Implementing Cisco IP Routing (ROUTE)
Chapter 1:
Basic Network and
Routing Concepts
Elaborated by: Ing. Ariel Germn
For: ITLA
Based on: Foundation Learning Guide
CCNP ROUTE 300-101
Diane Teare, Bob Vachon, Rick Graziani
2015
ROUTE v6 Chapter 1
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Chapter 1 Topics
Differentiating Routing Protocols
Understanding Network Technologies
Connecting Remote Locations with Headquarter
Routing and TCP/IP operations
Implementing RIPng
Summary
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Differentiating
Routing
Protocols
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Enterprise Network Infrastructure
Enterprise Campus
Enterprise Edge
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Role of Dynamic Routing Protocols
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Choosing a Dynamic Routing Protocol
Input requirements:
Size of the network
Multivendor support
Knowledge level of specific protocol
Protocol characteristics:
Type of routing algorithm
Speed of convergence
Scalability
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IGP versus EGP
(Autonomous system (AS) represents a collection of
network devices under a common administration).
Interior Gateway Protocols (IGPs):
Are used within the organization, and exchange routes within an AS.
Fast convergence, not complex to configure.
RIP, EIGRP, OSPF, IS-IS
Exterior Gateway Protocols (EGPs):
Exchange routes between different ASs.
Border Gateway Protocol (BGP) is the only EGP used today.
BGP is the routing protocol of the Internet.
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Types of Routing Protocol 1/2
Distance vector protocols:
Determines the direction (vector) and distance (link cost or number of
hops) to any link in the network.
Router only knows the distance or metric and the interface to get
there.
RIPv1 and IGRP used only the periodic exchange of routing
information for a topology change
EIGRP and RIPv2, used triggered updates.
Link-state protocols:
Use the Shortest Path First (SPF) to create an abstract of the topology
of the entire network or a area.
All link-state routers have an identical map of the topology.
OPF and IS-IS are examples.
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Types of Routing Protocol 2/2
Path Vector Protocols:
Exchange information about destination networks, and the path on
how to reach them.
Dont have an abstract of the network topology.
BGP is the only path vector protocol widely used.
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Convergence
Process of when routers notice a change in the network,
exchange information and recalculate the best routes.
Converged network: All routers have the same view on the
network topology.
Convergence time can be influenced:
Fine-tuning routing protocols timers (increases traffic, overhead, CPU
utilization in routers).
Route summarization (less networks to update).
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Route Summarization
Group several subnets into one aggregate entry that
describes all of them.
Reduce overhead and improve stability and scalability by
reducing amount of routing information exchanged.
Distance vector protocols support summarization in any
interface, but link states support it only at area boundaries.
IP addressing must be hierarchically assigned in contiguous
blocks across the network.
What is the
summarized
network?
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Routing Protocol Scalability
Scalability describes the ability of a routing protocol to support
further network growth.
Scalability factors:
Number of routes
Number of adjacent neighbors
Number of routers in the network
Network design
Frequency changes
Available resources (CPU and memory)
Hierarchical addressing, structured address assignment, and
route summarization improves the overall scalability.
Routing protocols have their own mechanisms:
OSPF: hierarchical areas
EIGRP: stubs routers
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Understanding
Network Technologies
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Traffic Types 1/2
Unicast:
Exchanged only between one sender and one receiver.
Most used traffic type
Multicast:
Traffic sent to a multicast address is sent to multiple destinations at
the same time.
An interface my belong to any number of multicast groups
IPv4: 224.0.0.0 239.255.255.255
IPv6: FF00::/8
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Traffic Types 2/2
Anycast:
Traffic sent to anycast address is routed to the nearest interface that
has this particular address.
Nearest interface is found according the measure of distance of the
routing protocol used.
Example: DNS
Broadcast:
Only used in IPv4
Information is transmitted from one sender to all connected receivers.
Local broadcast address: 255.255.255.255
Directed broadcast: last IPv4 address in each subnet.
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IPv6 Address Types 1/2
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IPv6 Address Types 2/2
Global Unicast: equivalent to public IP address in IPv4.
Link Local: automatically or manually configured. Not
routable.
Assigned Multicast: Similar to well-known multicast
addresses in IPv4.
Solicited node Multicast: Used by ICMPv6 Neighbor
Discovery. Similar to ARP for IPv4.
Loopback: Used for testing.
Unspecified: Used as source IPv6 address indicating
absence of Global Unicast address.
Unique Local: equivalent to private IP address un IPv4
Embedded IPv4: Used to represent the IPv6 equivalent of
a IPv4 address.
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ICMPv6 Neighbor Discovery
ICMPv6 is similar to ICMPv4
ICMPv6 provides automatic address allocation, address
resolution, and duplicate address detection.
ICMPv6 Neighbor Discovery includes five messages:
Router Solicitation (RS): Multicast sent to all IPv6 routers requesting
a Router Advertisement message.
Router Advertisement (RA): Response to a RS Indicating prefix,
prefix-length and default gateway address.
Neighbor Solicitation (NS): Similar to ARP for IPv4.
Neighbor Advertisement (NA): Response of a NS message.
Redirect: Sent by a router to inform a better next-hop router on the
link.
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Network Types 1/2
Point-to-point network:
Connects a single pair of routers
Example: A serial link
Broadcast network:
Connects many routers
All are reachable through one single address
Example: Ethernet
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Network Types 2/2
Nonbroadcast Multiaccess (NBMA) networks:
Support many routers.
Does not have broadcast capabilities.
Sender needs to create an individual copy of the same packet for
each router.
Introduce several challenges.
Examples: Frame Relay and Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM).
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NBMA Networks 1/3
Can use a variety of topologies. Hub-and-spoke or partial
mesh is the most common.
Frame Relay is the most common example of NBMA
technology.
If multipoint interface is used to connect multiple sites, some
issues arise:
Split Horizon: In distance vector protocols, the hub receives the
update in its physical interface but cannot forward it through the same
interface to the other spokes.
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NBMA Networks 2/3
Neighbor discovery: OSPF over NBMA does not discover neighbors
by default. You have to configure them and manually establish the
hub as the Designated Router (DR).
Broadcast replication: The hub router must replicate broadcast
packets on each PVC to the remote routes.
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NBMA Networks 3/3
Subinterfaces overcome these limitations. There are two
types:
Point-to-point subinterfaces: Each subinterface provides connectivity
between two routers, using its own subnet.
Point-to-multipoint subinterfaces: One single subnet is used. EIGRP
and OSPF need additional configuration. Point-to-point are preferred.
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Routing over the Internet
IGP are not used to establish connections over the Internet
for the following reasons:
All IGPs need to establish adjacencies with directly connected
neighbors.
Organizations typically use private IP addressing.
Internet is insecure by nature.
To overcome these limitations, tunneling techniques can be
used. Theyre generally named Virtual Private Networks
(VPNs).
Most VPN technologies support routing protocols.
Adjacencies can be established using tunnel interfaces.
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Connecting
Remote Locations
with Headquarters
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To connect remote locations, leased lines and Frame Relay
are not longer needed.
Multiprotocol Label Switching (MPLS) VPNs and Dynamic
Multipoint Virtual Private Network (DMVPN) are
widespread.
MPLS and DMVPN offer greater flexibility at a lower cost.
Routing protocols considerations needs to be taken.
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Principles of Static Routing 1/2
A static route can be used when:
Routing updates are undesirables, such as in dialup link.
Administrator needs total control over the routes.
Backup to a dynamically recognized route.
Is necessary to reach a network accessible by only one path (stub
network).
Router connects to a ISP and needs to have only a default route
pointing to it.
Router has few resources (CPU and memory).
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Principles of Static Routing 2/2
What are the drawbacks of static routing?
Configuring IPv4 Static Route:
ip route prefix mask {address | interface [address]} [dhcp] [distance]
[name next-hop-name] [permanent| track number] [tag tag]
Prior to IOS 12.0 it was more efficient to use the exit interface.
After IOS 12.0 (with the implementation of CEF)is now recommended
to use the next-hop IP address.
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Configuring a Static Default Route
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Basic PPP Overview
PPP has some advantages over its predecessor HLDC (default
encapsulation method in serial interfaces of Cisco routers).
PPP is configured on a interface
Additional options can be used after its activated
R1# configure terminal
R1(config)# interface serial 0/0/0
R1(config-if)# encapsulation ppp
hostname R1
!
interface Serial 0/0/0
ip address 10.0.1.1 255.255.255.252
ipv6 address 2001:db8:cafe:1::1/64
encapsulation ppp
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PPP Authentication Overview 1/3
Authentication is optional.
PPP can use PAP and CHAP.
PAP is very basic two-way process with no encryption.
CHAP involve a three-way exchange of a shared secret.
You can configure either PAP, or CHAP or both:
Router(config-if)# ppp authentication {chap | chap pap | pap chap |
pap} [if-needed] [list-name | default] [callin]
PAP authentication requires the remote device to send a
name and password to be checked against its user
database (or TACACS/TACACS+).
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PPP Authentication Overview 2/3
The hostname on one router must match the username the
other router has configured for PPP.
Password must also match.
hostname R1
hostname R2
username R2 password sameone
username R1 password sameone
interface Serial 0/0/0
interface Serial 0/0/0
ip address 10.0.1.1 255.255.255.252
ip address 10.0.1.1 255.255.255.252
ipv6 address 2001:db8:cafe:1::1/64
ipv6 address 2001:db8:cafe:1::2/64
encapsulation ppp
encapsulation ppp
ppp authentication pap
ppp authentication pap
ppp pap sent-username R1 password sameone
ppp pap sent-username R2 password sameone
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PPP Authentication Overview 3/3
In CHAP, the local device sends a challenge to the remote.
The remote encrypts the challenge and its name, and return it.
Local router uses the configured name of the remote, encrypt it
with the challenge, and verify if the calculated and received
values match.
Unlike PAP, CHAP authenticates periodically.
hostname R1
hostname R2
username R2 password sameone
username R1 password sameone
interface Serial 0/0/0
interface Serial 0/0/0
ip address 10.0.1.1 255.255.255.252
ip address 10.0.1.2 255.255.255.252
ipv6 address 2001:db8:cafe:1::1/64
ipv6 address 2001:db8:cafe:1::2/64
encapsulation ppp
encapsulation ppp
ppp authentication chap
ppp authentication chap
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PPPoE 1/2
ISPs value PPP because of the authentication, accounting
and link management features.
Ethernet links does not support PPP, thats why PPPoE
was created.
PPPoE creates a PPP tunnel over the Ethernet connection.
The modem convers the Ethernet frames to PPP frames by
stripping the Ethernet headers.
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PPPoE 2/2
Configuration:
Create a dialer interface (which is virtual).
Configure the dialer interface encapsulation PPP and IP address by
DHCP
Enable PPPoE in the ethernet interface that faces the client.
Link the dialer interface to the ethernet
Set the MTU to 1492
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Basic Frame Relay Overview
Frame Relay is a high-performance WAN protocol that
operates at the physical and data link layer of OSI model.
One single physical connection is needed.
SP creates virtual circuits (VC), which are normally PVC,
identified by a DLCI.
DLCI are locally significant.
A mapping between IP address and DLCI must be
established.
By default, Frame Relay is NBMA. But subinterfaces are
normally used.
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VPN Connectivity Overview
Frame Relay is being considered deprecated, for the
following factors:
Cost
Deployed services
Scalability
Next generation of VPNs support quick and easy
provisioning of full mesh topologies without compromising
security and scalability.
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MPLS-based VPN
MPLS is used to build tunnels through the service provider core
network.
Traffic forwarding through the MPLS backbone is based o labels
assigned by the SP.
Layer 3 MPLS:
SP participates in customer routing.
Customer routes are redistributed into MP-BGP
On the other end, are redistributed back from MP-BGP to the routing
protocol used.
Routing protocols on the local and remote sites, may be different
Layer 2 MPLS:
Interconnects PE and CE at layer 2 using a pseudowire
Two types:
Virtual Private Wire Service (VPWS): Emulates a point-to-ponit L2 connection
Virtual Private LAN Service (VPLS): emulates Ethernet multiaccess network.
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Tunneling VPNs
GRE
Tunneling protocol developed by Cisco
Enables encapsulation of L3 protocols inside point-to-point, tunnelover-IP network.
Traffic is not encrypted.
IPsec
Framework that uses a set of cryptographic protocols to secure L3
traffic .
Works with any application that uses IP as a transport protocol.
DMVPN
Used to scale IPsec hub-to-spoke and spoke-to-spoke designs in
large networks.
Supports routing protocols, and multicast.
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Hybrid VPNs
MPLS-based VPNs and tunnel VPNs are not mutually
exclusive.
Is possible to combine them and encrypt (or tunnel) the data
across the service provider network. (Tunnel over a tunnel).
Examples:
Layer 3 MPLS VPN over GRE
Layer 3 MPLS over DMVPN (over IPsec).
Provides a greater level of security.
Several layers of encapsulation increase latency and
complexity.
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Routing Across MPLS VPNs 1/2
Depends on whether its L2 MPLS VPN or L3 MPLS VPN
L2 MPLS VPN:
Customer selects the routing protocol.
Customer routers (CE) establish adjacencies.
Same IP subnet is used
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Routing Across MPLS VPNs 2/2
L3 MPLS VPN:
Customer and SP must agreed routing protocol(s).
Each customer router establish adjacency with a SP router (PE).
A different subnet must be used in each pair of CE-PE.
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Routing Over a GRE Tunnel 1/2
A tunnel is a logical interface that provides a way to
encapsulate passenger packets inside a transport protocol.
A tunnel have three main parts:
A passenger protocol, that is being encapsulated.
A carrier protocol. (GRE in for GRE tunnels).
A transport protocol, that carries the encapsulated protocol.
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Routing Over a GRE Tunnel 2/2
GRE tunnels offer the possibility to connect branch offices
across Internet or WAN.
Its main benefit: support multicast, and therefore is
appropriate for routing protocols.
Does not encrypt the traffic.
IPsec can be used, creating a GRE-over-IPsec tunnel.
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Dynamic Multipoint Virtual Private Network
Statics tunnels may be and appropriate solution for small
networks, but its not scalable.
The Cisco DMVPN feature enables better scaling for large
(and small) IPsec VPNs.
DMVPN combines multipoint GRE (mGRE), IPsec
encryption and Next Hop Resolution Protocol (NHRP).
Benefits:
Not reconfiguration needed in the hub router when a new spoke is
added.
IPsec is immediately triggered to create the point-to-point tunnel with
no peering configuration needed.
Support for dynamically addressed spoke routers.
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Multipoint GRE
mGRE enables a single GRE interface to support multiple GRE
tunnels and simplifies the complexity of the configuration.
Only one tunnel interface needs to be configured on a router to
support multiple remote GRE peers.
Devices using mGRE require NHRP to build dynamic GRE
tunnels.
mGRE also support unicast, multicast and broadcast.
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NHRP
NHRP is used by routers to determine the IP address of the
next hop in IP tunneling networks.
When a spoke initially connects to a DMVPN network, it
registers its inner (tunnel) and outer (physical interface)
address with the hub router.
This registration enables the mGRE interface on the hub
router to build a dynamic GRE tunnel back to the registering
spoke.
NHRP creates a mapping for a tunnel IP address to the
physical interface IP address for each spoke at the hub.
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IPsec
Is a framework of open standards that define how to provide
secure communications.
Provides four security services:
Confidentiality (encryption): The sender can encrypt the packets
before transmitting them across a network.
Data Integrity: The receiver can verify that the data was not altered
or changed during the transmission. Checksum is used.
Authentication: Ensures the communication is made with the desired
partner. Devices and users are authenticated, by using Internet Key
Exchange (IKE). IKE uses username/password, OTP, biometrics,
PSK and digital certificates.
Antireplay protection: Verifies each packet is unique and not
duplicated, by comparing the sequence number of the received
packet. Late and duplicate packets are dropped.
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Routing and
TCP/IP
Operations
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MSS, Fragmentation and PMTUD 1/3
An IPv4 packet has a maximum size of 65,535 bytes, whereas an
IPv6 packet can support up to 4,294,967,295 bytes.
Most transmission links enforces a smaller Maximum
Transmission Unit (MTU).
When a router receives an IPv4 larger the MTU of the interface, it
must fragment the packet, unless the DF (Dont Fragment) bit is
set.
Fragmentation cause several issues:
CPU and memory overhead in the origin.
CPU and memory overhead in the destination, due to reassembly.
Retransmission of the entire packet if one fragment is dropped.
Firewalls doing L4 L7 filtering may have trouble processing fragments.
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MSS, Fragmentation and PMTUD 2/3
To avoid fragmentation, the TCP Maximum Segment Size (MSS)
defines the largest amount of data the receiving device is able to
accept in a single TCP segment.
The sending device is required to send segments equal to or less
than the reported MSS.
TCP MSS should be the minimum buffer size, minus 40 bytes (20
bytes TCP header, 20 bytes of IP header).
Example, Ethernet MTU is 1500 bytes. MSS should be 1460.
TCP MSS just works at the two ends of the TCP connection.
To avoid fragmentation due to smaller MTU on a link along the
path, PMTUD is used.
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MSS, Fragmentation and PMTUD 3/3
Path MTU Discovery (PMTUD) was developed to determine the
lowest MTU along a path.
Is performed by a host using MSS and setting the TCP DF bit.
If a router along the path needs to fragment the segment (due to
smaller MTU size), it will drop the packet and send an ICMP
Destination Unreachable message with the code indicating
fragmentation needed and DF set and the MTU for the interface
that caused the drop.
Source receives the ICMP message and reduce the MSS to be
within the MTU and retransmit the message.
If the ICMP unreachable message is blocked, issues may occur.
Be sure to allow them in routers and firewalls along the patch.
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IPv6 Fragmentation and PMTUD
IPv6 routers dont fragment a packet unless it is the source
of the packet.
If an IPv6 router receives a packet larger the MTU of the
outgoing interface, it will drop the packet and send an
ICMPv6 Packet Too Big message back to the source,
including the smaller MTU.
PMTUD operation for IPv6 are similar to the PMTUD for
IPv4.
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Bandwidth Delay Product
TCP can experience bottlenecks on paths with high bandwidth
and long round-trip delays.
These are known as LFN, long fat networks.
Bandwidth Delay product (BDP) is the product of the bandwidth
(bps) times the round-trip delay (RTT in seconds).
BDP is the amount of unacknowledged data that TCP must
handle to keep the connection full.
BDP is used to optimize the TCP Windows size to fully utilize the
link.
The result is the maximum of data can be transmitted on the link
at any given time.
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TCP Starvation
TCP have mechanism for reliability, flow control and congestion
avoidance, whereas UDP doesnt have these features.
When TCP and UDP flows are mixed during a period of
congestion, TCP cooperate by backing off on bandwidth.
However, UDP doesnt even notice the congestion and keep
using the available bandwidth given up by TCP.
This is known as TCP starvation/UDP dominance.
Is not always possible to separate TCP / UDP based flows, but
should be kept in mind this behavior when mixing applications.
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Latency
Latency is the amount of time for a message to go from ne point
to another.
Can be caused by several factors: propagation delay,
serialization, data protocols, routing, switching, queuing, and
buffering.
TCP requires a established virtual connection and bidirectional
communication ACKs, windows size, congestion control and so
on, which has a effect on latency.
UDP does not include reliability, and is used for streaming media
that requires minimum delay.
UDP has very low latency, better than most TCP connections.
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ICMP Redirects 1/2
These messages are used by routers to notify the sender of
a packet that there is a better route available for a particular
destination.
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ICMP Redirects 2/2
ICMPv6 Redirect message works the same way as the
Redirect message for ICMpv4, with one additional feature:
If PCA wants to communicate with PCB (same segment, different
networks), it will use its default gateway, R1.
R1 will send a redirect message.
PCA will forward packets directly to PCB.
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Implementing RIPng
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RIP overview
One of the oldest routing protocol.
Standard IGP, works in mixed-vendor router environment.
Easy to configure.
Good choice for small networks
Distance vector protocol, uses hop count as the metric.
Maximum hops: 15
If a network is 16 hops or more, the router consider it
unreachable.
Implements split horizon with poison reverse. Prefers a
notification rather than just ignoring.
Support load balancing over equal-cost paths.
Exits three versions: RIPv1, RIPv2 and RIPng
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RIPv2 Overview 1/2
Classless routing protocol
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RIPv2 Overview 2/2
By default RIPv2 automatically summarizes at major
network boundaries. Summarizing routes to the classful
network address.
If discontinuous subnets are used, automatic summarization
must be disabled.
Router(config-router)# no auto-summary
The ip summary-address rip ip-address network-mask
interface command is used to manually summarize.
Router(config-if)# ip summary-address rip 10.2.0.0 255.255.0.0
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Configuring RIPng
RIPng is already preconfigured in R1.
There is a static default route pointing to internet in R1.
R1 will be configured to share this default route with R2
using RIPng.
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Basic RIPng Configuration 1/8
Enable IPv6 routing using ipv6 unicast-routing command
on R2.
Enable RIPng using ipv router rip name command.Set the
process name to CCNP_RIP
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Basic RIPng Configuration 2/8
On R2, enable IPv6 in interface configuration mode:
ipv6 address ipv6_address/prefix or
ipv6 enable
Use show ipv6 interface brief to validate interfaces are up
and correctly configured.
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Basic RIPng Configuration 3/8
On R2, enable RIPng on interface Ethernet 0/1 (connects to
R1) and Loopback0 (simulates LAN).
If you forgot to create the RIP process name, the router will
automatically create one.
Use the show ipv6 protocols to validate RIPng is correctly
configured.
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Basic RIPng Configuration 4/8
Inspect the routing table on R2. Notice two IPv6 routes
learned from R1.
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Basic RIPng Configuration 5/8
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Basic RIPng Configuration 6/8
In RIPng, the sending router consider itself to be one hop
away. Therefore, R2 considers the R1 LAN to be two hops
away.
The concept of classful network doesnt exist in IPv6, so
there isnt any automatic route summarization in RIPng. It
must be done manually.
Summarize LAN addresses on R1:
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Basic RIPng Configuration 7/8
Propagate the default route of R1 to R2
On R2, verify R1 has shared its default IPv6 route
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Basic RIPng Configuration 8/8
Another option is using the keyword only instead of
originate.
Check the difference in the routing table of R2
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Investigating the RIPng Database 1/3
show ipv6 rip
RIP process (es)
Port number
Hello and dead timer
Interfaces configured
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Investigating the RIPng Database 2/3
show ipv6 rip database
RIP process (es)
Route prefix and metric
Installed (in the routing table) and expired (unavailable).
Expires in (dead timer countdown typically three times the hello
timer)
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Investigating the RIPng Database 3/3
show ipv6 next-hops
RIP process (es)
Next hop router IP address.
Interface in which its connected.
Number of path (routes) in the IPv6 RIP routing table using that next
hop
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Summary
The role of static routes and dynamic routing protocols in enterprise networks.
The differences between IGP and EGP routing protocols.
The three types of routing protocols: distance vector, link-state and path vector.
The importance of convergence time and how route summarization reduced convergence time and improves scalability.
The four traffic types: unicast, multicast, anycast, and broadcast.
The differences between point-to-point, broadcast, and NBMA networks.
How point-to-point subinterfaces are used to overcome the limitations of NBMA
networks.
How VPNs are used to provide security of a public Internet.
Common types of VPNs: MPLS-based VPNs, GRE+IPsec, and DMVPN.
How a customer establishes connectivity with a service provider using a routing protocol and a layer 3 MPLS VPN.
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How static GRE tunnels can establish virtual point-to-point links and support dynamic
routing protocols.
Using DMVPN to provide fully meshed VPN connectivity with a simple hub-and spoke
configuration.
How DMVPN relies on NHRP, mGRE, and IPsec.
The differences and similarities between RIPv2 and RIPng.
How to configure RIPng.
How to propagate a default route in RIPng.
Some key points in this chapter are that convergence time, support for
summarization, and ability to scale impact selection of a suitable routing protocol. It is
recommended that you use point-to-point subinterfaces when establishing routing
protocols over NBMA networks. DMVPN can be used as a scalable solution. RIPng is
asimple IGP protocol that supports IPv6.
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