Chapter 1: Basic Radiation Physics

Slide set of 195 slides based on the chapter authored by

E.B. Podgorsak
of the IAEA publication (ISBN 92-0-107304-6):
Review of Radiation Oncology Physics:
A Handbook for Teachers and Students
Objective:
To familiarize the student with basic principles of radiation physics
and modern physics used in radiotherapy.
Slide set prepared in 2006
by E.B. Podgorsak (Montreal, McGill University)
Comments to S. Vatnitsky:
dosimetry@[Link]

Version 2012

IAEA
International Atomic Energy Agency

CHAPTER 1.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

1.1. Introduction

1.2. Atomic and nuclear structure

1.3. Electron interactions
1.4. Photon interactions

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1.1 INTRODUCTION
1.1.1 Fundamental physical constants

Avogadros number:

NA 6.022 1023 atom/mol

Speed of light in vacuum: c 3 108 m/s

Electron charge:

e 1.6 1019 As

Electron rest mass:

me 0.511 MeV/c 2

Proton rest mass:

mp 938.2 MeV/c 2

Neutron rest mass:

mn 939.3 MeV/c 2

Atomic mass unit:

u 931.5 MeV/c 2

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1.1 INTRODUCTION
1.1.2 Derived physical constants

Reduced Plancks constant speed of light in vacuum

c = 197 MeV fm 200 MeV fm

Fine structure constant

e2 1
1

4 o c 137

Classical electron radius

e2
1
re
2.818 MeV
2
4 o mec

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1.1 INTRODUCTION
1.1.2 Derived physical constants

Bohr radius:
4pe 0 ( c)2
c
a0 =
= 2
= 0.529
2
2
a mec
e mec
Rydberg energy:
2
2
2

m
c
1
1
e
e
ER mec 2 2
13.61 eV

2
2
2 4 o ( c )
Rydberg constant:
ER
mec 2a 2
R =
=
= 109 737 cm-1
2p c
4p c

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1.1 INTRODUCTION
1.1.3 Physical quantities and units

Physical quantities are characterized by their numerical

value (magnitude) and associated unit.

Symbols for physical quantities are set in italic type, while

symbols for units are set in roman type.
For example: m 21 kg; E 15 MeV

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1.1 INTRODUCTION
1.1.3 Physical quantities and units

Numerical value and the unit of a physical quantity must

be separated by space.
For example:

21 kg and NOT 21kg; 15 MeV and NOT 15MeV

The currently used metric system of units is known as the

Systme International dUnits (International system of
units) or the SI system.

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1.1 INTRODUCTION
1.1.3 Physical quantities and units

The SI system of units is founded on base units for seven

physical quantities:
Quantity
SI unit
length
mass m
time t
electric current (I)
temperature (T)
amount of substance
luminous intensity

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meter (m)
kilogram (kg)
second (s)
ampre (A)
kelvin (K)
mole (mol)
candela (cd)

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1.1 INTRODUCTION
1.1.4 Classification of forces in nature

There are four distinct forces observed in interaction between

various types of particles
Force
Source
Transmitted particle Relative strength
Strong
Strong charge
Gluon
1
EM
Electric charge
Photon
1/137
10-6
Weak
Weak charge
W+, W-, and Zo
10-39
Gravitational Energy
Graviton

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1.1 INTRODUCTION
1.1.5 Classification of fundamental particles

Two classes of fundamental particles are known:

Quarks are particles that exhibit strong interactions

Quarks are constituents of hadrons with a fractional electric charge
(2/3 or -1/3) and are characterized by one of three types of strong
charge called color (red, blue, green).

Leptons are particles that do not interact strongly.

Electron, muon, tau, and their corresponding neutrinos.

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1.1 INTRODUCTION
1.1.6 Classification of radiation

Radiation is classified into two main categories:

Non-ionizing radiation (cannot ionise matter).

Ionizing radiation (can ionize matter).
Directly ionizing radiation (charged particles)
electron, proton, alpha particle, heavy ion
Indirectly ionizing radiation (neutral particles)
photon (x ray, gamma ray), neutron

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1.1 INTRODUCTION
1.1.6 Classification of radiation

Radiation is classified into two main categories:

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1.1 INTRODUCTION
1.1.7 Classification of ionizing photon radiation

Ionizing photon radiation is classified into four categories:

Characteristic x ray
Results from electronic transitions between atomic shells.

Bremsstrahlung
Results mainly from electron-nucleus Coulomb interactions.

Gamma ray
Results from nuclear transitions.

Annihilation quantum (annihilation radiation)

Results from positron-electron annihilation.

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1.1 INTRODUCTION
1.1.8 Einsteins relativistic mass, energy, and momentum

Mass:

m(u ) =

Normalized mass:

m(u )
=
m0

where

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m0
u
1-
c

1
u
1-
c

and

m0

= g m0

1- b 2

1
1- b

=g

1
1- 2

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1.1 INTRODUCTION
1.1.8 Einsteins relativistic mass, energy, and momentum

m(u ) =

m(u )
=
m0

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m0
u
1-
c

1
u
1-
c

m0
1- b 2

1
1- b

= g m0

=g

1
1- 2

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1.1 INTRODUCTION
1.1.8 Einsteins relativistic mass, energy, and momentum

Total energy:

E m( )c 2

Rest energy:

E0 = m0c 2

Kinetic energy: EK = E - E0 = (g - 1)E0

Momentum:
with

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1
p=
E 2 - E02
c

and

1
1- 2

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1.1 INTRODUCTION
1.1.9 Radiation quantities and units

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1.2 ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR STRUCTURE

1.2.1 Basic definitions for atomic structure

Constituent particles forming an atom are:

Proton
Neutron
Electron
Protons and neutrons are known as nucleons and form the nucleus.

Atomic number Z
Number of protons and number of electrons in an atom.

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1.2 ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR STRUCTURE

1.2.1 Basic definitions for atomic structure

Atomic mass number A

Number of nucleons (Z + N) in an atom,
where

Z is the number of protons (atomic number) in an atom.

N is the number of neutrons in an atom.

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1.2 ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR STRUCTURE

1.2.1 Basic definitions for atomic structure

There is no basic relation between the atomic mass

number A and atomic number Z of a nucleus but the
empirical relationship:
A
Z
1.98 0.0155A2/3

furnishes a good approximation for stable nuclei.

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1.2 ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR STRUCTURE

1.2.1 Basic definitions for atomic structure

Atomic mole is defined as the number of grams of an

atomic compound that contains exactly one Avogadros
number of atoms, i.e.,

NA = 6.022 1023 atom/mol

Atomic mass number A of all elements is defined such

that A grams of every element contain exactly NA atoms.

For example:
1 mole of cobalt-60 is 60 g of cobalt-60.
1 mole of radium-226 is 226 g of radium-226.

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1.2 ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR STRUCTURE

1.2.1 Basic definitions for atomic structure

Molecular mole is defined as the number of grams of a

molecular compound that contains exactly one Avogadros
number of molecules, i.e.,

NA = 6.022 1023 molecule/mol

Mass of a molecule is the sum of masses of all atoms that

make up the molecule.

For example:
1 mole of water (H2O) is 18 g of water.
1 mole of carbon dioxide (CO2 ) is 44 g of carbon dioxide.

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1.2 ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR STRUCTURE

1.2.1 Basic definition for atomic structure

Atomic mass M is expressed in atomic mass units u:

1 u is equal to 1/12th of the mass of the carbon-12 atom or
931.5 MeV/c2.

Atomic mass M is smaller than the sum of the individual masses

of constituent particles because of the intrinsic energy associated
with binding the particles (nucleons) within the nucleus.

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1.2 ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR STRUCTURE

1.2.1 Basic definition for atomic structure

Nuclear mass M is defined as the atomic mass with the

mass of atomic orbital electrons subtracted, i.e.,
M M - Zme

where M is the atomic mass. Binding energy of orbital

electrons to the nucleus is neglected.

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1.2 ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR STRUCTURE

1.2.1 Basic definitions for atomic structure

In nuclear physics the convention is to designate a nucleus

X as AZ X ,
where
A is the atomic mass number.
Z is the atomic number.

For example:

Cobalt-60 nucleus with Z = 27 protons and A = 33 neutrons is

60
identified as 27 Co.
Radium-226 nucleus with 88 protons and 138 neutrons is
Ra.
identified as 226
88

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1.2 ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR STRUCTURE

1.2.1 Basic definitions for atomic structure

Number of atoms Na per mass m of an element:

Na NA

m
A

Number of electrons Ne per mass m of an element:

Ne
Na
NA
Z
Z
m
m
A

Number of electrons Ne per volume V of an element:

Ne
Na
NA
Z
Z
V
m
A
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1.2 ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR STRUCTURE

1.2.1 Basic definitions for atomic structure

For all elements the ratio Z/A 0.5 with two notable
exceptions:
Hydrogen-1 for which Z/A 1.0 .
Helium-3 for which Z/A 0.67 .

Actually, the ratio Z/A gradually decreases:

From 0.5 for low atomic number Z elements.
To ~0.4 for high atomic number Z elements.

For example: Z /A 0.50 for 42 He

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Z /A 0.45 for

60
27

Z /A 0.39 for

235
92

Co
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1.2 ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR STRUCTURE

1.2.2 Rutherfords model of the atom

Rutherfords atomic model is based on results of the

Geiger-Marsden experiment of 1909 with 5.5 MeV alpha
particles scattered on thin gold foils with a thickness of
the order of 10-6 m.

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1.2 ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR STRUCTURE

1.2.2 Rutherfords model of the atom

At the time of the Geiger-Marsden experiment in 1909

Thomson atomic model was the prevailing atomic model.

Thomson model was based on an

assumption that the positive and the
negative (electron) charges of the
atom were distributed uniformly over
the atomic volume
(plum-pudding model of the atom).

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1.2 ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR STRUCTURE

1.2.2 Rutherfords model of the atom

Geiger and Marsden found that more than 99 % of the

alpha particles incident on the gold foil were scattered at
scattering angles less than 3o and that the distribution of
scattered alpha particles followed a Gaussian shape.

Geiger and Marsden also found that roughly one in 104

alpha particles was scattered with a scattering angle
exceeding 90o (probability 10-4)

This finding was in drastic disagreement with the

theoretical prediction of one in 103500 resulting from the
Thomsons atomic model (probability 10-3500).

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1.2 ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR STRUCTURE

1.2.2 Rutherfords model of the atom

Ernest Rutherford concluded that the peculiar results of

the Geiger-Marsden experiment did not support the
Thomsons atomic model and proposed the currently
accepted atomic model in which:
Mass and positive charge of the
atom are concentrated in the
nucleus the size of which is
of the order of 10-15 m.
Negatively charged electrons
revolve about the nucleus in
a spherical cloud on the periphery
of the Rutherford atom with a
radius of the order of 10-10 m.

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1.2 ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR STRUCTURE

1.2.2 Rutherfords model of the atom

Based on his model and four additional assumptions,

Rutherford derived the kinematics for the scattering of
alpha particles on gold nuclei using basic principles of
classical mechanics.

The four assumptions are related to:

Mass of the gold nucleus.

Scattering of alpha particles.
Penetration of the nucleus.
Kinetic energy of the alpha particles.

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1.2 ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR STRUCTURE

1.2.2 Rutherfords model of the atom

The four assumptions are:

Mass of the gold nucleus M >> mass of the alpha particle ma.
Scattering of alpha particles on atomic electrons is negligible.
Alpha particle does not penetrate the nucleus, i.e., there are no
nuclear reactions occurring.

Alpha particles with kinetic energies of the order of a few MeV are
non-relativistic and the simple classical relationship for the kinetic
energy EK of the alpha particle is valid:

m 2
EK
2

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1.2 ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR STRUCTURE

1.2.2 Rutherfords model of the atom

As a result of the repulsive Coulomb interaction between the

alpha particle (charge +2e) and the nucleus (charge +Ze) the
alpha particle follows a hyperbolic trajectory.

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1.2 ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR STRUCTURE

1.2.2 Rutherfords model of the atom

Shape of the hyperbolic trajectory and the scattering angle

depend on the impact parameter b.
The limiting case is a direct hit with b 0 and (backscattering)
that, assuming conservation of energy, determines the distance of
closest approach D -N in a direct hit (backscattering) interaction.

2ZNe2
EK
4 oD -N

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D -N

2ZNe2

4 oEK

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1.2 ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR STRUCTURE

1.2.2 Rutherfords model of the atom

Shape of the hyperbolic trajectory and the scattering

angle are a function of the impact parameter b.

Repulsive Coulomb force between the alpha particle

(charge ze, z = 2) and the nucleus (charge Ze) is
governed by 1/ r 2 dependence:
2Ze 2
Fcoul
4 or 2
where r is the separation between the two charged particles.

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1.2 ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR STRUCTURE

1.2.2 Rutherfords model of the atom

Relationship between the impact parameter b and the

scattering angle follows from the conservation of
energy and momentum considerations:
1

b D -N cot
2
2
This expression is derived using:

Classical relationship for the kinetic energy of the particle:

EK m 2 / 2
Definition of D -N in a direct hit head-on collision for which the
impact parameter b = 0 and the scattering angle .

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1.2 ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR STRUCTURE

1.2.2 Rutherfords model of the atom

Differential Rutherford scattering cross section is:

ds Da -N
1
=

dW 4 sin4 (q /2)

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1.2 ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR STRUCTURE

1.2.3 Bohrs model of the hydrogen atom

Niels Bohr in 1913 combined Rutherfords concept of

nuclear atom with Plancks idea of quantized nature of
the radiation process and developed an atomic model
that successfully deals with one-electron structures, such
as hydrogen atom, singly ionized helium, etc.
M nucleus with mass M
me electron with mass me
rn radius of electron orbit

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1.2 ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR STRUCTURE

1.2.3 Bohrs model of the hydrogen atom

Bohrs atomic model is based on four postulates:

Postulate 1: Electrons revolve about the Rutherford nucleus in
well-defined, allowed orbits (planetary-like motion).

Postulate 2: While in orbit, the electron does not lose any energy
despite being constantly accelerated (no energy loss while
electron is in allowed orbit).

Postulate 3: The angular momentum of the electron in

an allowed orbit is quantized (quantization of angular momentum).

Postulate 4: An atom emits radiation only when an electron

makes a transition from one orbit to another (energy emission
during orbital transitions).

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1.2 ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR STRUCTURE

1.2.3 Bohrs model of the hydrogen atom

Bohrs atomic model is based on four postulates:

Postulate 1: Planetary motion of electrons
Electrons revolve about the Rutherford nucleus in
well-defined, allowed orbits.

Coulomb force of attraction between the electron

and the positively charged nucleus is balanced by
the centrifugal force

Fcoul

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meue2
1 Ze 2
=
Fcent =
2
4pe o re
re

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1.2 ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR STRUCTURE

1.2.3 Bohrs model of the hydrogen atom

Bohrs atomic model is based on four postulates:

Postulate 2: No energy loss while electron is in orbit.

While in orbit, the electron does not lose any energy
despite being constantly accelerated.

This is a direct contravention of the basic law of nature

(Larmors law) which states that:
Any time a charged particle is accelerated or decelerated part
of its energy is emitted in the form of photon (bremsstrahlung).

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1.2 ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR STRUCTURE

1.2.3 Bohrs model of the hydrogen atom

Bohrs atomic model is based on four postulates:

Postulate 3: Quantization of angular momentum
Angular momentum L me r of the electron in an
allowed orbit is quantized and given as L = n ,
where n is an integer referred to as the principal
quantum number and = h/2p .

Lowest possible angular momentum of electron in an

allowed orbit is L = .

All atomic orbital electron angular momenta are integer

multiples of
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1.2 ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR STRUCTURE

1.2.3 Bohrs model of the hydrogen atom

Bohrs atomic model is based on four postulates:

Postulate 4: Emission of photon during atomic transition.
Atom emits radiation only when an electron makes a
transition from an initial allowed orbit with quantum
number ni to a final orbit with quantum number nf.

Energy of the emitted photon equals the difference in

energy between the two atomic orbits.
h Ei - E f

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1.2 ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR STRUCTURE

1.2.3 Bohrs model of the hydrogen atom

Radius rn of a one-electron Bohr atom is:

n2
n2
rn = a0 = (0.53 )
Z
Z

Velocity n of the electron in a one-electron Bohr atom is:

Z
c Z
-3 Z
un = a c =
7 10 c

n 137 n
n

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1.2 ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR STRUCTURE

1.2.3 Bohrs model of the hydrogen atom

Energy levels En of orbital electron shells in a oneelectron Bohr atom are:

2

Z
Z
En = -ER = (-13.6 eV)
n
n

Wave number k for transition from shell ni to shell nf :

1
1
k R Z 2 - 2 109 737 cm-1
nf ni
2

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1.2 ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR STRUCTURE

1.2.3 Bohrs model of the hydrogen atom

Energy levels En of
orbital electron shells
in a one-electron
Bohr atom are:

Z
En = -ER
n

Z
= (-13.6 eV)
n

ER = Rydberg energy
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1.2 ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR STRUCTURE

1.2.3 Bohrs model of the hydrogen atom

Velocity of the orbital electron in the ground state n = 1 is

less than 1 % of the speed of light for the hydrogen atom
with Z = 1.

un

Z
Z
1 Z
-3
=a =
(7 10 )

c
n 137 n
n

Therefore, the use of classical mechanics in the derivation

of the kinematics of the Bohr atom is justified.

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1.2 ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR STRUCTURE

1.2.3 Bohrs model of the hydrogen atom

Both Rutherford and Bohr used classical mechanics in

their discoveries of the atomic structure and the kinematics
of the electronic motion, respectively.

Rutherford introduced the idea of atomic nucleus that

contains most of the atomic mass and is 5 orders of
magnitude smaller than the atom.

Bohr introduced the idea of electronic angular momentum

quantization.

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1.2 ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR STRUCTURE

1.2.3 Bohrs model of the hydrogen atom

Nature provided Rutherford with an atomic probe

(naturally occurring alpha particles) having just the
appropriate energy (few MeV) to probe the atom
without having to deal with relativistic effects and
nuclear penetration.

Nature provided Bohr with the hydrogen one-electron

atom in which the electron can be treated with simple
classical relationships.

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1.2 ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR STRUCTURE

1.2.3 Bohrs model of the hydrogen atom

Energy level diagram

for the hydrogen atom.
n=1
n>1

ground state
excited states

Wave number of emitted photon

1
1
k R Z 2 - 2

nf ni
1

R 109 737 cm-1

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1.2 ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR STRUCTURE

1.2.4 Multi-electron atom

Bohr theory works well for one-electron structures but does

not apply directly to multi-electron atoms because of the
repulsive Coulomb interactions among the atomic electrons.

Electrons occupy allowed shells; however, the number of

electrons per shell is limited to 2n2.

Energy level diagrams of multi-electron atoms resemble

those of one-electron structures, except that inner shell
electrons are bound with much larger energies than ER.

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1.2 ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR STRUCTURE

1.2.4 Multi-electron atoms

Douglas Hartree proposed an approximation that predicts

the energy levels and radii of multi-electron atoms
reasonably well despite its inherent simplicity.

Hartree assumed that the potential seen by a given atomic

electron is

Zeff e 1
V(r ) = 4pe o r
2

where Zeff is the effective atomic number

that accounts for the potential screening
effects of orbital electrons (Zeff Z ) .

Zeff for K-shell (n = 1) electrons is Z - 2.

Zeff for outer shell electrons is approximately equal to n.

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1.2 ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR STRUCTURE

1.2.4 Multi-electron atom

Hartrees expressions for atomic radii and energy level

Atomic radius
In general

For the K shell

For the outer shell

n2
rn = a0
Zeff

n2
r(K shell) = r1 = a0
Z-2

router shell na0

In general

For the K shell

For outer shell

2
Zeff
En -ER 2
n

E(K shell) E1 -ER (Z - 2)2

Eouter shell -ER

Binding energy

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1.2 ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR STRUCTURE

1.2.4 Multi-electron atom

Energy level diagram for

multi-electron atom (lead)
Shell (orbit) designations:
n=1
n=2
n=3
n=4

K shell (2 electrons)
L shell (8 electrons)
M shell (18 electrons)
N shell (32 electrons)

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1.2 ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR STRUCTURE

1.2.5 Nuclear structure

Most of the atomic mass is concentrated in the atomic

nucleus consisting of Z protons and A - Z neutrons
where Z is the atomic number and A the atomic mass
number (Rutherford-Bohr atomic model).

Protons and neutrons are commonly called nucleons and

are bound to the nucleus with the strong force.

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1.2 ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR STRUCTURE

1.2.5 Nuclear structure

In contrast to the electrostatic and gravitational forces that

are inversely proportional to the square of the distance
between two particles, the strong force between two
particles is a very short range force, active only at
distances of the order of a few femtometers.

Radius r of the nucleus is estimated from: r = r0 3 A ,

where r0 is the nuclear radius constant (1.25 fm).

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Review of Radiation Oncology Physics: A Handbook for Teachers and Students - 1.2.5 Slide 2

1.2 ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR STRUCTURE

1.2.5 Nuclear structure

Sum of masses of the individual components of a nucleus

that contains Z protons and (A - Z) neutrons is larger
than the mass of the nucleus M.

This difference in masses is called the mass defect

(deficit) m and its energy equivalent mc 2 is called the

total binding energy EB of the nucleus:
EB Zmpc 2 (A - Z)mnc 2 - Mc 2

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Review of Radiation Oncology Physics: A Handbook for Teachers and Students - 1.2.5 Slide 3

1.2 ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR STRUCTURE

1.2.5 Nuclear structure

Binding energy per nucleon (EB/A) in a nucleus varies with the

number of nucleons A and is of the order of 8 MeV per nucleon.

Nucleus
2
1

2.8

3
1

2.6

He

4
1

He

60
27
238
92

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1.1

3
1

2
2
2
EB Zmp c (A - Z)mnc - Mc

A
A

EB/A (MeV)

7.1

Co

8.8

7.3

Review of Radiation Oncology Physics: A Handbook for Teachers and Students - 1.2.5 Slide 4

1.2 ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR STRUCTURE

1.2.6 Nuclear reactions

Aa Bb
or A(a,b)B
Projectile a bombards target A
which is transformed into reactants B and b.

Nuclear reaction:

The most important physical quantities that are conserved

in a nuclear reaction are:

Charge
Mass number
Linear momentum
Mass-energy

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Review of Radiation Oncology Physics: A Handbook for Teachers and Students - 1.2.6 Slide 1

1.2 ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR STRUCTURE

1.2.6 Nuclear reactions

Threshold kinetic energy (EK )athr for a nuclear reaction is

calculated from the relativistic invariant and is the smallest

value of projectiles kinetic energy at which the reaction will
take place:
2
2 2
2
2 2
(m
c
+
m
c
)
(m
c
+
m
c
)
a
B
b
A
a
(EK )thr =
2mAc 2

a
Threshold total energy E thr
for a nuclear reaction to occur

is:

a
E thr
=

(mBc 2 + mbc 2 )2 - (mA2c 4 + ma2c 4 )

2mAc 2

mA , ma , mB, and mb
are rest masses of A, a, B, and b, respectively.

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Review of Radiation Oncology Physics: A Handbook for Teachers and Students - 1.2.6 Slide 2

1.2 ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR STRUCTURE

1.2.7 Radioactivity

Radioactivity is a process by which an unstable nucleus

(parent) decays into a new nuclear configuration
(daughter) that may be stable or unstable.

If the daughter is unstable, it will decay further through a

chain of decays until a stable configuration is attained.

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Review of Radiation Oncology Physics: A Handbook for Teachers and Students - 1.2.7 Slide 1

1.2 ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR STRUCTURE

1.2.7 Radioactivity

Henri Becquerel discovered natural radioactivity in 1896.

Other names used for radioactive decay are:

Nuclear decay.
Nuclear disintegration.
Nuclear transformation.
Nuclear transmutation.
Radioactive decay.

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Review of Radiation Oncology Physics: A Handbook for Teachers and Students - 1.2.7 Slide 2

1.2 ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR STRUCTURE

1.2.7 Radioactivity

Radioactive decay involves a transition from the quantum

state of the parent P to a quantum state of the daughter D.

Energy difference between the two quantum states is

called the decay energy Q.

Decay energy Q is emitted:

In the form of electromagnetic radiation (gamma rays)
or
In the form of kinetic energy of the reaction products.

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Review of Radiation Oncology Physics: A Handbook for Teachers and Students - 1.2.7 Slide 3

1.2 ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR STRUCTURE

1.2.7 Radioactivity

All radioactive processes are governed by the same

formalism based on:
Characteristic parameter called the decay constant

Activity A (t) defined as N(t) where N(t) is the number of

radioactive nuclei at time t

A (t) N(t)

Specific activity a is the parents activity per unit mass:

NA is Avogadros number.
A (t) N(t) NA
a

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is atomic mass number.

Review of Radiation Oncology Physics: A Handbook for Teachers and Students - 1.2.7 Slide 4

1.2 ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR STRUCTURE

1.2.7 Radioactivity

Activity represents the total number of disintegrations

(decays) of parent nuclei per unit time.

SI unit of activity is the becquerel (1 Bq = 1 s-1).

Both becquerel and hertz correspond to s-1 yet hertz expresses
frequency of periodic motion, while becquerel expresses activity.

The older unit of activity is the curie (1 Ci 3.7 1010 s-1) ,

originally defined as the activity of 1 g of radium-226.
Currently, the activity of 1 g of radium-226 is 0.988 Ci.

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Review of Radiation Oncology Physics: A Handbook for Teachers and Students - 1.2.7 Slide 5

1.2 ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR STRUCTURE

1.2.7 Radioactivity

Decay of radioactive parent P into stable daughter D:

P
P
D

Rate of depletion of the number of radioactive parent

nuclei NP (t) is equal to the activity A P (t) at time t:
dNP (t)
- AP (t) - PNP (t)
dt

NP ( t )

dNP (t )
- P dt

NP
NP (0)
0

where NP (0) is the initial number of parent nuclei at time t = 0.

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Review of Radiation Oncology Physics: A Handbook for Teachers and Students - 1.2.7 Slide 6

1.2 ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR STRUCTURE

1.2.7 Radioactivity

Number of radioactive parent nuclei NP (t) as a function of

time t is:

NP (t) NP (0)e

- Pt

Activity of the radioactive parent AP (t) as a function of

time t is:

AP (t) PNP (t) PNP (0)e

- Pt

AP (0)e

- Pt

where A P (0) is the initial activity at time t = 0.

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Review of Radiation Oncology Physics: A Handbook for Teachers and Students - 1.2.7 Slide 7

1.2 ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR STRUCTURE

1.2.7 Radioactivity

Parent activity A P (t)

plotted against time
t illustrating:
Exponential decay
of the activity.
Concept of half life.
Concept of mean life.

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Review of Radiation Oncology Physics: A Handbook for Teachers and Students - 1.2.7 Slide 8

1.2 ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR STRUCTURE

1.2.7 Radioactivity

Half life (t1/2 )P of radioactive parent P is the time during

which the number of radioactive parent nuclei decays
from the initial value NP (0) at time t = 0 to half the initial
value
- lP (t1/2 )P
NP (t = t1/2 ) = (1/ 2)NP (0) = NP (0)e

Decay constant P and the half life (t1/2 )P are related as

follows

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ln2
lP =
(t1/2 )P

Review of Radiation Oncology Physics: A Handbook for Teachers and Students - 1.2.7 Slide 9

1.2 ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR STRUCTURE

1.2.7 Radioactivity

Decay of radioactive parent P into unstable daughter D

which in turn decays into granddaughter G:

P
D
P
D
G

Rate of change dND /dt in the number of daughter nuclei D

equals to supply of new daughter nuclei through decay of P

given as PNP (t) and the loss of daughter nuclei D from the
decay of D to G given as - DND (t)
dND
- t
PNP (t) - DND (t) PNP (0) e P - DND (t)
dt

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Review of Radiation Oncology Physics: A Handbook for Teachers and Students - 1.2.7 Slide 10

1.2 ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR STRUCTURE

1.2.7 Radioactivity

Number of daughter nuclei is:

P
- t
- t
ND (t ) NP (0)
e
e

D - P
P

Activity of the daughter nuclei is:

AD (t )

NP (0)P D - Pt
D
e - e - Dt = AP (0)
e - Pt - e - Dt
D - P
D - P

AP ( 0)

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P
1D
1

- Pt

-e

- Dt

AP (t )

D - P

1 - e -( D -P )t ,

Review of Radiation Oncology Physics: A Handbook for Teachers and Students - 1.2.7 Slide 11

1.2 ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR STRUCTURE

1.2.7 Radioactivity
At t tmax
parent and daughter
activities are equal and
the daughter activity reaches
its maximum

dAD
dt
and

tmax

=0
t=tmax

D
ln
P

D - P

P
D
Parent and daughter activities against time for P
D
G.

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Review of Radiation Oncology Physics: A Handbook for Teachers and Students - 1.2.7 Slide 12

1.2 ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR STRUCTURE

1.2.7 Radioactivity

P
D
Special considerations for the P
D
G relationship:

For lD < lP or (t1/2 )D > (t1/2 )P

General relationship (no equilibrium)

For lD > lP

or (t1/2 )D < (t1/2 )P

Transient equilibrium for t tmax

For lD >> lP or (t1/2 )D << (t1/2 )P

Secular equilibrium

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AD
lD
=
1- e-( lD -lP )t
AP lD - lP

AD
D

AP D - P

AD
1
AP

Review of Radiation Oncology Physics: A Handbook for Teachers and Students - 1.2.7 Slide 13

1.2 ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR STRUCTURE

1.2.8 Activation of nuclides

Radioactivation of nuclides occurs when a parent nuclide

P is bombarded with thermal neutrons in a nuclear reactor
and transforms into a radioactive daughter nuclide D that
decays into a granddaughter nuclide G.

sj

lD

D G

Probability for radioactivation to occur is governed by the

cross section for the nuclear reaction and the neutron
fluence rate j .
Unit of is barn per atom where 1 barn 1 b 10-24 cm2 .
-2
-1
Unit of j is cm s .
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Review of Radiation Oncology Physics: A Handbook for Teachers and Students - 1.2.8 Slide 1

1.2 ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR STRUCTURE

1.2.8 Activation of nuclides

Daughter activity AD (t) in radioactivation is described by

an expression similar to that given for the series decay
except that P is replaced by the product sj

s j lD
-l t
AD (t) =
NP (0) e -sjt - e
lD - sj
D

Time at which the daughter activity reaches its maximum

value is given by

tmax

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ln[lD /(sj )]
=
l D - sj

Review of Radiation Oncology Physics: A Handbook for Teachers and Students - 1.2.8 Slide 2

1.2 ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR STRUCTURE

1.2.8 Activation of nuclides

When sj << lD, the daughter activity expression

transforms into a simple exponential growth expression

AD (t) = s j NP (0) 1- e- l t = Asat 1- e- l t

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Review of Radiation Oncology Physics: A Handbook for Teachers and Students - 1.2.8 Slide 3

1.2 ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR STRUCTURE

1.2.8 Activation of nuclides

An important example of nuclear activation is the

production of the cobalt-60 radionuclide through
bombarding stable cobalt-59 with thermal neutrons
59
27

Co + n

60
27

Co +

or

59
27

Co(n, )60
27Co

For cobalt-59 the cross section is 37 b/atom .

Typical reactor fluence rates j are of the order of 1014 cm-2 s-1.

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Review of Radiation Oncology Physics: A Handbook for Teachers and Students - 1.2.8 Slide 4

1.2 ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR STRUCTURE

1.2.9 Modes of radioactive decay

Radioactive decay is a process by which unstable nuclei

reach a more stable configuration.
There are four main modes of radioactive decay:
Alpha decay
Beta decay
Beta plus decay
Beta minus decay
Electron capture

Gamma decay
Pure gamma decay
Internal conversion

Spontaneous fission

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Review of Radiation Oncology Physics: A Handbook for Teachers and Students - 1.2.9 Slide 1

1.2 ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR STRUCTURE

1.2.9 Modes of radioactive decay

Nuclear transformations are usually accompanied by

emission of energetic particles (charged particles, neutral
particles, photons, neutrinos)
Radioactive decay
Emitted particles

Alpha decay
Beta plus decay
Beta minus decay
Electron capture
Pure gamma decay
Internal conversion
Spontaneous fission

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particle
particle (positron), neutrino
- particle (electron), antineutrino
Neutrino
Photon
Orbital electron
Fission products

Review of Radiation Oncology Physics: A Handbook for Teachers and Students - 1.2.9 Slide 2

1.2 ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR STRUCTURE

1.2.9 Modes of radioactive decay

In each nuclear transformation a number of physical

quantities must be conserved.

The most important conserved physical quantities are:

Total energy
Momentum
Charge
Atomic number
Atomic mass number (number of nucleons)

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Review of Radiation Oncology Physics: A Handbook for Teachers and Students - 1.2.9 Slide 3

1.2 ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR STRUCTURE

1.2.9 Modes of radioactive decay

Total energy of particles released by the transformation

process is equal to the net decrease in the rest energy
of the neutral atom, from parent P to daughter D.

Decay energy (Q value) is given as:

Q M (P) - M (D) m c 2
M(P), M(D), and m are the nuclear rest masses of the
parent, daughter and emitted particles.

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Review of Radiation Oncology Physics: A Handbook for Teachers and Students - 1.2.9 Slide 4

1.2 ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR STRUCTURE

1.2.9 Modes of radioactive decay

Alpha decay is a nuclear transformation in which:

Energetic alpha particle (helium-4 ion) is emitted.
Atomic number Z of the parent decreases by 2.
Atomic mass number A of the parent decreases by 4.
A
Z

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A-4
Z-2

D 42 He

Review of Radiation Oncology Physics: A Handbook for Teachers and Students - 1.2.9 Slide 5

1.2 ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR STRUCTURE

1.2.9 Modes of radioactive decay

Henri Becquerel discovered alpha decay in 1896;

George Gamow explained its exact nature in 1928 using
the quantum mechanical effect of tunneling.

Hans Geiger and Ernest Marsden used 5.5 MeV alpha

particles emitted by radon-222 in their experiment of
alpha particle scattering on a gold foil.

Kinetic energy of alpha particles released by naturally

occurring radionuclides is between 4 MeV and 9 MeV.

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Review of Radiation Oncology Physics: A Handbook for Teachers and Students - 1.2.9 Slide 6

1.2 ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR STRUCTURE

1.2.9 Modes of radioactive decay

Best known example of alpha decay is the transformation

of radium-226 into radon-222 with a half life of 1602 years.

A
Z

226
88

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A-4
Z-2

D 42 He

Ra 222
Rn
86

Review of Radiation Oncology Physics: A Handbook for Teachers and Students - 1.2.9 Slide 7

1.2 ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR STRUCTURE

1.2.9 Modes of radioactive decay

Beta plus decay is a nuclear transformation in which:

Proton-rich radioactive parent nucleus transforms a proton into a
neutron.
Positron and neutrino, sharing the available energy, are ejected
from the parent nucleus.
Atomic number Z of the parent decreases by one; the atomic
mass number A remains the same.
Number of nucleons and total charge are conserved in the beta
decay process and the daughter D can be referred to as an isobar
of the parent P.

p n e e

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A
Z

P Z-1AD e e

Review of Radiation Oncology Physics: A Handbook for Teachers and Students - 1.2.9 Slide 8

1.2 ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR STRUCTURE

1.2.9 Modes of radioactive decay

Example of a beta plus decay is the transformation of

nitrogen-13 into carbon-13 with a half life of 10 min.
p n e e

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A
Z

P Z-1AD e e

13
7

N 136 C e+ e

Review of Radiation Oncology Physics: A Handbook for Teachers and Students - 1.2.9 Slide 9

1.2 ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR STRUCTURE

1.2.9 Modes of radioactive decay

Beta minus decay is a nuclear transformation in which:

Neutron-rich radioactive parent nucleus transforms a neutron into
a proton.
Electron and anti-neutrino, sharing the available energy, are
ejected from the parent nucleus.
Atomic number Z of the parent increases by one; the atomic mass
number A remains the same.
Number of nucleons and total charge are conserved in the beta
decay process and the daughter D can be referred to as an isobar
of the parent P.

n p e e
-

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A
Z

P Z+1AD e- e

Review of Radiation Oncology Physics: A Handbook for Teachers and Students - 1.2.9 Slide 10

1.2 ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR STRUCTURE

1.2.9 Modes of radioactive decay

Example of beta minus decay is the transformation of

cobalt-60 into nickel-60 with a half life of 5.26 y.

n p e- e

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A
Z

P Z+1AD e- e

60
27

Co 60
Ni

e
+ e
28

Review of Radiation Oncology Physics: A Handbook for Teachers and Students - 1.2.9 Slide 11

1.2 ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR STRUCTURE

1.2.9 Modes of radioactive decay

Electron capture decay is a nuclear transformation in which:

Nucleus captures an atomic orbital electron (usually K shell).

Proton transforms into a neutron.
Neutrino is ejected.
Atomic number Z of the parent decreases by one; the atomic mass
number A remains the same.
Number of nucleons and total charge are conserved in the beta
decay process and the daughter D can be referred to as an isobar of
the parent P.

p e- n e

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A
Z

P e-

D e

A
Z-1

Review of Radiation Oncology Physics: A Handbook for Teachers and Students - 1.2.9 Slide 12

1.2 ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR STRUCTURE

1.2.9 Modes of radioactive decay

Example of nuclear decay by electron capture is the

transformation of berillium-7 into lithium-7

p e- n e
A
Z
7
4

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P e-

D e

A
Z+1

Be e- 73 Li e

Review of Radiation Oncology Physics: A Handbook for Teachers and Students - 1.2.9 Slide 13

1.2 ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR STRUCTURE

1.2.9 Modes of radioactive decay

Gamma decay is a nuclear transformation in which an

excited parent nucleus P, generally produced through
alpha decay, beta minus decay or beta plus decay,
attains its ground state through emission of one or several
gamma photons.

Atomic number Z and atomic mass number A do not

change in gamma decay.

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Review of Radiation Oncology Physics: A Handbook for Teachers and Students - 1.2.9 Slide 14

1.2 ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR STRUCTURE

1.2.9 Modes of radioactive decay

In most alpha and beta decays the daughter de-excitation

occurs instantaneously, so that we refer to the emitted
gamma rays as if they were produced by the parent
nucleus.

If the daughter nucleus de-excites with a time delay, the

excited state of the daughter is referred to as a
metastable state and process of de-excitation is called an
isomeric transition.

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Review of Radiation Oncology Physics: A Handbook for Teachers and Students - 1.2.9 Slide 15

1.2 ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR STRUCTURE

1.2.9 Modes of radioactive decay

Examples of gamma decay are the transformation of

cobalt-60 into nickel-60 by beta minus decay, and transformation of radium-226 into radon-222 by alpha decay.

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Review of Radiation Oncology Physics: A Handbook for Teachers and Students - 1.2.9 Slide 16

1.2 ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR STRUCTURE

1.2.9 Modes of radioactive decay

Internal conversion is a nuclear transformation in which:

Nuclear de-excitation energy is transferred to an orbital electron
(usually K shell) .

Electron is emitted form the atom with a kinetic energy equal to

the de-excitation energy less the electron binding energy.

Resulting shell vacancy is filled with a higher-level orbital electron

and the transition energy is emitted in the form of characteristic
photons or Auger electrons.
A
Z

X * AZ X+ e-

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Review of Radiation Oncology Physics: A Handbook for Teachers and Students - 1.2.9 Slide 17

1.2 ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR STRUCTURE

1.2.9 Modes of radioactive decay

Example for both the emission of gamma photons and

emission of conversion electrons is the beta minus decay
of cesium-137 into barium-137 with a half life of 30 years.
n p e- e
A
Z

P Z+1AD e- e

137
55

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Cs 137
Ba

e
e
56

Review of Radiation Oncology Physics: A Handbook for Teachers and Students - 1.2.9 Slide 18

1.2 ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR STRUCTURE

1.2.9 Modes of radioactive decay

Spontaneous fission is a nuclear transformation by which

a high atomic mass nucleus spontaneously splits into two
nearly equal fission fragments.

Two to four neutrons are emitted during the spontaneous

fission process.

Spontaneous fission follows the same process as nuclear

fission except that it is not self-sustaining, since it does
not generate the neutron fluence rate required to sustain
a chain reaction.

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Review of Radiation Oncology Physics: A Handbook for Teachers and Students - 1.2.9 Slide 19

1.2 ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR STRUCTURE

1.2.9 Modes of radioactive decay

In practice, spontaneous fission is only energetically

feasible for nuclides with atomic masses above 230 u or
with Z 2 /A 235 .

Spontaneous fission is a competing process to alpha

decay; the higher is A above uranium-238, the more
prominent is the spontaneous fission in comparison with
the alpha decay and the shorter is the half-life for
spontaneous fission.

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Review of Radiation Oncology Physics: A Handbook for Teachers and Students - 1.2.9 Slide 20

1.3 ELECTRON INTERACTIONS

As an energetic electron traverses matter, it undergoes

Coulomb interactions with absorber atoms, i.e., with:
Atomic orbital electrons.
Atomic nuclei.

Through these collisions the electrons may:

Lose their kinetic energy (collision and radiation loss).
Change direction of motion (scattering).

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Review of Radiation Oncology Physics: A Handbook for Teachers and Students - 1.3 Slide 1

1.3 ELECTRON INTERACTIONS

Energy losses are described by stopping power.

Scattering is described by angular scattering power.

Collision between incident electron and absorber atom

may be:
Elastic
Inelastic

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Review of Radiation Oncology Physics: A Handbook for Teachers and Students - 1.3 Slide2

1.3 ELECTRON INTERACTIONS

In an elastic collision the incident electron is deflected

from its original path but no energy loss occurs.

In an inelastic collision with orbital electron the

incident electron is deflected from its original path and
loses part of its kinetic energy.

In an inelastic collision with nucleus the incident

electron is deflected from its original path and loses
part of its kinetic energy in the form of
bremsstrahlung.

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Review of Radiation Oncology Physics: A Handbook for Teachers and Students - 1.3 Slide 3

1.3 ELECTRON INTERACTIONS

Type of inelastic interaction that an electron undergoes with a

particular atom of radius a depends on the impact parameter
b of the interaction.

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Review of Radiation Oncology Physics: A Handbook for Teachers and Students - 1.3 Slide 4

1.3 ELECTRON INTERACTIONS

For b a , incident electron will undergo a soft collision

with the whole atom and only a small amount of its kinetic
energy (few %) will be transferred from the incident
electron to orbital electron.

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Review of Radiation Oncology Physics: A Handbook for Teachers and Students - 1.3 Slide 5

1.3 ELECTRON INTERACTIONS

For b a , incident electron will undergo a hard collision

with an orbital electron and a significant fraction of its
kinetic energy (up to 50 %) will be transferred to the
orbital electron.

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Review of Radiation Oncology Physics: A Handbook for Teachers and Students - 1.3 Slide 6

1.3 ELECTRON INTERACTIONS

For b a , incident electron will undergo a radiation

collision with the atomic nucleus and emit a bremsstrahlung
photon with energy between 0 and the incident electron
kinetic energy.

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Review of Radiation Oncology Physics: A Handbook for Teachers and Students - 1.3 Slide 7

1.3 ELECTRON INTERACTIONS

1.3.1 Electron-orbital electron interactions

Inelastic collisions between the incident electron and an

orbital electron are Coulomb interactions that result in:
Atomic ionization:
Ejection of the orbital electron from the absorber atom.
Atomic excitation:
Transfer of an atomic orbital electron from one allowed
orbit (shell) to a higher level allowed orbit.

Atomic ionizations and excitations result in collision

energy losses experienced by the incident electron and
are characterized by collision (ionization) stopping power.

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Review of Radiation Oncology Physics: A Handbook for Teachers and Students - 1.3.1 Slide 1

1.3 ELECTRON INTERACTIONS

1.3.2 Electron-nucleus interaction

Coulomb interaction between the incident electron and

an absorber nucleus results in:
Electron scattering and no energy loss (elastic collision):
characterized by angular scattering power.

Electron scattering and some loss of kinetic energy in the form of

bremsstrahlung (radiation loss):
characterized by radiation stopping power.

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Review of Radiation Oncology Physics: A Handbook for Teachers and Students - 1.3.2 Slide 2

1.3 ELECTRON INTERACTIONS

1.3.2 Electron-nucleus interaction

Bremsstrahlung production is governed by the Larmor

relationship:
q 2a 2
P
6 oc 3 .

Power P emitted in the form of bremsstrahlung photons

from a charged particle with charge q accelerated with
acceleration a is proportional to:
Square of the particle acceleration a.
Square of the particle charge q.

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Review of Radiation Oncology Physics: A Handbook for Teachers and Students - 1.3.2 Slide 3

1.3 ELECTRON INTERACTIONS

1.3.2 Electron-nucleus interactions

Angular distribution of the emitted bremsstrahlung

photons is in general proportional to:

sin2 q
(1- b cosq )5
At small particle velocity (u << c, i.e., b = (u /c) 0) the angular
distribution of emitted photons is proportional to sin2 .

Angle max at which the photon intensity is maximum is:

max

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arccos ( 1 15 - 1)
3

Review of Radiation Oncology Physics: A Handbook for Teachers and Students - 1.3.2 Slide 4

1.3 ELECTRON INTERACTIONS

1.3.3 Stopping power

Energy loss by incident electron through inelastic

collisions is described by total linear stopping power Stot
which represents kinetic energy EK loss by the electron
per unit path length x:

dEK
Stot =
dx

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in

MeV/cm

Review of Radiation Oncology Physics: A Handbook for Teachers and Students - 1.3.3 Slide 1

1.3 ELECTRON INTERACTIONS

1.3.3 Stopping power

Total mass stopping power (S/)tot is defined as the

linear stopping power divided by the density of the
absorbing medium.

S
1 dEK
r = r dx
tot

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in

MeV cm2 / g

Review of Radiation Oncology Physics: A Handbook for Teachers and Students - 1.3.3 Slide 2

1.3 ELECTRON INTERACTIONS

1.3.3 Stopping power

Total mass stopping power (S/)tot consists of two

components:
Mass collision stopping power (S/ )col
resulting from electron-orbital electron interactions
(atomic ionizations and atomic excitations)
Mass radiation stopping power (S/ )rad
resulting mainly from electron-nucleus interactions
(bremsstrahlung production)
Total mass stopping power is the sum of the two components

S
S
S

tot col rad
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1.3 ELECTRON INTERACTIONS

1.3.3 Stopping power

For heavy charged particles the radiation stopping power

(S/)rad is negligible thus (S/)tot (S/)col
For light charged particles both components contribute to
the total stopping power thus (S/)tot (S/)col (S/)rad
Within a broad range of kinetic energies below 10 MeV collision
(ionization) losses are dominant (S/ )col (S/ )rad ; however, the
situation is reversed at high kinetic energies.
Cross over between the two modes occurs at a critical kinetic
energy (EK )crit where the two stopping powers are equal

(EK )crit

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800 MeV
Z

Review of Radiation Oncology Physics: A Handbook for Teachers and Students - 1.3.3 Slide 4

1.3 ELECTRON INTERACTIONS

1.3.3 Stopping power

Electrons traversing an absorber lose their kinetic energy

through ionization collisions and radiation collisions.

Rate of energy loss per gram and per cm2 is called the
mass stopping power and it is a sum of two components:
Mass collision stopping power
Mass radiation stopping power

Rate of energy loss for a therapy electron beam in water

and water-like tissues, averaged over the electrons range,
is about 2 MeV/cm.

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1.3 ELECTRON INTERACTIONS

1.3.3 Stopping power

Rate of energy loss for collision interactions depends on:

Kinetic energy of the electron.
Electron density of the absorber.
Rate of collision energy loss is
greater for low atomic number Z
absorbers than for high Z
absorbers, because high Z
absorbers have lower electron
density (fewer electrons per gram).

Solid lines: mass collision stopping power

Dotted lines: mass radiation stopping power

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1.3 ELECTRON INTERACTIONS

1.3.3 Stopping power

Rate of energy loss for radiation interactions (bremsstrahlung) is approximately proportional to:
Kinetic energy of the electron.
Square of the atomic number of the absorber.
Bremsstrahlung production
through radiation losses is more
efficient for higher energy
electrons and higher atomic
number absorbers
Solid lines: mass radiation
stopping power
Dotted lines: mass collision
stopping power

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1.3 ELECTRON INTERACTIONS

1.3.3 Stopping power

Total energy loss by electrons

traversing an absorber
depends upon:
Kinetic energy of the electron
Atomic number of the absorber
Electron density of the absorber
Total mass stopping power is the
sum of mass collision and mass
radiation stopping powers
Solid lines: total mass stopping power
Dashed lines: mass collision stopping power
Dotted lines: mass radiation stopping power

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S
S
S

tot
col
rad

Review of Radiation Oncology Physics: A Handbook for Teachers and Students - 1.3.3 Slide 8

1.3 ELECTRON INTERACTIONS

1.3.3 Stopping power

Total mass stopping power (S/)tot for electrons in water,

aluminum and lead against the electron kinetic energy
(solid curves).
Solid lines:
total mass stopping power
Dashed lines:
mass collision stopping power
Dotted lines:
mass radiation stopping power

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1.3 ELECTRON INTERACTIONS

1.3.3 Stopping power

(S/)tot is used in the calculation of particle range R

-1

R (EK ) dEK

tot
0
EK

Both (S/)tot and (S/)rad are used in the determination

of radiation yield Y (EK)
1
Y
EK

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EK

(S/ )rad
dEK
(S/ )tot

Review of Radiation Oncology Physics: A Handbook for Teachers and Students - 1.3.3 Slide 10

1.3 ELECTRON INTERACTIONS

1.3.4 Mass angular scattering power

Angular and spatial spread of a pencil electron beam

traversing an absorbing medium can be approximated
with a Gaussian distribution.

Multiple Coulomb scattering of electrons traversing a path

length is commonly described by the mean square
scattering angle 2 proportional to the mass thickness r .

Mass angular scattering power T / is defined as

T 1 dq 2 q 2
=
=
r r d
r

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1.4 PHOTON INTERACTIONS

1.4.1 Types of indirectly ionizing photon irradiations

Ionizing photon radiation is classified into four categories:

Characteristic x ray
Results from electronic transitions between atomic shells

Bremsstrahlung
Results mainly from electron-nucleus Coulomb interactions

Gamma ray
Results from nuclear transitions

Annihilation quantum (annihilation radiation)

Results from positron-electron annihilation

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1.4 PHOTON INTERACTIONS

1.4.1 Types of indirectly ionizing photon irradiations

In penetrating an absorbing medium, photons may

experience various interactions with the atoms of the
medium, involving:
Absorbing atom as a whole

Nuclei of the absorbing medium

Orbital electrons of the absorbing medium.

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1.4 PHOTON INTERACTIONS

1.4.1 Types of indirectly ionizing photon irradiations

Interactions of photons with nuclei may be:

Direct photon-nucleus interactions (photodisintegration)
or
Interactions between the photon and the electrostatic field of the
nucleus (pair production).

Photon-orbital electron interactions are characterized as

interactions between the photon and either
Loosely bound electron (Compton effect, triplet production)
or

Tightly bound electron (photoelectric effect).

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1.4 PHOTON INTERACTIONS

1.4.1 Types of indirectly ionizing photon irradiations

Loosely bound electron is an electron whose binding

energy EB to the nucleus is small compared to the photon
energy h .
EB h

Interaction between a photon and a loosely bound

electron is considered to be an interaction between a
photon and a free (unbound) electron.

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Review of Radiation Oncology Physics: A Handbook for Teachers and Students - 1.4.1 Slide 4

1.4 PHOTON INTERACTIONS

1.4.1 Types of indirectly ionizing photon irradiations

Tightly bound electron is an electron whose binding

energy EB is comparable to, larger than, or slightly smaller
than the photon energy h.

For a photon interaction to occur with a tightly bound

electron, the binding energy EB of the electron must be of
the order of, but slightly smaller, than the photon energy.
EB h

Interaction between a photon and a tightly bound electron

is considered an interaction between a photon and the
atom as a whole.
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Review of Radiation Oncology Physics: A Handbook for Teachers and Students - 1.4.1 Slide 5

1.4 PHOTON INTERACTIONS

1.4.1 Types of indirectly ionizing photon irradiations

As far as the photon fate after the interaction with an atom

is concerned there are two possible outcomes:
Photon disappears (i.e., is absorbed completely) and a portion of
its energy is transferred to light charged particles (electrons and
positrons in the absorbing medium).

Photon is scattered and two outcomes are possible:

The resulting photon has the same energy as the incident photon and no light
charged particles are released in the interaction.

The resulting scattered photon has a lower energy than the incident photon
and the energy excess is transferred to a light charged particle (electron).

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Review of Radiation Oncology Physics: A Handbook for Teachers and Students - 1.4.1 Slide 6

1.4 PHOTON INTERACTIONS

1.4.1 Types of indirectly ionizing photon irradiations

Light charged particles produced in the absorbing medium

through photon interactions will:
Either deposit their energy to the medium through Coulomb
interactions with orbital electrons of the absorbing medium
(collision loss also referred to as ionization loss).

Or radiate their kinetic energy away through Coulomb interactions

with the nuclei of the absorbing medium (radiation loss).

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Review of Radiation Oncology Physics: A Handbook for Teachers and Students - 1.4.1 Slide 7

1.4 PHOTON INTERACTIONS

1.4.2 Photon beam attenuation

The most important parameter used for characterization

of x-ray or gamma ray penetration into absorbing media is
the linear attenuation coefficient .

Linear attenuation coefficient depends upon:

Energy h of the photon beam
Atomic number Z of the absorber

Linear attenuation coefficient may be described as the

probability per unit path length that a photon will have an
interaction with the absorber.

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1.4 PHOTON INTERACTIONS

1.4.2 Photon beam attenuation

Attenuation coefficient is
determined experimentally
using the so-called narrow
beam geometry technique
that implies a narrowly
collimated source of monoenergetic photons and a
narrowly collimated detector.
x represents total thickness of
the absorber
x represents the thickness
variable.

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Review of Radiation Oncology Physics: A Handbook for Teachers and Students - 1.4.2 Slide 2

1.4 PHOTON INTERACTIONS

1.4.2 Photon beam attenuation

A slab of absorber material

of thickness x decreases the
detector signal intensity
from I(0) to I(x).

A layer of thickness dx
reduces the beam intensity
by dI and the fractional
reduction in intensity, -dI/I is
proportional to
Attenuation coefficient .
Layer thickness dx.
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Review of Radiation Oncology Physics: A Handbook for Teachers and Students - 1.4.2 Slide 3

1.4 PHOTON INTERACTIONS

1.4.2 Photon beam attenuation

Fractional reduction in
intensity is given as:
dI
- x
I

After integration from 0 to x

we obtain
x

I (x)

dI
I (0) I - 0 dx or

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I(x) I(0)e

- dx
0

Review of Radiation Oncology Physics: A Handbook for Teachers and Students - 1.4.2 Slide 4

1.4 PHOTON INTERACTIONS

1.4.2 Photon beam attenuation

For a homogeneous medium const and one gets the

standard exponential relationship valid for monoenergetic
photon beams:

I(x) I(0)e

- x

Linear graph paper

0.099 mm-1

Semi-log graph paper

0.099 mm-1

or

I(x) / I(0) e- x
For x = HVL
I(x)
0.5
I(0)
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Review of Radiation Oncology Physics: A Handbook for Teachers and Students - 1.4.2 Slide 5

1.4 PHOTON INTERACTIONS

1.4.2 Photon beam attenuation

Several thicknesses of special interest are defined as

parameters for mono-energetic photon beam
characterization in narrow beam geometry:
Half-value layer (HVL1 or x1/2)
Absorber thickness that attenuates the original intensity to 50 %.

Mean free path (MFP or x )

Absorber thickness which attenuates the beam intensity to 1/e = 36.8 %.

Tenth-value layer (TVL or x1/10)

Absorber thickness which attenuates the beam intensity to 10 %.

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Review of Radiation Oncology Physics: A Handbook for Teachers and Students - 1.4.2 Slide 6

1.4 PHOTON INTERACTIONS

1.4.2 Photon beam attenuation

The relationship for x1/2, x , and x1/10 is:

ln 2 1 ln10

x1/2 x x1/10

or
x1/2

ln 2
(ln 2)x
x1/10 0.3x1/10
ln10

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Review of Radiation Oncology Physics: A Handbook for Teachers and Students - 1.4.2 Slide 7

1.4 PHOTON INTERACTIONS

1.4.2 Photon beam attenuation

In addition to the linear attenuation coefficient other

related attenuation coefficients and cross sections are in
use for describing photon beam attenuation:
Mass attenuation coefficient m

Atomic cross section a

Electronic cross section e

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Review of Radiation Oncology Physics: A Handbook for Teachers and Students - 1.4.2 Slide 8

1.4 PHOTON INTERACTIONS

1.4.2 Photon beam attenuation

Basic relationships:
m = rmm = n a m = n Z e m
Na
Na
NA
n =
=r
=r
V
m
A
where n is the number of atoms per volume of absorber with
density and atomic mass A.

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Review of Radiation Oncology Physics: A Handbook for Teachers and Students - 1.4.2 Slide 9

1.4 PHOTON INTERACTIONS

1.4.2 Photon beam attenuation

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1.4 PHOTON INTERACTIONS

1.4.2 Photon beam attenuation

E tr
Energy transfer coefficient tr
,
h
with Etr the average energy transferred from the primary photon
with energy h to kinetic energy of charged particles (e- and e+).

Eab
Energy absorption coefficient ab
,
h
with Eab the average energy absorbed in the volume of interest in the
absorbing medium.
In the literature, en is usually used instead of ab , however, the the
use of subscript ab for energy absorbed compared to the subscript
tr for energy transferred seems more logical.

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Review of Radiation Oncology Physics: A Handbook for Teachers and Students - 1.4.2 Slide 11

1.4 PHOTON INTERACTIONS

1.4.2 Photon beam attenuation

Average (mean) energy absorbed in the volume of interest

Eab = Etr - Erad
with Erad the average energy component of E tr which the
charged particles lose in the form of radiation collisions
(bremsstrahlung) and is not absorbed in the volume of
interest.

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Review of Radiation Oncology Physics: A Handbook for Teachers and Students - 1.4.2 Slide 12

1.4 PHOTON INTERACTIONS

1.4.2 Photon beam attenuation

Linear energy absorption coefficient is

Eab
E tr - Erad
Erad
mab = m
=m
= mtr - mtr
= mtr (1 - g)
hn
hn
Etr
where g is the so-called radiation fraction (the average
fraction of the energy lost in radiation interactions by the
secondary charged particles, as they travel through the
absorber).

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Review of Radiation Oncology Physics: A Handbook for Teachers and Students - 1.4.2 Slide 13

1.4 PHOTON INTERACTIONS

1.4.2 Photon beam attenuation

Mass attenuation coefficient of a compound or a mixture

is approximated by a summation of a weighted average of
its constituents:

wi

i
wi

is the proportion by weight of the i-th constituent.

i /

is the mass attenuation coefficient of the i-th constituent.

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(141/195)

1.4 PHOTON INTERACTIONS

1.4.2 Photon beam attenuation

Attenuation coefficient has a specific value for a given

photon energy h and absorber atomic number Z.
The value for the attenuation coefficient (h,Z) for a
given photon energy h and absorber atomic number Z
represents a sum of values for all individual interactions
that a photon may have with an atom:

i
i

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Review of Radiation Oncology Physics: A Handbook for Teachers and Students - 1.4.2 Slide 15

1.4 PHOTON INTERACTIONS

1.4.3 Types of photon interactions with absorber

According to the type of target there are two possibilities

for photon interaction with an atom:
Photon - orbital electron interaction
Photon - nucleus interaction

According to the type of event there are two possibilities

for photon interaction with an atom:
Complete absorption of the photon
Scattering of the photon

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Review of Radiation Oncology Physics: A Handbook for Teachers and Students - 1.4.3 Slide 1

1.4 PHOTON INTERACTIONS

1.4.3 Types of photon interactions with absorber

In medical physics photon interactions fall into four groups:

Interactions of major importance:
Photoelectric effect.
Compton scattering by free electron.
Pair production (including triplet production).

Interactions of moderate importance:

Rayleigh scattering.
Thomson scattering by free electron.

Interactions of minor importance

Photonuclear reactions (nuclear photoelectric effect)

Negligible interactions:
Thomson and Compton scattering by the nucleus.
Meson production.
Delbrck scattering.

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Review of Radiation Oncology Physics: A Handbook for Teachers and Students - 1.4.3 Slide 2

1.4 PHOTON INTERACTIONS

1.4.3 Types of photon interactions with absorber
Interaction

Symbol for
electronic
cross section

Th

Symbol for
atomic
cross section

Symbol for
linear
attenuation coefficient

Th

Th

Photoelectric effect

Pair production

pp

tp

t
pn

Thomson scattering

Rayleigh scattering
Compton scattering

Triplet production
Photodisintegration

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tp
-

a
a

pn

Review of Radiation Oncology Physics: A Handbook for Teachers and Students - 1.4.3 Slide 3

1.4 PHOTON INTERACTIONS

1.4.3 Types of photon interactions with absorber

TYPES OF TARGETS IN PHOTON INTERACTIONS

Photon-orbital electron interaction

Photon-nucleus interaction

with bound electron

Photoelectric effect
Rayleigh scattering

with nucleus directly

Photodisintegration

with free electrons

Thomson scattering
Compton scattering

with Coulomb field of nucleus

Pair production

with Coulomb field of electron

Triplet production

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Review of Radiation Oncology Physics: A Handbook for Teachers and Students - 1.4.3 Slide 4

1.4 PHOTON INTERACTIONS

1.4.3 Types of photon interactions with absorber

Types of photon-atom interactions

Complete absorption of photon
Photoelectric effect
Pair production
Triplet production
Photodisintegration

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Photon scattering
Thomson scattering
Rayleigh scattering
Compton scattering

Review of Radiation Oncology Physics: A Handbook for Teachers and Students - 1.4.3 Slide 5

1.4 PHOTON INTERACTIONS

1.4.4 Photoelectric effect

Photoelectric effect:
Photon of energy h interacts with a tightly bound
electron, i.e., with whole atom.

Photon disappears.

Conservation of energy and momentum considerations

show that photoelectric effect can occur only on a tightly
bound electron rather than on a loosely bound (free)
electron.

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Review of Radiation Oncology Physics: A Handbook for Teachers and Students - 1.4.4 Slide 1

1.4 PHOTON INTERACTIONS

1.4.4 Photoelectric effect

Orbital electron is ejected from the atom with kinetic energy

EK h - EB ,
where EB is the binding energy of the orbital electron.

Ejected orbital electron is called a photoelectron.

When the photon energy h exceeds the K-shell binding
energy EB(K) of the absorber atom, the photoelectric effect
is most likely to occur with a K-shell electron in comparison
with higher shell electrons.

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Review of Radiation Oncology Physics: A Handbook for Teachers and Students - 1.4.4 Slide 2

1.4 PHOTON INTERACTIONS

1.4.4 Photoelectric effect

Schematic diagram of the photoelectric effect

A photon with energy h interacts with a K-shell orbital electron.
Orbital electron is emitted from the atom as a photoelectron.

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Review of Radiation Oncology Physics: A Handbook for Teachers and Students - 1.4.4 Slide 3

1.4 PHOTON INTERACTIONS

1.4.4 Photoelectric effect

Photoelectric atomic cross sections for water, aluminum,

copper and lead against photon energy.

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Review of Radiation Oncology Physics: A Handbook for Teachers and Students - 1.4.4 Slide 4

1.4 PHOTON INTERACTIONS

1.4.4 Photoelectric effect

Atomic attenuation
coefficient a for
photoelectric effect is
proportional to Z 4 /(h )3.

Mass attenuation
coefficient m for
photoelectric effect is
3
3
proportional to Z /(h ) .

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Review of Radiation Oncology Physics: A Handbook for Teachers and Students - 1.4.4 Slide 5

1.4 PHOTON INTERACTIONS

1.4.4 Photoelectric effect

A plot of m against h shows, in addition to a steady

decrease in m with increasing photon energy, sharp

discontinuities when h equals the binding energy EB for

a particular electronic shell of the absorber.

These discontinuities, called

absorption edges, reflect the
fact that for h EB photons
cannot undergo photoelectric
effect with electrons in the
given shell, while for h EB
they can.
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Review of Radiation Oncology Physics: A Handbook for Teachers and Students - 1.4.4 Slide 6

1.4 PHOTON INTERACTIONS

1.4.4 Photoelectric effect

Average (mean) energy transferred from a photon with

energy h EB (K) to electrons, (EK )PE
, is given as:
tr
(EK )PE
= hn - PKw K EB (K)
tr
with

EB (K) binding energy of the K-shell electron (photoelectron).

PK
fraction of all photoelectric interactions in the K shell.
K
fluorescence yield for the K shell.

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Review of Radiation Oncology Physics: A Handbook for Teachers and Students - 1.4.4 Slide 7

1.4 PHOTON INTERACTIONS

1.4.4 Photoelectric effect

Fluorescence yield w X and function PX

Fluorescence yield w X is
defined as the number of
photons emitted per vacancy
in a given atomic shell X.

Function PX for a given shell

gives the proportion of photoelectric events in given shell
compared to the total number
of photoelectric events in the
whole atom.

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Review of Radiation Oncology Physics: A Handbook for Teachers and Students - 1.4.4 Slide 8

1.4 PHOTON INTERACTIONS

1.4.4 Photoelectric effect

Fluorescence yields K and L and functions PK and PL

The range of PK is from 1.0
at low atomic numbers Z to
0.8 at high atomic numbers
Z of the absorber.
The range in K is from 0 at
low atomic numbers Z through
0.5 at Z = 30 to 0.96 at high Z.

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Review of Radiation Oncology Physics: A Handbook for Teachers and Students - 1.4.4 Slide 9

1.4 PHOTON INTERACTIONS

1.4.4 Photoelectric effect

Mean energy transfer fraction for photoelectric effect fPE is:

fPE

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hn - (EK )PE
tr
=
hn
PKw K EB (K)
= 1hn

Review of Radiation Oncology Physics: A Handbook for Teachers and Students - 1.4.4 Slide 10

1.4 PHOTON INTERACTIONS

1.4.5 Coherent (Rayleigh) scattering

Coherent (Rayleigh) scattering:

In coherent (Rayleigh) scattering the photon interacts with
a bound orbital electron, i.e., with the combined action of
the whole atom.

The event is elastic as the photon loses essentially none

of its energy and is scattered through only a small angle.

No energy transfer occurs from the photon to charged

particles in the absorber; thus Rayleigh scattering plays
no role in the energy transfer coefficient but it contributes
to the attenuation coefficient.
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1.4 PHOTON INTERACTIONS

1.4.5 Coherent (Rayleigh) scattering

Coefficients for coherent (Rayleigh) scattering

2
Atomic cross section is proportional to (Z /h ) .
2
Mass attenuation coefficient is proportional to (Z /h ) .

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Review of Radiation Oncology Physics: A Handbook for Teachers and Students - 1.4.5 Slide 2

1.4 PHOTON INTERACTIONS

1.4.6 Compton (Incoherent) scattering

Compton (incoherent) scattering

In Compton effect (incoherent scattering) a photon with
energy h interacts with a loosely bound (free) electron.
Part of the incident photon energy is transferred to the
free orbital electron which is emitted from the atom as
the Compton (recoil) electron.

Photon is scattered through a scattering angle and its

energy hn is lower than the incident photon energy h .

Angle represents the angle between the incident

photon direction and the direction of the recoil electron.
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1.4 PHOTON INTERACTIONS

1.4.6 Compton scattering

Conservation of energy

h mec 2 h mec 2 EK
Conservation of momentum (x axis)

p p cos pe cos
Conservation of momentum (y axis)

0 -p sin pe sin
Compton expression:

Dl = lC (1- cosq )

lC =

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h
= 0.024
mec

Review of Radiation Oncology Physics: A Handbook for Teachers and Students - 1.4.6 Slide 2

1.4 PHOTON INTERACTIONS

1.4.6 Compton scattering

Scattering angle and recoil angle are related as follows

cot (1 )tan

h
me c 2

'
Relationship between the scattered photon energy h and
the incident photon energy his:
1
h ' h
1 (1 - cos )

h
me c 2

Relationship between the kinetic energy of the recoil

electron EK and the energy of the incident photon h is:
EK h

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(1 - cos )
1 (1 - cos )

h
me c 2

Review of Radiation Oncology Physics: A Handbook for Teachers and Students - 1.4.6 Slide 3

1.4 PHOTON INTERACTIONS

1.4.6 Compton scattering

Relationship between the photon scattering angle and

the recoil angle of the Compton electron:

cot (1 ) tan

me c 2

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Review of Radiation Oncology Physics: A Handbook for Teachers and Students - 1.4.6 Slide 4

1.4 PHOTON INTERACTIONS

1.4.6 Compton scattering

Relationship between the scattered photon energy h '

and the incident photon energy h :

h ' h

1
1 (1 - cos )

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h
me c 2

Review of Radiation Oncology Physics: A Handbook for Teachers and Students - 1.4.6 Slide 5

1.4 PHOTON INTERACTIONS

1.4.6 Compton scattering

Energy of Compton scattered photons h is expressed as:

hn ' = hn

1
1+ e (1- cosq )

Energy of photons scattered at q = 90o

hn
hn (q = p /2) =
1+ e

hn
= mec 2 = 0.511 MeV
hn 1+ e

hn max
(q = p /2) = lim

Energy of photons scattered at

hn (q = p ) =

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hn
1+ 2e

mec 2
hn
hn max
=
= 0.255 MeV
(q = p ) = lim
hn 1+ 2e
2

Review of Radiation Oncology Physics: A Handbook for Teachers and Students - 1.4.6 Slide 6

1.4 PHOTON INTERACTIONS

1.4.6 Compton scattering

Maximum and mean fractions of incident photon energy h

given to the scattered photon hn and to Compton (recoil)
electron EK.

hn
1
=
hn 1+ e (1- cosq )
hn max

hn
=
(q = 0) = 1
hn
hn
EK
e (1- cosq )
=
hn 1+ e (1- cosq )

(EK )max EK
2e
=
(q = p ) =
hn
hn
1+ 2e
hn min

hn
1
=
(q = p ) =
hn
hn
1+ 2e

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1.4 PHOTON INTERACTIONS

1.4.6 Compton scattering

Maximum and mean energy transfer from the photon with energy h
to Compton (recoil) electron (Compton Graph #1).
Mean energy transfer fraction for Compton effect fC.

EK
e (1- cosq )
=
hn 1+ e (1- cosq )

h
me c 2

(EK )max
2e
=
hn
1+ 2e

(EK )Ctr
fC =
hn
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1.4 PHOTON INTERACTIONS

1.4.6 Compton scattering

Electronic Compton attenuation coefficient e c steadily

decreases with increasing photon energy h .
( e s C )tr = e s C fC
(EK )Ctr
fC =
hn

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1.4 PHOTON INTERACTIONS

1.4.7 Pair production

Pair production (in field of the nucleus or orbital electron)

In nuclear pair production
Photon disappears.
An electron-positron pair with a combined kinetic energy equal to
hn - 2mec 2 is produced in the nuclear Coulomb field.
Threshold energy hn thr for nuclear pair production is:
hn thr

mec 2
2
= 2mec 1+

2m
c

e
2
M Ac
2

me

electron mass

MA

mass of nucleus

mec 2 0.511 MeV

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1.4 PHOTON INTERACTIONS

1.4.7 Pair production

In triplet production (also called electronic pair production):

Photon disappears.
An electron-positron pair is produced in the Coulomb field of an
orbital electron, and a triplet (two electrons and one positron) leave
the site of interaction.
Threshold energy for triplet production is: hn thr = 4mec 2 = 2.04 MeV
mec 2 0.511 MeV

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1.4 PHOTON INTERACTIONS

1.4.7 Pair production

Atomic cross sections for

pair production and triplet
production equal zero for
photon energies below the
threshold energy.

Atomic cross section for

pair production and triplet
production increase rapidly
with photon energy above
the threshold energy.

Atomic cross sections for pair

production: solid curves
Atomic cross sections for triplet
production: dashed curves

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1.4 PHOTON INTERACTIONS

1.4.7 Pair production

Atomic cross section for nuclear pair production ak NPP

varies approximately as the square of the atomic number
Z of the absorber.

Atomic cross section for triplet production ak TP varies

approximately linearly with Z, the atomic number of the
absorber.

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1.4 PHOTON INTERACTIONS

1.4.7 Pair production

Mass attenuation coefficient for nuclear pair production

(k /r )NPP varies approximately linearly with Z, the atomic
number of the absorber.

Mass attenuation coefficient for triplet production (k /r )TP

is essentially independent of the atomic number Z of the

absorber.

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1.4 PHOTON INTERACTIONS

1.4.7 Pair production

Attenuation coefficient for nuclear pair production exceeds

significantly the attenuation coefficient for triplet production
at same photon energy and atomic number of absorber.

k TP is at most about 30 % of ak NPP for Z = 1 and less than

1 % for high Z absorbers.

Usually, the tabulated values for pair production k include

contribution of both the pair production in the field of the
nucleus and the pair production in the field of electron, i.e.,
a

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k = ak NPP + ak TP

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1.4 PHOTON INTERACTIONS

1.4.7 Pair production

Total kinetic energy transferred from the photon to charged

particles (electron and positron) in pair production is
h - 2mec 2

Mass attenuation coefficient / is calculated from the

atomic cross section a as follows
NA

Mass energy transfer coefficient ( / )tr is:

2mec 2
fPP 1 - h
tr

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1.4 PHOTON INTERACTIONS

1.4.7 Pair production

Mean energy transfer fraction for pair production fPP

fPP

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hn - E trPP
=
hn
2mec 2
= 1hn

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1.4 PHOTON INTERACTIONS

1.4.7 Pair production

Mass attenuation coefficient / and mass energy

transfer coefficient (k /r )tr for pair production against
photon energy h .
Mass attenuation coefficient:
dashed curves
Mass energy transfer
coefficient: solid curves

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1.4 PHOTON INTERACTIONS

1.4.8 Photonuclear reactions

Photonuclear reactions (nuclear photoelectric effect):

High energy photon is absorbed by the nucleus of the absorber.
A neutron or a proton is emitted.
Absorber atom is transformed into a radioactive reaction product.

Threshold is of the order of ~10 MeV or higher, with the

exception of the deuteron and beryllium-9 (~2 MeV).

Probability for photonuclear reactions is much smaller than

that for other photon atomic interactions; photonuclear
reactions are thus usually neglected in medical physics.

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1.4 PHOTON INTERACTIONS

1.4.9 Contribution to attenuation coefficients

For a given h and Z:

Linear attenuation coefficient

Linear energy transfer coefficient tr
Linear energy absorption coefficient ab (often designated en )

are given as a sum of coefficients for individual photon

interactions

R C

mtr = t tr + (s R )tr + (s C )tr + k tr = fPEt + fCs C + fPPk

ab en tr (1- g)
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1.4 PHOTON INTERACTIONS

1.4.9 Contribution to attenuation coefficients

Mass attenuation coefficient against photon energy for carbon

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1.4 PHOTON INTERACTIONS

1.4.9 Contribution to attenuation coefficients

Mass attenuation coefficient against photon energy for lead

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1.4 PHOTON INTERACTIONS

1.4.10 Relative predominance of individual effects

Probability for a photon to undergo any one of the various

interaction phenomena with an atom of the absorber
depends:
On the energy h of the photon.
On the atomic number Z of the absorber.

In general,
Photoelectric effect predominates at low photon energies.
Compton effect predominates at intermediate photon energies.
Pair production predominates at high photon energies.

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1.4 PHOTON INTERACTIONS

1.4.10 Relative predominance of individual effects

Regions of relative predominance of the three main forms of

photon interaction with absorber.

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1.4 PHOTON INTERACTIONS

1.4.11 Effects following photon interactions

In photoelectric effect, Compton scattering and triplet

production vacancies are produced in atomic shells
through ejection of an orbital electron.

Vacancies are filled with orbital electrons making

transitions from higher to lower level atomic shells.

Electronic transitions are followed by emission of

characteristic x rays or Auger electrons; the proportion
governed by the fluorescence yield.

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1.4 PHOTON INTERACTIONS

1.4.11 Effects following photon interactions

Pair production and triplet production are followed by the

annihilation of the positron, which lost almost all its kinetic
energy through Coulomb interactions with absorber
atoms, with a free electron producing two annihilation
quanta.

The two annihilation quanta have most commonly energy

of 0.511 MeV each, and are emitted at approximately
180o to each other to satisfy the conservation of
momentum and energy.

Annihilation may also occur of an energetic positron with

an electron and this rare event is referred to as
annihilation-in-flight.
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1.4 PHOTON INTERACTIONS

1.4.12 Summary of photon interactions

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1.4 PHOTON INTERACTIONS

1.4.12 Summary of photon interactions

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1.4 PHOTON INTERACTIONS

1.4.12 Summary of photon interactions

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1.4 PHOTON INTERACTIONS

1.4.13 Example of photon attenuation

For 2 MeV photons in lead (Z = 82; A = 207.2; = 11.36 g/cm3)

the linear attenuation coefficients are as follows:

Photoelectric effect: 0.055 cm

-1
Coherent (Rayleigh) scattering: R 0.008 cm
-1
Compton scattering: C 0.395 cm
-1
Pair production: 0.056 cm
-1

Mean energy transferred

to charged particles:
(EK )tr 1.13 MeV
Mean energy absorbed
in lead: (EK )ab 1.04 MeV

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1.4 PHOTON INTERACTIONS

1.4.13 Example of photon attenuation

0.055 m-1

R 0.008 cm-1 C 0.395 cm-1

0.056 cm-1

Linear attenuation coefficient:

R C (0.055 0.008 0.395 0.056) cm-1 0.514 cm-1

Mass attenuation coefficient:

0.514 cm-1
2
m

0.0453
c
m
/g
3
11.36 g/cm

Atomic attenuation coefficient:

NA

-1

207.2 (g/mol) 0.514 cm-1

11.36 (g/cm3 ) 6.022 10 23 (atom/mol)

A
1.56 10 -23 cm2 /atom

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1.4 PHOTON INTERACTIONS

1.4.13 Example of photon attenuation

(EK )tr 1.13 MeV

m
(EK )ab 1.04 MeV

0.0453 cm2 /g

Mass energy transfer coefficient:

tr (EK )tr 1.13 MeV 0.0453 cm2 /g

0.0256 cm2 /g

h
2 MeV

Mass energy absorption coefficient:

ab (EK )ab 1.04 MeV 0.0453 cm2 /g

0.0236 cm2 /g

h
2 MeV

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1.4 PHOTON INTERACTIONS

1.4.13 Example of photon attenuation

(EK )tr 1.13 MeV

(EK )ab 1.04 MeV

ab
0.0236 cm2 /g

tr
0.0256 cm2 /g

Radiation fraction:
(EK )tr - (EK )ab
(EK )ab
1.04 MeV
g
1 1 0.08
1.13 MeV
(EK )tr
(EK )tr

or
ab /
0.0236 cm2 /g
g 1 1 0.08
2
tr /
0.0256 cm /g

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1.4 PHOTON INTERACTIONS

1.4.13 Example of photon attenuation

Conclusion:

For a 2 MeV photon in lead on the

average:
1.13 MeV will be transferred to
charged particles (electrons and
positrons).

0.87 MeV will be scattered through

Rayleigh and Compton scattering.

Of the 1.13 MeV transferred to

charged particles:
1.04 MeV will be absorbed in lead.
0.09 MeV will be re-emitted in the form
of bremsstrahlung photons.

Radiation fraction g for 2 MeV

photons in lead is 0.08.

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1.4 PHOTON INTERACTIONS

1.4.14 Production of vacancies in atomic shells

There are 8 main means for producing vacancies in

atomic shells and transforming the atom from a neutral
state into an excited positive ion:
Coulomb interaction (1) of energetic charged particle with orbital
electron.
Photon interactions
Photoelectric effect (2)
Compton effect (3)
Triplet production (4)

Nuclear decay
Electron capture (5)
Internal conversion (6)

Positron annihilation (7)

Auger effect (8)
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1.4 PHOTON INTERACTIONS

1.4.14 Production of vacancies in atomic shells

Note: Pair production does not produce shell vacancies,

because the electron-positron pair is produced in the field
of the nucleus.

Vacancies in inner atomic shells are not stable; they are

followed:
Either by emission of characteristic photons
Or by emission of Auger electrons

and cascade to the outer shell of the ionized atom (ion).

Ion eventually attracts a free electron from its surroundings

and reverts to a neutral atom (ionic recombination).

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