Radiation Protection Distance Learning Project

Module 2.2 - Protection From External Radiation Hazards

INTERNATIONAL ATOMIC ENERGY AGENCY

RADIATION PROTECTION
Module 2.2

Use of this material, acknowledging the IAEA as the source, is permitted for
non-profit training

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Module 2.2 - Protection From External Radiation Hazards

PART 2
RADIATION PROTECTION

MODULE 2.2
PROTECTION FROM EXTERNAL RADIATION HAZARDS

CONTENTS
OVERVIEW.................................................................................................... 4
LEARNING OBJECTIVES ............................................................................. 5
1.

EXTERNAL RADIATION HAZARDS ...................................................... 6

1.1 Introduction ......................................................................................... 6
1.2 The Effect of Radiation Type on External Radiation Hazard ............... 6
1.3 Sources of External Radiation Hazards............................................... 7

SELF-CHECK 1 ............................................................................................. 8
2.

CONTROLLING THE EXTERNAL RADIATION HAZARD...................... 8

2.1 Basic Techniques ................................................................................ 8
2.1.1 Time ............................................................................................. 9
2.1.2 Distance ..................................................................................... 11
2.1.3 Shielding .................................................................................... 13

SELF-CHECK 2 ........................................................................................... 16
2.2 Administrative Controls ..................................................................... 17
2.2.1 Classification of areas ................................................................ 17
2.2.2 The radiation warning symbol .................................................... 20
2.2.3 Investigation levels..................................................................... 20
2.3 Physical Controls .............................................................................. 21
SELF CHECK 3 ........................................................................................... 21
3.

SHIELDING CALCULATIONS .............................................................. 22

3.1 Shielding of Beta Particles ................................................................ 23
3.2 Shielding of X- and Gamma Rays ..................................................... 25
3.2.1 The attenuation of x- and gamma rays....................................... 25
3.2.2 Half value and tenth value layers ............................................... 26

SELF-CHECK 4 ........................................................................................... 32

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4. CALCULATING GAMMA RAY DOSE RATES FOR DIFFERENT

RADIONUCLIDES ....................................................................................... 33
4.1 Introduction ....................................................................................... 33
4.2 Calculating Dose Rates Using The Specific Gamma Dose Rate
Constant ................................................................................................... 34
SELF-CHECK 5 ........................................................................................... 36
KEY POINTS ............................................................................................... 36
GLOSSARY OF TERMS.............................................................................. 40

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OVERVIEW
Radiological hazards are divided into external and internal radiation hazards
and both of these can lead to exposure. External radiation hazards are due
to radioactive materials outside the body. Internal radiation hazards exist
when there is the potential for radioactive materials to enter the body. The
radiation protection methods for each type of hazard are different and this
module covers the protection from external radiation hazards only. The next
module, Module 3.3, Protection from Internal Radiation Hazards, will deal
with the protection methods for internal radiation hazards.
In this module, you will learn about the three main methods of protection
against external radiation hazards those of time, distance and shielding.
You will also learn how to apply these methods for protection against the
common types of radiation emitted by sealed sources and by radiation
apparatus.

MATERIALS
A scientific calculator would assist with the calculations.

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Module 2.2 - Protection From External Radiation Hazards

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
When you have completed this module you will be able to do the following:
1. Distinguish between external and internal radiation hazards.
2. State the effects of radiation type on the external radiation hazard.
3. Distinguish between radioactive materials and x-ray devices as external
radiation hazards.
4. State the three basic methods of external radiation control.
5. Give practical examples of how time and distance can be used to
minimize radiation exposure.
6. List appropriate shielding materials for the various types of ionizing
radiation.
7. Explain how areas may be classified according to dose rate
measurements and occupancy factors.
8. Recognise and draw the radiation warning symbol.
9. Explain the term investigation levels and state why they are necessary.
10. Give examples of physical and administrative controls that may be used
in the workplace.
11. Perform simple calculations for the shielding of beta particles.
12. Perform simple calculations for the shielding of x-ray and gamma
radiation using half-value and tenth value layers.
13. Perform point source dose rate calculations by applying specific
gamma-ray constants.
14. Compare the methods of distance and shielding by performing relevant
calculations.

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NOW YOU ARE READY TO START WORK

1.

EXTERNAL RADIATION HAZARDS

1.1 Introduction
External radiation is radiation from a source outside the body. An external
radiation hazard exists when ionizing radiation from a source outside the
body has the potential to cause harm.

This is different from an internal

radiation hazard which exists when there is a potential for exposure from
radioactive materials entering the body (see Module 2.3 Protection from
Internal Hazards).

We use different methods to control the external and

internal radiation hazards.

1.2 The Effect of Radiation Type on External Radiation Hazard
Alpha and beta particles, gamma rays, x-rays and neutrons are all types of
ionizing radiation (see Module 1.4 Interaction of Radiation With Matter).
However, not all of these are external radiation hazards. The degree to
which each is an external radiation hazard is discussed below.
Alpha particles have only a very short range in air (a few centimetres), and
are not considered an external radiation hazard since they cannot penetrate
the outer layers of the skin.
Beta particles are more penetrating than alpha particles, with the penetrating
power of beta particles being dependent on their energy. Energetic beta
particles can travel several metres in air and can also penetrate the outer
layers of the skin to a few millimetres (e.g. 1 MeV beta particles close to the
skin can penetrate approximately 5 mm). If a solution containing a beta
emitting radionuclide is spilled onto the skin, even a small drop may give a
large dose to the skin tissue. The only other organ of importance in the case
of external beta irradiation of the eye beta particles are not considered to
be an external radiation hazard to any other body organs. Bremsstrahlung
radiation arising from high energy beta interactions with high atomic number
materials will lead to the production of x-rays which are a greater external
radiation hazard than the original beta particles.

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X- and gamma rays are forms of short wavelength electromagnetic radiation

which will penetrate all organs of the body and are a significant external
radiation hazard.

The energy of the x-ray and gamma photons is an

important factor in determining the magnitude of the external radiation

hazard.
Neutrons are also highly penetrating. They give energy to the body as they
are scattered in body tissues. Neutrons are an important external radiation
hazard which require careful control.
Table 1 summarises the relative hazard of the different types of radiation
from sources outside the human body.

Table 1
Relative External Radiation Hazards
Radiation Type

Relative External Radiation Hazard

Alpha Particles

None

Beta Particles

Slight

Gamma Rays

Severe

X-Rays

Severe

Neutrons

Severe

1.3 Sources of External Radiation Hazards

External radiation hazards can be produced in two ways. One way is from
equipment or devices, that when operated, produce ionizing radiation. The
second way is from radioactive materials.
X-ray generators are a common ionizing radiation emitting device. When
they are turned on, x-rays are produced and the device represents an
external radiation hazard. However, when turned off, the production of xrays is stopped and the external radiation hazard is eliminated.

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In contrast, beta particles, X- and gamma rays emitted from radioactive

materials represent a continuous external radiation hazard.

Radioactive

materials cannot be turned off but they can be placed in containers or

surrounded in a shielding material that will reduce the external radiation
hazard to an acceptable level.

SELF-CHECK 1
Now see how much you have understood by answering the following
questions in your workbook:
1. What is the difference between an external and internal radiation
hazard?
2. Why are alpha particles not considered to be an external radiation
hazard?
3. For which organs can beta particles be an external radiation hazard?
4. Which types of radiation can penetrate the body?
5. What is the major difference between X-ray generators and radioactive
materials as external radiation hazards?
Now check your answers with the model answers in the your workbook.

2.

CONTROLLING THE EXTERNAL RADIATION HAZARD

2.1 Basic Techniques

There are three basic methods for controlling external radiation hazards.
These are:
a)

Time.

b)

Distance.

c)

Shielding.

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Application of these methods can reduce the dose received as a result of

exposure to external ionizing radiation. Each method is discussed in detail in
the following sections.
2.1.1 Time
Controlling time is an important method for reducing the exposure to ionizing
radiation.

By reducing the time spent working with or being exposed to

radioactive materials, the dose received can be minimized. In simple terms,

the radiation dose received by a person working in an area with a certain
dose rate is dependent on the time spent in that area.
This relationship is given by Equation 1:
D=RxT

[1]

where D = Dose received

R = Dose rate
T = Time of exposure
Hence, if the time of exposure to a fixed dose rate source is decreased, then
the overall dose received is also decreased. This is illustrated by Example 1.
Example 1
Question
An occupationally exposed person usually spends 3 hours working on a
process which has an accompanying dose rate of 5 Sv h-1 (i.e. 5
microsieverts per hour). The process is improved such that the process time
is reduced to 1.5 hours. What is the difference in dose received by the
worker?
Answer
Using Equation 1:
Before the change in process, the total dose received was:
D = 5 Sv h-1 x 3 h = 15 Sv
After the change in process, the total dose received is:

Radiation Protection Distance Learning Project

Module 2.2 - Protection From External Radiation Hazards

D = 5 Sv h-1 x 1.5 h = 7.5 Sv

Hence, the difference in dose received is:
15 Sv - 7.5 Sv = 7.5 Sv
It can also be seen from Example 1 that, for a fixed dose rate:
Remember

If you halve the exposure time, the dose received is halved.

Conversely:
Remember

If you double the exposure time, the dose received is doubled.

It is important to remember these rules both for your own protection and for
the protection of other radiation workers.
The relationship in Equation 1 can also be used to ensure that dose limits
and constraints are not exceeded in the workplace. Controlling the hourly
dose rates of occupational workers, ensures that annual limits or constraints
are not exceeded. This is illustrated in Example 2.
Example 2
Question
If a radiation worker spends 40 hours per week, 50 weeks per year working
with sources of radiation and the annual dose constraint is 10 mSv, what is
the maximum hourly dose rate allowed?
Answer
Maximum dose allowable = 10 000 Sv
Time of Exposure = 40 x 50 = 2 000 hours
From Equation 1:
10 000 Sv = R x 2 000 h
Hence
R = 10 000 Sv = 5 Sv h-1
2 000 h

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The maximum dose rate allowed is therefore 5 Sv h-1.

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To ensure that

workers do not exceed the annual dose constraint, their exposure should be
controlled to an average of 5 Sv h-1.
The concept of time is also useful in planning work that may lead to external
radiation exposure. Often it may be useful to practice a technique without an
actual radiation source being present.

This should help to reduce the

exposure time and hence the total dose received.

2.1.2 Distance
Controlling distance is another useful method of external radiation control.
In simple terms, the greater the distance from a source of penetrating
radiation, the less the overall exposure.
The relationship between the dose rate from a point source (a source which
is small in size) and the distance from the source is given by Equation 2:
R=k
d2

[2]

where R = Dose rate

d = Distance from the source
k = A constant value for a particular radioactive source.
The relationship in Equation 2 is known as the inverse square law and you
will gain practical experience of this law in Practical Activity 1 of this module.
Equation 2 can be rewritten to form Equation 3:
R d2 = k

[3]

As k is a constant value for a particular source, if the source is not changed

then we can write Equation 4:
R1 d12 = R2 d22
where R1 = Dose rate at distance d1 from the point source
R2 = Dose rate at distance d2 from the point source

[4]

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In practice, we can assume that physically small sources are, in effect, point
sources provided that the distance from the source is at least ten times the
largest dimension of the source.
In radiation protection, distance is often used to reduce exposure to ionizing
radiation, e.g. by restricting access close to sources or by using long
handling tools (e.g. tongs).
If we know the dose rate at a particular distance from the source, then it is
possible to calculate the distance at which dose rates are considered
acceptable. This concept is illustrated in Example 3.
Example 3
Question
The dose rate at 2 m from a gamma source is 125 Sv h-1. At what distance
will it give an acceptable dose rate of 5 Sv h-1?
Answer
Using Equation 4 and substituting the values gives:
125 x 22 = 5 x d22
Rearranging this equation gives:
d22 = 500 = 100
5
d2 = 100 m = 10 m
Hence, by increasing the distance from the source from 2 m to 10 m, we can
reduce the dose rate considerably.
A useful way of remembering the distance principle is:
Remember

When the distance from a radiation source is doubled, the dose rate is
reduced to a quarter of its original value.
Again, it is important to remember this rule in order to reduce exposure to
yourself and your colleagues.

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2.1.3 Shielding
Example 3 above gives a good illustration of how distance may be used to
reduce the dose rates and hence overall dose received. However, in many
situations it is not possible to work with a source if it is more than a metre
away from you. A more practical method for reducing exposure in workplace
situations is to shield the source. By using this method, dose rates may be
reduced whilst still allowing work to be performed.
The amount and type of shielding material required depend on the following
factors:
The type and energy of radiation.
The activity of the source (or intensity of radiation from a generator).
The acceptable dose rate outside the shielding.
In Section 1.2 you learnt about the penetrating power of different types of
radiation. This is summarized in Figure 1.

Figure 1

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The Penetrating Properties of Ionizing Radiation

Alpha particles have a short range in air (a few centimetres) and are easily
absorbed so they do not require shielding.
Low energy beta particles such as those from tritium (maximum energy
0.019 MeV) are also easily absorbed and do not require shielding.
However, higher energy beta particles such as those from phosphorus-32
(maximum energy 1.7 MeV) are more penetrating and interact with shielding
materials to produce bremsstrahlung radiation. Beta shields constructed of a
low atomic number material (e.g. perspex) will reduce the intensity of beta
particles and minimize the production of bremsstrahlung radiation. It may,
however, still be necessary to use additional shielding to protect the worker
from the bremsstrahlung.

In which case, perspex surrounded by lead is

recommended.
It is important not to underestimate the hazard of unshielded beta sources
as they are capable of imparting large doses (especially to the hands and
fingers) if they are handled directly. This is particularly important for people
handling vials or syringes containing beta emitters in solution. For example,
a small volume of solution containing a high level of activity of phosphorus32 may give dose rates at the surface of thin-walled plastic tubes in excess
of 1 mSv min-1.
X- and gamma rays are much more penetrating than either alpha or beta
particles. Shielding with materials of a high atomic number (e.g. concrete,
lead or iron) is necessary to attenuate the radiation and reduce the dose rate
to acceptable levels.

The amount of attenuation is dependent on the

shielding material, its thickness and the energy of the incident photons.
Shielding for neutrons is more complex due to the wide range of energies
and the different reactions that may occur.

The process of shielding

neutrons involves firstly the slowing of energetic neutrons by elastic

scattering, and then their capture. For these two actions to occur, a suitable
shielding material should incorporate a combination of material with a high
hydrogen content (e.g. water, paraffin wax, polythene, concrete) to slow

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down the neutrons plus boron to absorb them. Borated paraffin wax is the
name given to a mixture of paraffin wax and boron which may be used as a
small area shield. The capture reaction with boron-10 is written as follows:
10

B (n,) 7 Li

This means that the boron-10 nucleus absorbs a neutron, emits an alpha
particle and becomes a lithium-7 nucleus.

The alpha particle is easily

absorbed in the surrounding material. The reaction also produces a gamma

ray with an energy of 0.48 MeV which may require additional shielding.
Other neutron capture reactions can produce high energy gamma radiation.
An example of such a reaction is neutron absorption by iron-58. This is
written as follows:
58

Fe (n, )

59

Fe

This reaction produces a gamma ray with a high energy of 7.6 MeV. Hence,
iron is not a good shield in a nuclear reactor environment.
Table 2 shows shielding materials which are recommended for different
types of radiation.

The methods used for estimating the thickness of

shielding required for beta particles, x- and gamma rays will be discussed in
Section 3 of this module.

Table 2
Recommended Shielding Material
Radiation Type

Recommended Shielding Material

Alpha Particles

None

Low Energy Beta Particles

None

High Energy Beta Particles

Perspex surrounded by lead

X- and Gamma Rays

Concrete, lead, iron

Neutrons

Concrete, water, polythene, borated

paraffin wax

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Note that the choice of shielding material is often related to cost, space and
convenience.

Lead is not easy to work with, is poisonous and, in large

sheets, can sag without good support.

On the other hand, concrete is

cheaper and easier to handle but large thicknesses may be required for
effective shielding.

SELF-CHECK 2
Now see how much you have understood by answering the following
questions in your workbook:
1.

What are the three basic methods that can be used to control the
external radiation hazard?

2.

An occupationally exposed person usually spends 15 hours working on

a process which has an accompanying dose rate of 5 Sv h-1 (i.e. 5
microsieverts per hour). The process is improved such that the process
time is reduced to 7.5 hours. What is the difference in dose received by
the worker?

3.

If an occupationally exposed worker spends 20 hours per week working

with radioactive materials and the maximum acceptable external dose
for that person is 200 Sv per week, what is the maximum hourly dose
rate allowable?

4.

The dose rate at 1m from a certain gamma source is 900 Sv h-1. At

what distance will the dose rate be 25 Sv h-1?

5.

What factors are important when considering the amount and type of
shielding materials required for external radiation?

6.

Give a suitable shielding material for each of the following radiations:

a)

Alpha particles.

b)

Low energy beta particles (e.g. tritium).

c)

High energy beta particles (e.g. phosphorus-32).

d)

X-rays and gamma rays.

e)

Neutrons.

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Now check your answers with the model answers in the your workbook.

2.2 Administrative Controls

An administrative control is a method of administration which prevents or
minimizes exposure to the external radiation hazard. Administrative controls
include the following procedures:

Classification of areas.

Display of clear signs for each classified area.

Radiological protection training for workers and managers.

Work procedures which incorporate the use of time, distance and

shielding.

Local rules (e.g. restriction of access to certain areas) and conditions

of work (e.g. requirement to wear an alarming dosimeter).

Maintenance of source inventories for each area.

Radiation safety auditing system which includes safety assessment

of work procedures, plant and equipment.

Use of investigation levels for personal dose monitoring and

workplace monitoring results.

The controls of time, distance and shielding have already been discussed in
Section 2.1. The classification of areas, the international radiation warning
symbol and the use of investigation levels will be discussed in the next three
sections. The other methods of administrative controls will be discussed in
the relevant modules of Parts 4 and 5 of this distance learning material.
2.2.1 Classification of areas
Work areas can be classified according to the level of the external radiation
hazard. (They may also be classified according to the level of the internal
hazard.

This will be discussed in Module 2.3 Protection from Internal

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Hazards.)

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A classification system in which areas may be classified as

controlled or supervised is recommended in the Basic Safety Standards.

A controlled area is one where specific protection measures and safety
provisions are or could be required to control normal exposures and to
prevent or limit potential exposures.
A supervised area is where occupational exposure conditions are kept
under review but no specific protection measures are required.
An unclassified area is where no protection methods are required and the
occupational exposures do not need to be kept under review.
Generally, the classification of areas varies in accordance with the particular
needs of the workplace and is usually based on operational experience and
judgement. One way of classifying areas is with respect to the potential
annual dose to workers. Table 3 shows an example of how potential annual
doses can be used in the classification of areas.

Table 3
Example of Area Classification with Respect to Annual Dose
Area Classification

Potential Annual Dose

(mSv)

Controlled

Greater than 6

Supervised

1 to 6

Unclassified

Less than 1

In practice, areas are usually classified according to the measured dose rate
at the boundary of the area. Dose rate values are determined by considering
the potential dose which is acceptable as an annual dose together with the
amount of time spent by workers in the classified area (occupancy time).
The occupancy time is often written as a fraction of the total work time and is

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known as the occupancy factor. For example an occupancy factor of 0.2

means that a worker spends one fifth (or 20%) of their working time in a
particular area.

This corresponds to 400 working hours during one year

(assuming a standard working year of 50 weeks, 40 hours per week). Table

4 shows how areas could be classified according to dose rate if an
occupancy factor of 0.2 is assumed.
Table 4
Example of Area Classification with Respect to Annual Dose Rate
Area Classification

Average Dose Rate*

Sv h-1

Controlled

greater than 15

Supervised

2.5 to 15

Unclassified

less than 2.5

* Assuming an occupancy factor of 0.2

The dose rate values given in Table 4 have been calculated by dividing the
annual dose (in microsieverts) given in Table 3 by 400 hours.
Note that the values given above are an example only and the dose rate
approach to area classification must be used very carefully, taking into
account the individual workplace conditions. It is very difficult to assess an
average dose rate, and information about the length of time the dose rate
stays at or above the defined levels along with the risk of potential exposure
should be considered.

However, this method, if applied carefully, does

provide adequate control of the external radiation hazard.

Once areas have been classified in a workplace, these areas should be
clearly marked with visual signs to ensure that workers and visitors are
aware of the classification in that area and what the classification means . In
addition, the boundaries to each area should be clearly defined.
It should also be noted that when working in classified areas with high dose
rates, additional administrative controls may need to be applied.

For

example, local rules may include a written system of work which limits the
time spent in the area on a particular type of work.

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2.2.2 The radiation warning symbol

As human senses cannot detect ionizing radiation, it is important to use
warning signs wherever an external radiation hazard is present. Warning
signs should be placed on the source itself as well as in the vicinity of the
source and at barriers/boundaries to the area where the source is stored.
The international symbol for ionizing radiation is the trefoil as shown in
Figure 2.

Yellow
Black

Figure 2
The Radiation Warning Symbol
This symbol can be used to warn radiological hazards in areas or on sources
themselves.

The trefoil is internationally accepted as black on a yellow

background. However, these colours may vary in some countries.

2.2.3 Investigation levels
As part of an effective radiation protection program, routine monitoring of the
workplace and personnel should be performed.

The results of these

measurements should be reviewed regularly and any irregularities or

differences from normal measurement values should be noted. In addition,
investigation levels should be set such that for any measured value at or
above a certain level, an investigation into the cause takes place.

For

example, a routine area survey indicates an unusually high dose rate of 50

Sv h-1 at the surface of a working facility. The usual dose rate is less than
5 Sv h-1 and the investigation level is set at 10 Sv h-1. In this case, an
investigation into the cause of the high dose rate should be performed. This
investigation should include such things as an examination of work practices,
equipment and/or plant to identify the cause. Once the reason for the high
dose rate has been established, preventative measures should be taken to

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ensure that the potential exposure of workers remains as low as reasonably

achievable at all times.

In this way, the exposure to external radiation

hazards can be controlled on a routine basis.

In practice, investigation levels are usually defined during the planning of a
radiation protection program. They should however be reviewed at regular
intervals to ensure compliance with relevant dose limits and constraints and
to ensure that exposures are kept as low as reasonably achievable.
2.3 Physical Controls
Although administrative controls provide a basis for a radiation protection
program, these controls rely on familiarity with written procedures. If a new
worker is not aware of these procedures, or these procedures are not
followed correctly for any other reason, then the potential exists for
accidental exposure to ionizing radiation. In order to ensure that the chance
of accidental exposure is as low as possible, physical controls are
employed in the workplace. These controls are essentially physical barriers
which incorporate a range of radiation protection techniques. The following
list gives some useful examples of physical controls:

The use of engineering interlocks which restrict or prevent access to

hazardous area.

The incorporation of fixed shielding into the design of plant and

equipment.

The use of remote manipulators to eliminate direct handling and

provide increased source operator distance.

The use of preset timers in the case of radiography equipment to

control exposure times.

SELF CHECK 3
Now see how much you have understood by answering the following
questions in your workbook:

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1.

Draw the international radiation warning sign, indicating its colour and
background colour.

2.

Give two examples of administrative controls (other than time, distance

and local shielding) which can be used for the protection from external
radiation hazards.

3.

4.

Define the following terms:

a)

Controlled area.

b)

Supervised area.

c)

Unclassified area.

Once an area has been classified, what should be done to ensure that
workers and visitors are aware of the classification in that particular
area?

5.

a) What does an occupancy factor of 0.5 mean?

b) Suggest average dose rates which could be used to classify areas
where the occupancy factor is 0.5.

6.

a) Define the term investigation level.

b) Why should investigation levels be used in radiation protection?

7.

Give two examples of physical controls which can be used for the
protection from external radiation hazards.
Now check your answers with the model answers your workbook.

3.

SHIELDING CALCULATIONS

The information in this section will enable you to make estimations of the
thickness of shielding required for beta particles, x- and gamma rays. This
material is intended to be an introduction to shielding. Further information for
shielding in industrial and medical facilities (e.g dose rates from x-ray
generators) is given in the industry specific modules in Part 4 of this distance
learning course. Neutron shielding calculations are complex and beyond the
scope of this course.

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3.1 Shielding of Beta Particles

The thickness of material required to effectively shield beta particles can be
determined from the maximum range of the beta particles in the shielding
material. This can be estimated for water, polyethylene and perspex (with an
assumed density of 1 g cm-3) using the general rule that the distance
travelled in centimetres equals the maximum beta energy in MeV divided by
2. This relationship is shown in Equation 5:
d=E
2

[5]

where d = Distance travelled (in cm)

E = Maximum energy of the beta particles (in MeV)

This rule only applies for absorbing material with an approximate

density of 1 g cm-3.
This method of shielding beta particles is illustrated in Example 4.
Example 4
Question
Yttrium-90 has a maximum beta particle energy of 2.3 MeV. What thickness
of perspex shielding would you need to effectively shield this source?
Answer
E = 2.3 MeV
From Equation 5 above:
d = 2.3 = 1.15 cm
2
As the distance travelled is equal to the shield thickness needed to absorb all
the beta particles, then 1.15 cm of perspex would be needed as an effective
shield for the beta radiation.
Although Example 4 provides a reliable estimate for the shielding of beta
particles, it is important to remember that when beta particles interact with
matter scattered x-rays, known as bremsstrahlung radiation, are produced.

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Therefore, shielding of beta particles involves not only the shielding of the
particles themselves, but also involves the minimization of bremsstrahlung
radiation. The fraction of beta particle energy converted to bremsstrahlung
x-rays is given by Equation 6:
F = 3.3 x 10-4 ZE

[6]

where F = Fraction of beta particle energy converted into x-rays

Z = Atomic number of the absorber/shielding material
E = Maximum energy of beta particles (in MeV)
Equation 6 indicates that the lower the atomic number of the shielding
material, the lower the amount of bremsstrahlung x-rays produced. Since
many shielding materials are made out of compounds (e.g. perspex) rather
than elements (e.g. lead), the value of Z is really an effective atomic number
rather than a true atomic number. Perspex, polythene and water are all
assumed to have an effective atomic number of 6 or 7 for radiation protection
purposes. These materials are all suitable shielding for beta particles but
some bremsstrahlung radiation will still be produced. This is illustrated in
Example 5.
Example 5
Question
What fraction of the beta particle energy from a yttrium-90 source (maximum
beta energy of 2.3 MeV) is converted to x-rays in a perspex shield with an
effective atomic number of 7?
Answer
E = 2.3 MeV
Z=7
From Equation 6:
F = 3.3 x10-4 x 7 x 2.3
F = 5 x 10-3
F = 0.5%

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For low activity sources, this quantity of bremsstrahlung x-rays produced will
not be significant. However, at activity levels in the order of megabecquerels
(MBq), the bremsstrahlung radiation from a source such as yttrium-90 will
require additional shielding. This is usually in the form of a higher atomic
number absorber (e.g. lead). Hence, the most effective and commonly used
shielding for energetic beta particles is perspex (to shield the betas)
surrounded by lead (to shield the bremsstrahlung x-rays).
3.2 Shielding of X- and Gamma Rays
3.2.1 The attenuation of x- and gamma rays
When x- and gamma rays pass through material they are not totally
absorbed by that material.

Instead they are attenuated (i.e. reduced in

intensity). X- and gamma rays are attenuated exponentially when they pass
through material. This attenuation can be represented mathematically by
Equation 7:
Rx = Ro e-x

[7]

where Rx = Dose rate after passing through a shield of thickness x

Ro = Dose rate without shielding
x = Shield thickness
= A constant known as the linear absorption coefficient of the
shielding material
The linear absorption coefficient depends on the type of shielding material
used and also on the energy of the incident X- or gamma ray. It is usually
given in units of cm-1 (i.e. the absorption per centimetre of shielding).
Although Equation 7 can be used to give a value for the amount of shielding
material required, in practice simpler methods are used. These methods use
experimentally determined shielding quantities known as Half Value Layers
and Tenth Value Layers.

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3.2.2 Half value and tenth value layers

The half-value layer (HVL) (also known as the half-value thickness), for a
particular shielding material, is the thickness of a shielding material required
to reduce the intensity of radiation to half its original value.
Equation 7 is similar to the radioactive decay equation (A = A0e-T) and is
used in a simpler form for shielding calculations using half value layers, in
the same way that the radioactive decay equation is used in a simpler form
using radiological half-lives.

The simpler form of Equation 7 is given by

Equation 8:
[8]

Rx = R0
n
2
where n = the thickness of the shielding in terms of the number of HVLs
Rx = Dose rate after passing through a shield of thickness x
Ro = Dose rate when unshielded

The actual thickness (x) of the shielding can be written in terms of Half Value
Layers (HVLs) as shown in Equation 9:
x = nHVL

[9]

The relationship between the linear absorption coefficient () and the half
value layer (HVL) is represented by Equation 10:
HVL = 0.693

[10]

Another useful shielding value is known as the tenth value layer (TVL).
This is defined as the thickness of a shielding material required to reduce the
intensity of radiation to a tenth of its original value. Equation 11 can be used
with tenth value layers:
Rx = R0
n
10
where n = the thickness of the shielding in terms of the number of TVLs
Rx = Dose rate after passing through a shield of thickness x

[11]

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Ro = Dose rate when unshielded

In this case, the actual thickness (x) of the shielding can be written in terms
of Tenth Value Layers (TVLs) as shown in Equation 9:
[12]

x = nTVL

The relationship between the linear absorption coefficient () and the tenth
value layer (TVL) is represented by Equation 13.
[13]

TVL = 2.303

Some typical values for HVL and TVL are shown in Table 5. Table 5 gives
the energies of the photons and the HVLs and TVLs for concrete and lead.
Notice that the values of HVL and TVL increase with increasing X- or gamma
ray energy.

This means that a thicker shield is required for a cobalt-60

source than for a caesium-137 source. Note also that the HVL or TVL is
larger for concrete than for lead. This means that concrete shielding will
need to be thicker than lead shielding.

Table 5
HVL and TVL Values for Several X- and Gamma Ray Sources
Source

Gamma Ray
Energy

HVL (cm)

TVL (cm)

(MeV)

Concrete

Lead

Concrete

Lead

226

Ra

0.047 to 2.4

6.9

1.66

23.4

5.5

60

Co

1.17, 1.33

6.2

1.20

20.6

4.0

0.66

4.8

0.65

15.7

2.1

0.13 to 1.06

4.3

0.60

14.7

2.0

137

Cs

192

Ir

50 kVp x-rays

0.43

1.50

100 kVp x-rays

1.6

5.3

Note: Values taken from NCRP Report No. 49 1976

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The X-ray sources are described in terms of the maximum (or peak) voltage
(in kilovolts) applied to the tube. This is written as kVp. There will only be a
very few x-rays at the energy corresponding to peak voltage and so the
average x-ray energy will much less.
The values in Table 5 can be used to estimate the thickness of shielding
required in order to reduce x- or gamma radiation dose rates to workers.
Example 6 illustrates how half value layers may be used in practice.

Example 6
Question
The dose rate near a cobalt-60 source is measured at 160 Sv h-1. What
thickness of lead is needed to reduce this dose rate to 10 Sv h-1?
Answer
This question can be answered using either HVLs or TVLs. In this example
half value layers will be used. Using the HVL of lead for cobalt-60 from
Table 5 we have the following data:

HVL = 1.20 cm
Rx = 10 Sv h-1
R0 = 160 Sv h-1
Using equation 8
10 = 160
2n
2n = 160
10
2n = 16
Since
16 = 2 x 2 x 2 x 2 = 24
n=4

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Four HVLs of lead are required.

Hence, the thickness of lead needed is 4 x 1.2 = 4.8 cm.
Note that 2n may not work out to be a number which is easy to process to
obtain n. In which case you will need to use logarithms in the same way as
in Module 1.3 Ionizing Radiation and Radioactive Decay.
For the above example
2n = 16
Using logarithms
nlog2 = log 16
(Note that common logs or natural logs can be used.)
n = log 16
log 2
n = 1.204
0.3010
n=4
Example 7 shows a similar calculation for tenth value layers.
Example 7
Question
The dose rate near a small caesium-137 source is measured at 40 Sv h-1.
What thickness of concrete is needed to reduce this dose rate to 10 Sv h-1?
Answer
This question can be answered using either HVLs or TVLs. In this example
tenth value layers will be used. Using the TVL of concrete for caesium-137
from Table 5 we have the following data:
TVL = 15.7 cm
Rx = 10 Sv h-1
R0 = 40 Sv h-1
Using equation 8

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10 = 40
10n
10n = 40
10
10n = 4
Using logarithms
nlog10 = log 4
n = log 4 = 0.6021
log 10
1
n = 20.6021
Hence, the thickness of concrete needed is 0.6021 x 15.7 = 9.5 cm.

Remember that it is often more practical to use shielding to reduce exposure

rather than using distance. Example 8 shows a direct comparison between
the two protection methods of distance and shielding.

Example 8
Question
a)

For a caesium-137 source with a dose rate of 390 Sv h-1 at 1 m, what

would be the amount of lead shielding needed to reduce the dose rate
to 25 Sv h-1.

b)

What distance would achieve this lower dose rate, if no shielding was
available?

Answer
a) For shielding:
From Table 5, the lead HVL of lead for caesium-137 is
HVL = 0.65 cm
Rx = 25 Sv h-1
R0 = 390 Sv h-1

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Using equation 8
25 = 390
2n
2n = 390
25
2n = 15.6
Using logarithms
nlog2 = log 15.6
n = log 15.6
log 2
n = 1.193
0.3010
n = 3.96
Alternatively, since shielding calculations are used to provide estimates of
shielding requirements, 15.6 is approximately equal to 16.

Therefore,
2n = 16
n=4
Approximately 4 HVLs are required.
Therefore the thickness of lead needed is 4 x 0.65 = 2.6 cm.
b) For distance:
Using Equation 4 from Section 2.1.2 and substituting the values:
R1 = 390 Sv h-1
R2 = 25 Sv h-1
r1 = 1 m
390 x (12 ) = 25 x r22
Then

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r2 = (15.6) = 3.95 m (approximately 4 m)

Hence, shielding at one metre with 2.6 cm of lead achieves the same
reduced dose rate as moving four metres away from the source. The latter
option is not practical if work has to be performed on equipment near the
source. So, in practice the most efficient way of reducing exposure is to
shield the source.
It is important to note that the calculations shown in this section deal with the
theory of shielding x-and gamma rays. In practice, others factors relating to
the energy and geometry of the beam and type of shielding material will
affect the amount of radiation transmitted. In fact, these factors can result in
an underestimate the amount of shielding required and hence higher dose
rates than expected.

To overcome this problem, numerical multiplication

factors known as build-up factors have been calculated for various

energies, geometrys and shielding materials. The theory and application of
these factors is beyond the scope of this course but you should be aware
that, although the above equations give an approximate estimation of the
shielding required, practical considerations may mean that you could
underestimate the necessary amount of shielding. Hence, it is always a
good idea to measure the dose rates after the shielding is in place to ensure
that the required dose rate reduction has been achieved.

Remember

To ensure that dose rates are reduced in accordance with your

estimates, you should always measure the dose rates after the
shielding is in place.
If the measured dose rates are greater than expected then more shielding
may be necessary.

SELF-CHECK 4
Now see how much you have understood by answering the following
questions in your workbook:

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1.

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Phosphorus-32 has a maximum beta energy of 1.71 MeV.

What

thickness of perspex shielding would you need to effectively shield this

source?
2.

a) What are the two important factors which control the amount of
bremsstrahlung produced in a shielding material?
b)

What fraction of the beta particle energy from a phosphorus-32

source (maximum beta energy of 1.71 MeV) is converted to x-rays in a

perspex shield with an effective atomic number of 7?
3.

Define the following terms:

a) Half Value Layer (HVL).
b) Tenth Value Layer (TVL)

4.

a) A cobalt-60 source gives a dose rate of 400 Sv h-1 at 1 m. At what

distance from the source must a barrier be placed if the dose rate at the
barrier must not exceed 25 Sv h-1?
b) Using the values for HVL in Table 5, calculate the thicknesses of the
following materials which would give the same protection at the original
distance of 1 m from the source:
i) Lead.
ii) Concrete.
Now check your answers with the model answers your workbook.

4.

CALCULATING GAMMA RAY

DIFFERENT RADIONUCLIDES

DOSE

RATES

FOR

4.1 Introduction
In many situations in radiation protection (e.g. when designing new plant or
increasing the amount of radioactive materials kept in a store), it is useful to
estimate what the dose rate would be at a particular distance from a
radioactive source. For this reason, values known as specific gamma dose

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rate constants have been calculated and are available in radiation

protection reference material.
4.2 Calculating Dose Rates Using The Specific Gamma Dose Rate
Constant
The specific gamma dose rate constant (or specific gamma ray constant)
is denoted by the Greek symbol (the Greek upper case letter for G). This
value is constant for a particular gamma-emitting radionuclide and is defined
as the unshielded dose rate (in Sv h-1) at 1 metre per gigabecquerel (GBq)
of activity. Some examples of for different radionuclides are shown in
Table 6.
Table 6
Specific Gamma Dose Rate Constants for Some Common
Radionuclides

Radionuclide
-1

(Sv h at 1 metre per GBq)

60

Co

99m

Tc

131

370
33

77

Cs

103

137

192

Ir

160

Note: Values for are taken from Health Physics and Radiological
Heath Handbook, 1992

Example 9 shows how the value of may be used to calculate theoretical

dose rates for a particular radionuclide.
Example 9
Question
What would the dose rate be at 1 m from a technetium-99m source with an
activity of 100 MBq?

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Answer
From Table 6:
for Tc-99m is 33 Sv h-1 per GBq at 1 metre.
That is, the dose rate at 1m from 1 GBq of Tc-99m is 33 Sv h-1.
We have only 100 MBq of activity:
100 MBq = 0.1 GBq
So for 100 MBq of Tc-99m, we multiply by 0.1:
33 x 0.1 = 3.3 Sv h-1
Hence, the dose rate at 1 m from 100 MBq of Tc-99m would be 3.3 Sv h-1.
In addition, the gamma ray dose constant for any radionuclide can be used in
conjunction with Equation 4 in Section 2.1.2 to calculate dose rates at
different distances. This calculation is shown in Example 10.
Example 10
Question
What is the dose rate at 0.5 m from an iridium-192 source with an activity of
250 MBq?
Answer
From Table 6:
for Ir-192 is 160 Sv h-1.
That is, the dose rate at 1 m from 1 GBq of Ir-192 is 160 Sv h-1.
We have only 250 MBq of activity:
250 MBq = 0.25 GBq
So for 250 MBq of Ir-192, we multiply by 0.25:
160 x 0.25 = 40 Sv h-1 at a distance of 1 m
Using Equation 4:
R1 = 40 Sv h-1

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r1 = 1 m
r2 = 0.5 m
40 x 12 = R2 x 0.52
Rearranging this equation gives:
R2 = 40 = 160 Sv h-1
0.25
Hence, the dose rate at 0.5 metre for 250 MBq of Ir-192 is 160 Sv h-1.

SELF-CHECK 5
Now see how much you have understood by answering the following
questions in your workbook.
1.

Define the term specific gamma dose rate constant.

2.

What are the units of the specific gamma dose rate constant ()?

3.

What is the dose rate at 1 m from an iodine-131 source of activity 260

MBq?

4.

What is the dose rate at 5 m from a caesium-137 source of activity 10

GBq?
Now check your answers with the model answers in your workbook.

KEY POINTS

An external radiation hazard is described as a hazard from a

radioactive source outside the body.

An internal radiation hazard exists when there is a potential for

exposure from radioactive materials entering the body.

Beta particles, x-rays, gamma rays and neutrons are all external
radiation hazards.

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X-ray generators only present an external radiation hazard when they

are turned on.

Radioactive materials represent a continuous radiation hazard.

External radiation hazards are controlled by applying three basic

methods; those of time, distance and shielding.

The radiation dose received by a person working in an area and

exposed to a certain dose rate depends on the time spent in the area.

If you halve the exposure time, the dose received is halved.

Conversely, if you double the exposure time, the dose received is also
doubled.

The greater the distance from a source of penetrating radiation, the less
the overall exposure.

When the distance from a radiation source is doubled, the dose rate is
reduced to a quarter of its original value.

Shielding a source allows dose rates to be reduced whilst still allowing

work to be performed.

The amount and type of shielding material depends on the type and
energy of radiation, the activity of the source (or intensity of radiation
from a machine) and the acceptable dose rate outside the shielding.

Alpha and low energy beta particles do not represent an external

radiation hazard and therefore do not require shielding.

Perspex surrounded by lead (to stop bremsstrahlung) is recommended

for shielding high energy beta particles.

Concrete, lead or iron are recommended for shielding x-and gamma

rays.

Concrete, water , polythene or borated paraffin wax are recommended

for shielding neutrons.

Administrative controls can be used in the workplace to minimize

exposure to ionizing radiation.

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Example of administrative controls include: classification of areas,

warning

signs,

training,

work

procedures,

local

rules,

source

inventories, radiation safety auditing systems and investigation levels.

Work areas may be classified into controlled, supervised and

unclassified areas according to the level of external radiation hazard.

A controlled area is one where specific protection measures and safety

provisions are or could be required to control normal exposures and to
prevent or limit potential exposures.

A supervised area is where occupational exposure conditions are kept

under review but no specific protection measures are required.

An unclassified area is where no protection methods are required and

the occupational exposures do not need to be kept under review.

Occupancy time is the amount of time a worker spends in a particular

classified area.

The occupancy factor is the fraction of work time spent in a particular

classified area. It is often written as a percentage.

The internationally accepted symbol for ionizing radiation is a black

trefoil on a yellow background.

Investigation levels are set levels of a measured value.

For any

measured value above this level, an investigation into the cause should
take place.

Physical controls are essentially physical barriers which ensure that the
chance of accidental exposure is as low as possible.

Example of physical controls are interlocks, fixed shielding, remote

manipulators and preset timers.

The thickness of material required to effectively shield beta particles

can be determined from the maximum range of the beta particles in the
shielding material.

When x-and gamma rays pass through a matter they are attenuated
exponentially.

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The half-value layer (HVL) is the thickness of a material required to

reduce the intensity of x- or gamma radiation to a half of its original
value.

The tenth-value layer (TVL) is the thickness of a material required to

reduce the intensity of x- or gamma radiation to a tenth of its original
value.

Half value and tenth value layers can be used to estimate the thickness
of material necessary to shield a particular source of ionizing radiation.

Due to certain practical considerations, you should always measure the

dose rates after the estimated thickness of shielding is in place to
ensure that the required dose rate reduction has been achieved.

The specific gamma dose rate constant () is constant for a particular

gamma-emitting radionuclide and is defined as the dose rate in Sv h-1
at 1 metre per gigabecquerel (GBq) of activity.

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GLOSSARY OF TERMS
Build-up factors

Numerical multiplication factors which can be

used to accurately calculate required shielding
thicknesses. They take into consideration the
energy and geometry of the radiation beam as
well as the type of shielding material.

Controlled area

An area where specific protection measures

and safety provisions are or could be required
to control normal exposures and to prevent or
limit potential exposures.

External radiation hazard

Ionizing radiation from a radioactive source

outside the body with the potential to cause
harm.

Half value layer (HVL)

The thickness of shielding required to reduce

the intensity of radiation to half its original
value.

Internal radiation hazard

The hazard which exists when there is the

potential for a source of ionizing radiation to
enter the body and cause harm.

Investigation level

A set level of a measured quantity (e.g. dose

rate, personal dosimetry results) at or above
which the cause of the high result should be
investigated.

Occupancy factor

The fraction of total work time spent in a

particular work area.

Occupancy time

The time that workers spend in a particular

work area.

Specific gamma dose rate A constant for a gamma-emitting radionuclide

constant
which is defined as the dose rate (in Sv h-1)
at 1 metre per gigabecquerel (GBq) of activity.
Supervised area

An area where occupational exposure

conditions are kept under review but no
specific protection measures are required.

Tenth value layer (TVL)

The thickness of shielding required to reduce

the intensity of radiation to a tenth of its
original value.

Unclassified area

An area where no protection methods are

required and the occupational exposures do

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not need to be kept under review.

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