Antenna (radio)

For other uses, see Antenna.

existence of electromagnetic waves predicted by the theory of James Clerk Maxwell. Hertz placed dipole antennas at the focal point of parabolic reectors for both transAn antenna (plural antennae or antennas), or aerial,
mitting
and receiving. He published his work in Annalen
is an electrical device which converts electric power into
der Physik und Chemie (vol. 36, 1889).
[1]
radio waves, and vice versa. It is usually used with a
radio transmitter or radio receiver. In transmission, a radio transmitter supplies an electric current oscillating at
radio frequency (i.e. a high frequency alternating current
(AC)) to the antennas terminals, and the antenna radiates
the energy from the current as electromagnetic waves (radio waves). In reception, an antenna intercepts some of
the power of an electromagnetic wave in order to produce
a tiny voltage at its terminals, that is applied to a receiver
to be amplied.
Antennas are essential components of all equipment
that uses radio. They are used in systems such as
radio broadcasting, broadcast television, two-way radio, communications receivers, radar, cell phones, and
satellite communications, as well as other devices such as
garage door openers, wireless microphones, Bluetoothenabled devices, wireless computer networks, baby mon- Animation of a half-wave dipole antenna transmitting radio
itors, and RFID tags on merchandise.
waves, showing the electric eld lines. The antenna in the center is two vertical metal rods, with an alternating current applied
at its center from a radio transmitter (not shown). The voltage
charges the two sides of the antenna alternately positive (+) and
negative (). Loops of electric eld (black lines) leave the antenna and travel away at the speed of light; these are the radio
waves.

Typically an antenna consists of an arrangement of metallic conductors (elements), electrically connected (often
through a transmission line) to the receiver or transmitter.
An oscillating current of electrons forced through the antenna by a transmitter will create an oscillating magnetic
eld around the antenna elements, while the charge of the
electrons also creates an oscillating electric eld along the
elements. These time-varying elds radiate away from
the antenna into space as a moving transverse electromagnetic eld wave. Conversely, during reception, the oscillating electric and magnetic elds of an incoming radio
wave exert force on the electrons in the antenna elements,
causing them to move back and forth, creating oscillating
currents in the antenna.
Antennas can be designed to transmit and receive
radio waves in all horizontal directions equally
(omnidirectional antennas), or preferentially in a
particular direction (directional or high gain antennas).
In the latter case, an antenna may also include additional
elements or surfaces with no electrical connection to
the transmitter or receiver, such as parasitic elements,
parabolic reectors or horns, which serve to direct the
radio waves into a beam or other desired radiation
pattern.

Animated diagram of a half-wave dipole antenna receiving energy from a radio wave. The antenna consists of two metal rods
connected to a receiver R. The electric eld (E, green arrows)
of the incoming wave pushes the electrons in the rods back and
forth, charging the ends alternately positive (+) and negative ().
Since the length of the antenna is one half the wavelength of the
wave, the oscillating eld induces standing waves of voltage (V,
represented by red band) and current in the rods. The oscillating currents (black arrows) ow down the transmission line and
through the receiver (represented by the resistance R).

The rst antennas were built in 1888 by German physicist

Heinrich Hertz in his pioneering experiments to prove the

OVERVIEW

Terminology

volved require antennas, although these are sometimes

hidden (such as the antenna inside an AM radio or inside
[2]
The words antenna (plural: antennas in US English, al- a laptop computer equipped with Wi-Fi).
though both antennas and antennae are used in In- According to their applications and technology available,
ternational English[3] ) and aerial are used interchange- antennas generally fall in one of two categories:
ably. Occasionally the term aerial is used to mean a
wire antenna. However, note the important international
1. Omnidirectional or only weakly directional antentechnical journal, the IEEE Transactions on Antennas and
nas which receive or radiate more or less in all diPropagation.[4] In the United Kingdom and other areas
rections. These are employed when the relative powhere British English is used, the term aerial is somesition of the other station is unknown or arbitrary.
times used although 'antenna' has been universal in proThey are also used at lower frequencies where a difessional use for many years.
rectional antenna would be too large, or simply to
The origin of the word antenna relative to wireless apparatus is attributed to Italian radio pioneer Guglielmo
Marconi. In the summer of 1895, Marconi began testing his wireless system outdoors on his fathers estate
near Bologna and soon began to experiment with long
wire aerials. Marconi discovered that by raising the
aerial wire above the ground and connecting the other
side of his transmitter to ground, the transmission range
was increased.[5] Soon he was able to transmit signals over
a hill, a distance of approximately 2.4 kilometres (1.5
mi).[6] In Italian a tent pole is known as l'antenna centrale,
and the pole with the wire was simply called l'antenna.
Until then wireless radiating transmitting and receiving
elements were known simply as aerials or terminals.

cut costs in applications where a directional antenna

isn't required.
2. Directional or beam antennas which are intended to
preferentially radiate or receive in a particular direction or directional pattern.

In common usage omnidirectional usually refers to all

horizontal directions, typically with reduced performance
in the direction of the sky or the ground (a truly isotropic
radiator is not even possible). A directional antenna
usually is intended to maximize its coupling to the electromagnetic eld in the direction of the other station, or
sometimes to cover a particular sector such as a 120 horBecause of his prominence, Marconis use of the word izontal fan pattern in the case of a panel antenna at a cell
antenna (Italian for pole) spread among wireless re- site.
searchers, and later to the general public.[7][8][9]
One example of omnidirectional antennas is the very
In common usage, the word antenna may refer broadly to common vertical antenna or whip antenna consisting of a
an entire assembly including support structure, enclosure metal rod (often, but not always, a quarter of a wavelength
(if any), etc. in addition to the actual functional compo- long). A dipole antenna is similar but consists of two such
nents. Especially at microwave frequencies, a receiving conductors extending in opposite directions, with a total
antenna may include not only the actual electrical antenna length that is often, but not always, a half of a wavelength
long. Dipoles are typically oriented horizontally in which
but an integrated preamplier or mixer.
case they are weakly directional: signals are reasonably
An antenna, in converting radio waves to electrical signals well radiated toward or received from all directions with
or vice versa, is a form of transducer.[10]
the exception of the direction along the conductor itself;
this region is called the antenna blind cone or null.

Overview

Antennas are required by any radio receiver or transmitter to couple its electrical connection to the electromagnetic eld. Radio waves are electromagnetic waves
which carry signals through the air (or through space) at
the speed of light with almost no transmission loss. Radio transmitters and receivers are used to convey signals
(information) in systems including broadcast (audio) radio, television, mobile telephones, Wi-Fi (WLAN) data
networks, trunk lines and point-to-point communications
links (telephone, data networks), satellite links, many
remote controlled devices such as garage door openers,
and wireless remote sensors, among many others. Radio
waves are also used directly for measurements in technologies including radar, GPS, and radio astronomy. In
each and every case, the transmitters and receivers in-

Both the vertical and dipole antennas are simple in construction and relatively inexpensive. The dipole antenna,
which is the basis for most antenna designs, is a balanced
component, with equal but opposite voltages and currents
applied at its two terminals through a balanced transmission line (or to a coaxial transmission line through a socalled balun). The vertical antenna, on the other hand, is
a monopole antenna. It is typically connected to the inner
conductor of a coaxial transmission line (or a matching
network); the shield of the transmission line is connected
to ground. In this way, the ground (or any large conductive surface) plays the role of the second conductor
of a dipole, thereby forming a complete circuit. Since
monopole antennas rely on a conductive ground, a socalled grounding structure may be employed to provide
a better ground contact to the earth or which itself acts as
a ground plane to perform that function regardless of (or
in absence of) an actual contact with the earth.

3
Antennas more complex than the dipole or vertical designs are usually intended to increase the directivity and
consequently the gain of the antenna. This can be accomplished in many dierent ways leading to a plethora
of antenna designs. The vast majority of designs are fed
with a balanced line (unlike a monopole antenna) and are
based on the dipole antenna with additional components
(or elements) which increase its directionality. Antenna
gain in this instance describes the concentration of radiated power into a particular solid angle of space, as opposed to the spherically uniform radiation of the ideal radiator. The increased power in the desired direction is at
the expense of that in the undesired directions. Power is
conserved, and there is no net power increase over that
delivered from the power source (the transmitter.)
For instance, a phased array consists of two or more simple antennas which are connected together through an
electrical network. This often involves a number of parallel dipole antennas with a certain spacing. Depending
on the relative phase introduced by the network, the same
combination of dipole antennas can operate as a broadside array (directional normal to a line connecting the
elements) or as an end-re array (directional along the
line connecting the elements). Antenna arrays may employ any basic (omnidirectional or weakly directional) antenna type, such as dipole, loop or slot antennas. These
elements are often identical.

non directional portable use, a short vertical antenna or

small loop antenna works well, with the main design challenge being that of impedance matching. With a vertical antenna a loading coil at the base of the antenna
may be employed to cancel the reactive component of
impedance; small loop antennas are tuned with parallel
capacitors for this purpose.
An antenna lead-in is the transmission line (or feed line)
which connects the antenna to a transmitter or receiver.
The antenna feed may refer to all components connecting the antenna to the transmitter or receiver, such as an
impedance matching network in addition to the transmission line. In a so-called aperture antenna, such as a horn
or parabolic dish, the feed may also refer to a basic antenna inside the entire system (normally at the focus of
the parabolic dish or at the throat of a horn) which could
be considered the one active element in that antenna system. A microwave antenna may also be fed directly from
a waveguide in place of a (conductive) transmission line.

An antenna counterpoise or ground plane is a structure

of conductive material which improves or substitutes for
the ground. It may be connected to or insulated from the
natural ground. In a monopole antenna, this aids in the
function of the natural ground, particularly where variations (or limitations) of the characteristics of the natural
ground interfere with its proper function. Such a structure
is normally connected to the return connection of an unHowever a log-periodic dipole array consists of a number balanced transmission line such as the shield of a coaxial
of dipole elements of dierent lengths in order to obtain cable.
a somewhat directional antenna having an extremely wide An electromagnetic wave refractor in some aperture anbandwidth: these are frequently used for television recep- tennas is a component which due to its shape and position in fringe areas. The dipole antennas composing it are tion functions to selectively delay or advance portions of
all considered active elements since they are all electri- the electromagnetic wavefront passing through it. The recally connected together (and to the transmission line). fractor alters the spatial characteristics of the wave on one
On the other hand, a supercially similar dipole array, side relative to the other side. It can, for instance, bring
the Yagi-Uda Antenna (or simply Yagi), has only one the wave to a focus or alter the wave front in other ways,
dipole element with an electrical connection; the other generally in order to maximize the directivity of the anso-called parasitic elements interact with the electromag- tenna system. This is the radio equivalent of an optical
netic eld in order to realize a fairly directional antenna lens.
but one which is limited to a rather narrow bandwidth.
The Yagi antenna has similar looking parasitic dipole el- An antenna coupling network is a passive network (genements but which act dierently due to their somewhat erally a combination of inductive and capacitive circuit
dierent lengths. There may be a number of so-called elements) used for impedance matching in between the
directors in front of the active element in the direction antenna and the transmitter or receiver. This may be used
of propagation, and usually a single (but possibly more) to improve the standing wave ratio in order to minimize
losses in the transmission line and to present the transmitreector on the opposite side of the active element.
ter or receiver with a standard resistive impedance that it
Greater directionality can be obtained using beamexpects to see for optimum operation.
forming techniques such as a parabolic reector or a horn.
Since high directivity in an antenna depends on it being
large compared to the wavelength, narrow beams of this
type are more easily achieved at UHF and microwave fre- 3 Reciprocity
quencies.
At low frequencies (such as AM broadcast), arrays of vertical towers are used to achieve directionality [12] and they
will occupy large areas of land. For reception, a long
Beverage antenna can have signicant directivity. For

It is a fundamental property of antennas that the electrical characteristics of an antenna described in the
next section, such as gain, radiation pattern, impedance,
bandwidth, resonant frequency and polarization, are
the same whether the antenna is transmitting or

4
receiving.[13][14] For example, the "receiving pattern"
(sensitivity as a function of direction) of an antenna when
used for reception is identical to the radiation pattern of
the antenna when it is driven and functions as a radiator. This is a consequence of the reciprocity theorem of
electromagnetics.[14] Therefore, in discussions of antenna
properties no distinction is usually made between receiving and transmitting terminology, and the antenna can be
viewed as either transmitting or receiving, whichever is
more convenient.
A necessary condition for the aforementioned reciprocity
property is that the materials in the antenna and transmission medium are linear and reciprocal. Reciprocal (or
bilateral) means that the material has the same response
to an electric current or magnetic eld in one direction,
as it has to the eld or current in the opposite direction.
Most materials used in antennas meet these conditions,
but some microwave antennas use high-tech components
such as isolators and circulators, made of nonreciprocal
materials such as ferrite.[13][14] These can be used to give
the antenna a dierent behavior on receiving than it has
on transmitting,[13] which can be useful in applications
like radar.

CHARACTERISTICS

claims of a vendor.
An antenna transmits and receives radio waves with a particular polarization which can be reoriented by tilting the
axis of the antenna in many (but not all) cases. The physical size of an antenna is often a practical issue, particularly at lower frequencies (longer wavelengths). Highly
directional antennas need to be signicantly larger than
the wavelength. Resonant antennas usually use a linear
conductor (or element), or pair of such elements, each
of which is about a quarter of the wavelength in length
(an odd multiple of quarter wavelengths will also be resonant). Antennas that are required to be small compared
to the wavelength sacrice eciency and cannot be very
directional. Fortunately at higher frequencies (UHF, microwaves) trading o performance to obtain a smaller
physical size is usually not required.

4.1 Resonant antennas

The majority of antenna designs are based on the resonance principle. This relies on the behaviour of moving
electrons, which reect o surfaces where the dielectric
constant changes, in a fashion similar to the way light reects when optical properties change. In these designs,
the reective surface is created by the end of a conduc4 Characteristics
tor, normally a thin metal wire or rod, which in the simplest case has a feed point at one end where it is conSee also: Antenna measurement Antenna parameters
nected to a transmission line. The conductor, or element,
is aligned with the electrical eld of the desired signal,
Antennas are characterized by a number of performance normally meaning it is perpendicular to the line from the
measures which a user would be concerned with in select- antenna to the source (or receiver in the case of a broading or designing an antenna for a particular application. cast antenna).[15]
Chief among these relate to the directional characteristics The radio signals electrical component induces a voltage
(as depicted in the antennas radiation pattern) and the in the conductor. This causes an electrical current to beresulting gain. Even in omnidirectional (or weakly direc- gin owing in the direction of the signals instantaneous
tional) antennas, the gain can often be increased by coneld. When the resulting current reaches the end of the
centrating more of its power in the horizontal directions, conductor, it reects, which is equivalent to a 180 degree
sacricing power radiated toward the sky and ground.
change in phase. If the conductor is 1 4 of a wavelength
The antennas power gain (or simply gain) also takes long, current from the feed point will undergo 90 degree
into account the antennas eciency, and is often the priphase change by the time it reaches the end of the conmary gure of merit.
ductor, reect through 180 degrees, and then another 90
Resonant antennas are expected to be used around a particular resonant frequency; an antenna must therefore be
built or ordered to match the frequency range of the
intended application. A particular antenna design will
present a particular feedpoint impedance. While this may
aect the choice of an antenna, an antennas impedance
can also be adapted to the desired impedance level of a
system using a matching network while maintaining the
other characteristics (except for a possible loss of eciency).
Although these parameters can be measured in principle,
such measurements are dicult and require very specialized equipment. Beyond tuning a transmitting antenna
using an SWR meter, the typical user will depend on theoretical predictions based on the antenna design or on

degrees as it travels back. That means it has undergone a

total 360 degree phase change, returning it to the original
signal. The current in the element thus adds to the current
being created from the source at that instant. This process creates a standing wave in the conductor, with the
maximum current at the feed.[16]
The half-wave dipole is probably the most widely used
antenna design. This consists of two 1 4 -wavelength elements arranged end-to-end (or collinear), each feeding
one side of a two-conductor transmission wire. The two
elements physical arrangement places them 180 degrees
out of phase, which means that at any given instant one of
the elements is driving current into the transmission line
while the other is pulling it out. The monopole antenna
is essentially one half of the half-wave dipole, a single

4.1

Resonant antennas

4 -wavelength element with the other side connected to

ground or an equivalent ground plane (or counterpoise).
Monopoles, which are one-half the size of a dipole, are
common for long-wavelength radio signals where a dipole
would be impractically large. Another common design is
the folded dipole, which is essentially two dipoles placed
side-by-side and connected at their ends to make a single
one-wavelength antenna.

1 ampere will require 63 volts of RF, and the antenna

will radiate 63 watts (ignoring losses) of radio frequency
power. Now consider the case when the antenna is fed a
signal with a wavelength of 1.25 m; in this case the reected current would arrive at the feed out-of-phase with
the signal, causing the net current to drop while the voltage remains the same. Electrically this appears to be a
very high impedance. The antenna and transmission line
no longer have the same impedance, and the signal will
The standing wave forms with this desired pattern at the
design frequency, f0 , and antennas are normally designed be reected back into the antenna, reducing output. This
could be addressed by changing the matching system beto be this size. However, feeding that element with 3f0
1
(whose wavelength is 3 that of f0 ) will also lead to a tween the antenna and transmission line, but that solution
only works well at the new design frequency.
standing wave pattern. Thus, an antenna element is also
3
resonant when its length is 4 of a wavelength. This is The end result is that the resonant antenna will eciently
true for all odd multiples of 1 4 wavelength. This allows feed a signal into the transmission line only when the
some exibility of design in terms of antenna lengths and source signals frequency is close to that of the design
feed points. Antennas used in such a fashion are known frequency of the antenna, or one of the resonant multiples. This makes resonant antenna designs inherently narto be harmonically operated.[17]
rowband, and they are most commonly used with a single target signal. They are particularly common on radar
systems, where the same antenna is used for both broad4.1.1 Current and voltage distribution
cast and reception, or for radio and television broadcasts,
The quarter-wave elements imitate a series-resonant elec- where the antenna is working with a single frequency.
trical element due to the standing wave present along the They are less commonly used for reception where mulconductor. At the resonant frequency, the standing wave tiple channels are present, in which case additional modhas a current peak and voltage node (minimum) at the ications are used to increase the bandwidth, or entirely
feed. In electrical terms, this means the element has dierent antenna designs are used.
minimum reactance, generating the maximum current for
minimum voltage. This is the ideal situation, because it
produces the maximum output for the minimum input,
producing the highest possible eciency. Contrary to an
ideal (lossless) series-resonant circuit, a nite resistance
remains (corresponding to the relatively small voltage at
the feed-point) due to the antennas radiation resistance
as well as any actual electrical losses.
Recall that a current will reect when there are changes in
the electrical properties of the material. In order to eciently send the signal into the transmission line, it is important that the transmission line has the same impedance
as the elements, otherwise some of the signal will be reected back into the antenna. This leads to the concept
of impedance matching, the design of the overall system of antenna and transmission line so the impedance
is as close as possible, thereby reducing these losses.
Impedance matching between antennas and transmission
lines is commonly handled through the use of a balun, although other solutions are also used in certain roles. An
important measure of this basic concept is the standing
wave ratio, which measures the magnitude of the reected
signal.
Consider a half-wave dipole designed to work with signals 1 m wavelength, meaning the antenna would be approximately 50 cm across. If the element has a length-todiameter ratio of 1000, it will have an inherent resistance
of about 63 ohms. Using the appropriate transmission
wire or balun, we match that resistance to ensure minimum signal loss. Feeding that antenna with a current of

4.1.2 Modied resonant designs

It is possible to use the impedance matching concepts
to construct vertical antennas substantially shorter than
the 1 4 wavelength at which the antenna is resonant. By
adding an inductance in series with the antenna, a socalled loading coil, the capacitive reactance of this antenna can be cancelled leaving a pure resistance which can
then be matched to the transmission line. Sometimes the
resulting resonant frequency of such a system (antenna
plus matching network) is described using the construct
of electrical length and the use of a shorter antenna at
a lower frequency than its resonant frequency is termed
electrical lengthening.
For example, at 300 MHz (1 m wavelength) a true resonant 1 4 -wavelength monopole would be almost 2.5 meters long, and using an antenna only 1.5 meters tall would
require the addition of a loading coil. Then it may be
said that the coil has lengthened the antenna to achieve
an electrical length of 2.5 meters. However, the resulting resistive impedance achieved will be quite a bit lower
than the impedance of a resonant monopole, likely requiring further impedance matching. In addition to a lower
radiation resistance, the reactance becomes higher as the
antenna size is reduced, and the resonant circuit formed
by the antenna and the tuning coil has a Q factor that rises
and eventually causes the bandwidth of the antenna to be
inadequate for the signal being transmitted. This is the
major factor that sets the size of antennas at 1 MHz and

lower frequencies.

4.1.3

Arrays and reectors

The amount of signal received from a distant transmission

source is essentially geometric in nature due to the inverse
square law, and this leads to the concept of eective area.
This measures the performance of an antenna by comparing the amount of power it generates to the amount
of power in the original signal, measured in terms of the
signals power density in Watts per square metre. A halfwave dipole has an eective area of 0.13 2 . If more
performance is needed, one cannot simply make the antenna larger. Although this would intercept more energy
from the signal, due to the considerations above, it would
decrease the output signicantly. In roles where higher
performance is needed, designers often use multiple elements combined together.
Returning to the basic concept of current ows in a conductor, consider what happens if a half-wave dipole is not
connected to a feed point, but instead shorted out. Electrically this forms a single 1 2 -wavelength element. But
the overall current pattern is the same; the current will be
zero at the two ends, and reach a maximum in the center. Thus signals near the design frequency will continue
to create a standing wave pattern. Any varying electrical
current, like the standing wave in the element, will radiate
a signal. In this case, aside from losses in the element, it
will be signicantly similar to the original signal in both
magnitude and shape. If this element is placed so its signal reaches the main dipole in-phase, it will reinforce the
original signal, and increase the current in the dipole. Elements used in this way are known as passive elements.
A Yagi-Uda array uses passive elements to greatly increase gain. It consists of a support boom that is pointed
toward the signal, and thus sees no induced signal and
does not contribute to the antennas operation. The end
closer to the source is referred to as the front. Near
the rear is a single active element, typically a half-wave
dipole or folded dipole Passive elements are arranged in
front (directors) and behind (reectors) the active element
along the boom. The Yagi has the inherent quality that
it becomes increasingly directional, and thus has higher
gain, as the number of elements increases. However,
this also makes it increasingly sensitive to changes in frequency; in addition to the changes in impedance noted
above, the radiated signals will no longer reach the active
element in phase, and thus it becomes inherently more
narrowband.
It is also possible to use multiple active elements and combine them together with transmission lines to produce a
similar system where the phases add up to reinforce the
output. The antenna array and very similar reective array antenna consist of multiple elements, often half-wave
dipoles, spaced out on a plane and wired together with
transmission lines with specic phase lengths to produce

CHARACTERISTICS

a single in-phase signal at the output. The log-periodic

antenna is a more complex design that uses multiple inline elements similar in appearance to the Yagi-Uda but
using transmission lines between the elements to produce
the output.
Reection of the original signal also occurs when it hits an
extended conductive surface, in a fashion similar to a mirror. This eect can also be used to increase signal through
the use of a reector, normally placed behind the active
element and spaced so the reected signal reaches the element in-phase. Generally the reector will remain highly
reective even if it is not solid; gaps less than 1 10 generally have little eect on the outcome. For this reason,
reectors often take the form of wire meshes or rows of
passive elements. The parabolic reector is perhaps the
best known example of a reector-based antenna, which
has an eective area far greater than the active element
alone.

4.2 Bandwidth
Main article: Antenna bandwidth
Although a resonant antenna has a purely resistive feedpoint impedance at a particular frequency, many (if not
most) applications require using an antenna over a range
of frequencies. An antennas bandwidth species the
range of frequencies over which its performance does not
suer due to a poor impedance match. Also in the case
of a Yagi-Uda array, the use of the antenna very far away
from its design frequency reduces the antennas directivity, thus reducing the usable bandwidth regardless of
impedance matching.
Except for the latter concern, the resonant frequency of
a resonant antenna can always be altered by adjusting
a suitable matching network. To do this eciently one
would require remotely adjusting a matching network at
the site of the antenna, since simply adjusting a matching
network at the transmitter (or receiver) would leave the
transmission line with a poor standing wave ratio.
Instead, it is often desired to have an antenna whose
impedance does not vary so greatly over a certain bandwidth. It turns out that the amount of reactance seen at
the terminals of a resonant antenna when the frequency is
shifted, say, by 5%, depends very much on the diameter
of the conductor used. A long thin wire used as a halfwave dipole (or quarter wave monopole) will have a reactance signicantly greater than the resistive impedance it
has at resonance, leading to a poor match and generally
unacceptable performance. Making the element using a
tube of a diameter perhaps 1/50 of its length, however,
results in a reactance at this altered frequency which is
not so great, and a much less serious mismatch which
will only modestly damage the antennas net performance.
Thus rather thick tubes are typically used for the solid elements of such antennas, including Yagi-Uda arrays.

4.4

Eective area or aperture

Rather than just using a thick tube, there are similar techniques used to the same eect such as replacing thin wire
elements with cages to simulate a thicker element. This
widens the bandwidth of the resonance. On the other
hand, amateur radio antennas need to operate over several bands which are widely separated from each other.
This can often be accomplished simply by connecting resonant elements for the dierent bands in parallel. Most
of the transmitters power will ow into the resonant element while the others present a high (reactive) impedance
and draw little current from the same voltage. A popular solution uses so-called traps consisting of parallel
resonant circuits which are strategically placed in breaks
along each antenna element. When used at one particular
frequency band the trap presents a very high impedance
(parallel resonance) eectively truncating the element at
that length, making it a proper resonant antenna. At a
lower frequency the trap allows the full length of the element to be employed, albeit with a shifted resonant frequency due to the inclusion of the traps net reactance at
that lower frequency.
The bandwidth characteristics of a resonant antenna element can be characterized according to its Q, just as
one uses to characterize the sharpness of an L-C resonant circuit. However it is often assumed that there is an
advantage in an antenna having a high Q. After all, Q is
short for quality factor and a low Q typically signies
excessive loss (due to unwanted resistance) in a resonant
L-C circuit. However this understanding does not apply
to resonant antennas where the resistance involved is the
radiation resistance, a desired quantity which removes energy from the resonant element in order to radiate it (the
purpose of an antenna, after all!). The Q is a measure
of the ratio of reactance to resistance, so with a xed
radiation resistance (an elements radiation resistance is
almost independent of its diameter) a greater reactance
o-resonance corresponds to the poorer bandwidth of a
very thin conductor. The Q of such a narrowband antenna
can be as high as 15. On the other hand, a thick element
presents less reactance at an o-resonant frequency, and
consequently a Q as low as 5. These two antennas will
perform equivalently at the resonant frequency, but the
second antenna will perform over a bandwidth 3 times as
wide as the hi-Q antenna consisting of a thin conductor.

7
the intensity Iiso radiated at the same distance by a hypothetical isotropic antenna which radiates equal power
in all directions. This dimensionless ratio is usually expressed logarithmically in decibels, these units are called
decibels-isotropic (dBi)

GdBi = 10 log

I
Iiso

A second unit used to measure gain is the ratio of the

power radiated by the antenna to the power radiated by
a half-wave dipole antenna Idipole ; these units are called
decibels-dipole (dBd)

GdBd = 10 log

I
Idipole

Since the gain of a half-wave dipole is 2.15 dBi and the

logarithm of a product is additive, the gain in dBi is just
2.15 decibels greater than the gain in dBd

GdBi = GdBd + 2.15

High-gain antennas have the advantage of longer range
and better signal quality, but must be aimed carefully at
the other antenna. An example of a high-gain antenna
is a parabolic dish such as a satellite television antenna.
Low-gain antennas have shorter range, but the orientation
of the antenna is relatively unimportant. An example of
a low-gain antenna is the whip antenna found on portable
radios and cordless phones. Antenna gain should not be
confused with amplier gain, a separate parameter measuring the increase in signal power due to an amplifying
device.

4.4 Eective area or aperture

Main article: Antenna eective area

The eective area or eective aperture of a receiving antenna expresses the portion of the power of a passing electromagnetic wave which it delivers to its terminals, expressed in terms of an equivalent area. For instance, if a
radio wave passing a given location has a ux of 1 pW /
4.3 Gain
m2 (1012 watts per square meter) and an antenna has an
Main article: Antenna gain
eective area of 12 m2 , then the antenna would deliver
12 pW of RF power to the receiver (30 microvolts rms at
Gain is a parameter which measures the degree of 75 ohms). Since the receiving antenna is not equally sendirectivity of the antennas radiation pattern. A high-gain sitive to signals received from all directions, the eective
antenna will radiate most of its power in a particular di- area is a function of the direction to the source.
rection, while a low-gain antenna will radiate over a wider Due to reciprocity (discussed above) the gain of an anangle. The antenna gain, or power gain of an antenna is tenna used for transmitting must be proportional to its
dened as the ratio of the intensity (power per unit sur- eective area when used for receiving. Consider an anface area) I radiated by the antenna in the direction of tenna with no loss, that is, one whose electrical eciency
its maximum output, at an arbitrary distance, divided by is 100%. It can be shown that its eective area averaged

over all directions must be equal to 2 /4, the wavelength

squared divided by 4. Gain is dened such that the average gain over all directions for an antenna with 100%
electrical eciency is equal to 1. Therefore, the eective area A in terms of the gain G in a given direction
is given by:

Aeff =

2
G
4

For an antenna with an eciency of less than 100%,

both the eective area and gain are reduced by that same
amount. Therefore, the above relationship between gain
and eective area still holds. These are thus two dierent
ways of expressing the same quantity. A is especially
convenient when computing the power that would be received by an antenna of a specied gain, as illustrated by
the above example.

4.5

Radiation pattern

Main article: Radiation pattern

The radiation pattern of an antenna is a plot of the relative
eld strength of the radio waves emitted by the antenna
at dierent angles. It is typically represented by a threedimensional graph, or polar plots of the horizontal and
vertical cross sections. The pattern of an ideal isotropic
antenna, which radiates equally in all directions, would
look like a sphere. Many nondirectional antennas, such
as monopoles and dipoles, emit equal power in all horizontal directions, with the power dropping o at higher
and lower angles; this is called an omnidirectional pattern
and when plotted looks like a torus or donut.
The radiation of many antennas shows a pattern of maxima or "lobes" at various angles, separated by "nulls", angles where the radiation falls to zero. This is because the
radio waves emitted by dierent parts of the antenna typically interfere, causing maxima at angles where the radio
waves arrive at distant points in phase, and zero radiation
at other angles where the radio waves arrive out of phase.
In a directional antenna designed to project radio waves
in a particular direction, the lobe in that direction is designed larger than the others and is called the "main lobe".
The other lobes usually represent unwanted radiation and
are called "sidelobes". The axis through the main lobe is
called the "principal axis" or "boresight axis".

CHARACTERISTICS

eld structure in each, although there are no precise

boundaries.
In the far-eld region, we are far enough from the antenna to neglect its size and shape. We can assume that
the electromagnetic wave is purely a radiating plane wave
(electric and magnetic elds are in phase and perpendicular to each other and to the direction of propagation).
This simplies the mathematical analysis of the radiated
eld.

4.7 Impedance
As an electro-magnetic wave travels through the dierent parts of the antenna system (radio, feed line, antenna,
free space) it may encounter dierences in impedance
(E/H, V/I, etc.). At each interface, depending on the
impedance match, some fraction of the waves energy will
reect back to the source,[18] forming a standing wave
in the feed line. The ratio of maximum power to minimum power in the wave can be measured and is called
the standing wave ratio (SWR). A SWR of 1:1 is ideal. A
SWR of 1.5:1 is considered to be marginally acceptable
in low power applications where power loss is more critical, although an SWR as high as 6:1 may still be usable
with the right equipment. Minimizing impedance dierences at each interface (impedance matching) will reduce
SWR and maximize power transfer through each part of
the antenna system.
Complex impedance of an antenna is related to the
electrical length of the antenna at the wavelength in use.
The impedance of an antenna can be matched to the feed
line and radio by adjusting the impedance of the feed
line, using the feed line as an impedance transformer.
More commonly, the impedance is adjusted at the load
(see below) with an antenna tuner, a balun, a matching
transformer, matching networks composed of inductors
and capacitors, or matching sections such as the gamma
match.

4.8 Eciency
Main article: Antenna eciency

Eciency of a transmitting antenna is the ratio of power

actually radiated (in all directions) to the power absorbed
by the antenna terminals. The power supplied to the antenna terminals which is not radiated is converted into
4.6 Field regions
heat. This is usually through loss resistance in the antennas conductors, but can also be due to dielectric or
Main article: Near and far eld
magnetic core losses in antennas (or antenna systems) using such components. Such loss eectively robs power
The space surrounding an antenna can be divided into from the transmitter, requiring a stronger transmitter in
three concentric regions: the reactive near-eld, the radi- order to transmit a signal of a given strength.
ating near-eld (Fresnell region) and the far-eld (Fraun- For instance, if a transmitter delivers 100 W into an anhofer) regions. These regions are useful to identify the tenna having an eciency of 80%, then the antenna will

4.9

Polarization

radiate 80 W as radio waves and produce 20 W of heat.

In order to radiate 100 W of power, one would need to
use a transmitter capable of supplying 125 W to the antenna. Note that antenna eciency is a separate issue
from impedance matching, which may also reduce the
amount of power radiated using a given transmitter. If
an SWR meter reads 150 W of incident power and 50
W of reected power, that means that 100 W have actually been absorbed by the antenna (ignoring transmission
line losses). How much of that power has actually been
radiated cannot be directly determined through electrical
measurements at (or before) the antenna terminals, but
would require (for instance) careful measurement of eld
strength. Fortunately the loss resistance of antenna conductors such as aluminum rods can be calculated and the
eciency of an antenna using such materials predicted.

The denition of antenna gain or power gain already includes the eect of the antennas eciency. Therefore,
if one is trying to radiate a signal toward a receiver using
a transmitter of a given power, one need only compare
the gain of various antennas rather than considering the
eciency as well. This is likewise true for a receiving
antenna at very high (especially microwave) frequencies,
where the point is to receive a signal which is strong compared to the receivers noise temperature. However, in the
case of a directional antenna used for receiving signals
with the intention of rejecting interference from dierent
directions, one is no longer concerned with the antenna
eciency, as discussed above. In this case, rather than
quoting the antenna gain, one would be more concerned
with the directive gain which does not include the eect of
antenna (in)eciency. The directive gain of an antenna
However loss resistance will generally aect the feed- can be computed from the published gain divided by the
point impedance, adding to its resistive (real) component. antennas eciency.
That resistance will consist of the sum of the radiation resistance R and the loss resistance R . If an rms current
I is delivered to the terminals of an antenna, then a power 4.9 Polarization
of I2 R will be radiated and a power of I2 R will be lost
as heat. Therefore, the eciency of an antenna is equal See also: Polarization (waves) Antennas
to R / (R + R ). Of course only the total resistance R
+ R can be directly measured.
The polarization of an antenna refers to the orientation
According to reciprocity, the eciency of an antenna
used as a receiving antenna is identical to the eciency
as dened above. The power that an antenna will deliver
to a receiver (with a proper impedance match) is reduced
by the same amount. In some receiving applications, the
very inecient antennas may have little impact on performance. At low frequencies, for example, atmospheric
or man-made noise can mask antenna ineciency. For
example, CCIR Rep. 258-3 indicates man-made noise in
a residential setting at 40 MHz is about 28 dB above the
thermal noise oor. Consequently, an antenna with a 20
dB loss (due to ineciency) would have little impact on
system noise performance. The loss within the antenna
will aect the intended signal and the noise/interference
identically, leading to no reduction in signal to noise ratio
(SNR).
This is fortunate, since antennas at lower frequencies
which are not rather large (a good fraction of a wavelength
in size) are inevitably inecient (due to the small radiation resistance R of small antennas). Most AM broadcast radios (except for car radios) take advantage of this
principle by including a small loop antenna for reception
which has an extremely poor eciency. Using such an inecient antenna at this low frequency (5301650 kHz)
thus has little eect on the receivers net performance,
but simply requires greater amplication by the receivers
electronics. Contrast this tiny component to the massive
and very tall towers used at AM broadcast stations for
transmitting at the very same frequency, where every percentage point of reduced antenna eciency entails a substantial cost.

of the electric eld (E-plane) of the radio wave with respect to the Earths surface and is determined by the physical structure of the antenna and by its orientation; note
that this designation is totally distinct from the antennas
directionality. Thus, a simple straight wire antenna will
have one polarization when mounted vertically, and a
dierent polarization when mounted horizontally. As a
transverse wave, the magnetic eld of a radio wave is at
right angles to that of the electric eld, but by convention,
talk of an antennas polarization is understood to refer
to the direction of the electric eld.
Reections generally aect polarization. For radio
waves, one important reector is the ionosphere which
can change the waves polarization. Thus for signals received following reection by the ionosphere (a skywave),
a consistent polarization cannot be expected. For line-ofsight communications or ground wave propagation, horizontally or vertically polarized transmissions generally remain in about the same polarization state at the receiving
location. Matching the receiving antennas polarization
to that of the transmitter can make a very substantial difference in received signal strength.
Polarization is predictable from an antennas geometry,
although in some cases it is not at all obvious (such as
for the quad antenna). An antennas linear polarization
is generally along the direction (as viewed from the receiving location) of the antennas currents when such a
direction can be dened. For instance, a vertical whip antenna or Wi-Fi antenna vertically oriented will transmit
and receive in the vertical polarization. Antennas with
horizontal elements, such as most rooftop TV antennas
in the United States, are horizontally polarized (broad-

10
cast TV in the U.S. usually uses horizontal polarization).
Even when the antenna system has a vertical orientation,
such as an array of horizontal dipole antennas, the polarization is in the horizontal direction corresponding to the
current ow. The polarization of a commercial antenna
is an essential specication.
Polarization is the sum of the E-plane orientations over
time projected onto an imaginary plane perpendicular to
the direction of motion of the radio wave. In the most
general case, polarization is elliptical, meaning that the
polarization of the radio waves varies over time. Two
special cases are linear polarization (the ellipse collapses
into a line) as we have discussed above, and circular polarization (in which the two axes of the ellipse are equal).
In linear polarization the electric eld of the radio wave
oscillates back and forth along one direction; this can be
aected by the mounting of the antenna but usually the
desired direction is either horizontal or vertical polarization. In circular polarization, the electric eld (and magnetic eld) of the radio wave rotates at the radio frequency
circularly around the axis of propagation. Circular or elliptically polarized radio waves are designated as righthanded or left-handed using the thumb in the direction
of the propagation rule. Note that for circular polarization, optical researchers use the opposite right hand rule
from the one used by radio engineers.
It is best for the receiving antenna to match the polarization of the transmitted wave for optimum reception. Intermediate matchings will lose some signal strength, but
not as much as a complete mismatch. A circularly polarized antenna can be used to equally well match vertical or
horizontal linear polarizations. Transmission from a circularly polarized antenna received by a linearly polarized
antenna (or vice versa) entails a 3 dB reduction in signalto-noise ratio as the received power has thereby been cut
in half.

4.10 Impedance matching

Main article: Impedance matching
Maximum power transfer requires matching the
impedance of an antenna system (as seen looking into
the transmission line) to the complex conjugate of the
impedance of the receiver or transmitter. In the case of
a transmitter, however, the desired matching impedance
might not correspond to the dynamic output impedance
of the transmitter as analyzed as a source impedance but
rather the design value (typically 50 ohms) required for
ecient and safe operation of the transmitting circuitry.
The intended impedance is normally resistive but a
transmitter (and some receivers) may have additional
adjustments to cancel a certain amount of reactance in
order to tweak the match. When a transmission line
is used in between the antenna and the transmitter (or
receiver) one generally would like an antenna system

CHARACTERISTICS

whose impedance is resistive and near the characteristic

impedance of that transmission line in order to minimize
the standing wave ratio (SWR) and the increase in
transmission line losses it entails, in addition to supplying
a good match at the transmitter or receiver itself.
Antenna tuning generally refers to cancellation of any reactance seen at the antenna terminals, leaving only a resistive impedance which might or might not be exactly the
desired impedance (that of the transmission line). Although an antenna may be designed to have a purely resistive feedpoint impedance (such as a dipole 97% of a
half wavelength long) this might not be exactly true at the
frequency that it is eventually used at. In some cases the
physical length of the antenna can be trimmed to obtain a pure resistance. On the other hand, the addition
of a series inductance or parallel capacitance can be used
to cancel a residual capacitative or inductive reactance,
respectively.
In some cases this is done in a more extreme manner, not
simply to cancel a small amount of residual reactance,
but to resonate an antenna whose resonance frequency is
quite dierent from the intended frequency of operation.
For instance, a whip antenna can be made signicantly
shorter than 1/4 wavelength long, for practical reasons,
and then resonated using a so-called loading coil. This
physically large inductor at the base of the antenna has
an inductive reactance which is the opposite of the capacitative reactance that such a vertical antenna has at the
desired operating frequency. The result is a pure resistance seen at feedpoint of the loading coil; unfortunately
that resistance is somewhat lower than would be desired
to match commercial coax.
So an additional problem beyond canceling the unwanted reactance is of matching the remaining resistive
impedance to the characteristic impedance of the transmission line. In principle this can always be done with
a transformer, however the turns ratio of a transformer
is not adjustable. A general matching network with at
least two adjustments can be made to correct both components of impedance. Matching networks using discrete
inductors and capacitors will have losses associated with
those components, and will have power restrictions when
used for transmitting. Avoiding these diculties, commercial antennas are generally designed with xed matching elements or feeding strategies to get an approximate
match to standard coax, such as 50 or 75 Ohms. Antennas based on the dipole (rather than vertical antennas)
should include a balun in between the transmission line
and antenna element, which may be integrated into any
such matching network.
Another extreme case of impedance matching occurs
when using a small loop antenna (usually, but not always,
for receiving) at a relatively low frequency where it appears almost as a pure inductor. Resonating such an inductor with a capacitor at the frequency of operation not
only cancels the reactance but greatly magnies the very

5.1

Monopole

11

small radiation resistance of such a loop. This is imple- used as nondirectional antennas on portable radios in the
mented in most AM broadcast receivers, with a small fer- HF, VHF, and UHF bands.
rite loop antenna resonated by a capacitor which is varied
along with the receiver tuning in order to maintain reso Whip - Type of antenna used on mobile and portable
nance over the AM broadcast band
radios in the VHF and UHF bands such as boom
boxes, consists of a exible rod, often made of telescoping segments.

Antenna types

Antennas can be classied in various ways. The list below

groups together antennas under common operating principles, following the way antennas are classied in many
engineering textbooks.[19][20][21]
Isotropic: An isotropic antenna (isotropic radiator) is a
hypothetical antenna that radiates equal signal power in
all directions. It is a mathematical model that is used as
the base of comparison to calculate the gain of real antennas. No real antenna can have an isotropic radiation
pattern. However approximately isotropic antennas, constructed with multiple elements, are used in antenna testing.
The rst four groups below are resonant antennas; when
driven at their resonant frequency their elements act as
resonators. Waves of voltage and current bounce back
and forth between the ends, creating standing waves in
the metal elements, increasing output power

5.1

Monopole

Quarter-wave whip antenna on an FM radio for 88108 MHz

Rubber Ducky antenna on UHF 446 MHz walkie
talkie with rubber cover removed.
VHF ground plane antenna
Mast radiator antenna of medium wave AM radio
station, Germany
T antenna of amateur radio station, 80 ft high, used
at 1.5 MHz.
Monopole antennas consist of a single radiating element
such as a metal rod, often mounted over a conducting
surface, a ground plane.[20][22] One side of the feedline
from the receiver or transmitter is connected to the rod,
and the other side to the ground plane, which may be
the Earth. The most common form is the quarter-wave
monopole which is one-quarter of a wavelength long and
has a gain of 5.12 dBi when mounted over a ground plane.
Monopoles have an omnidirectional radiation pattern, so
they are used for broad coverage of an area, and have
vertical polarization. The ground waves used for broadcasting at low frequencies must be vertically polarized, so
large vertical monopole antennas are used for broadcasting in the MF, LF, and VLF bands. Small monopoles are

Rubber Ducky - Most common antenna used

on portable two way radios and cordless
phones due to its compactness, consists of an
electrically short wire helix. The helix adds
inductance to cancel the capacitive reactance
of the short radiator, making it resonant. Very
low gain.
Ground plane - a whip antenna with several
rods extending horizontally from base of whip
attached to the ground side of the feedline.
Since whips are mounted above ground, the
horizontal rods form an articial ground plane
under the antenna to increase its gain. Used
as base station antennas for land mobile radio systems such as police, ambulance and taxi
dispatchers.
Mast radiator - A radio tower in which the tower
structure itself serves as the antenna. Common form
of transmitting antenna for AM radio stations and
other MF and LF transmitters. At its base the tower
is mounted on a ceramic insulator to isolate it from
the ground.
T and inverted L - Consist of a long horizontal wire
suspended between two towers with insulators, with
a vertical wire hanging down from it, attached to a
feedline to the receiver or transmitter. Used on LF
and VLF bands. The vertical wire serves as the radiator. Since at these frequencies the vertical wire is
electrically short, much shorter than a quarter wavelength, the horizontal wire(s) serve as a capacitive
hat to increase the current in the vertical radiator, increasing the gain. Very narrow bandwidth,
requires loading coil to tune out the capacitive reactance and make it resonant. Requires low resistance
ground (electricity)
Inverted F - Combines the advantages of the
inverted-L antenna and the F-type antenna of, respectively, compactness and good matching. The
antenna is grounded at the base and fed at some intermediate point. The position of the feed point determines the antenna impedance. Thus, matching
can be achieved without the need for an extraneous
matching network.
Umbrella - Very large wire transmitting antennas
used on VLF bands. Consists of a central mast radiator tower attached at the top to multiple wires extending out radially from the mast to ground, like a
tent or umbrella, insulated at the ends. Extremely

12

5
narrow bandwidth, requires large loading coil and
low resistance counterpoise ground. Used for long
range military communications.

5.2

Dipole

Rabbit ears half-wave dipole television antenna for

VHF channels 54-217 MHz
Yagi-Uda television antenna for analog channels 24, 47-68 MHz
Log-periodic antenna covering 140-470 MHz
Corner reector UHF TV antenna with bowtie
dipole driven element
Two-element turnstile antenna for reception of
weather satellite data, 137 MHz. Has circular polarization.
The most widely used class of antenna, a dipole antenna
consists of two symmetrical radiators such as metal rods
or wires, with one side of the balanced feedline from the
transmitter or receiver attached to each.[20][23] A horizontal dipole radiates in two lobes perpendicular to the antennas axis. A half-wave dipole the most common type,
has two collinear elements each a quarter wavelength long
and a gain of 2.15 dBi. Used individually as low gain antennas, dipoles are also used as driven elements in many
more complicated higher gain types of antennas.
Yagi-Uda - One of the most common directional antennas at HF, VHF, and UHF frequencies. Consists of multiple half wave dipole elements in a line,
with a single driven element and multiple parasitic
elements which serve to focus the radio waves in a
beam. It radiates a unidirectional beam with gain
up to about 17 dBi depending on the number of
elements used, and has a narrow bandwidth of a
few percent. Used for rooftop television antennas, point-to-point communication links, and long
distance shortwave communication using skywave
(skip) reection from the ionosphere.

ANTENNA TYPES

Corner reector - A directive antenna with moderate

gain of 15 - 20 dBi used at UHF frequencies. Consists of a dipole mounted in front of two reective
metal screens joined at an angle, usually 90. Used
as a rooftop UHF television antenna and for pointto-point data links.
Patch (microstrip) - A type of antenna with elements
consisting of metal sheets mounted over a ground
plane. Similar to dipole with gain of 6 - 9 dBi. Integrated into surfaces such as aircraft bodies. Their
easy fabrication using PCB techniques have made
them popular in modern wireless devices. Often
used in arrays.

5.3 Array
VHF collinear array of folded dipoles
Sector antennas (white bars) on cell phone tower.
Collinear arrays of dipoles, these radiate a at, fanshaped beam.
108 MHz reective array antenna of AN-270 radar
used during WW2.
Reective array UHF TV antenna, with bowtie
dipoles to cover the UHF 470-890 MHz band
US Air Force PAVE PAWS phased array radar antenna for ballistic missile detection, Alaska. The
two circular arrays are composed of thousands of
crossed dipole antennas.
Batwing VHF television broadcasting antenna
Crossed-dipole FM radio broadcast antenna
Curtain array shortwave transmitting antenna, Austria. Wire dipoles suspended between towers
Turnstile antenna array used for satellite communication
Flat microstrip array antenna for satellite TV reception.

Log periodic - Unique in that it is a high gain dipole

antenna with broad bandwidth. It consists of many
dipole driven elements in a line, with alternating polarization and gradually increasing width. Used for
rooftop television antennas.

Array antennas consist of multiple antennas working as a

single antenna. Typically they consist of arrays of identical driven elements, usually dipoles fed in phase, giving
increased gain over that of a single dipole.[20][24][25]

Turnstile - Two dipole antennas mounted at right angles, fed with a phase dierence of 90. This can
radiate horizontally polarized radio waves broadside
in an omnidirectional pattern, and circularly polarized radio waves o the end. Used for receiving signals from satellites, as circular polarization is used
for satellite communication since it is not sensitive
to the orientation of the satellites antenna.

Collinear - Consist of a number of dipoles in a vertical line. It is a high gain omnidirectional antenna,
meaning more of the power is radiated in horizontal directions and less into the sky or ground and
wasted. Gain of 8 to 10 dBi. Used as base station antennas for land mobile radio systems such as
police, re, ambulance, and taxi dispatchers, and
sector antennas for cellular base stations.

5.5

Aperture

13

Reective array - multiple dipoles in a twodimensional array mounted in front of a at reecting screen. Used for radar and UHF television transmitting and receiving antennas.
Phased array - A high gain antenna used at UHF
and microwave frequencies which is electronically
steerable. It consists of multiple dipoles in a twodimensional array, each fed through an electronic
phase shifter, with the phase shifters controlled by a
computer control system. The beam can be instantly
pointed in any direction over a wide angle in front of
the antenna. Used for military radar and jamming
systems.
Curtain array - Large directional wire transmitting
antenna used at HF by shortwave broadcasting stations. It consists of a vertical rectangular array of
wire dipoles suspended in front of a at reector
screen consisting of a vertical curtain of parallel
wires, all supported between two metal towers. It radiates a horizontal beam of radio waves into the sky
above the horizon, which is reected by the ionosphere to Earth beyond the horizon

Loop UHF television antenna

Loop antennas consist of a loop or coil of wire.[20][26][27]
Loops with circumference of a wavelength or larger act
similarly to dipole antennas. However loops small in
comparison to a wavelength act dierently. They interact
with the magnetic eld of the radio wave instead of the
electric eld as other antennas do, and so are relatively
insensitive to nearby electrical noise. However they have
low radiation resistance, and so are inecient for transmitting. They are used as receiving antennas at low frequencies, and also as direction nding antennas.
Ferrite (loopstick) - Used as the receiving antenna
in virtually all AM radios at MF, LF, and VLF frequencies. A coil of wire wrapped around a ferrite
magnetic core. The magnetic core concentrates the
magnetic eld, enabling this small compact antenna
to receive radio waves many times its size. Has two
main lobes o the ends of the ferrite stick.

Batwing or superturnstile - A specialized antenna

used in television broadcasting consisting of perpendicular pairs of dipoles with radiators resembling
bat wings. Multiple batwing antennas are stacked
vertically on a mast to make VHF television broadcast antennas. Omnidirectional radiation pattern
with high gain in horizontal directions. The batwing 5.5
shape gives them wide bandwidth.

microstrip - an array of patch antennas on a substrate

fed by microstrip feedlines. Microwave antenna that
can achieve large gains in compact space. Ease of
fabrication by PCB techniques have made them pop
ular in modern wireless devices. Beamwidth and po
larization can be actively recongurable.

5.4

Loop

Aperture
NASA Cassegrain parabolic spacecraft communication antenna, Australia. Uses X band, 8 12 GHz.
Extremely high gain ~70 dBi.
Microwave horn antenna bandwidth 0.818 GHz
X band marine radar slot antenna on ship, 8 12
GHz.

Dielectric lens antenna used in millimeter wave radio telescope

Aperture antennas are the main type of directional antennas used at microwave frequencies and above.[20][28]
They consist of a small dipole or loop feed antenna inside
Ferrite rod receiving antenna from AM radio, 550 - a three-dimensional guiding structure large compared to
1600 KHz. The antenna also serves as the inductor in a wavelength, with an aperture to emit the radio waves.
the tuned circuit for the receiver.
Since the antenna structure itself is nonresonant they can
be used over a wide frequency range by replacing or tuning the feed antenna.

Loop direction nding antenna covers 1.75 - 30 MHz, 6

ft diameter

Parabolic - The most widely used high gain antenna

at microwave frequencies and above. Consists of a
dish-shaped metal parabolic reector with a feed antenna at the focus. It can have some of the highest gains of any antenna type, up to 60 dBi, but the
dish must be large compared to a wavelength. Used

14

6 EFFECT OF GROUND
for radar antennas, point-to-point data links, satellite communication, and radio telescopes

reected o the ionosphere in long distance skip

shortwave communication.

Horn - Simple antenna with moderate gains of 15

to 25 dBi consists of a aring metal horn attached
to a waveguide. Used for applications such as radar
guns, radiometers and as feed antennas for parabolic
dishes.

Rhombic - Consists of four equal wire sections

shaped like a rhombus. It is fed by a balanced feedline at one of the acute corners, and the two sides
are connected to a resistor equal to the characteristic
resistance of the antenna at the other. It has a main
lobe in a horizontal direction o the terminated end
of the rhombus. Used for skywave communication
on shortwave bands.

Slot - Consist of a waveguide with one or more slots

cut in it to emit the microwaves. Linear slot antennas emit narrow fan-shaped beams. Used as UHF
broadcast antennas and marine radar antennas.
Dielectric resonator - consists of small ball or puckshaped piece of dielectric material excited by aperture in waveguide Used at millimeter wave frequencies

5.6

Traveling wave

A typical random wire antenna for shortwave reception, strung between two buildings.
Quadrant antenna, similar to rhombic, at an Austrian shortwave broadcast station. Radiates horizontal beam at 5-9 MHz, 100 kW

Helical (axial mode) - Consists of a wire in the shape

of a helix mounted above a reecting screen. It radiates circularly polarized waves in a beam o the end,
with a typical gain of 15 dBi. It is used at VHF and
UHF frequencies for communication with satellites
and animal tracking transmitters, which use circular
polarization because it is insensitive to the relative
orientation of the antennas.
Leaky wave - Microwave antennas consisting of a
waveguide or coaxial cable with a slot or apertures
cut in it so it radiates continuously along its length.

6 Eect of ground

Array of four axial-mode helical antennas used for

satellite tracking, France
Main article: Multipath propagation
Unlike the above antennas, traveling wave antennas are nonresonant so they have inherently broad
bandwidth.[20][29] They are typically wire antennas multiple wavelengths long, through which the voltage and current waves travel in one direction, instead of bouncing
back and forth to form standing waves as in resonant antennas. They have linear polarization (except for the helical antenna). Unidirectional traveling wave antennas are
terminated by a resistor at one end equal to the antennas
characteristic resistance, to absorb the waves from one direction. This makes them inecient as transmitting antennas.

Ground reections is one of the common types of

multipath.[30][31][32]

The radiation pattern and even the driving point

impedance of an antenna can be inuenced by the dielectric constant and especially conductivity of nearby
objects. For a terrestrial antenna, the ground is usually
one such object of importance. The antennas height
above the ground, as well as the electrical properties
(permittivity and conductivity) of the ground, can then be
important. Also, in the particular case of a monopole antenna, the ground (or an articial ground plane) serves as
the return connection for the antenna current thus having
Random wire - This describes the typical antenna an additional eect, particularly on the impedance seen
used to receive shortwave radio, consisting of a ran- by the feed line.
dom length of wire either strung outdoors between When an electromagnetic wave strikes a plane surface
supports or indoors in a zigzag pattern along walls, such as the ground, part of the wave is transmitted into the
connected to the receiver at one end. Can have com- ground and part of it is reected, according to the Fresnel
plex radiation patterns with several lobes at angles to coecients. If the ground is a very good conductor then
the wire.
almost all of the wave is reected (180 out of phase),
Beverage - Simplest unidirectional traveling wave whereas a ground modeled as a (lossy) dielectric can abantenna. Consists of a straight wire one to several sorb a large amount of the waves power. The power rewavelengths long, suspended near the ground, con- maining in the reected wave, and the phase shift upon
nected to the receiver at one end and terminated by reection, strongly depend on the waves angle of incia resistor equal to its characteristic impedance, 400 dence and polarization. The dielectric constant and conto 800 at the other end. Its radiation pattern has ductivity (or simply the complex dielectric constant) is
a main lobe at a shallow angle in the sky o the ter- dependent on the soil type and is a function of frequency.
minated end. It is used for reception of skywaves For very low frequencies to high frequencies (<30 MHz),

15
the ground behaves as a lossy dielectric,[33] Thus the
ground is characterized both by a conductivity [34] and
permittivity (dielectric constant) which can be measured
for a given soil (but is inuenced by uctuating moisture
levels) or can be estimated from certain maps. At lower
frequencies the ground acts mainly as a good conductor,
which AM middle wave broadcast (.5 - 1.6 MHz) antennas depend on.

as well to a ground modelled as a good electrical conductor.

At frequencies between 3 and 30 MHz, a large portion

of the energy from a horizontally polarized antenna reects o the ground, with almost total reection at the
grazing angles important for ground wave propagation.
That reected wave, with its phase reversed, can either
cancel or reinforce the direct wave, depending on the antenna height in wavelengths and elevation angle (for a sky
wave).

The actual antenna which is transmitting the original wave

then also may receive a strong signal from its own image from the ground. This will induce an additional current in the antenna element, changing the current at the
feedpoint for a given feedpoint voltage. Thus the antennas impedance, given by the ratio of feedpoint voltage to current, is altered due to the antennas proximity
to the ground. This can be quite a signicant eect when
the antenna is within a wavelength or two of the ground.
But as the antenna height is increased, the reduced power
of the reected wave (due to the inverse square law) allows the antenna to approach its asymptotic feedpoint
impedance given by theory. At lower heights, the eect
on the antennas impedance is very sensitive to the exact distance from the ground, as this aects the phase of
the reected wave relative to the currents in the antenna.
Changing the antennas height by a quarter wavelength,
then changes the phase of the reection by 180, with a
completely dierent eect on the antennas impedance.

On the other hand, vertically polarized radiation is not

well reected by the ground except at grazing incidence
or over very highly conducting surfaces such as sea
water.[35] However the grazing angle reection important
for ground wave propagation, using vertical polarization,
is in phase with the direct wave, providing a boost of up
to 6 db, as is detailed below.

This means that a receiving antenna sees an image of

the antenna but with reversed currents. That current is in
the same absolute direction as the actual antenna if the
antenna is vertically oriented (and thus vertically polarized) but opposite the actual antenna if the antenna current is horizontal.

At VHF and above (>30 MHz) the ground becomes a

poorer reector. However it remains a good reector
especially for horizontal polarization and grazing angles
of incidence. That is important as these higher frequencies usually depend on horizontal line-of-sight propaga- The ground reection has an important eect on the net
tion (except for satellite communications), the ground far eld radiation pattern in the vertical plane, that is,
then behaving almost as a mirror.
as a function of elevation angle, which is thus dierent
The net quality of a ground reection depends on the to- between a vertically and horizontally polarized antenna.
pography of the surface. When the irregularities of the Consider an antenna at a height h above the ground, transsurface are much smaller than the wavelength, we are in mitting a wave considered at the elevation angle . For
the regime of specular reection, and the receiver sees a vertically polarized transmission the magnitude of the
both the real antenna and an image of the antenna under electric eld of the electromagnetic wave produced by the
the ground due to reection. But if the ground has irregu- direct ray plus the reected ray is:
larities not small compared to the wavelength, reections
will not be coherent but shifted by random phases. With
shorter wavelengths (higher frequencies), this is generally
the case.
Whenever both the receiving or transmitting antenna are
placed at signicant heights above the ground (relative to
the wavelength), waves specularly reected by the ground
will travel a longer distance than direct waves, inducing a
phase shift which can sometimes be signicant. When a
sky wave is launched by such an antenna, that phase shift
is always signicant unless the antenna is very close to the
ground (compared to the wavelength).

 (
)

|EV | = 2 |E0 | cos 2h
sin
Thus the power received can be as high as 4 times that due
to the direct wave alone (such as when =0), following the
square of the cosine. The sign inversion for the reection
of horizontally polarized emission instead results in:

 (
)

|EH | = 2 |E0 | sin 2h
sin

The phase of reection of electromagnetic waves depends

on the polarization of the incident wave. Given the larger where:
refractive index of the ground (typically n=2) compared
E0 is the electrical eld that would be received by
to air (n=1), the phase of horizontally polarized radiation
the direct wave if there were no ground.
is reversed upon reection (a phase shift of radians or
180). On the other hand, the vertical component of the
is the elevation angle of the wave being considered.
waves electric eld is reected at grazing angles of incidence approximately in phase. These phase shifts apply
is the wavelength.

16

7 MUTUAL IMPEDANCE AND INTERACTION BETWEEN ANTENNAS

is the height of the antenna (half the distance be- If those elements were widely separated and driven in a
tween the antenna and its image).
certain amplitude and phase, then each would act independently as that element is known to. However, because
For horizontal propagation between transmitting and re- of the mutual interaction between their electric and magceiving antennas situated near the ground reasonably far netic elds due to proximity, the currents in each element
from each other, the distances traveled by tne direct and are not simply a function of the applied voltage (accordreected rays are nearly the same. There is almost no rel- ing to its driving point impedance), but depend on the
ative phase shift. If the emission is polarized vertically, currents in the other nearby elements. Note that this now
the two elds (direct and reected) add and there is max- is a near eld phenomenon which could not be properly
imum of received signal. If the signal is polarized hori- accounted for using the Friis transmission equation for
zontally, the two signals subtract and the received signal instance.
h

is largely cancelled. The vertical plane radiation patterns

are shown in the image at right. With vertical polarization
there is always a maximum for =0, horizontal propagation (left pattern). For horizontal polarization, there is
cancellation at that angle. Note that the above formulae
and these plots assume the ground as a perfect conductor.
These plots of the radiation pattern correspond to a distance between the antenna and its image of 2.5. As the
antenna height is increased, the number of lobes increases
as well.
The dierence in the above factors for the case of =0 is
the reason that most broadcasting (transmissions intended
for the public) uses vertical polarization. For receivers
near the ground, horizontally polarized transmissions suffer cancellation. For best reception the receiving antennas
for these signals are likewise vertically polarized. In some
applications where the receiving antenna must work in
any position, as in mobile phones, the base station antennas use mixed polarization, such as linear polarization at
an angle (with both vertical and horizontal components)
or circular polarization.

The elements feedpoint currents and voltages can be

related to each other using the concept of mutual
impedance Zji between every pair of antennas just as the
mutual impedance jM describes the voltage induced in
one inductor by a current through a nearby coil coupled to
it through a mutual inductance M. The mutual impedance
[36]
Z21 between two antennas is dened
as:

Zji =

vj
ii

where ii is the current owing in antenna i and vj is the

voltage induced at the open-circuited feedpoint of antenna j due to i1 when all other currents ik are zero. The
mutual impendances can be viewed as the elements of a
symmetric square impedance matrix Z. Note that the diagonal elements, Zii = viii , are simply the driving point
impedances of each element.

Using this denition, the voltages present at the feedpoints of a set of coupled antennas can be expressed as the
On the other hand, classical (analog) television transmis- multiplication of the impedance matrix times the vector
sions are usually horizontally polarized, because in urban of currents. Written out as discrete equations, that means:
areas buildings can reect the electromagnetic waves and
create ghost images due to multipath propagation. Using horizontal polarization, ghosting is reduced because v1 = i1 Z11 + i2 Z12 + + in Z1n
the amount of reection of electromagnetic waves in the v2 = i1 Z21 + i2 Z22 + + in Z2n
p polarization (horizontal polarization o the side of a .
..
..
..
.
.
.
.
building) is generally less than s (vertical, in this case) po- .
larization. Vertically polarized analog television has nev- vn = i1 Zn1 + i2 Zn2 + + in Znn
ertheless been used in some rural areas. In digital terrestrial television such reections are less problematic, due where:
to robustness of binary transmissions and error correc vi is the voltage at the terminals of antenna i
tion.

Mutual impedance and interaction between antennas

ii

Zii

is the driving point impedance of antenna i

Zij

is the mutual impedance between antennas i and

is the current owing between the terminals of antenna i

j.

Current circulating in one antenna generally induces a

voltage across the feedpoint of nearby antennas or antenna elements. The mathematics presented below are As is the case for mutual inductances,
useful in analyzing the electrical behaviour of antenna
arrays, where the properties of the individual array elements (such as half wave dipoles) are already known. Zij = Zji .

17
This is a consequence of Lorentz reciprocity. For an
antenna element i not connected to anything (open circuited) one can write ii = 0 . But for an element i which
is short circuited, a current is generated across that short
but no voltage is allowed, so the corresponding vi = 0 .
This is the case, for instance, with the so-called parasitic
elements of a Yagi-Uda antenna where the solid rod can
be viewed as a dipole antenna shorted across its feedpoint.
Parasitic elements are unpowered elements that absorb
and reradiate RF energy according to the induced current
calculated using such a system of equations.
With a particular geometry, it is possible for the mutual
impedance between nearby antennas to be zero. This is
the case, for instance, between the crossed dipoles used
in the turnstile antenna.

Fractal antenna
Mast radiator
Mobile broadband modem
Numerical Electromagnetics Code
Radio masts and towers
Radio telescope
RF connector
Satellite television
Smart antenna
Television antenna

Gallery

8.1

Antennas and supporting structures

A building rooftop supporting numerous dish

and sectored mobile telecommunications antennas
(Doncaster, Victoria, Australia).
A water tower in Palmerston, Northern Territory
with radio broadcasting and communications antennas.
A three-sector telephone site in Mexico City.
Telephone site concealed as a palm tree.

8.2

Diagrams as part of a system

Antennas may be connected through a multiplexing

arrangement in some applications like this trunked
two-way radio example.
Antenna network for an emergency medical services
base station.

TETRA
Whip antenna

10 Notes
[1] Graf, Rudolf F. (1999). Modern Dictionary of Electronics.
Newnes. p. 29. ISBN 0750698667.
[2] In the context of electrical engineering and physics, the
plural of antenna is antennas, and it has been this way
since about 1950 (or earlier), when a cornerstone textbook in this eld, Antennas, was published by the physicist and electrical engineer John D. Kraus of The Ohio
State University. Besides in the title, Dr. Kraus noted this
in a footnote on the rst page of his book. Insects may
have "antennae", but this form is not used in the context
of electronics or physics.
[3] For
example
http://www.telegraph.
co.uk/science/science-news/7810454/
British-scientists-launch-major-radio-telescope.html;
http://www.ic.gc.ca/eic/site/smt-gst.nsf/eng/sf09377.
html; http://www.ska.ac.za/media/meerkat_cad.php
[4] IEEE Transactions on Antennas and Propagation.

See also
Amateur radio

[5] Marconi, "Wireless Telegraphic Communication: Nobel

Lecture, 11 December 1909." Nobel Lectures. Physics
19011921. Amsterdam: Elsevier Publishing Company,
1967: 196222. p. 206.

Antenna measurement

[6] The Nobel Prize in Physics 1909.

AWX antenna
Category:Radio frequency antenna types
Category:Radio frequency propagation
Cellular repeater
DXing
Electromagnetism

[7] Slyusar, Vadym (2023 September 2011). To history

of radio engineerings term antenna"" (PDF). VIII International Conference on Antenna Theory and Techniques
(ICATT11). Kyiv, Ukraine. pp. 8385.
[8] Slyusar, Vadym (2124 February 2012). An Italian period on the history of radio engineerings term antenna""
(PDF). 11th International Conference Modern Problems
of Radio Engineering, Telecommunications and Computer
Science (TCSET2012). Lviv-Slavske, Ukraine. p. 174.

18

11

[9] Slyusar, Vadym (June 2011). ":

" [The Antenna: A History
of Radio Engineerings Term] (PDF).
Last mile: Electronics: Science, Technology, Business (in
Russian) ? (6): 5264.
[10] Schantz, Hans Gregory (2003), Introduction to ultrawideband antennas (PDF), Proceedings of the 2003 IEEE
UWBST Conference.
[11] Media Advisory: Apply Now to Attend the ALMA Observatory Inauguration. ESO Announcement. Retrieved
4 December 2012.
[12] Carl Smith (1969). Standard Broadcast Antenna Systems,
p. 2-1212. Cleveland, Ohio: Smith Electronics, Inc.
[13] Lonngren, Karl Erik; Savov, Sava V.; Jost, Randy J.
(2007). Fundamentals of Electomagnetics With Matlab,
2nd Ed. SciTech Publishing. p. 451. ISBN 1891121588.

REFERENCES

[33] H. Ward Silver, ed. (2011). ARRL Antenna Book, p. 3-2.

Newington, Connecticut: American Radio Relay League.
ISBN 978-0-87259-694-8

[34] http://www.fcc.gov/encyclopedia/
m3-map-effective-ground-conductivity-united-states-wall-sized-map-am-br
[35] H. Ward Silver, ed. (2011). ARRL Antenna Book, p.
3-23. Newington, Connecticut: American Radio Relay
League. ISBN 978-0-87259-694-8
[36] Kai Fong Lee (1984). Principles of Antenna Theory. John
Wiley and Sons Ltd. ISBN 0-471-90167-9.

11 References
11.1 General references

[14] Stutzman, Warren L.; Thiele, Gary A. (2012). Antenna

Theory and Design, 3rd Ed. John Wiley & Sons. pp. 560
564. ISBN 0470576642.

Antenna Theory (3rd edition), by C. Balanis, Wiley,

2005, ISBN 0-471-66782-X;

[15] Hall 1998, p. 24.

Antenna Theory and Design (2nd edition), by W.

Stutzman and G. Thiele, Wiley, 1997, ISBN 0-47102590-9;

[16] Hall 1998, p. 25.

[17] Hall 1998, pp. 31-32.
[18] Impedance is caused by the same physics as refractive
index in optics, although impedance eects are typically one-dimensional, where eects of refractive index
is three-dimensional.
[19] Bevelaqua, Peter J. Types of Antennas. Antenna Theory. Antenna-theory.com Peter Bevelaquas private website. Retrieved June 28, 2015.
[20] Aksoy, Serkan (2008). Antennas (PDF). Lecture Notesv.1.3.4. Electrical Engineering Dept., Gebze Technical
University, Gebze, Turkey. Retrieved June 29, 2015.
[21] Balanis, Constantine A. (2005). Antenna Theory: Analysis and Design, 3rd Ed., Vol. 1. John Wiley and Sons. p.
4. ISBN 047166782X.
[22] Bevelaqua, Monopole Antenna, Antenna-Theory.com
[23] Bevelaqua, Dipole Antenna, Antenna-Theory.com
[24] Bevelaqua, Antenna Arrays, Antenna-Theory.com

Antennenbuch, by Karl Rothammel, publ.

Francksche Verlagshandlung Stuttgart, 1991,
ISBN 3-440-05853-0; other editions (in German)
Antennas for portable Devices, Zhi Ning Chen
(edited), John Wiley & Sons in March 2007
Broadband Planar Antennas: Design and Applications, Zhi Ning Chen and M. Y. W. Chia, John Wiley & Sons in February 2006
Template:Cite book rst=Gerald

11.2 Practical antenna references

Antenna Theory antenna-theory.com
Antennas Antenna types

[25] Balanis, Antenna Theory, Vol. 1, p. 283-371

Patch Antenna: From Simulation to Realization EM

Talk

[26] Bevelaqua, Loop Antennas, Antenna-Theory.com

[27] Balanis, Antenna Theory, Vol. 1, p. 231-275

Why Antennas Radiate, Stuart G. Downs, WY6EE

(PDF)

[28] Balanis, Antenna Theory, Vol. 1, p. 653-728

[29] Balanis, Antenna Theory, Vol. 1, p. 549-602
[30] Fixed Broadband Wireless System Design, p.
Google Books

Antennas (4th edition), by J. Kraus and R. Marhefka, McGraw-Hill, 2001, ISBN 0-07-232103-2;

130, at

[31] Monopole Antennas, p. 340, at Google Books

[32] Wireless and Mobile Communication, p. 37, at Google
Books

Understanding electromagnetic elds and antenna

radiation takes (almost) no math, Ron Schmitt, EDN
Magazine, March 2 2000 (PDF)
Antennas: Generalities, Principle of operation, As
electronic component, Hertz Marconi and Other types
Antennas etc etc

11.4

11.3

Patents and USPTO

Theory and simulations

AN-SOF, "Antenna Simulation Software". Program system for the modeling of antennas and scatterers.
http://www.dipoleanimator.com
EM Talk, "Microstrip Patch Antenna", (Theory and
simulation of microstrip patch antenna)
"" Formulas for simulating and optimizing Antenna
specs and placement

19

11.4 Patents and USPTO

CLASS 343, Communication: Radio Wave Antenna

12 Further reading
Antennas for Base Stations in Wireless Communications, edited by Zhi Ning Chen and Kwai-Man Luk,
McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc, USA in May 2009

"Microwave Antenna Design Calculator" Provides The dictionary denition of antenna at Wiktionary
quick estimation of antenna size required for a given
gain and frequency. 3 dB and 10 dB beamwidths are
also derived; the calculator additionally gives the fareld range required for a given antenna.
Sophocles J. Orfanidis, "Electromagnetic Waves
and Antennas", Rutgers University (20 PDF Chaps.
Basic theory, denitions and reference)
Hans Lohninger, Learning by Simulations:
Physics: Coupled Radiators". vias.org, 2005. (ed.
Interactive simulation of two coupled antennas)
NEC Lab - NEC Lab is a tool that uses Numerical
Electromagnetics Code and Articial Intelligence to
design and simulate antennas.
Justin Smith "Aerials". A.T.V (Aerials and Television), 2009. (ed. Article on the (basic) theory and
use of FM, DAB & TV aerials)
Antennas Research Group, "Virtual (Reality) Antennas". Democritus University of Thrace, 2005.
Support > Knowledgebase > RF Basics > Antennas / Cables > dBi vs. dBd detail". MaxStream,
Inc., 2005.
(ed.
How to measure antenna
gain) (New location: http://www.digi.com/support/
kbase/kbaseresultdetl?id=2146 Note: to skip the
registration form click the link below it)
Yagis and Log Periodics, Astrosurf article.
Raines, J. K., Virtual Outer Conductor for Linear
Antennas, Microwave Journal, Vol. 52, No. 1, January, 2009, pp. 7686
Tests of FM/VHF receiving antennas.
Eect of ground references
Electronic Radio and Engineering. F.E. Terman.
McGraw-Hill
Lectures on physics. Feynman, Leighton and Sands.
Addison-Wesley
Classical Electricity and Magnetism. W. Panofsky
and M. Phillips. Addison-Wesley

20

12 FURTHER READING

Antennas of the Atacama Large Millimeter submillimeter Array.[11]

Whip antenna on car, common example of an omnidirectional

antenna

Electronic symbol for an antenna

Half-wave dipole antenna

21

Standing waves on a half wave dipole driven at its resonant frequency. The waves are shown graphically by bars of color (red
for voltage, V and blue for current, I) whose width is proportional to the amplitude of the quantity at that point on the antenna.
Diagram of the electric elds (blue) and magnetic elds (red)
radiated by a dipole antenna (black rods) during transmission.

Rooftop television Yagi-Uda antennas like these are widely used

at VHF and UHF frequencies.
Cell phone base station antennas

22

12 FURTHER READING

270

side lobes

main lobe

180

back lobe

Radiation patterns of antennas and their images reected by the

ground. At left the polarization is vertical and there is always a
maximum for =0 . If the polarization is horizontal as at right,
there is always a zero for =0 .
90

antenna faces to 0

Polar plots of the horizontal cross sections of a (virtual) YagiUda-antenna. Outline connects points with 3db eld power compared to an ISO emitter.

The wave reected by earth can be considered as emitted by the

image antenna.

Mutual impedance between parallel 2 dipoles not staggered.

Curves Re and Im are the resistive and reactive parts of the
impedance.

The currents in an antenna appear as an image in opposite phase

when reected at grazing angles. This causes a phase reversal for
waves emitted by a horizontally polarized antenna (left) but not
a vertically polarized antenna (center).

23

13
13.1

Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

Text

Antenna (radio) Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antenna_(radio)?oldid=698911547 Contributors: Bryan Derksen, Timo

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Greenrd, Zoicon5, Blackjack3, LMB, Joy, Robbot, KeithH, Robminchin, Altenmann, Spamhog, Blainster, JesseW, Wikibot, Cyrius,
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FrescoBot, LucienBOT, Nageh, Jc3s5h, Steve Quinn, OgreBot, Krish Dulal, Broadcasttransmitter, RedBot, Crcwiki, Cnwilliams, Digitat,
Jugni, Trappist the monk, Francis E Williams, Hickorybark, Callanecc, Alanacheng, DexDor, It1224, Bothamdesign, DASHBot, John
of Reading, WikitanvirBot, MrFawwaz, GoingBatty, Jmencisom, K6ka, Hhhippo, Johnnymartins, MaskedAce, Quondum, Rememberway, ClueBot NG, Historikeren, Coolvariant, JordoCo, Helpful Pixie Bot, Ybhavd, BG19bot, Rijinatwiki, GKFX, Op47, Sparkie82, Ms
Mystical, Dropbuilt1234, Taneluc, Comfr, Spa viva, Pratyya Ghosh, Andersb80, Johansontechnology, BrightStarSky, Mogism, Stas1995,
Lijialfred, Dsbirkett, Mark viking, Rfassbind, TinkleBear, JNRSTANLEY, Stamptrader, Esmondab, Monkbot, JaunJimenez, Eagle5eagle,
Sunnymsoma, Antenna Guru, Maniladevi, Hrgirase, KasparBot, Angrybirds707, Ch.arunendra and Anonymous: 319

13.2

Images

File:6_sector_site_in_CDMA.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/24/6_sector_site_in_CDMA.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: hardikvasa
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File:Car_radio_antenna_extended_portrait.jpeg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f6/Car_radio_antenna_
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File:Dipole_antenna_standing_waves_animation_461x217x150ms.gif Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/
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Dipole_receiving_antenna_animation_6_800x394x150ms.gif License: CC0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Chetvorno

24

13

TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

File:Dipole_xmting_antenna_animation_4_408x318x150ms.gif Source:
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Dipole_xmting_antenna_animation_4_408x318x150ms.gif License: CC0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Chetvorno
File:Felder_um_Dipol.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/da/Felder_um_Dipol.jpg License: CC-BY-SA3.0 Contributors: http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Datei:Felder_um_Dipol.jpg Original artist: Averse
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File:The_Atacama_Large_Millimeter_submillimeter_Array_(ALMA)_by_night_under_the_Magellanic_Clouds.jpg
Source:
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Original artist: ?

13.3

Content license

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