Composting
Order No. 382.500-5
Agdex: 537/727
September, 1996
COMPOSTING METHODS
Some basic composting methods which have been
developed include those that use bins, passive
windrows, turned windrows, aerated static piles and
in-vessel channels. The proper approach depends on
the time to complete composting, the materials and
volume to be decomposed, space available, the
availability of resources (labour, finances, etc.) and
the quality of finished product required. The Table
on page 6 summaries the interplay between these
factors.
above air ducts, and aeration is achieved by blowing
or drawing air through the composting material.
Aeration systems can be relatively simple, using
electrical motors, fans and ducting, or sophisticated,
incorporating various sensors and alarms. Aerated
static pile composting offers a medium technology
and low labour approach, sometimes resulting in a
non-uniform product. In some systems, mechanical
aeration may occur near the end of the active
compost period.
Bin Composting is the production of compost in a
bin. The compost is produced by natural aeration,
and through turning. The compost mix is turned
using a tractor front-end loader. Bin composting
represents a low technology, medium labour
approach producing a medium quality product. This
option is primarily used for mortality composting.
In-Vessel Composting is the production of
compost in drums, silos or channels using a high-rate
controlled aeration system, designed to provide
optimal conditions. Aeration of the material is
accomplished by: continuous agitation using aerating
machines which operate in concrete bays, and/or fans
providing air flow from ducts built into concrete
floors. In-vessel composting represents a high
technology and low labour approach, producing a
uniform product.
Passive Windrow Composting is the
production of compost in piles or windrows.
Compost is produced by natural aeration, over long
periods of time. Passive windrow composting
represents a low technology and labour approach.
Attention to details such as the porosity of the initial
mix, uniform product mixing and particle size greatly
improves the speed of the process and product
quality.
BIN COMPOSTING
Bin composting methods are commonly used for yard
waste; smaller amounts of manure; and for poultry,
or pork mortalities. Turning compost can reduce
decomposition time to two months or less.
Turned Windrow Composting is the production
of compost in windrows using mechanical aeration.
The compost mix is aerated by a windrow turner,
which can be powered by a farm tractor (PTO), selfpowered or self-propelled. Turned windrow
composting represents a low technology and medium
labour approach and produces a uniform compost.
Wastes in bins must be mixed on a regular basis.
Frequent turning speeds up the composting process
by providing aerobic bacteria with the oxygen
required need to break down materials. A set-up
often includes a series of bins, as shown in Figure 1.
High temperatures, from 32 to 60C (90 to 140F),
are produced when piles are turned every five to ten
days. These actions are necessary to kill disease
organisms and fly larvae, to help kill weed seeds, and
to provide an environment necessary for the most
efficient decomposer organisms.
Aerated Static Pile Composting is the
production of compost in piles or windrows with
mechanical aeration. The windrow or pile is located
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Figure 1 A Wooden Bin Unit, with Three Compartments
Materials to be composted should be added to bins in
layers, rather than in small amounts over time.
Materials should be stockpiled until enough
accumulates to add approximately one cubic metre or
yard in a bin.
sized pile or windrow. Two windrows should be
used. When the first one is large enough, it should be
allowed to decompose undisturbed. Additional waste
should then be added to the second windrow.
Covering the windrow with a layer of finished
compost will help prevent moisture loss, reduce
odour problems, and produce a more uniform
compost. Composting in these windrows can take
from six months to two years.
Operation and management of poultry, and pork
mortality compost systems are explained in
Managing Poultry Mortality Composting Systems,
Factsheet No. 382.500-8, and Managing Pork
Mortality Composting Systems, Factsheet No.
382.500-9. A detailed design of a mortality
composting bin is shown in Mortality Compost Bin
Design, Factsheet No. 382.500-10.
Large passive windrows can be as wide as 7 metres
(24 feet), and as high as 4 metres (12 feet) and of any
length. The centre of a windrow this size will
quickly become anaerobic and only by turning can it
receive a new oxygen supply. An unpleasant odour
will develop in the anaerobic region and may begin
to emanate from the composting material; hence, a
large land area is necessary to buffer residents and
businesses from the odour. Since rapid composting
can take place only in the presence of oxygen, the
compost normally will require three years to
stabilize.
PASSIVE WINDROW
Passive windrow composting is a very low-cost
approach requiring more land, but less labour and
capital than other composting methods. Generally,
material to be composted is collected and promptly
piled into windrows which remain untouched. The
materials may be wetted before they are initially
formed into windrows, but this is not essential.
With both the small and large windrows used in
passive windrow composting, there is no ability for
process control. Therefore only medium product
quality is produced.
A windrow is simply an elongated pile of material
with a more or less triangular cross-section. As
illustrated in Figure 2, a windrow should measure
about 3 metres (10 feet) wide and 1.5 metres (5 feet)
high; its length will vary depending upon the amount
of materials used. Aeration occurs naturally. As hot
air rises, fresh air is drawn into the pile. Materials can
be added as they become available, or stockpiled
until sufficient amounts are available to make a good
TURNED WINDROW
Aeration of the windrow can be achieved through
mechanical turning. Turning can also be done
manually, but is considered impractical with volumes
larger than one or two cubic metres. Uniform
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shedding excess rain or preventing excess
accumulation of snow in the winter. In windrow
composting, the raw material is mixed and placed in
rows, either directly on the ground or on paved or
concrete surfaces. During the active compost period,
the size of the windrow decreases. Following the
active period, windrows at the same level of maturity
can be combined into larger rows, making additional
space for more raw materials or compost.
Figure 2 The Width and Height of a Pile
decomposition, as well as pathogen destruction, is
best achieved by turning the outer edges into the
centre of the pile at each turn. However, if this
cannot be accomplished, the frequency of turning can
be increased. Turning should also be more frequent
than under a regular schedule when the moisture
content of the pile is too high so as to minimize the
development of anaerobic conditions. In areas that
receive heavy rainfall, it may be necessary to cover
the windrows so they do not become too wet;
however, the cost of this may be prohibitive for
certain operations. Alternatively, maintaining a
triangular or dome shaped windrow is effective for
Figure 3 Pull-Type Compost Turner
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The equipment used for turning the windrow, varies
from front-end loaders or bulldozers to specially
designed turning machines. Loaders, although
inexpensive compared to turners, have a tendency to
compact the composting material, are comparatively
inefficient, and can result in longer composting
periods and less consistent quality. Figure 3 shows a
pull-type, tractor driven power takeoff, compost
turner.
There are two basic types of windrow turners. The
most commonly used have a series of heavy tines that
are placed along a rotating horizontal drum which,
turns, mixes, aerates and reforms the windrow as the
machine moves forward. A second type uses a
moving, elevator table chain equipped with sharp
teeth. These windrow turners are either selfcontained units that straddle the row, or are powered
by a tractor driven power takeoff.
Windrows should be turned frequently at first and
then at longer intervals by the end of the first month.
A recommended turning frequency is:
1st Week
2nd Week
3rd Week
4th and 5th Week
6th and above
3
2-3
2
1
1
Turnings
Turnings
Turnings
Turning each week
Turning every 2 weeks
if heating still occurs
Temperature measurements inside the windrow
should be used to gauge the need for turning to
stimulate or control heat production.
Source: NRAES-54 On-Farm Composting Handbook
With efficient turning by using a windrow turner, a
minimum composting time is one month, followed
by at least two months in a curing pile. The compost
may be ready to apply to land or be marketed.
Figure 4 An aerated Static Pile with a Bio.Filter
Windrow composting can produce excellent
compost, using a variety of diverse materials. Wastes
such as manure solids, fish waste and poultry
mortalities can be composted with bulking agents
such as sawdust, straw and recycled paper products.
Windrow composting efficiency and product quality
are dependent primarily upon two major factors: 1.
the initial compost mix, and 2. management
practices.
AERATED STATIC PILE
The aerated static pile composting method was
developed by the United States Department of
Agriculture and can be a very efficient system.
During recent years, this method has become popular
at the municipal level in composting sewage sludge,
but has not yet become popular on the farm.
The aerated static pile method does not mechanically
agitate compost material to achieve the desired level
of aeration. The pile is constructed above an air
source such as, perforated plastic pipes, aeration
cones or a perforated floor; and aeration is
accomplished either by forcing or drawing air
through the compost pile. This system of aeration
requires electricity at the site and appropriate
ventilation fans, ducts and monitoring equipment.
The monitoring equipment determines the timing,
duration and direction of air flow. The pile should be
placed after the floors are first covered with a layer of
bulking agent, such as wood chips or finished
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compost. The material to be composted is then
added, and a topping layer of finished compost
applied to provide insulation. The optimum size of
pile is related to the materials composted, air flow
capabilities and the type of handling equipment. In
some facilities, the initial mix is piled between
temporary fencing or movable highway dividers.
This allows considerable flexibility with respect to
the size and location of the pile within the working
area or building. In aerated static pile operations, the
timing, duration and uniform movement of air are
important. Air flow requirements change depending
upon the materials composted, the size of the pile,
and age of the compost.
A major difficulty with the static pile system is the
efficient diffusion of air through out the entire pile,
especially with wastes characterized by a large
particle size distribution, high moisture content, or a
tendency to clump. Other problems include the
formation of channels in the pile which allow forced
air to short-circuit. This causes excessive drying due
to evaporation of moisture near the channels. These
situations may require more frequent turns of piles.
Aerated static piles can produce excellent compost,
provided that two basic operating conditions are met:
The initial material has adequate porosity; and
The air flow system works properly and provides
adequate air flows uniformly during the active
compost period to all areas of the pile.
In comparison to windrow composting, aerated static
piles require a different level of management and
monitoring. Windrow composting is often regarded
as a "normal" extension of an existing manure-
However, it is important to note that all systems
require final stabilization of the compost.
Disadvantages of the enclosed vessel method include
high capital and operational costs due to the use of
computerized equipment and skilled labour. Invessel composters are generally more automated than
windrow or static pile systems, and can produce a top
quality finished product on a consistent basis.
Common reasons for choosing in-vessel composting
over other methods include:
handling system, since some or all of the existing
farm machinery can be used for windrow
composting. Aerated static piles require additional
equipment and infrastructure investment, and these
assets are dedicated solely to the compost operation.
In addition, pre-compost product mixing is a very
important step in aerated static pile systems. In
contrast, the mixing and blending is done throughout
the active composting stage in windrow composting.
Odour is an operation problem that can affect any
type of compost system; however, odour problems
are often inherent within a windrowing system. In
contrast, if odour problems develop in an aerated
static pile system, they can be easily identified and
corrective measures taken such as for example,
changing air flows; improving air flow capacities;
dispersion and filters; and increasing the insulative
cover. With negative air pressure delivery, air is
drawn through the pile and can be cleaned using a
bio-filter before releasing it to the atmosphere; with
positive air pressure, air is pushed through the pile
and the exterior insulative cover of mature compost
cleans the exhaust air. Figure 4 shows an aerated
static pile set-up using bio-filters.
Several existing in-vessel systems in British
Columbia consist of a series of channels equipped
with a turner mounted on wheels that move on tracks
placed at the top of the channel. The turner serves as
a mixing device. The channel contains a perforated
bottom for continuous or intermittent forced aeration.
Figure 5 shows a possible four channel in-vessel
method of composting with under-floor aeration.
Retention time is approximately three weeks before
the composting material is cured. Capacities of
operations range from a few tonnes to hundreds of
tonnes per day.
IN-VESSEL
In-Vessel compost systems are high rate controlled
aeration systems which are designed to provide
optimal composting conditions involving mechanical
mixing of compost under controlled environmental
conditions. Although various designs are available,
the different systems are similar in that they are both
capital and management intensive. In-vessel, or
enclosed-vessel systems fall under three main
categories:
odour control
space constraints at the site
process and materials handling control
better public acceptance due to the
aesthetics/appearance of the composting site
less manpower requirements
more consistent product quality
rotating drum
horizontal (rectangular/cylindrical) or vertical
silos
channels
The main advantages of the in-vessel system over
others (windrows, aerated static piles etc.) are the
shortening of the mesophyllic and thermophilic
stages, a higher process efficiency, and a decreased
number of pathogens, resulting in a safer and more
valuable end product. As well, space requirements
are generally less than that of other methods.
Figure 5 Four Channel In-Vessel Composting
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SUMMARY OF THE FOUR MAIN MANURE COMPOSTING METHODS
1. Passive Windrow
2. Turned Windrow
3. Aerated Static Pile
4. In-Vessel Channel
General
Low technology
Quality problems
Active systems most
common on farms
Effective for farm and
municipal use
Large-scale systems for
commercial applications
Labour
Low labour required
Increases with
aeration frequency
and poor planning
System design and
planning important.
Monitoring needed.
Requires consistent level of
management/product flow to
be cost efficient.
Site
Requires large land
areas
Can require large land
areas
Less land required given
faster rates and effective
pile volumes
Very limited land, due to
rapid rates and continuous
operations
Bulking Agent
Less flexible,
Must be porous
Flexible
Less flexible,
Must be porous
Flexible
Active Period
Range: 6-24 Months
Range: 21-40 days
Range: 21-40 days
Range: 21-35 days
Curing
Not applicable
30+ days
30+ days
30+ days
Size: Height
Width
Length
1 - 4 metres
3 - 7 metres
Variable
1 - 2.8 metres
3 - 6 metres
Variable
3 - 4.5 metres
Variable
Variable
Dependent on bay design
Variable
Variable
Aeration
System
Natural convection
only
Mechanical turning
and natural
convection
Forced positive/negative
air flow through pile
Extensive mechanical
turning and aeration
Process Control
Initial mix only
Initial mix
Turning
Initial mix. Aeration,
temperature and/or time
control
Initial mix. Aeration,
temperature and/or time
control. Turning.
Odour Factors
Odour from the
windrow will occur.
The larger the
windrow the greater
the odours.
From surface area of
windrow. Turning
can create odours
during initial weeks.
Odour can occur, but
controls can be used,
such as pile insulation
and filters on air system.
Odour can occur. Often due
to equipment failure or
system design limitations.
For further information on related topics, please visit our website
Resource Management Branch
www.agf.gov.bc.ca/resmgmt
Linking to our
Publications and Conceptual Plans
This is one of a series of Factsheets on Composting. A list of references used in producing this series is included in the
Composting Factsheet Suggested Reading and References.
COMPOSTING FACTSHEET SERIES PREPARED BY
FOR MORE INFORMATION CONTACT
RESOURCE MANAGEMENT BRANCH
Ministry of Agriculture, Food and Fisheries
1767 Angus Campbell Road
Abbotsford BC, CANADA V3G 2M3
Phone: (604) 556-3100 Fax: (604) 556-3099
Hog Producers Sustainable Farming Group;
Pacific Agricultural Research Centre (Agassiz),
Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada; and
Resource Management Branch, BCMAF
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