)

Emotions about a specific emotion depends on what the person thinks about the situation

E.g. driving a car can be pleasurable for some or anxiety provoking for others

Thus the interpretation about an event influences the emotions we will experience

1.1.3

Behavioural component

Emotions usually expressed in body language or non-verbal behaviour

Bodily gestures and facial expressions show variety of basic emotions

Facial expressions like anger, fear, disgust, sadness & happiness is mostly the same
universally

But in certain cultures something like sticking out your tongue means disrespect but in
Chinese culture it is used to express surprise

So if someone is form another culture you must make sure the expression of emotion is not
misunderstood

1.2

Theories of emotion
Experience of emotion is result of interaction between physiological arousal
and psychological arousal

Psychological arousal = process whereby people

become aware of
situations and feelings
through conscious feeling

Arousal that involve physiological and psychological aspects = psychophysiological arousal

Are continuum of physiological arousal = means ones emotions and behaviour

becomes more intense and change qualitatively as the level of physiological arousal rises
The meaning one give to a situation (cognitive content) in conjunction with

physiological arousal determine nature & intensity of emotions

Several theories to try and explain the interaction between arousal,

behaviour, cognitions and expressions and feelings:

1.2.1 Schachters two-factor theory of emotion

Emotions occur
when labeling a
general physical
arousal

Depends on 2
factors:
automatic arousal
cognitive

Thus:
Stimulation arousal label/appraisal
emotion/ behaviour
Example p. 32

If people do not know

what causes arousal
look for other causes in
environment

Use environmental
clues (from happy or
unhappy) as the cause
of their arousal

1.2.2 Cognitive appraisal theory

NB requirement for
interpretation =
meaning attached to
the stimulus situation
More NB than
physiological arousal

Your interpretation
(appraisal) of
situation primary
cause of emotions

Process as follows:

1) Perceive stimulus situation & categorize it to concepts familiar to you (know a lion)
2) Primary appraisal: based on past experience or knowledge appraise situation as
threatening or not (lions are dangerous)
3) Emotion is differentiated: according to appraisal appropriate emotion is chosen (situation
is threatening emotion will be fear etc.)
4) Physiological arousal or body changes (shaking knees) accompany or follow the event
Stimulation primary appraisaldifferentiation of emotionphysiological arousal

Also ad 2 more steps:

5) Secondary appraisal: includes consideration of how to act and consequences of
various courses of action
6) Coping strategies:

Direct action = face the situation

Reappraisal = reconsideration of situation in light of new
additional info

1.3

Classification of emotions
Following criteria is used to identify & describe various emotions:

Primary & secondary emotions

Plutchik says 8 primary emotions: fear, surprise, sadness, disgust, anger
anticipation, joy & acceptance
Combination of primary emotions can lead to others
Different emotions can combine to give wider & richer spectrum of experience
Cultural differences must be considered
Tendency is to distinguish between primary & secondary emotions
Primary emotions = emotions shared by people throughout the world regardless
of culture
Criteria for classification: a) must be evident in all cultures
must contribute to survival
must be associated with distinct facial expression
must be evident in non-human species
Secondary emotion = found in some cultures but not in all

Positive and negative emotions

Emotions can be positive or negative
Positive usually experienced as pleasurable and rewarding
Can lead to urge to be creative, to explore and seek new experiences
Thus positive emotions encourages personal growth & social connection
Negative emotions usually experienced as unpleasant
Intense negative emotions involve arousal of sympathetic nervous system prepare
us to run away in fear or fight in anger
Prolonged or unresolved physiological arousal can lead to physical or psychological
illness

Emotions vary in intensity

Intensity vary form extreme low intensity to extremely high
If angry you can feel annoyed or rage the later more intense
Intensity interacts with physiological arousal & quality of emotion experienced
On low intensity emotions is neutral not clearly peasant or unpleasant
High level of arousal emotions is intense and clearly defined as pleasant or
unpleasant
Implication is that there can be difference in intensity of primary emotions

Internal and externally expressed emotions

Emotions are expressed and recognized in different ways
Physiological changes are internal expressions of emotions
Emotions can be externally expressed by words non-verbal communication
These expressions must be viewed in relation to context they are expressed in

1.4

Factors influencing the interpretation of emotions

Following factors can be identified:

Gender

Woman reputation for being more emotional

Studies show me have same physiological changes they just
inhibit expression
Some emotions expected by woman not by men so they
suppress them
Men & woman also act differently in same situation
Also differ in interpretation of non-verbal cues woman more
skilled
Explanation for differences is that of emotional sensitivity
Based on relative power of woman & men
Evidence that followers are more sensitive to the emotions of
leaders woman often occupy less powerful positions

Culture

Culture influence how we interpret and react to emotions

Some emotions can be identified regardless of culture because they are
interpreted the same (primary emotions)
Also differences how people think and group emotions according to culture
Non-verbal expression can also be interpreted differently
Display rules = cultural specific rules that govern how, when and why
expression of emotions are appropriate

Context

Knowledge of context or circumstances is NB for understanding

& interpreting expressed emotions
Usually use facial expression, body gestures, tone of voice &
language to interpret emotions
If cues are used in isolation can lead to incorrect/ inadequate
interpretation
Example p. 39

2. The concept of emotional intelligence

Refers to the ability to manage emotions with intelligence

Includes a combination of skills including empathy, self-control, self awareness,

sensitivity to feelings, persistence and self-motivation

Way we approach life Being emotional intelligent means we can express and use our
emotions wisely and appropriately

Goldman says people who are emotionally intelligent do well in life

He also says deficiencies in emotional intelligence increase risk for things like depression,
aggression and eating disorders etc.

Solution: teach young people self-awareness, self-control and empathy

Characteristics of someone with EQ =

1)

motivate themselves even in face of frustration

2)

control impulses & delay gratification

3)

regulate moods

4)

Do not allow emotions to interfere with ability to think

5)

Recognise emotions in others

6)

Display hope

Someone without EQ:

A) withdrawal from others
B)

anxious and depressed

C)

having attention and thinking problems

D) severe cases result in socially unacceptable behaviour like being

destructive, moody, stubborn etc.

3. The relation between emotions & motivation

Motivation refers to = internal state

that activates and
gives direction to

our thoughts, feelings and actions

Morris & Maisto (@003) define motive:

as specific need or desire

that arouses the organism and
directs it behaviour towards that goal

Emotions refers to the experience of feelings such as joy, anger etc.

Emotions also activate and affect behaviour

Difficult to predict the kind of behaviour a particular emotion will prompt

Motive and emotion are closely linked for 3 reasons:

a)

motives & emotions activate behaviour

b)

motives are often accompanied by emotions

c)

emotions have motivational properties