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ARML 2010 Number Theory Guide

This document provides an overview of number theory concepts relevant to the 2010 ARML Advanced Number Theory competition, including: - Diophantine equations can have solutions with fewer equations than variables due to constraints like integers (Z). General strategies for solving Diophantine equations include finding general forms, checking answers, and reasoning about all possible solutions. - The Carmichael function λ(n) is a more general form of Euler's theorem that defines the smallest exponent such that aλ(n) is congruent to 1 modulo n. It reduces to Euler's totient function for most numbers n. - Five practice problems are provided covering topics like solving systems of equations, probability, remainders, repunit divis

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553 views2 pages

ARML 2010 Number Theory Guide

This document provides an overview of number theory concepts relevant to the 2010 ARML Advanced Number Theory competition, including: - Diophantine equations can have solutions with fewer equations than variables due to constraints like integers (Z). General strategies for solving Diophantine equations include finding general forms, checking answers, and reasoning about all possible solutions. - The Carmichael function λ(n) is a more general form of Euler's theorem that defines the smallest exponent such that aλ(n) is congruent to 1 modulo n. It reduces to Euler's totient function for most numbers n. - Five practice problems are provided covering topics like solving systems of equations, probability, remainders, repunit divis

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gauss202
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2010 ARML Advanced Number Theory

Sin Kim
February 25, 2010
Please refer to the excellent list of basic theorems in Renjies novice number theory
lecture.

Diophantine Equations

For most systems of equations, N variables require N or more equations to solve. However,
Diophantine equations are solvable with less equations because the extra constraints (some
subset of Z).

1.1

General

1. Find general forms for solutions that work. Try mods, factoring, substitution, and other
clever maneuvers. Sometimes, this is the farthest you can get. Dont be afraid if you cannot
find exact solutions! ARML can throw you problems that have general answers.
2. Check answers. Often, some of solutions from the first step are wrong, so dont forget to
test your solutions!
3. Try to reason why there shouldnt be more solutions. If there are more, repeat.

1.2

Linear

Generally, linear Diophantine equations look like this:


a1 x 1 + . . . + an x n = b
where a1 , . . . , an , b are integers. Note that by Bezouts identity, this equation is solvable with
integers if and only if gcd(a1 , . . . , an )|b. To solve equation, use mods to filter out one or more
variables at a time. Also, use the fact that if (x0 , y0 ) is a solution to ax + by = c, then all of
the equations solutions are given by (x0 + bt, y0 at) for every integer t.

1.3

Pythagorean

These look like this:


x2 + y 2 = z 2
There are general form for primitive (irreducible) Pythagorean triples:
(x, y, z) = (m2 n2 , 2mn, m2 + n2 )
where m > n > 0 are relatively prime integers with different parity.

Carmichael Function

If you are in here, you should already know what Eulers totient function is. If not, please
refer to todays novice lecture. Believe it or not, there is an even more general form of Eulers
theorem. In fact Carmichael function ((n)) is defined to be the smallest positive integer
such that a(n) 1( mod n). Better yet, (n) is well-defined!

(n)
for n = p , with p = 2 and 2, or p 3

1
(n) =
(n)
for n = 2 and 3
2

lcm((p1 1 ), (p2 2 ), . . . , (pk k )) for all n.


Usually Eulers theorem is good enough in contests, but it doesnt hurt to know a more
powerful theorem!

Exercises
1. Determine all integral triples (x, y, z) that are solutions to 3x + 4y + 5z = 6.
2. (AIME 2008) Ten identical marshmellows of dimensions 3 4 6. First marshmellow
is placed flat on the floor. Each of the remaining nine marshmellows is placed, in turn,
flat on top of the previous one, and the orientation of each marshmellow is chosen
at random. Find the probability that the stack of marshmellows is exactly where my
mouth is... 41 unit length above the floor.
33

3. (AoPS Mock AIME4) Find the remainder when 33

is divided by 1000.

4. (2008 iTest) Repunits are natural numbers whose digits are all 1. How many digits are
in the smallest repunit divisible by 97?
5. (AIME 1986) The increasing sequence 1, 3, 4, 9, 10, 12, 13, . . . consists of all those positive integers that are powers of 3 or sums of distinct powers of 3. Find the 100th term
of this sequence.

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