An Introduction to Time Waveform Analysis
Timothy A Dunton, Universal Technologies Inc.
Abstract
In recent years there has been a resurgence in the use of time waveform analysis
techniques. Condition monitoring personnel have now come to realize some of the
limitations of the FFT process. Since many find the time waveform analysis process
difficult and confusing the technique is rarely used to its full potential. The key to the
successful utilization of time waveform data is knowing when to use it. This paper
examines the limitations of the FFT process and identifies specific applications where
enhancing FFT information with time waveform analysis is appropriate.
The paper also details in practical terms how to set up, acquire and manipulate time
waveform data. Having discussed the acquisition of the data the paper continues to
discuss the interpretation of the data including the time-frequency relationship,
symmetry, and pattern recognition of common faults.
Biography
Timothy A. Dunton
Vice President Product Development
Born and Educated in the UK, Tim spent 14 years with Shell Tankers UK. Ltd. as
a marine engineer, serving on Oil and LNG tankers in a variety of positions including
Cargo Engineer. After emigrating to Canada Tim brought his practical experience to IRD
Mechanalysis as a Consulting Service Engineer, providing training, software support and
on site analysis services throughout Canada.
In 1991 Tim joined Update International as a senior instructor where he
conducted various vibration and skills related courses in both the public and in-plant
arenas throughout the world. During his tenure at Update Tim assisted in development of
several seminars in the subjects of vibration analysis, machinery skills and bearings. Tim
was also responsible for upgrading several seminars and developing award winning
multimedia interactive software. Tim is a regular speaker at various maintenance
conferences throughout the world.
Now with Universal Technologies, Tims primary responsibility is in the area of
multimedia product development but he continues to be active in the teaching arena.
Copyright 1999 Universal Technologies, Inc.
25797 Conifer Road #C210 Aspen Park, CO 80433 Tel: 303-838-3447 Fax: 303-838-3437 www.unitechinc.com
Introduction
The analysis of time waveform data is not a new technique. In the early days of vibration
analysis time waveform data was viewed on oscilloscopes and frequency components
calculated by hand. The relationship between frequency and time is as follows:
f = 1/p
where:
f is the frequency in Hz p is the period in seconds (the amount of
time required to complete 1 cycle)
Knowledge of this relationship permits the determination of frequency components from
the raw waveform data.
For example:
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The above waveform was acquired from a 1785 RPM pump. The time spacing between
the impacts is 0.0337 seconds. From this information the frequency can be determined.
f = 1/p
= 1 / 0.0337
= 29.67 Hz
= 1780 CPM
This indicates that the impact is occurring at a frequency of 1 x RPM.
In most situations the time waveform pattern is very complex as illustrated below and
therefore the determination of frequency components is extremely difficult using this
method and is not recommended.
Copyright 1999 Universal Technologies, Inc.
25797 Conifer Road #C210 Aspen Park, CO 80433 Tel: 303-838-3447 Fax: 303-838-3437 www.unitechinc.com
In most situations time waveform data is best utilized by applying the principles of
pattern recognition and if necessary calculating the frequency components of the major
events in the waveform pattern.
When to Use Time Waveform
Time waveform can be used effectively to enhance spectral information in the following
applications:
Low speed applications (less than 100 RPM).
Indication of true amplitude in situations where impacts occur such as assessment of
rolling element bearing defect severity.
Gears.
Sleeve bearing machines with X-Y probes (2 channel orbit analysis)
Looseness.
Rubs.
Beats
When NOT to Use Time Waveform
Time waveform can be applied to any vibration problem. In some situations normal
spectral and phase data provide better indications as to the source of the problem
without the added complexity of time waveform data. Examples include
Unbalance on normal speed machines
Misalignment on normal speed machines
Instrument Setup for Time Waveform
The key to successful analysis of time waveform data is in the set up of the instrument.
The following items have to be considered when setting up the instrument
Unit of measurement
Time period sampled
Resolution
Averaging
Windows
Copyright 1999 Universal Technologies, Inc.
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Units of Measurement
Amplitude measurement units should be generally selected based upon the frequencies
of interest. The plots below illustrate how measurement unit selection affects the data
displayed. Each plot contains 3 separate frequency components of 60Hz, 300Hz, and
950 Hz.
This data was taken using displacement note how the
lower frequency at 60 Hz is accentuated
The same data is now displayed using velocity note
how the 300Hz component is more apparent.
The same data is now displayed using acceleration
note how the large lower frequency component is
diminished and the higher frequency component
accentuated.
The unit of measurement displayed in time waveform data should be the natural unit of
the transducer used. For example if a displacement reading is required, then a
displacement transducer should be used. In most cases where modern data collectors
are employed this means that acceleration will be the unit of choice. If data is gathered
from non-contact probes on sleeve bearing machines displacement is usually used.
Time Period Sampled
For most analysis work the instrument should be set up to see 6-10 revolutions of the
shaft being measured. The total sample period desired can be calculated by this formula
Copyright 1999 Universal Technologies, Inc.
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Total sample period [seconds] = 60 x # of revolutions desired
RPM
The following table Illustrates common time period in seconds by machine speed
Machine RPM
3600
1800
1200
900
300
100
Time period for 6
revolutions (secs.)
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
1.2
3.6
Time period for 10
revolutions (secs.)
0.167
0.333
0.5
0.667
2.0
6.0
Some instruments do not permit the setting of time period data when acquiring time
waveform data. With these instruments it is necessary to set an equivalent FMAX setting.
The appropriate FMAX setting can be calculated by the following formula
FMAX [CPM] =
Lines of Resolution x RPM
# Of Revolutions desired
The following table Illustrates the common FMAX settings for 1600 lines of resolution by
machine RPM
Machine RPM
FMAX for 6 revolutions
FMAX for 10 revolutions
3600
1800
1200
900
300
100
960kCPM
480kCPM
320kCPM
240kCPM
80kCPM
26kCPM
576kCPM
288kCPM
192kCPM
144kCPM
48kCPM
16kCPM
Resolution
For time waveform analysis it is recommended that 1600 lines (4096 samples are used).
This ensures that the data collected has sufficient accuracy and key events are
captured.
Copyright 1999 Universal Technologies, Inc.
25797 Conifer Road #C210 Aspen Park, CO 80433 Tel: 303-838-3447 Fax: 303-838-3437 www.unitechinc.com
Averaging
In most data collectors averaging is performed during the FFT process. Unless
synchronous time averaging is invoked the time waveform presented on the screen will
be the last average taken even if multiple averages are selected in the instrument setup.
It is normal therefore to take a single average. Overlap averaging should be disabled.
Synchronous time averaging can be used to synchronize data acquisition to a
particular shaft. This can be useful on gears where broken teeth are suspected to assist
in the location of the defective teeth relative to a reference mark. It is also useful on
reciprocating equipment to time events to a particular crank angle.
Windows
Various windows can be applied to the time waveform prior to performing the FFT. The
purpose of these windows is to shape the spectrum and minimize leakage errors. Some
instruments can apply these windows to time waveform data as well. This would force
the data to zero at the start and end of the time sample potentially losing data. To
eliminate this effect a uniform or rectangular window should be applied.
Copyright 1999 Universal Technologies, Inc.
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Interpretation of Waveform Data
Unbalance
The classic sine wave illustrated above is rarely seen in acceleration time waveform.
This is because acceleration emphasizes the higher frequency components that are
almost always present in the vibration signal. This de-emphasizes the underlying lower
frequency signal.
The waveform below is more representative of sinusoidal vibration when viewed in
acceleration. Note the high frequency components superimposed on the lower
frequency.
Copyright 1999 Universal Technologies, Inc.
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Misalignment
Although the classic symptoms of misalignment are M and W shapes in the time
waveform, these symptoms cannot be relied upon. The relative phase angle between
the 1 x RPM and 2 x RPM components determines the shape or pattern of the plot.
The pattern above illustrates the classic pattern of misalignment. In the pattern below the
relative phase between 1 x RPM and 2 x RPM was changed 90 degrees resulting in a
very different pattern.
Copyright 1999 Universal Technologies, Inc.
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The pattern below originates when the 1 x, & 2 x, vibrations are 0 degrees apart.
Amplitude Symmetry
When observing time waveform data symmetry above and below the centerline axis is
important. Symmetrical data indicates that the machine motion is even on each side of
the center position. Non-symmetrical time waveform data indicates the motion is
constrained possibly by misalignment, or rubs.
Copyright 1999 Universal Technologies, Inc.
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This waveform pattern is symmetrical above and below the zero line.
The following waveform pattern is non-symmetrical above and below the zero line. The
amplitudes below the line are significantly higher than those above the line. In this case
a misalignment condition was the source. The markers on the plot indicate 1 x RPM.
Copyright 1999 Universal Technologies, Inc.
25797 Conifer Road #C210 Aspen Park, CO 80433 Tel: 303-838-3447 Fax: 303-838-3437 www.unitechinc.com
Symmetry of the Time Axis
When the previous time waveform is observed with 1 x RPM markers present it can be
noted that the waveform pattern although complex is repetitive with 1 x RPM. This
indicates that the vibration is synchronous to RPM.
The waveform pattern below indicates a non-repetitive pattern characteristic of
nonsynchronous vibration.
Copyright 1999 Universal Technologies, Inc.
25797 Conifer Road #C210 Aspen Park, CO 80433 Tel: 303-838-3447 Fax: 303-838-3437 www.unitechinc.com
This example, is of two frequency sources that are not harmonically related. (58 Hz and
120 Hz) This is the kind of signal that could be created when a 2-pole motor has an
Copyright 1999 Universal Technologies, Inc.
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electrical hum problem.
Higher frequency
component Riding on
other wave
It can be seen that the higher frequency wave does not always start at the same part
the lower frequency cycle and therefore appears to ride on the other wave causing
symmetry to be lost.
Care must be exercised when determining symmetry of the time axis. 1 x RPM markers
are
available in most software programs and should be used to avoid confusion.
At first glance this waveform appears to have large impacts occurring with
somewhat
Copyright 1999 Universal Technologies, Inc.
25797 Conifer Road #C210 Aspen Park, CO 80433 Tel: 303-838-3447 Fax: 303-838-3437 www.unitechinc.com
similar spacing. The horizontal axis is scaled in time units.
By using RPM as the horizontal axis and applying 1 x RPM markers the major impacts
can be seen to be occurring at approximately the same part of the revolution. However
closer inspection reveals that the spacing is not exactly synchronous In this case the
problem was a single large defect on the inner race of a bearing. The change in
amplitude of the defect was due to the defect coming in and out of the load zone
This is the
FFT taken
from the
above
machine note
the highest
amplitude at
BPFI is < 0.05
ips!
(15g pk @
BPFI = 2.13
ips)
Beats &
Modulation effects
Another excellent application for time waveform is the observation of beat frequencies
and modulation effects. Often these phenomena are audible. The time span for data
Copyright 1999 Universal Technologies, Inc.
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The time period between the beats on the above waveform is 0.5 s. From this
information the frequency of the beat is calculated at 120 CPM. This represents the
frequency difference between the two source frequencies In this case the beat was
caused by interaction between a 2 X RPM vibration source and a 2 x fL vibration source
on an induction motor.
Impacts
When the FFT process is applied to a signal that contains impacts the true amplitude of
the vibration is often greatly diminished. The following time waveform was taken from an
1800 RPM machine. It shows several random impacts with magnitudes over 6 g pk. The
cause of this signal was a failed rolling element bearing. The shape of the waveform
often appears to be a large spike followed by a ring down.
The plot below was a velocity spectrum taken from the same bearing note the amplitude
of vibration is less than 0.04 ips!
collection should be set to capture 4-5 cycles of the beat.
Copyright 1999 Universal Technologies, Inc.
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500ms
Care must be exercised when assessing the amplitude severity of 1 x RPM impact
vibration using spectrum. This is the spectrum of a machine with where the key is
impacting the coupling guard. The amplitude scale indicates amplitudes of less than 0.02
Copyright 1999 Universal Technologies, Inc.
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ips.
This is the time
waveform from the
above machine the
amplitude of the impacts
exceeds 0.15 ips.
In this case severe damage had occurred to the key and shaft of the machine in
question.
Conclusions
In conclusion, how is this information practically applied in a condition based
maintenance program?
Copyright 1999 Universal Technologies, Inc.
25797 Conifer Road #C210 Aspen Park, CO 80433 Tel: 303-838-3447 Fax: 303-838-3437 www.unitechinc.com
Time waveform analysis is an analysis tool. The writer would not recommend that it be
taken on all measurement locations on a regular basis. This would add significantly to
the time required and data storage requirements.
Use Time waveform for the following selected analysis situations to enhance FFT
information
Low speed applications (less than 100 RPM).
Indication of true amplitude in situations where impacts occur such as assessment of
rolling element bearing defect severity.
Gears.
Sleeve bearing machines with X-Y probes (2 channel orbit analysis)
Looseness.
Rubs.
Beats
Impacts
Use an appropriate measurement unit
Rolling element bearings, gears, looseness, rubs, impacts acceleration
Sleeve bearing machine with x-y probesdisplacement
Initially set up to observe 6 10 revolutions of the shaft in question
Study the following symptoms in the waveform
Amplitude
Amplitude Symmetry
Time Symmetry (use RPM markers)
Beats / Modulation
Impacts (shape and amplitude)
Remember use time waveform to ENHANCE not REPLACE spectral data.
Copyright 1999 Universal Technologies, Inc.
25797 Conifer Road #C210 Aspen Park, CO 80433 Tel: 303-838-3447 Fax: 303-838-3437 www.unitechinc.com
