1) A Short History of Ancient Greece/Introduction

Greece was a state that had prime location and a great climate, which enabled the
civilization there to develop and prosper very quickly. They were able to develop a
way of life through producing and trading goods, as well as form a democratic
political system. Many great philosophers originated here.
2) Milesian Philosophers
About 2500 years ago, three philosophers lived and taught in an ancient city known
as Miletus. Thales, Anaximander, and Anaximenes were lovers of wise things, and
pursued subjects such as physical science, theology, ethics, epistemology, and
metaphysics. These philosophers were the first to separate the world into two
separate categories, the natural and supernatural.
3) Thales
An ancient philosopher known as Thales lived in Miletus and was considered one of
the Seven Sages. As records show, no writing discovered from that time has been
able to be attributed to him. Although, Aristotle mentions him which suggest that he
had access to material either written by Thales or written about him. Thales was an
astronomer and made a major discovery which was that sailors should use the
constellation Ursa Minor instead of Ursa Major to navigate. He majorly contributed
to an understanding of human behavior by suggesting that water is the source of
everything, and by suggesting that humans and animals have souls.
4) Anaximander
Anaximander was an acquaintance of Thales, and studied subjects ranging from
astronomy to politics. He is known for introducing the gnomon to Greece, which is
the upright portion of a sundial. He was also an astronomer like Thales, and created
a representation of the universe in which case earth was an immobile cylinder with
the sun, moon, and stars as rings around it. He was the first to consider that the sun
and moon rotated around the earth. He also had a theory called aperion, which
explained the existence of an infinite and invisible physical substance allowing the
world to work.
5) Anaximenes
The youngest of the three philosophers, Anaximenes learned much about the world
from Anaximander and Thales. He not only discovered and conducted an
experiment that breath could be either hot or cold, but he proposed a theory about
air being the first substance, calling it the arche. His theory suggested that if
compressed of expanded, air could turn into the other three elements. He
challenged previous perceptions of the world and the human race by creating a
physically based idea and not going over the same old ideas already discussed
previously by others.
6) Summary of Milesian Philosophy

The Milesian philosophers discussed are the founders of philosophy. They attempted
to explain the nature of the universe without injecting magical notions into the
reality of it. One theory is still in the works today, and that is the arche. It is still
unknown what the original substance was. Through the spread of philosophy thanks
to these individuals, the perceptions of human behavior and the universe were
changed.
7) Early Growth and Development of Philosophy
The Milesians studied nature and were considered to be natural philosophers. Some
philosophers however began to include humans in this category. They were highly
motivated in studying the human mind and were curious to see how our brains
comprehend nature. One of the tools most important to studying the nature of our
minds was mathematics.
8) Pythagoras
Most typically known for a theorem named after him, Pythagoras was a philosopher
from Samoa. After he died, his followers created a movement called
Pythagoreanism which introduced new notions of afterlife to the early Greek
concept of the soul which contributed to the understanding of human behavior.
9) Xenaphanes
Xenaphanes looked for natural explanations of phenomena. He was extremely
critical of pantheistic ways of thinking. He believed there to be a higher god, one
that was unknowable and didnt look like humans like Greek mythology portrays. His
scientific ideas were radical, and Aristotle and Plato disagreed, but his naturalistic
ideas paved way for modern scientific thinking which contributed to the science of
human behavior.
10) Heraclitus
Heraclitus saw the world as opposites and contradictions, and considered fire to be
the first element. He was the first to point out that opposites are demonstrations of
the same thing, like day and night for example. He considers them to be
manifestations of the same thing, not opposite entities. He contributed to the study
of human behavior by motivating others to look at these contradictions in the world.
11) Eleatic Philosophy
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12) Parmenides
Parmenides was the leader of a group that rejected the thinking of the Milesian
philosophers because they were considered Materialists. They considered all the
Materialists ideas to be wrong because the senses that created those ideas could
not be trusted. He attempted to substitute a rational and monistic philosophy in
which reason ruled.
13) Zeno of Elea

Zeno was a student of Parmenides, who created several paradoxes. Zeno defended
Parmenides views about the unchangeable nature of reality. He contributed to the
study of human behavior by exposing the disconnections between sensory data and
logical thought.
14) Melissus
Melissus was another student of Parmenides. He preferred to write in prose, which
enabled readers to better understand his writing. Similar to his teacher, he felt that
sensory data could not be trusted. He may have been the first to introduce the
concept of a void and nothingness.
15) Empedocles
Empedocles was motivated into studying the world by the influence of Parmenides and the early
Milesians. Empedocles contributed to Parmenidess ideas by being the first philosopher to establish
the Greek elements, which are air, fire, water, and earth, and added the forces of love and strife.
Empedocles changed the way people perceived the world previously by attempting to link naturalistic
and rational approaches of creation.

16) Anaxagoras
Anaxagoras was the first philosopher to move to Athens, where he continued to live for the next 30
years. He was arrested for teaching concepts that were inimical to the Greek religion, foreshadowing
Socratess later fate. Anaxagoras was known for his own version of cosmology, by introducing new
concepts of the mind as not only a motivating force, but organizing as well.

17) Democritus
Democritus was born in Abdera, which is a city in the northern province of Thrace. Democritus and
his mentor, Leucippus should have gotten credit for creating the atomist theory. They proposed the
first physical theory involving atoms. Democritus extended the theory beyond physics to include
epistemological and anthropological conclusions.

18) Protagoras
Protagoras was born in Abdera along with Democritus. He was most famous for teaching rhetoric,
the art of arguing in public. At this time in history there were no lawyers, so but accusers and
accused were to state their own cases themselves. He may have been one of the first people to write
about grammar. He loved to point out when poet and writers would misuse language.

19) Gorgias

Gorgias was known for his legendary rhetorical skills. He enjoyed making speeches as well as
arguments. Most of Gorgiass writings have been more popular than most philosophers.
***Add more to this pg66

20) Pericles and Athens Golden Age

creation.

21) Ideas emerging from the early Greek Philosophy era

creation.

Chapter 4 - Greek Philosophy

22) Alexander the Great and Hellenization

Hellenization was a phenomenon and the by which Greeks ideas were carried on westward
throughout the Mediterranean Basin and eastward into central Asia. Alexander the Great is
responsible for the start of Hellenization. During the time of his life, he and the soldiers that he lead
help spread ideas and customs from Egypt to India. Alexander also helped spread the Greek
language. The cultural mixture created by Alexander did not last long past his death, which tells us
that this gran mixture of cultures was forced unto the people.

23) Introduction to this era

Athens seemed like a completely different place after the Peloponnesian war. The Athenian-style
democracy was replaced with an oligarchy. The old system was replaced with a new system where
there were 500 people appointed to be apart of the new council.

24) Socrates
Socrates was an active member in the Assembly, who was involved in the decisions that led to
military disaster of Sicily. He was able to change philosophy in several ways: focusing on human
problems, not physical ones did this. Another was he refused to allow the Sophist that easy luxury of
their relativism.

25) Plato
Plato pg76

26) Aristotle/ Border with Biology - The Founding of Biology

Aristotle is the original founder of Biology. He wrote a number of things that dealt with animals. He
covered topics that had to do with motion, the senses, breathing, sleep and aging. Aristotle though

the importance of studying plants and animals was a specific quest for knowledge. After his death,
the study of biology lost its early momentum and was later regained in the 16th century.

27) Anisthenes
Anisthens was Gorgias student, and later, of Socrates. He lived an ascetic life and argues that the
pursuit of pleasure was dangerous because of the individual freedom that it brought a person. He
saw freedom as something that would eventually imprison those who perused it. Today, there is a
debate whether he was the first Cynic or the last Socratic.

28) Diogenes of Sinope

Diogenes became a archetypical Cynic philosopher when he moved to Athens, exposing the
behaviors and traditions of Greek society as counterfeits. He was able to show that by living a life
where he lived in a barrel and begged for food that he was happier than a person who had
everything. His life demonstrates that one could be happy, even with a simple life.

29) Crates
Crates was a Cynic philosopher that chose to give his passed down fortune away. He fell into
Diogeness footsteps and could have well been his student as well. He was well respected for his
commitment to the Cynic pursuit of a life of virtue. Many people admired him and were eager to listen
to his teachings

30) Hipparchia
Hipparchia was a student of Theophrastus. She eventually married Crates, despite what her family
thought. Marriage was not typical among cynic philosophers, but their Greek marriage was not
ordinary. She was living the same life as him and viewed herself as an equal to her husband. She
wore similar clothing and baggage as Crates. She was truly a role model that broke new ground for
women.

31) Stoicism
Stoicism is what grew out of Cynism. This was about embracing the world and believing that the
gods had a plan for the future. After about 500 years, it actually became the dominant philosophy of
the Roman Empire.

32) Zeno of Citium

Zeno first became a cynic and followed Crate and later practiced stoicism. Zenos early version of
Stoicism encompassed ethics, physics, and logic. His ethics were about happiness being the goal of
life, which was similar to Socratess.

33) Chrysippus

Chrysippus became the head of Stoics after Clenthes passed away. He got some of his ideas from
Zeno. He believed that the past was unchangeable and did not ever promote a philosophy in which
the future was inevitably determined by the past.

34) Skepticism
Skepticism began with Pyrrho but was not fully established until 200 years after his death. This
came in forms of dreams and hallucinations, which was not connected to reality.

35) Pyrrho
Pyrrho studied with Anaxarchus of Abdera. They both went to India and was influences to live a
tranquil and ascetic life. He was widely admired for the lifestyle that he lived and Athens made him a
citizen. He was also famous for not wincing during surgery performed without surgery. Many
believed that this was perhaps learned from philosophers that he met in India.

36) Epicureans
The Epicureans were atomist cast from the same mold as Democritus. They looked up the Greek
gods as role models for human behavior even though they a thought that the gods were not
interested in human affairs. This group sought tranquility instead of wealth and power. They created
a system of ethics that promoted a lifestyle, and an early account of evolution of the human sociality.

37) Epicurus
Epicurus initially moved to Athens to fulfill military obligations. Later he became a philosopher where
he receives Democrituss atomic theory of matter and had made changes to it that counter criticized
the one made by Aristotle and others. He is most famous for his pursuit of tranquility. He saw pain as
evil and pleasure as good.

38) Ideas emerging from the Greek Philosophy era

The modern world at this time has become more and more cosmopolitan due to electronic media.
Law schools are continuously the Socratic method. Doctors and health professionals continue to
promote moderation as a way to better health.

Chapter 5 - From Philosophy to Faith

39) Religion/Introduction
Religious beliefs and practices have been around and apart of the human experience since the
Neolithic era. Greek philosophers were the first ones that came up with explanations for supernatural
experiences, while still being connected to their philosophical systems of ideas. The introduction is
about the continuing conflicts between Christianity and Islam. The conflicts have actually helped to
strengthen the future for these religions.

40) Greek Medicine

Greek Medicine evolved into an empirical practice. Hippocrates was among the first to point out the
natural nature of disease and he firmly rejected the use of supernatural explanations. Galen later
used some of the ancient Greek medicine with his own knowledge to create writings for medicine.

41) Alcmaeon
Alcmaeon was one of the first writers and teachers of the medical arts. In one of his books he wrote
about nature and explaining why he rejected revelation as a source of knowledge and focused more
on a naturalistic view. His medical views were basically about the balance or imbalance of opposites.

42) Hippocrates
Hippocrates was born in Greece in a family where his father and grandfather were both physicians.
Hippocratic medicine was mostly centered on clinical care and prognosis. Hippocrates
recommended that his patients would clean themselves and to be aware of what they are exposed
to. He always used naturals means to bring people back to health. Hippocrates influenced the later
developments in medicine in ways that are imaginable. Although, not all of his practices were
adapted, he still made a huge impact to the science.

43) Galen
Galen was a Greek Physician from Pergamum. He moved to Rome where he soon became famous
as a physician and was acknowledged by the emperor. He was interested in dissecting animals and
was the first person to demonstrate how muscles worked.

44) Neo-Platonism
Neo-Platonism is the work that exceeded Platos death. It coexisted with the new and expansive
Christian doctrine, and in many ways, was a rear guard defense of the tenets of Greek Philosophy.

45) Philo
Philo had education through both Jewish and Greek traditions. The combination of the two was
important for his later writings in which he tried to reconcile the two ancient intellectual traditions. He
later served as a catalyst for later Christian theology. He was able to use his writings and implement
his own thinking.

46) Plotinus
Plotinus had adapted Platos teachings. He believed that the highest form of happiness came from
trying to understand the content that Plato taught. He thought that by leaving material possessions
behind and moving toward good was the correct path to take.

47) The Rise of the Christian Faith

Christianity was a way that a person could turn away from the world and live a life in heaven after
death for some and eternal damnation for others. This new era emphasized the role of a persons
soul as the important part of personhood and turning away from materialism to a more introspective
philosophy.

48) Augustine of Hippo/Early Phenomenology and Cognitive Psychology

Augustine left the Roman Church as a young man and became apart of the Manichean sect. This
was a rapidly spreading religion that had originated in Persia. They taught that sin was not the fault
of a person, but because of evil in the world. He later converted to Christianity in 387. He created a
new Christian philosophy. He mentioned that his relationship with God was very important in his life.
Early phenomenology and cognitive psychology: the stoics may have been the first to crack open the
door to cognitive psychology by assigning people the ability to assent to their fates

49) Muhammad and the Rise of Islam

creation. Muhammad was born in Mecca in 570. His social standings and financial status was
improved by marrying a rich widow named Khadija. He was able to talk to many travelers and teach
them new things. He had a few followers that were interested in what he did and looked up to him.

50) Islamic Scholars

creation.
Pg110

51) Al-Kindi

Al-Kindi was known as the first philosopher in the Arabic world. His influence on Arabic science
was not noticed until his death. He paved the way for many scholars. His work laid the groundwork
for later Arabic scholars and was vital for the renewal of knowledge in Christian Europe.

52) Al-Farabi
creation.

53) Avicenna
creation.

54) Averroes and Exegesis

creation.

55) The Role of Women

creation.

56) Ideas from the era from Philosophy to Faith

creation.