The Staff, Clefs, and Ledger Lines

The staff is the foundation upon which notes are drawn.

The modern staff comprises five lines and four spaces.

The staff line which the clef wraps around (shown in red) is known as G.
Any note placed on this line becomes G.

Next, let's discuss the Bass Clef (also called the F Clef).

The staff line in between the two dots of the clef is F.

We can now fill the rest of the staff with notes.

This C is commonly called ''middle C'' since it corresponds to the middle

staff line on the Grand Staff.

Note Duration

The whole note has the longest note duration in modern music.

Measures and Time Signature

This staff has been split into two measures.

The first measure (4/4) contains four quarter notes.

The second measure (3/4) contains three quarter notes.

6/8 time contains six eighth notes.

3/2 time contains three half notes.

Rest Duration

Rests represent periods of silence in a measure.

Each type of rest shares a duration with a certain type of note.

Use this chart for reference to rest duration.

Dots and Ties

Augmentation dots and tenuto ties are two types of markings used to alter
a note's duration.

A dot increases duration by one half.

Ties merge multiple notes of the same pitch.

They are used to let the duration of a note travel across barriers (such as
the measure line in this example).

Use this chart for reference to augmentation dots.

Simple and Compound Meter

The terms duple, triple, and quadruple refer to the number of beats in a
measure. 2/4 time is classified as simple duple.
Duple'' refers to the two beats per measure.
Simple'' states that each of these beats can be divided into two notes.

2/2 and 2/8 are also simple duple.

3/4 time is classified as simple triple.
Triple'' refers to the three beats per measure.

3/2 and 3/8 are also simple triple.

4/4 time is classified as simple quadruple due to its four beats which can be
divided into two notes.

4/2 and 4/8 are also simple quadruple.

Notice that a time signature in simple meter will always have a 2, 3, or 4 for

the top number. While beats in simple meter are divided into two notes,
beats in compound meter are divided into three.

To demonstrate this, we will examine 6/8 time.

The six eighth notes can either be grouped into two beats (compound
duple) or three beats (simple triple).

Since the simple triple pattern already belongs to 3/4 time, 6/8 is compound
duple.

Notice that each beat in 6/8 is a dotted quarter note. In fact, all compound
meters will have some dotted note as its beat.

Any time signature with a 6 on top is compound duple. 6/8 and 6/4 are the
most commonly used.

9/8 time is classified as compound triple.

There are three beats (three dotted quarter notes), thus making the meter
triple.

Since each beat is made up of three notes, the meter is compound.

Any time signature with a 9 on top is compound triple. Although 9/8 is the
most common; 9/2, 9/4, and 9/16 can also be used.

Finally, 12/8 time is classified as compound quadruple.

Any time signature with a 12 on top is compound quadruple. 12/8 and

12/16 are the most commonly used.

Odd Meter
An

odd meter is a meter which contains both simple and compound beats.

The first odd meter that we will discuss is 5/8 time. It contains one simple
beat and one compound.

The order of the beats does not matter. If the compound beat comes first, it is still 5/8
time.

7/8 time contains two simple beats and one compound beat.

Notice that 4/4 groups the measure into four beats of two eighth notes

(simple quadruple), while 8/8 groups it into three odd beats.

10/8 time has two compound beats and two simple beats.

Steps and Accidentals

A half step (or ''semitone'') is the distance from one key on the keyboard to the next adjacent
key. A whole step (or ''whole tone'' or simply ''tone'') is the same distance as
two half steps
An

accidental is a sign used to raise or lower the pitch of a note.

The flat lowers a note by a half step while the sharp raises a note by a half
step.
Whenever a certain pitch has multiple names, it is called an enharmonic
spelling.

While flats and sharps alter a note by a half step, the double flat and double
sharp alter a note by a whole step.

Finally, a natural cancels out any accidental and returns a note to its
original white key.

The Major Scale

A scale is a selection of certain notes within an octave. The first scale that
we will discuss is the major scale.
The major scale is constructed with this formula. W's represent whole steps
and h's represent half steps.

Let's build a C Major Scale. Our starting note will be C.

Next, we will build the Eb Major Scale. Our starting note will be Eb.

The first whole step takes us to F.

Notice that the half step from G takes us to Ab, not A.

While there is only one major scale, three different variations of the minor
scale exist.

The first minor scale that will we discuss is natural minor. It is constructed
with this formula.
To convert any natural minor scale into harmonic minor, raise the seventh
note by a half step.
Let's convert C Natural Minor into C Harmonic Minor.

Simply raise the seventh note (Bb) by a half step, resulting in B.

To convert a natural minor scale into melodic minor, raise both the sixth and
seventh notes by a half step.

Usually, melodic minor is used only when ascending. When descending,

composers prefer to use the natural minor scale.

Introducing the Major Chord

Following on from our Major Scales lesson, this lesson will explain what
Major Chords are and how to find them.

A
C

G B

The keyboard above shows the notes of the C Major scale. The chord of C
Major is formed by playing notes 1 3 and 5 of the scale simultaneoustly - in
other words C E and G.

Finding Other Major Chords - Method 1

One way of finding other major chords is to find the major scale, as we did
above, and then find notes 1, 3 and 5 of the scale.
For example, in the Major Scales lesson, we worked out the scale of D major
:

F#

C#

Notes 1 3 and 5 of this scale are D F# and A - making the chord of D major.

Finding Other Major Chords - Method 2

The other way we can work out where a major chord is, is to count the
number of semitones between the notes of a chord. Look at the keyboard
above and see if you can work it out :
The answer ? 4 and 3
It's 4 semitones from C to E, and then 3 semitones from E to G.
So again, to find another major chord, take your starting note and count up
four, then three semitones. Using the same D major example, it's 4 semitones,
from D to F#, and 3 from F# to A.
Music Lessson - the Minor Chord

Following on from our Minor Scales lesson, this lesson will explain what
Minor Chords are and how to find them.

A
C

G B

The keyboard above shows the notes of the C Minor scale. Just as with major
chords, the minor chord is formed by playing notes 1 3 and 5 of the scale - in
the case of C minor, that means C Eb and G.

Finding Other Minor Chords - Method 1

One way of finding other Minor chords is to find the Minor scale, as we did
above, and then find notes 1, 3 and 5 of the scale.
For example, in the Minor Scales lesson, we worked out the scale of D Minor
:

Bb

C#

Notes 1 3 and 5 of this scale are D F and A - making the chord of D Minor.

Finding Other Minor Chords - Method 2

The other way we can work out where a Minor chord is, is to count the
number of semitones between the notes of a chord. Look at the keyboard
above and see if you can work it out :

The answer ? 3 and 4

It's 3 semitones from C to Eb, and then 4 semitones from Eb to G.
So again, to find another Minor chord, take your starting note and count up
three, then four semitones. Using the same D Minor example, it's 3 semitones,
from D to F, and 4 from F to A.

Each note of a scale has a special name, called a scale degree.

The first (and last) note is called the tonic.

The fifth note is called the dominant.

The fourth note is called the subdominant.

Notice that the subdominant is the same distance below the tonic as the
dominant is above it (a generic fifth).

The prefix sub is Latin for ''under'' or ''beneath''.

The third note is called the mediant since it is in the middle of the tonic and
dominant.

Likewise, the sixth note is called the submediant since it is in the middle of
the upper tonic and subdominant.

The second note is called the supertonic. Super is Latin for ''above''.

While the scale degrees for the first six notes are the same for both major
and minor scales, the seventh one is special.

If the seventh note is a half step below the tonic, it is called a leading tone.

Key Signatures
A key signature is a collection of every accidental found in a scale.

Instead of writing a flat next to every E, A, and B; we can simply add a key

signature to the beginning of the measure.

F# comes first, followed by C# then G#.

Next comes D#, A#, E#, and finally B#.

You can remember this order by using the following saying: 'Father Charles
Goes Down And Ends Battle'

Starting with Bb, the order of the flats is the exact opposite.

Next comes Eb, Ab, Db, Gb, Cb, and finally Fb. This order can be
remembered with another saying: 'Battle Ends And Down Goes Charles'
Father'
Introducing the Major Scale
In this lesson we will learn all about the major scale. Although we will use a piano keyboard, the lesson
should be of use to anyone who wants to learn about one of the most important and useful scales in
music.

A
C

G B

Look at the picture of the keyboard above. It shows the familiar repeating pattern of notes. Starting from
one C and moving upwards to the next produces the notes : C D E F G A B C.
If you've played those notes on your piano or keyboard - you've just played a Major Scale - it's as simple
as that!

This is the scale known as C Major.

Pieces in C Major use the 8 notes shown above (yes, that's how this site gets its name!)

C Major is the most common scale in all Western Music (Classical, popular and jazz)

Understanding Tones and Semitones.

To understand how to find other major scales we need to look more closely at the construction of our C
Major Scale. Have a look at the keyboard again. By adding in the black notes, we can see that there are
actually 12 notes between one C and the next.
The distance from one of these 12 to its neighbour is known as a semitone. If you have a keyboard, try
playing up the keyboard from one C to the next, playing all 12 notes.
Notice how some notes of the C major scale have another note in between them (eg. from C to D there is
a black note in between), whereas some don't (eg. from E to F). The gap from C to D consists of two
semitones, and is known as a tone.
This pattern of tones and semitones is how the scale gets its particular colour. The major scale is formed
out of the following mixture of tones and semitones :
tone, tone, semitone, tone, tone, tone, semitone.

Finding other major scales.

To find any other major scale, you simply repeat the pattern of tones and
semitones shown above, starting from the note in question.
For example, let's try D major:

First note

Tone higher:

Tone higher:

F#

Semitone higher:

Tone higher:

Tone higher:

Tone higher:

C#

Semitone higher:

30 different key signatures exist (15 for major scales and 15 for minor

scales). Most theory students are expected to memorize all 30.

In the calculation method, each key signature is assigned a numeric value

based on the number and type of accidentals. Sharps are positive; flats are
negative.

Next, let's compare Cb, C, and C# Major.

The result is -3; thus, Eb Major has 3 flats.

To convert a major scale into its parallel minor, simply subtract 3.

Generic Intervals
An

interval measures the distance between two notes.

When

apart.

two notes occupy the same line or space, they are a first (or a prime)

C to Cb and C to C# are also firsts.

When two notes are askewed to each other, they are a second apart.

C to D is an example of a second.

C to D#, Cb to D, and Cb to D# are also seconds.

When two notes are stacked tightly together, they are a third apart.

E to G and F to A are also thirds.

C to F is a fourth.

C to C is an eighth (or octave).

Specific Intervals

As you learned in the previous lesson, C to D and C to Db are both generic

seconds. Specifically, however, C to D is one half step larger than C to Db.

C to D is a major second since it is a generic second on the staff and two

half steps on the keyboard.

E to F# would be another example of a major second.

A major third is made up of four half steps. C to E is a major third.

A perfect fourth is made up of five half steps. C to F is a perfect fourth.

A perfect fifth is made up of seven half steps.C to G is a perfect fifth.

A major sixth is made up of nine half steps. C to A is a major sixth.

A major seventh is made up of eleven half steps. C to B is a major seventh.

Finally, a perfect eighth (or perfect octave) is made up of twelve half steps.
C to C is a perfect eighth.
In addition to major and perfect; minor, augmented, and diminished
intervals exist.

A diminished interval has one less half step than a perfect interval.

Since C to G is a perfect fifth (7 half steps), C to Gb would be a diminished

fifth (6 half steps).

An augmented interval has one more half step than a perfect interval. Since
C to F is a perfect fourth (5 half steps), C to F# would be an augmented
fourth (6 half steps).

Major intervals can be augmented by adding a half step. For example,

since C to A is a major sixth (9 half steps), C to A# is an augmented sixth
(10 half steps).

Subtracting a half step from a major interval does not make it diminished;
instead, it becomes minor. For example, since C to B is a major seventh

(11 half steps), C to Bb is a minor seventh (10 half steps).

Only after subtracting another half step does it become diminished. Thus, C
to Bbb would be our diminished seventh (9 half steps).

The above chart shows the number of half steps that each specific
interval contains.

Introducing the Staff and the Clef

It was in the Middle Ages that people first began to think of using lines
to represent musical notes. The very first systems used 11 lines. Why
eleven ? Simple - it was the number needed to fit all the notes the
human voice could sing - from the lowest notes of the male bass up to
the highest notes of the soprano.

It was soon realised, however, that such a system was impractical - it

was too difficult to distinguish one note from another on the huge staff.

Solution to the Staff Crisis

To solve the problem, the 11-line staff made way for a variety 5-line
staffs. Each 5-line staff in itself was capable of holding the entire range
of any voice. A system of symbols known as Clefs was used to
distinguish which set of five lines was in operation and that is the
system we use to this day.
A letter G over the second line from the bottom indicated the G clef.
This was the clef used by the highest 'treble' voice - its name today is
the treble clef.

Similarly, a letter F over the second line from the top indicated the F
clef. This staff was used by the lowest 'bass' voices - it is of course, the
bass clef.

There are many other clefs, but the two other most commonly-used
clefs today are the alto clef, used by viola players in particular:

and the tenor clef, used by trombonists and various other instruments.