6070E0X

7/71

ol. I

opy 1

WATER POLLUTION CONTROL RESEARCH SERIES

16010 EOK 01/11

OCEANOGAPHY OF THE NEARSHORE

COASTAL WATERS OF THE PACIFIC
NORTHWEST RELATING TO POSSIBLE
POLLUTION

VOLUME I

Northwt Water
SO4JtS 3ith

Stat

0o

ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY WATER QUALITY OFFICE

WATER POLLUTION CONTROL RESEARCH SEPIES

The Water Pollution Control Research Series describes

the results and progress in the control and abatement
of pollution in our Nation's waters. They provide a
central source of information on the research , development, and demonstration activities in the Water Quality
Office, Environmental Protection Agency, through inhouse
research and grants and contracts with Federal, State,
and local agencies, research institutions, and industrial
organizations.
Inquiries pertaining to Water Pollution Control Research
Reports should be directed to the Head, Project Reports
System, Office of Research and Development, Water Quality
Office, Environmental Protection Agency, Room 1108,
Washington, D. C.
20242.

OCEANOGRAPHY OF THE NEARSHORECOASTAL WATERS OF THE PACIFIC

NORTHWEST RELATING TO POSSIBLE POLLUTION
ITo lume I

Oregon State University

Corvallis, Oregon 97331

or the

WATER QUALITY OFFICE

ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY

Grant No.

16070 EOK

July,, 1971

For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Oovernment Printing Olfloe

Washington, D.C. 5)502- Price $5.25
Stock Number 5501-0140

EPA Review Notice

This report has been reviewed by the Water

Quality Office, EPA, and approved for publication.
Approval does not signify that the contents
necessarily reflect the views and policies of
the Environmental Protection Agency, nor does
mention of trade names or commercial products
constitute endorsement or recommendation for
use.

11

ABSTRACT

This study is limited to the coastal zone of the Pacific Northwest

from high tide to ten kilometers from shore, and does not include
estuaries and bays. The literature has been reviewed in 21 chapters
including chapters on geology, hydrology, winds, temperature
and salinity, heat budget, waves, coastal currents, carbon dioxide
and pH, oxygen, nutrients, and biology. Special chapters deal
with field studies on thermal discharges, heat dispersion models,
pulp and paper industrial wastes, trace metals, radiochemistry,
pesticides and'cthlorine, thermal ecology, and biology of 20 selected
species. A summary chapter is entitled 'The nearshore coastal
ecosystem: an overview. " The bibliography contains more than
3100 entries, most from the open literature, but some from
unpublished reports.
A separate volume includes the following appendices: 1. Wind
Data; 2. Temperature and Salinity Data; 3. Wave Data; 4. Trace
Metals (including trace metal toxicities); 5. Pesticide Toxicities;
6. Oxygen, Nutrient, and pH Data; 7. Radionuclides; and 8. An
Annotated Checklist of Plants and Animals (including more than
4400 species).

This report was submitted in fulfillment of Grant No. 16070E0K

under the sponsorship of the Water Quality Office, Environmental
Protection Agency.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page
Chapter 1. INTRODUCTION

PART I. PHYSICAL AND GEOLOGICAL ASPECTS

Chapter 2. NAUTICAL CHARTS OF THE PACIFIC

NORTHWEST COAST

Chapter 3. GEOLOGY
Geology and Geomorphology
Sediments
Sediment Motion
Seismology
Sources of Information
Nearshore Topography
Chapter 4. HYDROLOGY
Chapter 5. WINDS
General
Winds Measured from Shore Stations
Offshore Wind Observations
Corrected Geostrophic Winds
Chapter 6. TEMPERATURE AND SALINITY
Shore Station and Lightship Observations
Offshore Temperature and Salinity Observations
Sea Surface Temperature from Infrared Surveys
Conclusions
Chapter 7. HEAT BUDGET
Introduction
Empirical Methods
Discussion of Results
Direct Measurements
Summary
Chapter 8. WAVES
Intr oduction
Measured or Observed Waves
Hindcas ted Waves
Wave Steepness
Chapter 9. COASTAL CURRENTS
Intr oduction

Main Ocean Currents

Total Currents at Pacific Northwest Lightships

13
13

14
14
16
20
20
25
29
29
31

34
38
47
47
55
58
59

64
64
64
67

70
73
74
74
75
79
84
87
87
87
88

TABLE OF CONTENTS continued

Page

Grays Harbor, Washington

Depoe Bay, Oregon
Newport, Oregon
Coos Bay, Oregon
Trinidad Head to Eel River, California
Bottom Currents
Current Flow under the Influence of Coastal Upwelling
Analytical Approach to Tidal Currents
Longshore Currents
Chapter 10. FIELD STUDIES OF THERMAL DISCHARGES
Chapter 11. REVIEW OF ANALYTICAL MODELS FOR
THE PREDICTION OF TEMPERATURE
DISTRIBUTION

Introduction
Environmental Effects
Analytical Models
Part I. Initial Dilution
Part II. Surface Dispersion and Interface Exchange
Part III. Dye Diffusion Studies
PART II.

CHEMICAL AND RADIOCHEMICAL ASPECTS

Chapter 12. CARBON DIOXIDE AND pH

Conclusions
Chapter 13. OXYGEN AND NUTRIENTS

Generalized Features
Chapter 14. PULP AND PAPER INDUSTRY WASTES

Kraft Process
Sulfite Process

89
91

95
97
97
98
99
103
109
111

119
119

120
122
123
127
133
135
137
138
139
139
143
143
145

Groundwood Process
Fates of Pulp and Paper Mill Effluents
Summary
Chapter 15. TRACE METALS IN THE NEARSHORE

150

MARINE ENVIRONMENT

152
152
156
167
167
168
168

Chemical Form
Natural Inputs
Industrial Inputs
Removal Processes
Advective Removal
Biological Removal
vi

1 50

151

TABLE OF CONTENTS continued

Page

Geochemical Removal
Allowable Residual Level
Summary

169
175
183
184
186
187
188
189
189

MERCURY

Summary
COPPER
Summary
LEAD

Summary
ZINC

190
190

Summary
Chapter 16. RADIOCHEMISTRY

Naturally-occurring radionuclides
Fission product radionuclides from weapons teats
Neutron-induced radionuclides
Future Radioactivity Levels in Coastal Waters
Summary
Chapter 17. OTHER POLLUTANTS
A.
B.
C.

PESTICIDES

Introduction
Pesticide Residues in the Pacific Northwest
Toxicities of Pesticides to Marine Organisms
Behavior of Chlorinated Hydrocarbon Pesticides
in the Marine Environment
Summary
CHLORINE

Summary

191
191

195
200
209

ziz

213
213
213
213
214

216
217
218
219

PART III. BIOLOGICAL ASPECTS

221

Chapter 18. INTRODUCTION TO BIOLOGICAL ASPECTS

Taxonomic Studies
Bibliographies
Chapter 19. THERMAL ECOLOGY OF NOR THWEST
SPECIES

223
225
226

Temperature
Other Factors

vii

228
228
.245

TABLE OF CONTENTS continued

Page

Chapter 20. BIOLOGY OF SELECTED NORTHWEST

SPECIES OR SPECIES GROUPS
Phytoplankton

Clupea harengus pallasi (Pacific herring)

Cymatogaster aggregata (Shiner perch)
Cancer magister (Dungeness crab)
Engraulis mordax (Northern anchovy)
Eopsetta jordani (Petrale sole, brill)
Hippoglossus stenolepis (Pacific halibut)
Macrocystis spp. (Giant keips)
Merluccius productus (Pacific hake)
Microstomus pacificus (Dover sole)
Mytilus californianus (Sea mussel)
Oncorhynchus spp. (Pacific salmon, five species)
Ophiodon elongatus (Ling cod)

Parophrys vetulus (English sole)

Pandalus jordani (Pink shrimp)
Sardinops sagax (Pacific sardine)
Sebastodes alutus (Pacific ocean perch)
Siliqua patula (Razor clam)
Thallichthys pacificus (Columbia River smelt)
Trachurus symmetricus (Jack mackerel)
PART IV. INTEGRATED ECOLOGY

Chapter 21.

THE NEARSHORE COASTAL ECOSYSTEM:

AN OVERVIEW

246
247
251
253
255
259
262
263

266
269

272
273
277
283
285
288
291

294
296
300
301

305
307
319

BIBLIOGRAPHY

viii

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure
1 -1

2-1

2-2
3-1

3-2
3-3

3-4
3-5

Page

Map of the Study Area

Pacific Northwest Coast. Cape Flattery,
Washington. to Cape Perpetua, Ore.
Pacific Northwest Coast. Heceta Head,
Ore, to Pt. Delgada, Calif.
Surface distribution of sediment types
Sediment overburden
Sedimentary facies of the Oregon continental
shelf
Movement of bottom sand due to waves
Relationship between grain size and foreshore
slope

3-6
3-7

3-8

4-1

4-2

4-3

5-2
5-3

10
11

11
15
17

18

Map of tectonic flux for the Western United

States. Log flux indices represent combined
intensity and frequency of quakes
Bottom profiles and beach slopes for various
locations in Washington and northern
Oregon. Water depth is indicated at 1/2,
1 1/2, and 3 miles offshore
Bottom profiles' and beach slopes for various
locations in southern Oregon and northern
California, Water depth is indicated at 1/2,
1 1/2, and 3 miles offshore
Mean monthly flow of the Columbia River
extrapolated to the river mouth for 1953-

19

21

22

26

1967

Combined mean flow of the Chehalis, Satsop,

and Wynoochee Rivers measured at the
lowest gaging station on each river for the
period 1960-1968
Average streamfiow of Pacific Northwest

coastal rivers versus river basin drainage

area

5-1

Wind roses 'for winter and summer conditions

for western Oregon
Location of lightships off the Pacific
Northwest coast
Average direction and velocity of monthly
winds for 1961 -1963
ix

27

28
33

36
39

LIST OF FIGURES continued

Figure
5-4

Page

Average direction and velocity of

January winds 'for 1961 -1963

5-8

Average direction and velocity o'f

February winds for 1961 -1963
Average direction and velocity of
March winds for 1961 -1963
Average direction and velocity of
April winds for 1961 -1963
Average direction and velocity of

5-9

Average direction and velocity of

5-5

5-6
5-7

40
40
41
41

May winds for 1961 -1963

42

June winds for 1961 -1963

5-10

42

Average direction and velocity of

July winds for 1961 -1963

5-11

43

Average direction and velocity of

August winds for 1961 -1963

5-12
5-13

43

Average direction and velocity o'f

September winds 'for 1961 -1963
Average direction and velocity of

44

October winds 'for 1961 -1963

5-14
5-15
6-1

6-2
6-3

6-4
6-5
6-6

44

Average direction and velocity o'f

November winds for 1961 -1963
Average direction and velocity of
December winds for 1961 -1963
Location of shore stations and lightships
along the Pacific Northwest coast
Mean monthly surface temperatures recorded
at three lightships along the Pacific
Northwest coast
Mean monthly surface temperatures recorded
at four northern Oregon shore stations
Mean monthly surface temperatures
measured at shore stations in Coos Bay area
Mean monthly surface temperatures
measured at shore stations south of Cape
Blanco
Example of a typical infrared survey conducted
by the Tiburon Marine Laboratory of the
Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife
'

45
45

46
53
53

54

54

60

LIST OF FIGURES continued

Figure
6-7

6-8
7-1

7-2

Page

Temperature contours from a typical infrared

survey conducted by Oregon State University's
Sea Grant project "Albacore Central"
Segment of a typical infrared survey conducted
by Oregon State University's Sea Grant
project, "Albacore Central" (July 1969)
Variation of annual heat exchange from
1953 to 1962 for the region 40 to 50 N. Lat.
ard from the coastline to 130 W. Long.
Monthly mean values of net heat transferred
across the air-sea interface for the area from
the Oregon coastline to 60 nautical miles
offshore

7 -3

7-4
7-5
7-6

61

62

68

69

Monthly mean values of net solar radiation

incident upon the area from the Oregon
coastline to 60 nautical miles offshore
Monthly mean values of net back radiation
for the area from the Oregon coastline to
60 nautical miles offshore
Monthly mean values of evaporative flux for
the area from the Oregon coastline to 60
nautical miles offshore
Monthly mean values of sensible heat conducted

71

71

72

across the air-sea interface for the area

8-1

8-2
9-1

from the Oregon coastline to 60 nautical

miles offshore
Location of deep water hindcast stations
Relative frequency and direction of deepwater waves with steepness value of
H0/L0 0. 015 to 0. 025

72
80

86

Progressive vector diagrams of currents,

Depoe Bay array, 15 August-24 September

1966

92

Depoe Bay at 20 meters depth

93

Depoe Bay at 60 meters depth

94

9-2

Histograms of current speed, direction, and

velocity components measured 5 miles off

9-3

Histograms of current speed, direction, and

velocity components measured 5 miles off

xi

LIST OF FIGURES continued

Figure
9-4

Page

Vertical profiles of current speed 5, 10,

and 15 miles off Depoe Bay, 23-24 September
96

1966

9-5

The mean current of the frontal zone in the

coastal upwelling region off central

9-6

Inferred onshore-offshore flow over the

continental shelf off Depoe Bay, Oregon
during the summer upwelling season
Relationship of Vt/U versus D for various
angles 9
Sketch of tidal prism defining terms used

9-7
9-8
10-1

10-2
10-3

10-4

Oregon

inequation9-6
General pattern of infrared survey flight
tracks
Off-shore temperatures
Isothermal map of surface water produced
by computer conversion of electrical signal
from scanner
San Onofre sea surface isotherms,
21 February 1969

10-5
11-1

11-2
11-3

11-4

13-1

13-2

100
102

106
108
112
113

115
117

Temperature-depth cross sections,

21 February 1969
Schematic representation of jet mixing
Effects of environmental conditions
Zone configurations of a jet for the case of
a stagnant, homogeneous environment

Relationship of temperature rise ratio to

non-dimensional surface area ratio for
selected values of , a dimensionless
coefficient governing the rate of heat
decay at the surface
Study area, showing sections from which
dissolved oxygen, nutrient, and pH data
were taken
Data for Section 3, Newport, Oregon, to
the Columbia River.

15-1

Schematic of a simple two-reservoir system

15-2

Nomograph repre senting appr oximate

partitioning of a metal between dissolved

and suspended particulate reservoirs

xii

118
119
121
1 23

130

140
141
171

174

LIST OF FIGURES continued

Figure
15-3
16-1

16-2

Page

Median mortality-time versus concentration

of metal expressed in toxic units for young
salmon
Atmospheric nuclear tests prior to the 1963
moratorium
Operations of nuclear reactors at the Hanford
Atomic Products, Washington

181

197

204

LIST OF TABLES
Table
4-1
5-1

5-2
5-3
6-1

6-2

6-3

6-4
7-1
8-1

8-2
8-3

8-4
8-5
8-6

Page

River discharge data for the Pacific

Northwest
Monthly averages of wind direction arid
scalar speed (mph) at selected shore
stations
Frequency and velocity of winds at three
stations on the Washington-Oregon coast
Resultant wind speed (knots) and direction
by month measured from lightships off the
Pacific Northwest coast.
List of Shore Stations and Lightships in
Geographical Order
Average monthly temperature (C) and
salinity (%o) of the surf measured at
selected sites on the Pacific Northwest
coast
Average monthly surface temperature (C)
and salinity (%o) from three lightships off
the Pacific Worthwest coast
Mean monthly surface temperatures (C)
and salinities (%) for selected offshore
areas (1-10 km from the coast)
Ten-year average monthly values (langleys)

for the major heat budget terms for a region

where coastal .upwellirig is seasonally present
Dimensions and periods of waves observed
at Columbia River Light Vessel
Observed wave direction
Monthly wave averages, Newport, Oregon,
September 1968-August 1969
Hindcast deep water wave heights (H0) for
the Oregon and Washington coast
Hindcast wave periods (T0) for the Oregon
and Washington coast
Relative frequency of waves with given
steepness (H0/L0) values from various
directions

xiv

24

30
32

37
48

49

52

57

65

76
76
78

82
83

85

LIST OF TABLES continued

Table
9-1

9-2
9-3

9-4
9-5
9-6

Page

Average speed of current due to winds of

various strength
Average deviation of current to Right or Left
of wind direction
Mean current measured off Depoe Bay,
15 August-24 September, 1966 based on
a 1 0-minute sampling rate
Summary of observations of sur'face current
direction 'for January-June, 1959-1961,
between Trinidad Head and Cape Mendocino
Effective eddy viscosity coefficient as a
function of wind speed
Time of higher high water (HHW) and tidal
height for four periods in 1969 'for Farallon
Island, California and Cape Alava,
Washington

9-7
14-1

14-2
14-3
14-4
15-1

15-2
15-3

15-4
15-5
.15-6

90
90
91

97

104

105

Average net tidal currents for the Pacific

Northwest Coastline computed from tidal
prism analysis
Pulp and paper mills in our area with
marine outfalis
Kraft pulp mill effluents
Toxicity of KME to marine organisms
The toxicity of spent sulfite liquor to marine
organisms
Predominant physico-chemical forms of
trace elements in sea water compiled 'from
the literature
Direct comparisons of nearshore and oceanic
values for trace metals
Probable values of trace metals in oceanic
and near shore waters
Concentration of trace metals by plankton
Comparison of trace element concentrations
in rivers and in sea water
Response of marine organisms of the Pacific
Northwest to various concentrations of
trace elements

xv

108

144
144
146
148

153
158
159
163

165

176

LIST OF TABLES, continued

Table
19-1

Page

Summary of Physical Data on Phytoplankton

and Algae

19-2
19-3

Physical Data on Invertebrates

Summary of Physical Data on Fish

xvi

230
234
242

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

The coast of the Pacific Northwest may be characterized as

a series of steep, often unstable cliffs interspersed between
broad sandy beaches. Rocky headlands and outcroppings
are common, but the surface sediments of the nearshore
zone are primarily sand. The shelf off Washington slopes
more gently than that off Oregon and Northern California.
No canyons or troughs extend into the nearshore zone
and there is. relatively little seismic activity compared to
the remainder of the Pacific coast.

Maximum runoff from the major rivers of the area (excluding

the Columbia) occursin winter and spring as a result of
heavy seasonal rainfall. Discharge of the Columbia River
is greatest in June coinciding with runoff of snowmelt in
Canada. Only the Columbia River appears to appreciably
modify Pacific Ocean coastal waters.

Coastal winds are largely determined by the geographic

position and intensity of the North Pacific high and the
Aleutian low pressure areas. In the winter high velocity
winds resulting from gales usually blow from the south or
southwest. More often the winter winds prevail from the
east. In spring the winds shift clockwise and by summer are
predominantly from the northwest and west. In all seasons
the coastal mountains tend to deflect the winds along the
trend of the coast.

With few exceptions time series of temperature-salinity

data are available only from intertidal stations or from
lightships. Few measurements have been made in the area
from shore to 1 0 km offshore. Surface temperatures range
from an average summer high of 17.7C to an average winter
low of 7. 6C. Summer temperatures, which are influenced by
upwelling, average about 5C warmer than winter values.
The Columbia River plume reduces surface salinity in nearshore waters off Washington in the winter. Upwelling tends
to increase the salinities of near shore waters in summer.
A heat budget may be used to describe the exchange of energy
between the ocean and the atmosphere. Net heat exchanged
xvii

from year to year may vary considerably as the result of

fluctuations in cloud cover, sea surface temperature,
upwelling, and evaporation.
The wave climate of the Pacific Northwest coastal region
has largely been determined by hindcasting based on climatological
data. The predominant wave direction throughout the year
is from the west to northwest. Waves with greatest heights
and longest periods occur in the winter. Highest waves
come from the southsoutheast to southwest sector. Periods
of calms occur about equally in all seasons.

Coastal surface currents respond primarily to the local

wind regime and thus can be expected to flow northward in
winter and southward in summer. However, headlands,
reefs, and irregularities in bottom contours produce complex
series of interacting eddies which have received virtually
no attention in the nearshore zone. Despite the lack of

current measurements in this area, it is the nearshore

surface circulation which will determine the distributions of
contaminants released into the region.

Field studies of condenser cooling discharges from coastal

power generating plants indicate that the physical effects
are localized. The thermal plume usually takes the form
of a surface lens about 2 to 4 m thick. The maximum distance
warmed water has been observed from a coastal outfall is
roughly 4 km.

Numerical models describing the dispersion of heated

effluents from surface and subsurface outfalls may be useful
in predicting the distributions of contaminants in the nearshore
region. Although a number of simplifying assumptions are
necessary and large capacity computers are required, such
models offer promise for the solution of complex dispersion
problems. Hydraulic models also may prove invaluable in
the solution of various difficult problems.
Carbon dioxide concentrations and pH in seawater are closely
related. High concentrations of CO2 (to 525 parts per million)
in the nearshore zone may result from upwelling. Uptake of
CO2 by photosynthetic organisms may reduce its concentration
to as low as155 parts per million. Surface pH values are generally
near 8. 1.
xviii

Dissolved oxygen concentrations in the nearshore zone from

surface to 20 m is usually homogeneous from October to
April. During May to September dissolved oxygen values at
20 m are more strongly influenced by upwelling than at the
surface. In the absence of upwelling, representative nutrient
concentrations in surface waters are: PO4.. . 0. 7 ig-atom/l;
NO3... 5 .Lg-atom/l; Si02... 10 p.g-atom/l.

Pulp and paper mill effluents introduced into Pacific Northwest

coastal waters may differ widely in their chemical characteristics.
For this reason, the ecological effect of each outfall must
be individually evaluated.
Relatively few measurements of the concentrations of toxic
metals have been carried out in nearshore waters. Even
less is known regarding physical and chemical forms of the
metals. Apart from planktonic organisms, which may
concentrate them greatly, metals may be lost from seawater
by sorption, flocculation, ion exchange, precipitation, and
co-precipitation.
Radionuclides in Pacific Northwest marine waters may be
naturally-occurring, fission fragments from fallout of
nuclear weapons tests, or neutron induced from weapons or
'from the Hanford plutonium production reactors on the
Columbia River. Radioactivity from Hanford has drastically
decreased in recent years with the serial shutdown of the
plutonium production reactors. Atmospheric nuclear tests
by France and Mainland China continue to cause 'fallout
radioactivity in the coastal zone.

Concentrations of chlorinated hydrocarbons, used in forestry

and agriculture in the Pacific Northwest, are generally low
in marine organisms. Chlorine, which is sometimes used in
water cooling systems as an antifouling agent, may have
harmful short-term effects on planktonic organisms.
By far, the largest body of information on plants and animals
of the outer coastal region is taxonomic. Relatively little
is known regarding the ecological requirements of most species.

xix

Some temperature data are available for 129 species of the

more than four thousand organisms known from the Pacific
Northwest coast. For most this amounts to a single temperature
recorded at the time of collection. Temperature optima,
ranges, and lethal limits are seldom known for more than
one or a few life history stages, usually the adult.

Detailed biological information, such as life history, feeding

habits, predators, and population dynamics, is most often
available for fishes and invertebrates of direct commercial
value to man. Comprehensive summaries of biological
data for twenty selected species (or species groups) are
included in Chapter 20. In addition, an annotated checklist
including more than 750 plantspecies and 3,600 animal species
is appended.

19.

To begin to understand the nearshore coastal region it is

necessary to view it as a system of interacting physical,
chemical, and biological components. Contaminants, such
as toxic chemicals or heated water, can be thought of as
added environmental stresses which may alter the ecosystem
drastically.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This study was made possible by a demonstration grant from the

Federal Water Quality Administration (Grant No. 16070E0K) and
administered by the Regional Office of that organization in Portland,
Oregon. Special thanks goes to Dr. Robert W. Zeller, FWQA, who
served as project officer for this grant.
We wish to thank Dr. John V. Byrne and our colleagues in the
Department of Oceanography at Oregon State University for their
cooperation and advice; especially Drs. June G. Pattullo, William
H. Quinn, and Norman Cutshall who read portions of the manuscript.

Thanks also to the Oregon State University Library staff for

providing space and countless hours of assistance, and to the
librarian of the Federal Water Quality Administration, Pacific
Northwest Water Laboratory.
We also thank the many colleagues from other departments on
this campus, from other colleges and universities, and from
federal and state agencies who gave freely of their time and
contributed significantly to the project.

A number of students helped with this research and their names have
been included as authors in the sections where they contributed.
Finally our special thanks to Mrs. Suelynn Williams who typed
the entire report.

xxi

Chapter 1. INTRODUCTION

The major problem facing mankind today is control of his rapidly

increasing number and his rapidly increasing appetite for energy
and raw materials. Since no politically or socially acceptable
solutions have yet been found, it behooves us to prepare for
expected population growth in a way which will compromise neither
the quality of human life nor the quality of our environment.
One of the critical problems stemming from a population growth
rate of greater than one percent per year is the unprecedented
demand for electrical power. Power consumption is increasing
by ten percent annually. The demands of the Pacific Northwest
are presently met by a hydroelectric system which has already
been developed to approximately one-half of its ultimate capacity.
Expansion of the hydro-power system is essentially limited to the
addition of generators to existing powerhouses. Future power
demands will be met by the addition of thermal power plants
to the hydroelectric system and are expected in 30 years to replace
the latter as the source of basic power. The large number of
projected power plants (approximately 30 of 1 , 000 megawatts or
more capacity) carries with it the inherent threat of thermal
additions to the environment.

The new thermal plants will either be fossil fueled or nuclear fueled.
Initially, several of the new thermal plants may be fossil fueled,
but the general lack of coal, oil, and gas in the Pacific Northwest
and the expense of transporting fuels from other regions will limit
their expansion. In addition to fuel limitations, there are the
problems of air quality protection involving sulfur dioxide and
particulate matter. Since these problems are seldom critical
with nuclear fueled plants, it appears that nuclear powered steam
electric plants will be the most probable source of new power for
the Pacific Northwest.
The location of future power plants will be determined by both
economic and environmental factors. Thermal power plants
inherently waste large amounts of heat to the environment.
Inland siting is often hampered by a lack of economically feasible

sites for cooling ponds or lakes. Placement on rivers will decrease

out of consideration of the important cold water fisheries in the
Pacific Northwest and a lack of rivers with large year-round
discharges. The biological importance of most estuaries and their
limited flushing characteristics makes them undesirable sites.
In addition, water quality in estuaries is highly variable.
However, open coastal sites have the advantage of access to large
volumes of water for cooling and dispersion, resulting in a
potentially greater capacity for assimilation of industrial effluent
without significant environmental damage. Coastal sites have
therefore been earmarked as probable locations for a significant
portion of the future power expansion in the Pacific Northwest.
The advantages that make coastal 3iting of power plants favorable
also pertain to other potential uses such as discharges of municipal
and industrial wastes, pulp mill effluents, and offshore mining
residues. The ocean, however, cannot be considered as an
inexhaustible sink into which man can continuously dump his wastes.
A balance must be achieved between the input of waste material
and the ability of the ocean to assimilate it. Irreparable damage
may result if this balance is not achieved.
To answer the environmental questions posed by use of the nearshore
area for industrial outfails, a coastal pollution group was formed
within the Departments of Oceanography and Civil Engineering,
Oregon State University. Supported by a grant from the Federal
Water Quality Administration, this group has been charged to
collect, organize, and analyze all oceanographic data which would
aid in the evaluation of sites for industrial outfalls on the open
coast of the Pacific Northwest. As a first step, a survey of the
literature was needed to determine our present knowledge of this
region and to help establish priorities for future research.

The area of concern in this literature survey is the near shore coastal
zone extending seaward 10 kilometers from the shoreline from
Cape Mendocino in Northern California to Cape Flattery, Washington
(Figure 1 -1). Data relevant to the physical oceanography, geology,
meteorology, chemistry, radioecology, and biology of this area were
sought. Primary sources of data were the published literature,
university theses, and unpublished data obtained directly from research
laboratories. Detailed information concerning sources of data is
presented in each chapter. Subject areas not researched are also
indicated, as are data which, upon critical analysis, were found to
be unsuitable for inclusion.

48'

CAPE

LATTER V

GRAYS
HARBOR

WASHI NGTON

46'

ASTORIA
TILL .4M00/(
Ii'EAO

TILLAMOOK

EWPORT

44
OREGON
COOS BAY

CAPE 8LANCO

42

Pr ST GEORGE

EUREKA
CAPE MENOOCINO

CALIFORNIA1

Figure 1 -1 Map of the Study Area

3

This report, the final product of the project, represents the

intensive cooperative efforts of physical oceanographers, chemists,
geologists, biologists, and ocean engineers. The large volume of
information collected has made it necessary to assemble the data
in two volumes. Volume 1 is an analysis and detailed discussion
of the collected information and contains a comprehensive
bibliography of the literature pertaining to the nearshore regions
of the Pacific Northwest. References are listed by author and
bibliographic number. Part I of Volume 1 presents a discussion
of the physical and geological 'factors which are known for the
region of study. Part II summarizes the knowledge of the chemistry
and radiochemistry of the region, and Part III considers the biological
aspects with emphasis on temperature relations and attempts to
establish some preliminary priorities. Part IV is an attempt to
describe the coastal ecosystem by integrating the physical, chemical,
geological, and biological information into a general overview. Volume 2
contains the appendices. Most of the physical and chemical data
were suitable for inclusion in Volume 1, while it was necessary
to include much of the biological information in the species checklist
in the appendices.
The senior authors assume responsibility for the entire work, but
since many individuals cooperated in this review, the names of the
persons who worked on each section are included as chapter or
subchapter authors. Without their able and conscientious assistance
this task could not have been completed.

This report, then, is primarily a reference from which available

information for this region can be abstracted on a regional or
site basis. Information can also be obtained on physical parameters
or on biological or chemical species or on any combination thereof.
Perhaps more important than the presentation and summary of the
available information is the indication of what information is
not known or is not available.

PART I. PHYSICAL AND GEOLOGICAL ASPECTS

Page
Chapter 2. NAUTICAL CHARTS OF THE PACIFIC NORTHWEST
COAST by Burton W. Adams

Chapter 3. GEOLOGY by Robert H. Bourke, J. Paul Dauphine,

and Burton W. Adams

13

Chapter 4. HYDROLOGY by Bard Glenne and Burton W. Adams

25

Chapter 5. WINDS by Robert H. Bourke and Bard Glenne

29

Chapter 6. TEMPERATURE AND SALINITY by Robert H. Bourke

and Bard Glenne

47

Chapter 7. HEAT BUDGET by. Robert H. Bourke

64

Chapter 8. WAVES by Robert H. Bourke

74

Chapter 9. COASTAL CURRENTS by Robert H. Bourke afld

and Bard Glenne

87

Chapter 10. FIELD STUDIES OF THERMAL DISCHARGES by

Robert H. Bourke and Burton W. Adams

Chapter 11. REVIEW OF ANALYTICAL MODELS FOR THE

PREDICTION OF TEMPERATURE DISTRI-

BUTION by Robert H. Bourke and Bard Glenne 119

Chapter 2. NAUTICAL CHARTS OF THE

PACIFIC NORTHWEST COAST

by Burton W. Adams

The following Coast and Geodetic Survey Charts pertain to the area
covered by this report. They may be purchased from the Director,
Coast and Geodetic Survey, Environmental Services Adminins tration,
Rockville, Maryland 20852 or Officer in Charge U.S. Naval Oceanographic Distribution Office, Clearfield, Utah. These charts are listed
in two general catalogs: (1) Nautical Chart Catalog No. 2(1211) of the
U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey, and (2) Catalog of Nautical Charts
and Publications, No. 1-N Region 0 (1216). Locations of regions described
in this report are indicatedon Figures 2-1 and 2-2.
AREA
A.

CHARTS #

San Francisco to Cape Flattery

Monterey Bay to Coos Bay
a. Pt. Arena to Trinidad Head

1.

b.

2.

b.

5021

ii

5602
5795
5832
5846

I,

(3) Trinidad Harbor

ii

Trinidad Head to Cape Blanco

(1) St. George Reef & Cresent City
(2) Pyramid Pt. to Cape Sebastian
(3) Cape Sebastian to Humbug Mt.
(4) Port Orford to Cape Bianco

Cape Blanco to Yaquina Head

(1) Coquille River Entrance
(2) Coos Bay
(3) Umpqua River to Reedsport
(4) Siuslaw River
(5) Yaquina Bay & River
(6) Approachs to Yaquina Bay

Yaquina Head to Columbia River

(1) Tillamook Bay
(2) Nehalem River
(3) Columbia River to Harringto Pt.
7

5052

ft

(1) Cape Mendocino & Vicinity

(2) Humbolt Bay

Cape Blanco to Cape Flattery

a.

C. &G. S.

Ii

'I

ii
ii
ii
ii

5702
5895
5896
5951
5952

it

5022

Ii

5802

f_f

5971

ft

5984
6004
6023
6055
6056

II

it
ft

if

if
it

ii

5902
6112
6122

If

6 151

CHARTS #

AREA
c. Columbia River to Destruction Island

Willapa Bay

Grays Harbor

d. Destruction Island to Amphitrite Pt.

(Vancouver Is.)
(1) Cape Flattery

C.&G.S. 6002
6185
6195
6102
6265

Figure 2-1. Pacific Northwest Coast. Cape Flattery, Wash, to Cape Perpetua,.

C A L I F OR N

21

40

41
0

::

41

I011EGONI2
25

40'

124

40'

125

124

aO'

Figure 2-2. Pacific Northwest Coast. Heceta Head, Ore. to Pt. Delgada, Calif.

SEDIMENT
OVERBURDEN

PT]

50-7
70-90

- 90-110

- >110

ROCK

0_

Figure 3-2. Sediment overburden. Numbers in circles

indicate exact sediment thickness when
measurable for the 0-50 foot interval.
Contours in fathoms (from KuIm, 1730).

II

Figure 3-1. Surface distribution of sediment types.

Sedsment classification according to
Shepard (1954). Contours in fathoms
(from Kulm, 1730).

Chapter 3. GEOLOGY

by Robert H. Bourke, J. Paul Dauphine, and Burton W. Adams

Geology and Geomorphology

The geology of the nearshore region of the Pacific Northwest has not
been studied in much detail. Inference must be drawn from the
larger volume of geologic data gathered along coasts and beaches
and from the marine surveys which have generally been conducted
farther offshore than 2 to 3 miles. The geology of the Pacific
Coast was discussed byPalmer (1741); the west coast of North
America by Menard (1734); selected areas of the Pacific Northwest
by Byrne (1714); and the coastal sand dunes of Oregon and Washington
by Cooper (1716). A continuing study of the continental margin
off Oregon is being conducted by the Department of Oceanography
at Oregon State University. A detailed report for the southern
Oregon coast has been compiled by Kuim (1730) and for the entire
Oregon coast by Kuim and Fowler (1768). Major bathymetric
features off the coasts of Oregon and Washington have been
described by McManus (1765). Humboldt State College (1140) has
documented the nearshore geology of the northern California region
between Trinidad Head and the Eel River.

The coastal region of the Pacific Northwest may be described as

erosional tectonic with uplifted submarine banks and coastal terraces.
Numerous steep and often unstable cliffs are interspersed between
sandy beaches. Rock outcrops are frequent in the vicinity of headlands and some river mouths (Figures 3-1 and 3-2). In southern
Oregon typical areas of rock exposure are Cape Blanco, Cape Arago,
and off the mouths of the Umpqua, Coquille and Rogue Rivers. Off
the Washington coast, extensive gravel deposits have been found
off Grays Harbor, the Quinault River, Ozette Lake, and Cape
Flattery (Venkatarathnam, 1769). Site investigations for
structures located on headlands or other cliff-like areas should
consider possible slumping or slope failures (North and Byrne,
1739). General geologic features are shown and described on
geological maps for Washington, Oregon, and California. Examples
of these are:
Geologic map of Oregonwest of the l2lstmeridian(Peck, 1742)
Geologic map of Washington (Huntting, et al. , 1724) and
Geology of Northern California (Bailey, 1759).
13

Sediments

Surface sediments of the nearshore zone are primarily sands consisting

of detrital quartz and feldspar. This sand zone extends from the
shoreline out to a water depth of approximately 50 fathoms (300 feet)
off the northern and central Oregon coast (Figure 3-3). South of
the Umpqua River the sand forms a narrow belt along the coast in
generally shallower water (30 fathoms or less) (Figure 3-1). Off
the Washington coast the sand zone extends at least to a depth of
30 fathoms (1769). Off southern Oregon sediment thickness varies
between zero and 90 feet (MacKay, 1733) (Figure 3-2). The
onshore-offshore transport rate of sand is greatest during winter
where, in areas subject to high wave attack, beaches may lose
from 5 to 15 feet of sediment thickness. The longshore seasonal
transport is generally to the north in winter and to the south in
summer. Net longshore transport is believed to be north, but may
vary with location (Kulm, etal. , 1761). Ripples in the bottom
sediment have been found at water depths of 80 meters in winter and
30 meters in summer (Neudeck, 1762). The transport and distribution
of sediments from the Columbia River has been investigated by
Ballard (1707) and Gross and Nelson (1722).
Sediment Motion

When a progressive wave advances into shoaling water, a depth is

reached where the oscillatory fluid motion on the bottom is of
sufficient magnitude to initiate sediment motion. This sediment
motion may be significant to construction in the near shore region.
Observations indicate that offshore gravity 'forces dominate over
onshore hydrodynamic forces during the winter. Therefore, in the
winter, beach sand is generally transported offshore. Under summer
wave conditions the net onshore hydrodynamic force is greater than
the offshore gravity force and the sand moves onshore.

Few observations have been made in the oceans to determine at

what depth significant sand motion is initiated (see Inman, 1227)
although considerable work has been done in laboratory wave tanks
(Ippen, 1144). Atpresent, the 0rrelationbetween laboratory
work and ocean observations is uncertain.

14

COLUMBIA

UMPQUA
RI \'ER

TILLAMOOK
BAY
CAPE
BLANCO

ROGUE
RIVER

o 5

10 15

YAQUINA

KM

BAY

BASAL SAND
MIXED SAND & MUD

MODERN MUD
GLAUCONITE

ROCK

Figure 3 -3. Sedimentary fades of the Oregon continental shelf

(from Kuim and Fowler, 1768).

15

Inman (1227) indicated that the alignment of characteristic sediments

parallel to the shoreline is caused by onshore/offshore sand movement, not littoral drift. Ippen and Eagleson (1144) have shown that
the depth of established equilibrium motion (the deepest depth a
characteristic sand particle remains in motion through a complete
wave cycle) can be calculated for a characteristic beach slope,
sand size, and wave. Figure 3-4 depicts depths of equilibrium
motion for a beach with a slope of 0. 01 5 and a sand diameter of
0. 24 mm (D50) for varying wave conditions.
A second approach to determine the depth at which sand movement
is initiated for given wave conditions is to use small amplitude wave
theory and Hjulstrom's curve (Figure 2.2 in 1121) for threshold
velocities for different sand sizes. Figure 3-4 also shows solutions
to the equation for threshold particle velocity on the bottom due to
various wave conditions for a sand size of 0.24 mm (Glenne, 1228).
The 0. 24 mm sand size and 0. 01 5 beach slope are representative
of the Oregon coast.

Sorting o'f sediment sizes on the foreshore slope of a beach (landward

of the breaker) is shown in Figure 3-5 from C. E. B. C. TR-4 (1121).
The larger sized grains are associated with steeper beaches (a
result of the higher orbital velocity of the water particles), but
this relationship is also influenced by water level variability,
wave exposure, and ground water level. Median grain size has
been shown to be a satisfactory parameter for generally evaluating
the transportability of littoral material.
Seismology

The coastal area of the Pacific Northwest is relatively aseismic

compared to the remainder of the Pacific Coast. Hence, it may
be considered a preferential siting area. The lack of major
seismic activity is seen in the plot of tectonic flux (Figure 3-6)-an integration of earthquake intensity and number of quakes. Shear
zones have been postulated through Cape Blanco and at Coquille
Point, but these have not been active since post-Miocene (Dott, 1760).
Byerly (1710) and Menard (1734) have discussed earthquakes and
faulting, respectively, along the Pacific Coast. Ryall, etal. (1770)
have studied the seismicity, tectonism, and surface faulting of the
Western United States. A discussion of Oregon earthquakes may be
16

240

'

Depth of established equilibrium motion for D50 = 0. 24 mm

Bottom depths at which mean threshold velocities
occur forD50 = 0. 24 mm

220

200
H
.

180

/
,
/
/
,
/
/
/
,
/

160
140

0
F-'

qe

e'-

- _jaVe pe r
-

80
H

60

-----od 7 s e c.

Sand Diameter (D50) = 0. 24 mm

Beach Slope 0.015

40

S. G. = 2. 65

20
I

10

12

DEEP WATER WAVE HEIGHT (FT)

Figure 3-4. Movement of bottom sand due to waves.

14

16

o ----

14

Median Diameter Lake Michigan

Median Diameter Atlantic Coast(compited U.S.C.E. data)
Median Diameter Pacific Coast

1.2

'1

0
x

0
0

&:..__.____

--i:.:=J4
L

..-Foreshore

..--'

ran

ran

Slope

Figure 3-5. Relationship between grain size and foreshore slope (from G.E. R. C. , TR-4, 1121).

Figure 3-6. Map of tectonic flux for the Western United States
(from Ryall, etal. , 1770). Log flux indices represent
combined intensity and frequency of quakes.

19

found in Berg and Baker (1708). Faults and shear zones of

the continental shelf off Washington have been investigated by
Grim and Bennett (1771).

Sources of Information

The following list of departments and bureaus are the major

repositories of geologic data and information. These sources should
be investigated for pertinent available data before commencing
geologic surveys.
(a) State
1. Department of Geology and Mineral Industries, State
of Oregon
Washington Department of Conservation, Division of
Water Resources
3. Washington Department of Conservation, Division of
Mines and Geology
4. California Division of Mines and Geology
2.

(b)

U. S. Geological Survey
U. S. Bureau of Mines
U. S. Bureau of Reclamation
4. U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey
5. U. S. Army Corps of Engineers
1.
2.
3.

Nearshore Topography

The nearshore topography of the study area can be illustrated by

profiles of the bottom contour constructed at selected intervals along
the coast from the shoreline out to a distance of three miles.
Profiles or transects were drawn parallel to latitude lines and
were located with reference to significant estuaries, population
centers, broad flat beaches, headlands, and other coastal features.

The profiles shown in Figures 3-7 and 3-8 are of transects three
nautical miles in length and are subdivided into three increments-shoreline to 0. 5 mile, 0.5 to 1.5 miles, and 1. 5 to 3.0 miles. The
average bottom slope for each increment and the depth of water at
0. 5, 1.5, and 3 miles offshore are shown.

20

124W

4e/

CAPE FLATJRY

4$N

60'

(1450)

47.555,

I30)

47'315'
30'

(1:600)

47'20.5'

240)

60'

(1/50)

'200)

(I: #

4713'

ROOSEVELT

BEACH

7OO'

F.225

GRAYS HARBOR

/2201

652'
fl/SQl

WIEZ>APA BAY

,'/.240)

(/600)

630'
720)

UMBIA

.200)
(1360)

fJVER

30'

/00)

46NF--

.300)
(1.450)

15'

4600'

(1200)

/170)
85)

(1:200)

45'42
fi.

TILLAMOOK

4528.5
(1:05

05'

1/001

4448'

/20)

NEWPORT
(/./30
1700) ,'

(/450)
730)

440Nf_-

1851

1750)

/30)
'45,

Figure 3-7. Bottom profiles and beach slopes for yarious locations
in Washington and northern Oregon. Water depth is
indicated at 1/2, 1 1/2, and 3 miles offshore.
21

25!

ALSEA BAY
44'ZS'

7Z0)

SIUSLAW RIVER
44'OO'

44N H
.70)

/700)

43.4,.
145'

((.260)

/851

LIMPQUA RIVE1P

70)
115'

.85)

307'

l0

165'

35,

85)

CAPE BLANcO

244.5'
p35)

ROGUE RIVER

42'24'

42N

200'

750)

125'

55'

.45)

(.730)

80'

80)

42"OJ.S'

/851

KLAMATH RIVER

4130'

/20)

.751
120'

70'

260)

I55

90'

/200)

4/"OZ.S'

(1.450)

40"SO'
60'

1200)

30'

(1.250)

IlLIMBOL T BAY

4.EEL RIVER
CAPE MENOOCINO

80'

40"25'

(1.120)

(I00)
/750)

400NJ-

140

ft75)

hO'

124W

Figure 3-8. Bottom profiles and beach slopes for various locations
in southern Oregon and northern California. Water
depth is indicated at 1/2, 1 1/2, and 3 miles offshore.
22

The bottom slope of the first half mile increment is significantly

greater than the slope farther offshore. From Cape Mendocino
northward to Tillamook Head the slope is relatively steep ranging
from 1:35 to 1:100 (1.75 toO. 5); farther northward the slope is
less, ranging from 1:100 to 1:200. At distances greater than
one-half mile the slope is generally less, varying between 1:100
to 1:600 with the steeper slopes occurring south of Tillamook Head.
At a distance of one-half mile offshore the depth of water varies
between 1 5 feet and 40 feet with a mean depth slightly greater than
30 feet. Three miles offshore in the northern portion the water
depth rarely exceeds 100 feet. From Tiliamook Head to the southern
boundary the depth of water varies from 100 feet to 300 feet.
Several exceptions to the above mean conditions exist, notably
around headlands. Here, offshore reefs and haystack rocks
abound and bottom contours become quite irregular. In many
of these cases high cliffs terminate abruptly at the water's edge
eliminating the formation of any beach.
At Newport, Oregon, from Yaquina Head to approximately a mile
south of the entrance jetties a submerged reef runs parallel to
the coastline about a mile offshore. This reef alters the nearshore
surface circulation pattern creating eddies of variable strength
and direction. Similar situations will also exist in the proximity of
other offshore rocky areas.
There are no known canyons or troughs that extend to within three
miles of the coast. The heads of the Astoria and Eel River canyons
terminate farther offshore, 15 milesandfive miles, respectively.

23

Table 4-1. River discharge data for the Pacific Northwest.

River
Drainage are
for total basin _(m].
Drainage area -(m12)
Percent of total basin gaged
Observation period

Columbia Chehalis I Umpqua

12
4,560
259,000
*
*

1,172
88

3,683

Rogue
5,160

Kiamath
15,800

Eel
3,630

12, 100

3,113

1930-61

1937-63

550

850

5, 000
17, 000

2, 400

3, 550

11,900
16,200

11, 100
24, 500

25,900

18,000

4,500
5,300

6,600
8,050

16, 100

15, 600

30, 600

19, 500

5, 500

8, 250

13,200
9,700

12,300

21 600

12,700

4,000

6,050

5,000
2,000
1,300
1,200
7,800

10, 300
3, 900
1, 100
300

3, 150
1, 800

4,000
1,700
1,300
1,200
8,200

26, 100
19, 700
10, 600

2, 100

7, 300

10, 600
8, 000

200
100

90
90

17, 200

7,100

2,200

2,400

100

165, 000

164, 000

16, 600

263,000

19,800

18,300

FEB

266, 000

13, 000

MAR

239 000

10,700

SEP

338,000
178,000
131,000

Mean streamflow(cfs)

266, 000

AUG

Avg. mi daily flow (cfs)

Avg. max. daily flow (cfs)

---

*Data extrapolated to river mouth.

1,800
1,100
800
700

7,600
500
65, 000

DEC
JAN

JUN
JUL

1930-61

2, 600
6, 600

6, 700
3, 300

1958-67
1,400

2,000
7,300

279, 000
390, 000
538, 000

773

78

3, 300
11, 200
15, 900

APR

1,058

1958-67
5,400

140, 000
192, 000
246, 000

MAY

ICoquille ISiuslaw

415

1960-68

NOV

Coos

1933-55

80

1953-67

Avg. monthly flow CFS OCT

1953-67

900

125, 000

---

4,000
2,900
3,000

86

1,200
530
180

---

'o

750
300
140
130

3,300
-- -

3,150
- --

Chapter 4. HYDROLOGY

by Bard Glenne and Burton W. Adams

Although the hydrology may effect many factors in the environment

the discussion in this chapter will be limited to streamfiow data.
The effects of streamflow on temperature and salinity will be
dealt with in Chapter 6 and on sediment transport in Chapters
3, 15, and 21.
Streamfiow data for the nine major rivers discharging between
Cape Flattery and Cape Mendocino are shown in Table 4-1. The
data were taken from the records of the lowest gaging station on each
river with the exception of the Siuslaw River which was estimated
from precipitation records (1167) since no gaging stations were
installed until 1967. Streamflow data for the Columbia, Rogue, Coos,
and Coquille rivers have been extrapolated to the mouths of the rivers.
Streamflow data are available from the annual ItWater Resources Data,"
published for each state by the U. S. Geological Survey (1213, 1214,
1215). The Northwest Water Resources Data Center (1163) publishes
weekly and monthly streamflow summaries for selected stations in the
Pacific Northwest. The Oregon State Water Resources Board has
published river basin studies for the coastal basins of which the
Rogue River (1165), North Coast (1223), Mid-Coast (1167), and South
Coast (1168) basin studies were used.
The Columbia and Klamath Rivers show an annual bimodal flow

discharge. This is a result of heavy autumn and winter precipitation

west of the Cascade Range and spring snowmelt waters. Figure 4-1
shows the average monthly flow for the Columbia River showing the
winter rainfall peak and the spring snowmelt peak.

The streamfiow for the other rivers shows single peaks in winter
due to heavy precipitation on the Coast Range during this season.
Figure 4-2 depicts the streamflow for the Chehalis River which is
representative of the flow pattern of these coastal rivers. A log-log
plot of average coastal river streamfiows versus river basin drainage
area (Figure 4-3) permits estimation of streamflow for similar type
rivers based upon a knowledge of the river drainage area.

To summarize, the discharge patterns of the coastal rivers emptying

into the Pacific Ocean from Northern California, Oregon, and Washington
show broad peaks during the winter and spring months. During summer
and fall the discharge rates of these streams are much below their
annual average (80 to 96 percent less).

25

JUN

5
4

MAY

JUL

APR
JAN

DECI

MEAN

MAR

NOV

AUG

OCT

SEP

Figure 4-1. Mean monthly flow of the Columbia River extrapolated to the
river mouth for 1953-1967. (CFS x 1O)
26

JAN

20

- 18
DEC

- 16
- 14

FEB

- 12

NOV

MAR

- 10
MEAN

APR
6

OCT

MAY

JUN

JUL

.AUG

SEP
0

Figure 4-2. Combined mean flow of the Chehalis, Satsop, and

Wynoochee Rivers measured at the lowest gaging
station on each river for the period 1960-1968.
(CFS x 1O)

27

ROGUE

UMPQUA

EEL

CHEHALIS

. COQUILLE

NEHALEM
SIUSLAW

. COOS

10

AVERAGE STREAMFLOW - (1000 cfs)

Figure 4-3. Average strearnflow of Pacific Northwest coastal rivers versus river
basin drainage area.,

28

Chapter 5. WINDS
by Robert H. Bourke and Bard Gierine

General

The Washington, Oregon, and Northern California coasts are

located approximately in the center of the zone of prevailing westerlies with local winds varying from northwest to southwest throughout
most of the year.
The seasonal cycle ofwinds on the Pacific Northwest Coast is largely
determined by the circulation about the North Pacific high pressure
area and the Aleutian low pressure area. During summer the
North Pacific high reaches its greatest development (approximately
1025 millibars) and is centered about 30-40N and 150 W; the
Aleutian low is weak during this period (Budinger, et al. ,1113).
The interaction of these pressure zones favors the development of
summer winds generally from northwest to north over the nearshore
and coastal areas of Oregon and Washington.
During winter the North Pacific high weakens and its center shifts
about 100 southward while the Aleutian iow intensifies (1113).
The resulting winds, frequently of gale force, approach the Washington-Oregon coast from the southwest.

Extra-tropical cyclones occur most frequently in winter and

generally approach the coast from a westerly direction (National
Marine Consultants, 1159). Depending upon the location of the storm
center as it impinges on the coast, the winds may be from northwest
to southwest. These winds generate most of the large waves that
reach the coast.
The barrier presented by the mountains of the Coast Range influence
the general wind pattern, deflecting the winds so that they tend to
align with the trend of the coast (Cooper, 1124). In regions where
the mountains are low the deflecting effect is minimal and normal
oceanic wind conditions prevail.

29

Table 5-1
Station

Monthly

gee of wind dlr.ction and scalar speed (mph) at selected shore stations.

Period of Record

Apr.

1s

!Sz

Aug.

Sept

SSW

Nov.

SE

SE

Source of Data
Bibliographic Refer.nce No.

Ouillayute, Washington
Weather Bureau

1966-1969

Average Direction
Avg. Scalar Speed

SE

8.4

SE

7.3

SSE

7.7

7.5

SW

6.8

WSW

6.3

6.3

6.2

5.6

8.4

7. I

7.1

NW

ESE

ESE

ESE

8.0

9.4

'0.9

ESE
11.8

(1207)

Moclips. Washington
Weather Bureau
(t1$5)

1937-1947

Average Direction

NW

NW

NW

Hoqutam. Washington
Weather Nurrau

1953-1958

Average Direction
Avg. Scalar Speed

ESE

ESE

11.4

ESE
11.2

11.4

10.3

9.6

9.5

9.1

8.3

Lone Tree, Pt. Brown. Washington

Weather Bureau
(Ii93)and(1219)

12 year.

Average Direction

SE

NW

NW

NW

NW

44 year.

Average Direction
Avg. ScalarSpeed

SE

SE

NW

NW

NW

15.9

14.6

14.1

13.8

13.2

22.8

12.0

11.2

Il.?

SE

WNW

NW

NW

NW

NW

SE

(IItc)

North Head. Cape Disappointment,

Washington

Weather Bureau

(I193)and(i2i8)
Astoria. Oregon

II year.

NW

51W

NW

Average Direction
Avg. Scalar Speed

1943 -1945

Average Direction

55W

NW

SSW

I935-1942

Average Direction

Cape Arago Light Station. Oregon

19i5-1925

Average Direction

SE

SW

SW

North Bend. Oregon

Weather Bureau

1950-1959

Average Direction
Avg. Scalar Speed

SE

SE

SE

Average Direction

NE

NE

NE

NW

NW

NW

Average Direction
Avg. Scalar Speed

SE

SE

NW

NW

7.6

8.0

7.9

7.4

Weathe Bureau
(lZ06)

Tillarnook, Oregon
Weather Bureau

8.9

-ESE

8.7

8.7

8.5

8.2

8.2

8.5

7.7

NW

NW

SE

12.8

SE
15.5

16.2

SE

SE

ESE

7.2

7.6

NW

8.5

8.&

NW

NW

NW

NNW

NNW

NNW

NNW

NNW

NW

NW

NW

NW

NW

NW

NW

SE

SE

1(74W

1474W

NNW

NNW

NNW

NNW

SE

10.0

9.7

11.7

9.8

7.7

SE
6. 8

SE

9.2

NW

NE

NE

SE

SE

(1155)

Newport. Oregon
Weather Bureau

(1155)

U.S. Army Corps of Engr..

(1197)and(IZ19)

9.4

8.4

9.0

7.2

8.3

(1155)

Brookinga. Oregon
Weather Bureau

1937-1942

(1155)

Eureka. California
Weather Bureau
(1140)

7.0

7.2

6.8

5.7

5.5

5.6

5.9

6.4

Winds Measured from Shore Stations

Wind speed and direction have long been measured at various

locations along the coast (prior to 1900 at some of the larger towns).
However, very little of the data has been analyzed or publis1ed.
For example, weather stations are found in most of the coastal
towns, but data from only two locations are published: at Quillayute
in northern Washington (U. S. Department of Commerce, 1207), and
at Astoria, Oregon (U. S. Department of Commerce, 1208). For
these two stations the resultant wind speed and direction (vector sum
of all observations taken each month) and the mean scalar speed for
each month have been published since 1967. Prior to 1967 the data
listed were the prevailing wind direction, frequency, and the mean
scalar speed.

At each of the U. S. Coast Guard Stations the climatological data

are recorded every four hours. Only the immediate past year's
and present year's logs are kept at the stations; the records for
previous years are sent to the Coast Guard Archives, Washington,
D.C. These records have not been machine punched nor analyzed
and have not been used in this report.
In addition to the above two sources of wind data, the U. S. Army
Corps of Engineers has completed wind analyses for several
harbors and bays in the study area (1196-1201). Most of these
reports are from data taken prior to 1930.
In March 1969 the Weather Facility at the Marine Science Center
in Newport, Oregon, installed a recording anemometer on the end
of the south jetty of Yaquina Bay. Data from this source should
prove quite reliable since the location of the anemometer provides
data relatively free of land effects.

Average wind conditions as measured at various coastal sites within

the study area are presented in Tables 5-1 and 5-2. Wind roses
for winter and summer conditions (January and July, respectively)
for Oregon are shown in Figure 5-1.
Winds have been monitored at the Quillayute weather station since
July 1966. Prior to July 1966 all meteorological observations were
made at the weather station on Tatoosh Island. The wind pattern

for the northern Washington coast differs from that along the southern
Washington, Oregon, and northern California coasts in that at
Quallayute summer winds are from the west, whereas, for the
latter areas summer winds are consistently from the north or
nor thwe st.
31

Table 5-2. Frequency and velocity of winds at three stations on the

Washington-Oregon coast
July and January
North Head, Washington

Newport, Oregon Lal. 4438'

North Bend Oregon 43Z5'

Lal. 48 18'

.1938-1942

193 7-1942

Frcq iency

Ar.

Frequency

velocity

4 mph.

4 m.p.h. 16 m.pit.
and over and over

and over

4 mph.

and over

mph.

mph.

and over

135

11.9

351

4.9
2.5
3.0
3.0
3.8
3.6
5.4
6.4
7.9
6.2
6.7

36
37

16

At.

Freq tency

velocity

velocity

m.p.h.
and over

m.p.h.

130
2

12.6

16

July
19319-194.

N.

N.-N.E.
N.E.
E.-N.E.
E.
E.-S.E.
S.E.

S-SE.
S.

S.-S.W.
S.W.
W.-S.\V.
'N.

W.-N.W.
N.W.
N.-N.W.

781

410

15.4

389

15
11

8.4
5.6

....

2
2

5.5

34

...

...
...

...
...
...
...

44

36
269
39

10
114
14

10.0
9.2
13.6
14.7
13.4

48

129
24
127

11

10.1

117

...

7.8
8.1
9.0

34

...
10

20
437
323

9
2
155
171
..

13.1
15.9

..

11

...

35

...

60

55
27
160
212

...
...
.

15

60

6
2

52

20
24
19

...
...
...
...
...

7.8
5.2
3.3
3.1
3.5
4.5

...
...

5.3
4.3
7.1

...
...
...

5.7
7.5
4.8
7.6

330

/0

10.1

172

45

11..3

5.4

39
19
16
12

4.7
5.6
7.9
12.6

....

January
1931-1942

N.
N.-N.E.
N.E.
E.-N.E.
E.
E.-S.E.
S.E.
S.-S.E.
S.

S.-S.W.
S.W.
W.-S.W.
W.
W.-N.W.
N.W.
N.-N.W.

84
6
61
6
501
183
383
36
313
23
125

22

11.8

...

7.6
6.0
9.1

2
3

194
110
132
23
263
23
87

127

69

8
118

13

68
9

13.0
16.6
14.3
19.2.
27.8
27.7
19.9
15.1
16.0
16.3
16.8
18.8

33
6
17
97

415
160
235
25

...
...
...

6
2
2

46

59
23

75

20

28
76

10

17

122

32

...

7.3

28

6.4

...
...

5.7
7.2
7.3
8.5
6.7
10.5
14.1
16.1
11.2
13.1

52

8.7
8.1
9.5
9.7

(from Cooper, 1124)

32

19
12

...
...
...

6.2
6.1

6.0

4.8.
4.4

614

149
114
28
93

23

7.2
7.3
8.9
12.1
11.2

9.9

15
5

12
3

7.2

...

66
11

...

5.8
8.9
5.3

ASTORI

(2)

ASTOR1

CROWN

POINT (I)
PORTLAND (2

TILAMOC 1< (2)

4Dq,r

(2)

PORTLAND (2)

CASCADE
LOCKS CI)

CASCADE

LOCKS (I)

TILLAMOOK (2)

SALEM (2)
NEWPORT (I)
$CAt.0 (IN PRceNy OF TIMI)

CORVALLIS (2)
0

$0

OS

7$

Twt LI..,. 0, toe toss, .OS SP11D.SlRtflsO. SANS.MtA$4N5$

$7 TAO 2SjJ. 55*007(8 701 P0.01,7 00 7500 0160 0*8

7581 0400(7105 *515 555 700 13(510 CLASS SIPOflIoi?(5. 8 (.00*.

7508 55 SPIeS. OP 0 051.11 750 .OuS 00 1.158. POSIt.? OF

EUGENE (2)

450 7551$ SAssli 58.00*7070! (flY!l C,OCLC O'',(.,000,

7*0405.5 000LII$ OF 0*70 6*31 ST TsCC(513,, TO *55,00 *1.5

OIPF101.575pfl5 CLOS011 TO 7501 *50.0 00505 731 113001 FOLLOW.
5Sf. 7551 S?ATlOssk*soC 11*54,7151770 tNCSflOO .1.055 000 7037
07*710*0,3 55 *701.10 Is 701 100150.

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INDEX 6058505$ AND $PU$ (0.63313

)o(L....oLL6;

BEND (I)
III
III

ROSEBURG (I)

3ROSEBURG (I)

SEXTON SUMMIT (I)

MEOFORO (2)

MEOFORD (2)

BROOKINGS (I)

Figure 5-1. Wind roses for winter and summer conditions for western Oregon.
Wind roses for January.
Wind roses for July.
(from U. S. Dept. of Commerce-Weather Bureau, 1210)

15

471

0? 0.3 $ P54

SEXTON SUMMIT (I)

BROOKINGS W

III

54

(04

5.55

- 51.50
34.53
134
5*0
5.5. 10*7504* 0*71 7501 0*310*551

30 47

504

(44

00-46

(SE
4)5

For the three stations near the Columbia River--Lone Tree, North
Head, and Astoria--summer winds are predominantly from the N-NW
quadrant paralleling the coast; the highest velocity winds are also
from this sector (Table 5-2). During winter the winds are predominantly offshore- -from east or southeast. These winds are,
however, of moderate speed. The higher velocity winds (16 mph
or more, Table 5-2) arrive from the south or southwest, but do not
occur as frequently as the moderate easterly winds. High velocity
winds from the east also occur in this region during the winter as a
result of the concentration of the wind stream in the Columbia River
gorge (1124). In general, wind speeds are greater in winter than
summer with the exception of the high velocity summer winds from
the north.
Winds measured at Newport and Coos Bay, Oregon, and at Eureka,
California, exhibit the similar pattern of north or northwest winds
in summer and southeast winds in winter. The winds here tend to
follow the general trend of the coastline. Spring and fall are transition seasons during which the wind swings from south to north and
vice versa; the weather during these periods is usually clear.
Offshore Wind Observations

Observations of offshore winds taken near the vicinity of a marine

outfall are one of the necessary parameters required to describe
the distribution pattern of a surface pollutant. The winds not only
blow the pollutant along the ocean surface, but create wind-driven
currents which carry the "body't of the pollutant away from the source.
Wind speeds measured at shore stations, e.g. , Weather Bureau and Coast
Guard Stations, are generally not representative of conditions
found one-half to five miles offshore due to the varying topography
along the coast. Unfortunately, observations made one to five miles
offshore are very few and widely scattered.

Wind speed and direction measured aboard merchant, naval, and

research vessels in transit are deposited in the National Oceanographic
Data Center (NODC). Analysis of these data to obtain average monthly
wind conditions showed that the few observations taken within the
study area were too widely distributed in space and time to be of any
statistical value.
The geostrophic wind can be computed from twice-daily atmospheric
pressure charts prepared by the U. S. Weather Bureau. Corrections
34

can be applied to the geostrophic wind to obtain the approximate

surface wind condition for a height of 10 meters above the sea surface.
An analysis of offshore wind conditions using this method is described
in a technical report of the Department of Oceanography of the
University of Washington (Duxbury, etal., 1128).

Perhaps the most reliable and representative of actual surface wind

conditions recorded are those measured from lightships stationed
about five miles offshore. These data are stored at the National
Weather Records Center in Asheville, N.C. If specifically requested,
the data are machine punched and put on magnetic tape for future
analysis.
On a broader scale, the Climatological and Oceanographic Atlas for
Mariners, Volume II, North Pacific Ocean (U. S. Dept. of Commerce,
1209) shows monthly wind roses for a point located at 410 00'N,
126 00'W. Only general seasonal trends can be elicited from this
Atlas.
In the future, valuable wind information will be provided by telemetry
from buoys such as Oregon State University's Totem. These
buoys should provide long and continuous records allowing statistical
analysis of short-term fluctuations as well as long-term averages.

Since the early 1950's wind observations have been recorded every
six hours from the three lightships located in the project area.
These are the Blunts Reef Lightship off Cape Mendocino in northern
California, the Columbia River Lightship, and the Umatilla Lightship
off Cape Alava in northern Washington (Figure 5-2). The data
analysis to obtain average monthly wind conditions was performed
for this project by the National Weather Records Center. Table 5-3
lists by month the average resultant wind direction and speed, the
average scalar speed and the number of observations during the
period of record for each lightship. In addition, Appendix 1 is a
listing of the above information for each year within the period of
r ecord.

Offshore winds in the northern section of the area (Umatilla Lightship

data) shift from SSE in fall and winter to W in early summer and then
reverse the cycle. This same pattern is observed in the central
and southern sections except that during summer the winds continue
their clockwise swing and arrive from the NW and N, respectively.
This annual wind shift is also verified by Figure 5-3 which was
derived from geostrophic calculations. These winds, measured
35

Urna/il/c
Lightship

GRAYS
F/ARBOR

WASHINGTON

Columbia River
L/ghtshio
46'

STORIA

TILL AMOOI( I

#1(40

TILLAMOOK

EWPORT

44.
OREGON
COOS RAY

CAPE BLANCO

42
PT ST GEORGE

EUREKA

B/un/s Reef
Lia/lishiD

.
cI

'-

CAPE MENOOCINO

CALIFORNIA

Figure 5-2. Location of lightships off the Pacific

Northwest coast.
36

Table 5-3. Resultant wind speed (knots) and direction by month

measured from lightships off the Pacific Northwest oast.
Blu-its Reef Lightship
1954-1966 (13 yrs)
Resultant
Scalar

Resultant
Direction

Jan
Feb

Mar
Apr
May

June
July

Aug
Sept
Oct
Nov
Dec

131

091
023
357
355
351
356
359
002
015
113
134

SE
E
NNE
N
N
N
N
N
N

Speed

Speed

18
19

2
2
8

14

18
18
18
15
16

13

16

9
5

14
13

16

17

10
12

NNE
ESE
SE

Number
Observations
1609
1465
1591

1523
1481
1554
149 1

1548
1536
1470

1554
1594

Columbia River Lightship

Resultant
Direction
Jan
Feb
Mar
Apr
May

June
July

SSW
SW
W
WNW

4
4
4

317
305

163

Aug

Sept
Oct
Nov
Dec

Speed

13

NW
WNW

4
1

12
10
10
10
11

SSE
SSE
SSE

14

6
8

17
17

Nw

Dire ction

June
July

1715
1560
1727
1546
1627
1680
1613
1732
1588
1512
1507
1608

Resultant

May

18
16
15

Nov

Mar
Apr

Number
Observations

SSE

159
157

Jan
Feb

Scalar

Speed

174
192
233
279
291
298

Dec

Resultant

155

Aug
Sept

Oct

1953- 1966 (14 yrs)

TJmatilla Lightship
196 1-1965(S yrs)
Resultant
Scalar
Speed

182
167

SSE

210
208
265
266
238
206

SW

3
5
5
5

179
167
161
168

Sw
W

W
WSW
SW

SSE
SSE
SSE

Speed

15

557
675
693
713

13

745.

12
10
7
8
13

719
860

18
16

14

4
2
2

'8

16
17

9.
37

Number
Observations

925
900
923
898
930

5 miles off the coast, show that even at this distance offshore the
influence of the continental topography is still marked.
Corrected Geostrophic Winds

Duxbury, Morse, and McGary (1128) have computed the resultant

surface wind from atmospheric pressure charts for eight grid points
shown in Figure 5-3. The geostrophic wind velocity aloft was
determined and then corrected by rotating the wind vector 15 to
the left of its downwind direction and reducing the speed by 30% to
obtain a surface wind applicable to a standard height of 10 meters
above the sea surface. These winds were then averaged by month
for the period 1961-1963 for three offshore grid areas (Figure 5-3).
Seasonal trends and latitudinal variations are readily apparent.
Winter winds are predominantly from the southwest, while summer
winds are northwest in the northern areas and from the north in the
southern part. The wind direction changes quite smoothly over a
180 arc between summer and winter and back to summer. Resultant
wind speeds during the autumn and spring transition periods are
relatively low due to the wide variability in wind direction during
these seasons.

Wind roses for each month, centered at the midpoint of the grid
from which the wind values were determined, are shown in Figures
5-4 to 5-15. The percentage of each month the wind came from the
direction indicated is represented by the length of the bar. The
concentric circles indicate both 5-knot speed increments and
monthly frequency of occurrence in 5% intervals. The small numbers
indicate the frequency of occurrence within each 5-knot increment;
the sum over any particular direction indicates the frequency with
which the wind came from the direction shown. The bar graph
associated with each rose shows the monthly frequency of wind
speed in 5-knot increments without regard to direction. The increase
in wind strength during winter followed by the decrease in strength
in summer is readily observed for the northern and central areas.
Winds in the southern area remain relatively strong in both summer
and winter. The close agreement of the"corrected geostrophic
winds" with those winds observed at the lightships substantiates
earlier reports that geostrophic winds may be used in areas where
actual wind observations are meager.

38

130

128

26

124

122

DEC

NOV

FEB

OCT
MAR

MAY
SEP

FEB

DEC

NOV .D

MAY
SEP
AUG

IUN

FEB

NOV

MAR

OCT

APR
MAY
SEP
AUG

10

WIND SPEED IN KNOTS

GRID POINTS
I

130

128

124

122

Figure 5-3. Average direction and velocity of monthly winds for 1961-1963.

(from Duxbury, etal., 1128)

39

30

24

26

28

30

24

26

28
I

U40,

....

48

'30

4$O_

40-

... 48

U.

20

O-ljll,lIJrI-1
0 0 203040 50

11
-,

01020304050

WIND SPEED, KY

WIND SPEED, KY

uj 40-

46-

O2Q3O4O5O

46

46

30-

/"T
0

020304050

WIND SPEED. KY

w 40

-44

44'3o1

30-i

0 1020304050
WIND SPEED KY

- OiLlIJlI
o 020304050

..

WIND SPEED, KY

42

42

130

28

26

124

Fig. 5-4. Average direction and velocity of

January winds for 1961-1963.

(from Duxbury, etal., 1128)

42

42

130

Fig. 5-5.

28

26

124

Average direction and velocity of

February winds for 1961-1963.

130
I

28

26

24

130

40

48'

128

24

126

48

30

48

LU40-,

S.

..

30

20

48

2O1L

LU

10
LU

o 020304050
WtND SPEED, KY

w 40-

46U-

LU40
46

30-

46

0
. 20-

301

LU

10
LU

0 020304050

WIND SPEED, KY

w 40U-

%L/

0 020304050

WIND SPEED, KT

LU40

30-

44.

44

42

42-

-.zI- 20LU

tO
LU

0 020304050
WIND SPEED, KY

42 -

30

28

26

124

Fig. 5-6. Average direction and velocity of

March winds for 1961-1963.

(from Duxbury, etal., 1128)

130

28

26

24

Fig. 5-7. Average direction and velocity of

April winds for 1961-1963.

28

30

48-!
I'

30

2.

:.--48

26

128

'A...

24

w 40-

48-!

I-. 30-

....

:-.

rn

0 020304050

7/II

020304050

WIND

130

24

126
I

SPEED, Kr

WIND SPEED, KY

w4O

w 40
46

-46

3oL
0

46.! 30 1

-H

1)

00 020304050

0 1020304050
WIND SPEED, XI

46

WINO SPEED, cr

j 40-.
44

0 020304050

S.

WIND SPEED, KT

42

20

WIND SPEED

-42

........

130

26

28

I..
124

Fig. 5-8. Average direction and velocity of

May winds for 1961-1963.

(from Duxbury, etal.,

1128)

42

42

30

128

26

24

Fig. 5-9. Average direction and velocity of

June winds for 1961-1963.

30

28
I

126
I

24

30

%t

28

126

24

I
I

'

50

48 Ui4O30-

48

.48

'30

.
S

20-

010
0

YL
.,.

o '020304050
WIND SPEED, <1

.
.

0 0 20 30'4'0'0'
WIND SPEED, <1

50

ui4O

46 - 3D

46

2D

020304050

LWIND

0 1020304050

SPEED, (1

WIND

40

I'0

'

SPEED, <1

uj 40
..

30

44

20

20-Il

_Io
0
0

rI,,

020304050

WIND SPEED, KT

0 020304050

WIND SPEED, KT

42

42

30

42

42

128

26

124

Fig. 5-10. Average direction and velocity of

July winds for 1961-1963.

(from Duxbury, et al., 1128)

30

28

26

II
24

Fig. 5-11. Average direction and velocity of

August winds for 1961-1963.

130

130

124

128

128

124

126

'

'

50

40

w401

30

1_SO
I-

z 20

1_20

I-

I-

to

0 020304050

l0__
0

,.

0 020304050

WIND SPEED. KY

WINO SPEED. KY

..-.

-r--...

.. ...

w4O

OtO2O4050

01020304050

JQuI

WIND SPEED. 1(1'

us4O

w 40
30

z
U

20
I0

10

O0

0 1020304050

0 1020304050

WIND SPEED. KY

.(..

WIND SPEED. KY

4r

42

124

Fig. 5-12. Average direction and velocity of

September winds for 1961-1963.

(from Duxbury, etal., 1128)

130

126

128

I26

124

Fig. 5-13. Average, direction and velocity of

October winds for 1961-1963.

30

'

28
I

126
I

24

30

w40

-48

30

48

..

0 020304050

020304050

WIND

Ld 40-

SPEED, (1

w4O

-44

30-

0 1020304050

WIND

42-

-42

30

..-..

OJfl

WIND SPEED, I<T

28

26

SPEED, (1

42

42

24

Fig. 5-14. Average direction and velocity of

November winds for 1961-1963.

(from Duxbury, etal., 1128)

48
.

II

w40
46

.........

01020304050

WIND SPEED, (1.

I...

WIND SPEED, (1

-46

24

50 J

26

u,4O-I

El'
46

28

30

28

126

I24

Fig.5-15. Average direction and velocity of

December winds for 1961-1963.

4 (30_
:$f),f;

WASHINGTON

Long Beac1i

4G0_

Columbia Rivcr
Lightship
Arch Cape-

Sea si d e
A qua rin i-n -

---DcpOC Bay
---Newport

Marine Science Center

440_

OREGON

Cape

Arago

Cha ne ston

Jort Onford

420 -

Cr e scent
City

CALIFORNIA

Blunts Reef
Lightshi.p

400_
128

1260

I2

122

Figure 6-1. Location of shore stations and lightships along the Pacific Northwest coast.

46

Chapter 6. TEMPERATURE AND SALINITY

by Robert H. Bourke arid Bard Glenne

Shore Station and Lightship Observations

Temperature and salinity observations are limited to mostly

surface observations. Only data from the National Oceanographic
Data Center contained subsurface observations and these were
extremely limited. Hence, the emphasis of this chapter must be
on the surface temperature and salinity of the area.
Observations of surface temperature and salinity have been made
at selected shore stations and from three lightships along the Pacific
Northwest Coast. Daily observations have been reported from the
Blunts Reef Lightship off Cape Mendocino since 1923 and from
Crescent City, California since 1934 (U. S. Dept. of Commerce,
1205). The Department of Oceanography at Oregon State University
began reporting weekly observations from shore stations along the
Oregon Coast in 1961 (OSU, Dept. of Ocean., 1169). Since 1964
all observations from reporting stations have been made daily (OSU,
Dept. of Ocean., 1170). Data from the Umatilla Lightship are
listed in a similar publication of the Scripps Institute of Oceanography, (1187). The location of each reporting station is shown in
Figure 6-1 and Table 6-1.
Additional temperature and salinity samples have been collected from
other sites along the Pacific Northwest Coast. Some of these data
have been published (Burt, etal., 1115; Gonor, 1135; Neal, etal.,
1160; Pearson and Holt, 1175; Skeesick, 1189) and some exist as
unpublished laboratory reports (Frolander, 1133; Snow, 1190).
The majority of these observations were taken during a single
season or month in conjunction with research concerning the ecology
of organisms living in the surf zone. These records were not considered sufficiently long to establish annual trends and were not
included in the analyses to follow.
Tables 6-2 and 6-3 list by month the average mean, average maximum, and average minimum surface temperature and salinity and
the total number of observations for each reporting station computed
over the period of record. Salinities were determined from hydrometer readings; the few stations reporting salinities in excess of 34..5%o
are probably in error (1170).

Figures 6-2 through 6-5 are graphs oithe monthly mean temperatures
for the three lightship stations and for several shore stations along
the Oregon-California coastline. At all locations there is a 4 to.
47

Table 6-1.

List of Shore Stations aiid Lightships in Geographical Order

Station Name

Location

Position

Washington

Umatilla Lightship

4810.O'N, 12450.O'W

Off Cape Alava

Long Beach

4623.O'N,12404.O'W

In surf on sand beach, 10th Street approach

Columoia River Lightship

4611.2'N, 1241l.O'W

Mouth of Columbia River

Seaside Aquarium

4559.7'N, 12355.6'W

At pump outlet into Aquarium settling tank from

surf inlet pipe

Arch Cape

4548. ON, 123 58. O'W

In surf on a sand beach

Depoe Bay Aquavurrt

4449. 4'N, 1 2404. O'W

At pump outlet into Aquarium settling tank from

surf inlet pipe

Newpert Marire 'circe Cerer

4437. Z'N, 124O1. 5'W

At pump outlet into Laboratory from bottom of

Charle3ton

4321. O'N, 12419. O'W

From surface of bay

Cape Arago Light Station

4320. 3'N, 124 22. 5'W

Off the rocks below the Light Station

Port Orford

4244. 6N, 124 30. 6'W

Off east side of Port Orford River

Crescent City

41 p44. 6'N, 1 24l 1.7'W

TJSCGS Tide Gtiage Station, Crescent City

Blunts Reef Lightship

4026. OtN, 12430. 01W

Off Cape Mendocino

Oregon

Yaquina Bay

California

Table 6-2. Average monthly temperature (C) and salinity (%.) of the eurf measured at
selected sites on the Pacific Northwest coast. Salinittee enclosed by
indicate average computed from fewer observations than listed In total.
Station and

Monthly Avgs. &

Period of Record

Total No. Obs.

Long Beach Washington

1962-1963

Jan.

Feb.

Mar.

June

July

Aug.

10.58
12.50
7.50

11.55
14.30

14.86

15.06
17.07

12

26.02
26.46
25.58

21.98
25.07
18.40

30.62
31.88
29.23

10.55
8.89

11.05
12.03
9.97

12.32
14.33

Avg. Mean
Avg. Maximum
Avg. Minimum

8.10
8.40
7.80

Total No. O.s.

Avg. Mean
Avg. Maximum
Avg. Minimum
Tot No. Ohs.

Seastde Aquarium
1966-1969

Arch Cape
1960-1963

(1961 domInates
salinity data)
S

Avg. Mean
Avg. Maximum
Avg. Minimum
Total No. Obs.

9.44

10.65
8.42

9.27
9.95
8.73

9.78

Oct.

Nov.

13.71

13.47
14.38
12.43

12.96
15.10
11.90

11.10
11.90
10.10

9.00
9.60
8.40

15

25.65
27.36
24.46

29.20

28.93

27.36

27.36

24.71

28.54
30.00
27.15

30. 62

30. 14

29. 14

24.38

25.58

15.08
17.68

14.63

15. Z6
16. 12

14.22

13.73
15.30
12.25

12.49
13.77
11.16

10.82

10.59

15.04
16.97
12.97

45

46

50

44

9.40

15.81
13.61

33. 08

27.25

Dcc.

72

54

79

66

64

78

79

16.61
12. 17
72

Avg. Mean
Avg. Maximum
Avg. Minimum
Total No. Obe.

28.14
29.81
26.09

28.23
30.34
25.65

28.39
30.36
24.48

28.52

29.11
31.69

28.98
32.70
23.22

31.64
27.56

55

77

66

64

29.79
30.85
27.95

30.15

69

31.19
32.48
29.48

30.41

24.83

26.83
30.92
21.65

28.25

28.95
29.79
27.75

78

79'

72

45

46

50

44

Avg. Mean
Avg. Maximum
Avg. Minimum
Total No. Obs.

9.35
10.20
8.11

9.33
10.70
8.21

10.55
11.99

12.29

12.80
15.20

14.18

10.27

12.15
14.78

10.57
12.03

37

51

41

9.43
10.10
8.73

41

10. 19
42

9.85

11.84
12.74

44

12.76
15.88
9.77

67

72

83

41

37

66

Avg. Mean
Avg. Maximum
Avg. Minimum
Total No. Obs.

30.68
31.45
28.87

30.51

30.22
31.70

29. tZ

32.43
26.65

28.70
31.46
26.52

31.30
33.62
27.75

31.52
33.45
28.77

32.76
33.89
30.99

32.46

32.31

33.41

31.44

33.35
30.93

32

40

40

42

30.13
31.57
26.98

38

44

31.53
32.96
29.75

36

29

41

9.85
9.07

31.64
30.00

27.
25

30.41
24.67

9.37

13.61

10.62

12. 14

17. 56

9.65

9.15

30. 52

8.82

12.07

9.58

Table 6-2. continued

Port Orford
1964-1969

Cre8cent City, California

1934-1964

1963-1969
S

Avg. Mean
Avg. Maximum
Avg. Minimum
Total No. Obs.

Jan.

',.76

10.73
8.32

Feb. Mar. Apr. May June July

10.24
11.05
9.75

9.85
10.89
8.93

9.88
11.00
8.62

9.89
11.29
8.48

10.89
12.76
9.33

126

107

113

90

11.83
12.87
10.89

11.12
11.52
10.45

11.58
9.71

-90

70

25

76

32.59
33.27
31.83

31.20
32.20
30.02

10.71

33.02

33.71
>34.00
32.99

110

96

90

80

25

75

12.5
14.7
10.6

13.5
15.3
11.4

14.2
15.8
12.3

13.5

12.1

15.

11.7

13.6
10.8

11.1
12.5

10.3
11.6
8.7

31.77

32.54

32.33

32.60
33.33

30.90
32.74

29.64

31.71

28.01

25.49

96

96

55

31.68
32.68
29.97

31.73
32.75
30.26

99

98

126

107

113

89

Avg. Mean
Avg. Maximum
Avg. Minimum

9.7
11.0

10.0
11.2
8.4

10.2
11.6
8.7

10.8
12.2

11.7

9.5

13.4
10.0

Avg. Mean
Avg. Maximum
Avg. Minimum

28.30
31.99
22.90

28.98

29.69

28.84
32.35
22.14

30.40
33.75
25.00

81

51

106

12.35
14.41
10.43

33.71
>34.00

Avg. Mean
Avg. Maximum
Avg. Minimum
Total No. Obs.

Total No. Cbs.

11.58
14.10

9.40

101

32.08 32.36 33.34 33. 61

(33.10) (32.62) (33.76) >34. 00
30.17
31.20 32.20 32.60

(32. 07) (32. 63)

23. 05
23. 55
102
90

Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec.

9. 14
110

99

8.1

10.90
13.96

97

33.30 32.94
(33.49) (33. 42)
32.83 32. 20

29.08

30.42

31.28

32.75
33.62
31.56

71

60

61

99

(33. 71) (32. 77)

33. 08

9.5

32.31

Table 6-3. Average monthly surface temperature (C) and salinity (%o) from three
lightships off the Pacific Northwest coast. Salinities enclosed by (
indicate average computed from fewer observations than listed in total.

Station and

Monthly Avgs. &

Umatilla Reef Lightship

Avg. Mean
Avg. Maximum
Avg. Minimum
Total No. Obs.

Total No. Obs.

Period of Record
1966-1969

No data.

Avg. Mean
Avg. Maximum
Avg. Minimum

Columbia River Lightship

1965-1969

Total No. Obs.

Avg. Mean
Avg. Maximum
Avg. Minimum
Total No. Obs.

Jan.

Feb.

Mar.

12. 56
14. 58
10. 18
88

14. 05
83

80

14.92
16.48
12.89

13.83
15.17
12.29

93

89

31.15

30.35

7.68

7.62

8.85

12.82

65

73

88

119

94

15. 50

16.39
11.79

10.64

12.14
13.46

Dec.

9.40
11. 03

8. 4t
78

10.00
11.89
7.90

8.82

9.20
10.06
8.03

10.10
11.37
9.22

11.50
13.07
12.39

13.64
15.56

14.56
16.50

7.55

10.63
7.53

11.41

12.71

14.91
17.07
12.65

77

118

112

109

123

151

152

117

27.99

19.29

26.90
32.11
21.23

26.69
32.04
17.02

24.17
29.72
16.18

25.18
29.43
19.95

22.76
29.88
14.80

23.07
26.90
12.55

27.27
30.60
21.48

23.00

21.36

27.80
30.48
24.12

55

55

95

78

96

107

117

81

58

63

94

53

10.8
11.8

10.2
11.4

10.2
11.9

10.8
12.7

11.3
13.3

11.6
13.6

11.7
13.3

11.5
12.9

8.9

10.3
12.0
9.1

10.3
12.2

9.9

10.4
11.6
9.1

8.9

8.9

9.4

9.9

10.1

10.1

10.1

33.26

33.73

33.75

.33.84

33.59

32.10

33.07

33.36

33.24

33.42
33.89
33.02

33.52
33.87
32.98

33.20
33.73
32.70

33.06
33.49
32.55

89

92

88

93

89

55

9.30
10.61

(33. 20)

11.0

33.16

33.08

32.86

1966-1968

Avg. Mean
Avg. Maximum
Avg. Minimum
Total No. Obs.

33. 68

33. 62

33. 52
.31.39

12.40

57

11.68

Avg. Mean
Avg. Maximum
Avg. Minimum

eef Lightship

10. 29
13. 07

7.49

9. 26

9. 11

1 0.97
12. 04
9. 53
80

Aug.

93

8.49

12. 00
14. 11

July
12.67
14.60
11.22

8. 16

Nov.

June

9.10

9. 11

Oct.

May

10.40
7.97

1923-1964

Blunts

Apr.

12.1
10.1

32.23
62

32.12
57

89

(33. 4) > 34. 00 > 34. 00 > 34. 00 > 34.00

84

90

32.91
86

(33. 50) (33. 43)

10. 56
112

103

22.72
30.94
13.18

,s:\qc:

'4S

-S

i :.__.-.,//

-I

I0

\ ?I
._.

1"

.,
I

I
S

Figure 6-2. Mean monthly surface temperatures recorded at three

lightships along the Pacific Northwest Coast Monthly
means were computed from daily observations taken
over the periods listed in Table 6-3. Note that the annual
range for the southernmost lightship is much less than
that of the more northerly static

16

/5. ........../

/
\ .-.-.i..

A' /

12

,<7

I'.!

10-

'

S.
S

S...

hi

S.

Figure 6-3. Mean monthly surface temperatures recorded at four

northern Oregon shore stations. Monthly means were
computed Iron-i daily observations taken over the periods
listed in Table 6-2. The high summer temperatures
reflect the influx of the warm Columbia River discharge.

53

14S....

./,

12-

'5

S.

Figure 6-4. Mean monthly surface temperatures measured at shore

stations in Coos Bay area. Monthly means were computed from daily observations over a four year period
(Table 6-2).

/
/.

Figure 6-5. Mean monthly surface temperatures measured at shore

stations south of Cape Blanco. Monthly means were computed from daily observations taken over the periods
listed in Table 6-2. Note that the intense upwelling
characteristic of the Cape Blanco area is reflected in
the low suxb2ner temperatures at Port Orford.

54

5 C increase in temperature during the summer months. The

northern stations experience a larger range in annual temperatures
than do the southern stations (Tables 6-2 and 6-3). Maximum temperatures are usually achieved during August or September. The
surface waters are coldest from December through March.
The range between average maximum and minimum monthly tem-

peratures is larger during summer than winter. Summer temperatures can be expected to fluctuate approximately 2.5 to 3.0 C
about the monthly mean temperature; during winter this fluctuation
is approximately 0.5 to 1.0 C.

The surface temperatures observed during summer from the

Columbia River Lightship, 5 miles offshore, are influenced by the
river discharge temperature as indicated by the anomalously high
average mean and average maximum temperatures of 14. 9C and
17. 1 C, respectively. The three northerly stations on the Oregon
Coast also had average maximum temperatures in excess of 17 C;
at the southerly stations maximum temperatures were usually 14 to
15C. The high summer temperature of the Columbia River discharge
undoubtedly caused the higher temperatures observed at these northern stations. This corroborates the findings of Pattullo and Denner
(1173) based on a shorter observation period.
The temperature patterns observed from the Blunts Reef Lightship
off Cape Mendocino and at Port Orford just south of Cape Blanco are
unlike those observed at other stations. These stations are located
in regions of extremely active upwelling. During periods of upwelling
(June-September) the near surface waters of these regions can be
expected to be relatively cool and quite saline. Average minimum
temperatures are low, 8 to 9 C, and surface salinities often exceed
34%o. The increase in summer temperatures observed at the other
stations does not occur. Maximum temperatures occur in October
and November, two months after the other stations have reached their
maximums. The range in temperature at these two stations is
small, approximately 1 C in winter and 2 Co in summer.
Offshore Temperature and Salinity Obs ervations

Temperature and salinity observations from vessels at sea are on

file at the National Oceanographic Data Center (NODC). These
data are filed by 10 Marsden square numbers (Schuyler, 1225);
number 157 encompasses the region of the study area. Data from
one degree squares 40to 48N latitude and 124 to 125W longitude
within Marsden square 157 were obtained from NODC. Since this report
55

is concerned with the data observed within 10 miles (18 km) of the coast
(the distance between l24W and 125W longitude is about 48 miles),
a computer program was written to exclude all data observed more
than 10 miles from shore. About 25 percent of the original data was
found shoreward of this 10-mile boundary. After arranging the data
by month and latitude, it was apparent that an extreme paucity of
data existed and that most observations were clustered about the
major coastal towns or off prominent headlands. More than 50 percent
of the observations were from the vicinity of the Columbia River
mouth.

Monthly means of temperature and salinity, maximum and minimum

values, and number of observations have been computed for the
standard depths of 0, 10, 20, 30, and 50 meters for the clustered
data areas. Table 6-4 is a listing of average surface conditions.
Similar statistics for the remaining depths are listed in Appendix 2
of Volume II.

Care should be exercised when using the data in Table 6-4 since:
Very few observations were available to compute a meaningful average. Frequently only 1 to 3 bbs ervations were used to
compute the monthly averages.

The observations for a given month are not necessarily from

the same year, but may have been taken over a span of 10 years.

The data represent average surface conditions over an area

about 5 miles wide. Airborne infrared surveys have shown temperatures to increase with distance from the coast in this 5-mile
wide zone.

With the above in mind, the following observations seem significant

regarding the offshore temperature and salinity distribution:
1.
a. For the Coos Bay, Brookings, and Trinidad Head offshore
areas, coldest temperatures (7-9 C) occur in June. Salinities are

also high in June (>3 3. 6%i indicating strong upwelling.

b. Maximum temperatures at the above three offshore stations

are reached in September and October (12-13C). Salinities remain
high throughout the summer (>33. 0%o).

56

Table 6-4. Mean monthly surface temperatures ( C) and salinities (%o) for
selected offshore areas (1-10km from the coast). Data are
from that on file at NODC. Note the very few number of
observations available for computation of monthly averages.

Humboldt Bay Area

4049 to4O5l'

MeanTemp.
No. of Obe.
Mean Salinity

No. ofOb,.
Trinidad Head Area

Coo, Bay Area

4320 to4321'

Yaquina Head Area

4438 to444l

Tillamook Bay Area

4530 to 4546

Seaside Area

4558 to 4605'

4607' to4622

Long Beach to Ocean Park Area

4622 to 4636

4700 to 4719

12.21

12.80

13.24

12.76

11.49

13

33.73

31.68

33.55

33.38

33.33

33. 65

33. 32

30. 67

12

I 3. 66
10

I 2. 63

13. 32

I 2. 42

32.12

33.93

33.35

33.56

33.35

11.05

32.76

30.16

30.60

10

Apr.

9.14

9.47

10. 93

10.86

11.66

6.50

11.08

11.48

'2.66

II. 34

9.71

31.57

34.06

33.62

33.85

33.53

33.00

32.72

10.44

10.10

11.19

11.71

10.60

11.05

13.24

13.46

10.79

32.36

31.95

30.93

32.17

33.58

33.23

33.46

33.02

32.83

32.68

31.67

9.65

10.41

9.20

No.ofOb..

8.46

10.55

10.52

10.75

11.47

11.80

12.97

12.15

11.94

11

10

Mean Salinity
No. of Ohs.

32.17

31.03

31.13
4

31.03

32.05

32.13

33.06

33.14

32.53

32.14

31.66

11

10

10

Mean Temp.
No. of Obs.

10.26

10.29

9.42

13.25
4

12.01

12.76

14.18

15.33

MeanSalinity
No. of Ohs.

32.00

27.41

31.08

25.84

30.18

30.06

33.16

31.76

31.87

31.82

31.53

I 2. 05

12. 72

MeanTemp.

9.68

No.ofObs.

Mean Temp.
No. of Obs.
Mean Salinity
No. Of Ob,.

Mean Temp.
No. of Obs.
Mean Salinity

No. of Oh,.

8.16

8.44

32.71

11.71

8. 02

9. 33

1 5. 08

14. 56

14. 86

15. 88

Ii

24.76

27.74

27.36

30.31

24.71

29.05

28.80

27.35

31.38

32.16

11

7.61

8.94

9.67

12.02

13.62

14.68

14.41

13.84

14.24

I 0.26

37

28

11

10

110

51

155

10

27.74

20.16

24.30

21.65

16.57

25.40

25.21

27.80

28.08

29.21

25.86

37

27

22.09
II

117

51

156

10

8.17

8.00

8.85

9.18

12.97

13.49

13.58

13.90

14.91

10.60

8.84

15

27.92

26.29

27.37

27.40

30.24

21.87

30.71

29.80

29.37

30.64

26.10

15

9.28

4.70

8.93

Mean Temp.

No. of Oh,.
Mean Salinity

9.45

Mean Temp.
No. of Obs.
Mean Salinity

No.ofObn.
Pacific Beach Area

11.72

10.31

No.ofObn.
Columbia Ptver Mouth Area

Oct.

11.19

MeanTemp.

No.ofOba.

Sapt.

10

Mean Temp.
No. of Oba.
Mean Salinity
No. of Obs.

Mean Salinity

Aug.

11.04

No. ofOb,.
Brooking, Area
42 00

July

Mar.

No. of Ob,.
MeanSalinity

Dec.

Tune

Feb.

Mean Temp.

Nov.

May

Jan.

9. 24

I 0. 41

9.84

6.92

8.24

9.26

13.99

10.30

15.00

28.26

27.67

27.23

25.65

27.19

33.43

30.97

30.09

26.98

57

9.49

For the Yaquina Head and Tillamook Bay offshore areas,

low temperatures (8-9 C) and high salinities (>33. O%o) are observed
in July. Upwelling is dominant during July. Maximum temperatures (13-15 C) occur in September and October after the cessation
of upwelling.

Maximum temperatures at shore stations in these 5 areas

occur two months earlier--in August and September.
a. At Seaside and for the Long Beach-Ocean Park areas, surface temperatures remain relatively high throughout the summer
(14-15C). Salinities rarely exceed 30.00%o. In June, the Columbia
River flood is reflected in extremely low surface salinities (2l-24%o).

b. Upwelling then, as measured by low temperatures and

high salinities, does not appear to be a dominant factor in these two
areas.
a. Examination of subsurface temperatures (Appendix 2)

indicates that isothermal conditions (constant temperature with

increasing depth) exist from November through March-April. This
may permit surface temperatures to be inferred from subsurface
temperature recorders during the winter months when it may be
difficult to obtain continuous surface temperatures. A weak thermocline
less than 2C) exists during the summer at a depth of less than 20 meters.
Continuous temperature measurements are available from thermograph records made 3 to 10 miles off the central Oregon coast near
Depoe Bay and Yaquina Head. Observational periods include May
and June, 1967; April through September, 1968; and July through
September, 1969. Analysis of the 1967-1968 data is completed and
will be published (Pillsbury etal., 1177).
Sea Surface Temperature from Infrared Surveys

The airborne infrared radiometer (radiation thermometer) has

proven useful for mapping mesoscale distributions of sea surface
temperature. Large scale features such as upwelling fronts or the
plume from the Columbia River are readily apparent.
Since August 1963 the Tiburon Marine Laboratory of the Bureau
of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife, Department of the Interior, in

5_S

cooperation with the U. S Coast Guard has conducted monthly infrared

radiometer surveys for three Pacific coast areas. The recently modified northern flight pattern (the only area within the limits of this
study) extends from Cape Elizabeth, Washington, to Newport, Oregon,
and offshore to the 6000 foot (1000 fathoms) contour (approximately
60 miles offshore). Figure 6-6 is an example of the monthly temperature pattern constructed from one such survey.
During the summer of 1969 the Department of Oceanography, Oregon
State University in conjunction with OSU's Sea Grant project, "Albacore
Central," conducted daily infrared radiometer surveys, along the
Oregon Coast to approximately 3G miles offshore. Temperature
contours from a typical flight are shown in Figure 6-7.

Temperature profiles constructed from airborne infrared surveys

within 5 miles of the coast are quite subjective. Figure 6-8 shows
profiles from a segment of a typical survey conducted by OSU. The
horizontal temperature gradient changes rapidly and unpredictably
within the first 5 to 10 miles off the coast. Dis continuities marking
temperature fronts are present and can be corroborated by abrupt
changes in water color. In order to construct representative sea
surface temperature contours with some degree of confidence, closer
spacing of the flight track is required than that shown in Figure 6-8.
C on c lu Si Ofl 5

An abundant source of surface temperature and salinity data

is available from coastal shore stations and the three offshore lightships. Few measurements have been made, however, inside of this
five mile wide zone.
Surface temperatures range from an average high of 17. 7C
to an average low of 7.6C. More variability is observed in summer
than in winter. Summer temperatures fluctuate within a 4 to 6 C band
while winter temperatures are constrained within a 1 to 2 C band.

Summer temperatures are about 5 C warmer than winter

temperatures. Mean summer temperatures peak in August and September
(12 to 14 C); average maximum temperatures, however, peak in July
and August (15.5 to 17. 5C). Winter mean temperatures are uniformly
low (about 9. 5C) during the period December through March. Average
minimum temperatures (7.5 to 8.3C) generally occur in January.

59

Northern Area

SURFACE ISOTHERMS-E
from loitered Radiation ri'an,gtne,e,
SURVEY FOR

AUGUST 1967

FLIGHT 8-3-67

1013 - 1713 POT

PACIFIC COAST COFSTINENTAL

SHELF TEMPERATURE SURVEY

Tibetan Motion Laboratory

U.S. Burn,, of Sport Fiohories

and Wildlife
cooperation mith

in

The U.S. Canoe Guard

Remarb $
rnhero toIf.-In.tiore A0.t000t.
.,Iod light & v.rtAblO. nitIbIliny 1 of.

AOATSICRt

.00,0cm

nelll. IC0', ..l. light &

v.ricble, vicibil Ity 7 01. So1hir

I..lf.-innhor.. oellloi 1100'. wInd A

3 hn.. .l,ibIlIsy 10 i. 1 00000omo.

nlilo 1600. olnd 04 5 his.. nub..
lIly 10

ART OP!P.ATTOTS

ScmvnynondooOed by U.S. C

is Aim Sutton/Port Annle.

Pilons.hn000dy And l.Ad

ART CpnrAt.P - took

TOAT000 cctvoRstu

Cl

13.3
13.9
10.4
15.0
17.6
16.1

62
63
04

17.2
17.5

57
55
59

to

If..?

46'

Tutu0596 Cd

COV..5S10S FACTOR

Isotlo,.,. norr.ctnd to bucket nosy.

OO..rwmdnt 05.0111 Ic and Colcoblo timer

LIghtshIps: ion Indrar.d I,00b000O

turn 9.3 F.

Figure 6-6. Example of a typical infrared survey conducted by

the Tiburon Marine Laboratory of the Bureau of
Sport Fisheries and Wildlife. Note that insufficient
data prevents drawing temperature contours within
10 km of the coast.
60

TILLAMOOK
HEAD

46N

CAPE
LOOKOUT

45N

NEWPORT

HECETI4
'I)

HEAD

44N

COOS BAY

CAPE ARAGO

43N
CAPE BLANCO

5 July 1969

Figure 6-7. Temperature contours from a typical infrared

survey conducted by Oregon State University's
Sea Grant project "Albacore Central." Note
closer spacing of flight track provides capability
to construct contours closer to shore than
that shown in Figure 6-6.
61

Figure 6-8. Segment of a typical infrared survey conducted by Oregon

State University's Sea Grant project, "Albacore Central"
(July 1969). Note that construction of temperature
contours is highly subjective even for this relatively
narrow strip. (Compiled by Burton W. Adams)
62

Summer temperatures in the northern portion of the area

(from Willapa Bay, Washington, to Tillamook Bay, Oregon) are
2 or 3 C warmer than temperatures observed at the more southerly
stations. This is undoubtedly due to the warming influence of the
Columbia River.

In areas where coastal upwelling is intense, summer

temperatures are suppressed below those of the more northerly
stations. Average minimum temperatures of 9. 5 to 10.5C are
observed in upwelling regions whereas minimum temperatures of
12 to 14 are found in regions of little or no upwelling.
Due to extensive wind mixing of these shallow waters in
winter, isothermal conditions exist from November through MarchApr ii.

Surface salinities are higher in summer (approximately

33. 5%o) than in winter (approximately 32%o).

Coastal upwelling tends

to keep salinities elevated during the summer while winter rains

and high river run-off tend to lower surface salinities.

Where coastal upwelling is prevalent, salinities in excess

of 33. 8%o are frequently observed. However, during periods of weak

or inactive upwelling, surface salinities may be reduced to 32. 5

to 33%.

In winter the discharge from the Columbia River flows

north close to the Washington coastline. Mean salinities observed
along the southern Washington coast are low (25 to 28%o) with
maximum salinities rarely exceeding 30%o. During periods of peak
discharge (June) salinities below 20%o are not uncommon. During summer
when the Columbia River plume flows offshore to the southwest, its
freshening influence is still felt along the southern Washington coast.
Surface salinities average about 30% occasionally reaching 33%o in
July and August.

63

Chapter 7. HEAT BUDGET

by Robert H. Bourke
Introduction

Rather than describe the climatology of the nearshore region,

it was felt that a heat budget approach would be more informative.
A heat budget study for the coastal area of the Pacific Northwest has
been completed by Lane (1150). He investigated the area from40to
50 North Latitude and from the coastline to 130 West Longitude.
A further subdivision narrowed this area to include only the region
within 60 nautical miles of the coastline. This subdivided region was
established to provide a comparison between a coastal upweliing
region and one free from the effects of upweiling. Measured values
of sea surface temperature, wet and dry bulb air temperature, wind
velocity, solar radiation, and cloud cover were used to compute the
terms in the heat budget equation. The data used by Lane were
from records of naval vessels for the period 1952-1962. These records are on file at the National Weather Records Center in Asheville,
N. C. Each heat budget term was averaged month by month over
a ten-year period (Table 7-1). The monthly variation of the total net
heat exchange across the air-sea boundary was computed from the
simplified heat budget equation:
=
- h- e
is net heat transfer; considered positive when the sea rewhere
ceives heat energy,

Q5 is net short wave solar radiation incident on the sea

surface,
is heat loss due to effective back radiation,
is heat conduction; considered positive when there is a
net exchange of heat from the sea to the atmosphere,

is heat loss due to evaporation.

All terms are measured in langleys (calories 1cm2).

Empirical Methods
Direct measurement of terms in the heat budget equation (equation
7-1) is presently limited to laboratory experiments with the possible
64

Table 7-1. Ten-year average monthly values (langleys) for the major heat budget terms for
a region where coastal upwelling is seasonally present. The
overall includes
this region as well as areas farther offshore not affected by coastal upwelling.

0'

Qb

Jan

82

38

225

Feb

70

30

Mar

70

Apr

Qt

Qt overall

116

-229

-191

200

140

-160

-100

41

167

264

- 14

20

73

-10

118

423

242

198

May

63

-5

129

486

299

277

June

72

-7

150

528

313

304

July

51

-22

93

419

297

366

Aug

63

-15

100

447

299

274

Sept

75

-42

110

386

243

119

Oct

113

10

185

272

- 36

- 89

Nov

80

24

155

126

-133

-205

Dec

95

- 6

106

105

- 90

-203

(modified from Lane, 1150)

net

exception of the radiative terms. In practice, empirical methods are

used to compute the heat budget terms. Spatial and temporal measurements of sea surface temperature, wet and dry bulb air temperature,
wind velocity, solar radiation, and cloud coverage are observed
from which diurnal, monthly, or annual means are computed. A
variety of empirical relationships have been established for the computation of each heat budget term utilizing the above measurements.
A discussion of the methods employed by Lane follows.
Monthly mean values of the total daily solar radiation incident on the
surface of the earth, Q , were obtained from the U. S. Weather
Bureau at Astoria, Ore5gon. These monthly means were corrected
for latitude and cloud cover. The percent of the incident solar radiation reflected from the sea surface, i.e. , the albedo, was determined
by slightly modifying and averaging the albedos as determined by
Burt (1116, 1117). The net solar radiation was calculated as the
difference between the incident and reflected values. Monthly means
of net solar radiation are listed in Table 7-1 and plotted in Figure 7-3.
The effective back radiation or the net loss of heat due to long wave
radiation from the sea surface is a function of the surface water
termperatui and several atmospheric characteristics (temperature,
vapor pressure, and cloud coverage). Lane used the relationship
developed by Anderson et al. (1226) to compute 0b
Qb= 1. 141

4[( 74 + 0.025 C

(0.0049 - 0.00054 Ce -0. o6h ) e a

0584h)

ly/day

7-2

where K and K are, respectively, absolute sea surface and air

temperatires jK

C is cloud cover in tenths, and

h is height of the clouds above sea level in meters.

The heat loss due to evaporation, Q , is primarily a function of the

wind speed, V (m/sec), and the diffrence between the saturation
vapor pressure and ambient vapor pressure, (es - ea).
A number of equations have been developed, but none are able to
predict the evaporation from the oceans with great confidence or
accuracy. The equation chosen by Lane originated with Sverdrup
66

(1191) and is of the form:

Q

6.13V(e -e a
S

ly/day

7-3

The conduction of sensible heat from the sea surface to the atmosphere
occurs when the sea is warmer than the overlying air. Convective
cells are created due to the instability within the air column resulting
in cooling of the sea surface. If the air is warmer than the sea, a
condition of stability is approached resulting in negligible exchange
of heat. In general, the conduction process favors the removal of
heat from the sea. The standard technique for estimating
is by
h
use of the Bowen ratio, i. e. , R
Once
the
heat
loss
due
to
evaporation has been determined,= 0h' caen be found by

0. 6l(K_K)
(e S - e )
a

ly/day

7-4

where the terms are the same as those previously defined.

A comprehensive review of the heat budget including evaluation of the

numerous empirical relationships, methods of data analysis, and

techniques and equipment for obtaining the required meteorological
variables may be found in several reports of which Edinger and Geyer
(1229), Raphael (1180) and a TVA report (1131) are the most complete.
Average monthly values of the heat budget terms for the Pacific Northwest may also be determined from the heat budget Atlas edited by
Budyko (1114).

Discussion of Results

Over the ten-year period of investigation the total net heat transfer
varied considerably from one year to the next. The range was appreciable, varying from over 42,000 langleys gained by the sea in 1956 to
almost 2,000 langleys lost by the sea in 1959 (Figure 7-1). Lane was
able to show that annual fluctuations in both solar radiation and evaporation were the major contributors to the observed net heat differences.
From January through March the net heat transfer was negative indicating a release of heat from the ocean to the atmosphere (Figure 7-2).
During March through May the direction of exchange reversed resulting in a warming of the ocean. During the summer the warming process continued at a relatively constant rate. However, farther offshore beyond the upwelling zone, the mid-summer atmospheric
warming of the ocean decreased due to high surface temperatures
67

40, 000

30, 000

20,000

ID

ID

10,000

-10, 000

53

54

55

56

57

58

59

60

61

62

Year (19--)

Figure 7-1. Variation.of annual heat exchange (Qt) from 1953 to

1962 for the region 40 to 50 N. Lat. and from the
coastline to 130 W. Long. Note the extreme fluctuations in heat gained and lost by the region of the sea
in 1956 and 1959, respectively (from Lane, 1150).

68

400

300

200

1 00

-100

-200

-300

Figure 7-2. Monthly mean values of net heat transferred across the
air-sea interface for the area from the Oregon coastline
to 60 nautical miles offshore. From March through
October net heat is transferred from the atmosphere to
the ocean. (modified from Lane, 1150)

69

caused by warm Columbia River water and high values of cloud cover
which reduced the incident solar radiation. By October the net heat
exchange again reversed and the ocean continued to release heat at
an increasing rate through December and January.

Net solar radiation and heat loss due to evaporation are the most
significant factors affecting the total net heat exchange. The net
solar radiation reaches its maximum during the summer months.
April through September experience more than twice the insolation
of the winter months (Figure 7-3). The heat loss due to evaporation
is almost double that due to back radiation (Figures 7-4 and 7-5).
However, during the summer months when upwelling is prevalent,
the evaporative heat loss is suppressed from its winter maximum.
The water transfer to the atmosphere during summer is less by
approximately two inches per month compared to that in regions beyond the zone of upwelling. Cooling of the surface waters in summer
due to upwelling also results in the conduction term, 0-h' being negative, i.e., a net conduction of heat to the sea (Figure 7-6). This lowering
of the surface water temperature also results in a reduction of the
effective back radiation during the summer months.
Direct Measurements

Direct measurements of net radiation and the evaporative and conductive heat fluxes will provide better knowledge of the heat transfer
process across the air-sea interface. With increased understanding
of the heat transfer process, the reliability of the empirical relationships should be improved. However, direct measurement of the heat
budget terms is still limited to laboratory experiments with the
exception of the radiative terms.

Solar radiation incident on the sea surface is usually measured with

a pyrheliometer. Determination of the effective back radiation term is
from empirical methods. The net radiation, both long and short wave,
incident on the sea surface, however, can be measured with a net radiometer. Unfortunately, few of these devices are in operation at marine
stations (1150).

Both the conductive and the evaporative heat exchanges can be expressed
as the sum of a slowly fluctuating average value and a rapidly fluctuating random value. The slowly fluctuating portion is that which is estimated
by empirical methods since these methods are based on average values of wind,

70

550
500

450
-

400
.1)

250
200
150
100

120

A
S
0
N
D
J
J
J
Figure 7-3. Monthly mean values of net solar radiation incident upon
the area from the Oregon coastline to 60 nautical miles
offshore. The summer months experience more than twice
the insolation of the winter months.
(modified from Lane, 1150)

70
60
50

Figure 7-4. Monthly mean values of net back radiation for the area
from the Oregon coastline to 60 nautical miles offshore.
The low surface temperatures in summer resulting from
coastal upwelling suppresses the net back radiation during
this season. (modified from Lane, 1150)

71

240

220

goo

100

80
50

40

S
N
D
0
Figure 7-5. Monthly mean values of evaporative flux for the area
from the Oregon coastline to 60 nautical Miles offshore.
In summer the evaporative heat loss is greatly suppressed
from its winter maximum due to cooling effect of coabtal
upwelling. (modified from Lane, 1150)

30
(d.

-c

20

to

10

w
bO

-1

a-20

-30

-40
-50
F

Figure 7-6. Monthly mean values of sensible heat conducted across

the air-sea interface for the area from the Oregon coastline to 60 nautical miles offshore. Since surface temperatures are low in summer due to coastal upwelling, sensible
heat is conducted from the atmosphere to the sea. (modified from Lane, 1150)

72

temperature, vapor pressure, etc. The rapidly fluctuating values

are the fluxes of evaporation and sensible heat. These fluxes need to
be measured to obtain the true picture of the evaporative and conductive heat transfer processes. In the past equipment with sufficiently
fast response time to measure the rapid fluctuations was not available.
Such equipment is now being developed in the laboratory. It will be
some time in the future, however, before equipment reliability and cost
will permit seasonal measurements encompassing a large area.
Summary

The direct measurement of the heat budget terms is generally limited

to laboratory and field experiments. Empirical methods employing
measurements of sea surface temperature, air temperature, humidity,
wind velocity, solar radiation, etc. will have to suffice until direct
reading instruments become available for practical use.
Based on empirical methods the following conclusions can be made
concerning the heat budget for the coastal upwelling region off Oregon
and Washington:

The net heat exchange across the air-sea boundary varies

considerably from year to year. In general, the sea receives a net
annual input of heat from air-sea exchange.
The factors most influential in altering the heat budget
from year to year are variations in cloud cover, sea surface temperature, and wind speed.

Coastal upwelling results in a lowering of air, sea, and

wet bulb temperatures in the nearshore region. These reductions
affect the heat budget by slightly reducing the back radiation, greatly
reducing conduction from the sea to the atmosphere (conduction to
the sea occurs frequently during the upwelling season), and greatly
reducing the heat loss due to evaporation. Due to the relative magnitude involved, the reduction of the evaporative flux is the most importait effect.
The measurable effects of upwelling on the climate of
coastal Oregon and Washington are a suppression of the summer and
autumn air temperature values and an increase in relative humidity.
Data are now available to construct heat budget forecasts
on a regional basis. Such forecasts should be an integral part of any
siting study for a thermal outfall.
73

Chapter 8. WAVES
by Robert H. Bourke
Introduction

The importance of wave statistics has long been recognized by

oceanographers and ocean engineers as necessary for design of ocean
and coastal installations. Good wave data, hwever, are rare and the
records are often such that the wide variability inherent in waves
may not be adequately described. The wave ci riate off the Pacific
Northwest coast displays a definite seasonal pa tern in response to
the wind regime requiring wave records which encompass all the
seasons.

The basic statistics required to describe the wave regime are the
deep water wave direction, wave period and wave height. From these
statistics one can determine the wave length, wave steepness, energy
content, and particle motion. In the analysis of wave dafr the
significant wave height and period (H0 and T0) are calculated rather
than average values. The significant height and period are the
average height and period associated with the highest one-third of
the waves observed or measured. In order to eliminate the shallow
water effects of shoaling and refraction wave measurements or
observations should be conducted in tTdeephl water, i.e. , in water
where the depth is larger than one-half the wave length.
The wave height, period and direction can be determined by observation from a moored ship in 'deep" water, e. g. , a lightship or
instrumented buoy. The wave characteristics can also be inferred
from observations of breaker height and period. Errors are inherent
in both of these methods, but the chief difficulty lies in obtaining a
complete annual record.

Wave statistics can also be calculated from the twelve hourly

synoptic charts of the U. S. Weather Bureau. The fetch, duration,
and velocity of the wind are determined and the wave characteristics.
are Hhindcasted. ' Although this method relies heavily on on&s
ability to read1' or interpret the synoptic charts, it does provide
a long and continuous record.

74

Data on wave height, period, direction, and frequency of occurrence

over the yearly seasonal cycle are often important to power plant
siting and design for several reasons. Some of these factors which
are in part due to the wave climate are:
longshore current speed and direction
beach accretion and erosion
pressures and forces on bulkheads, pipelines, outfalls, etc.
dispersal of the heated effluent from the outfall by wave
turbulence.
Measured or Observed Waves
In the Pacific Northwest few deep water wave observations exist
for extended periods of time. One such set of observations taken at
the Columbia River Lightship from 1933 to 1936 were analyzed and
reported by M.P. OrBrien in 1961 (1164). The data were not
obtained by trained observers and the methods used were rough,
but OBrien points out that the data are probably more accurate
than most deep water observations since a limited number of observers
on a relatively small anchored ship were used. The results are
presented in Table 8-1.

OBrien's analysis showed that the observed periods and wave lengths
were less than the tcorrectlt value. This conclusion was based
upon comparative observations of the period of the breakers measured
near the Columbia River mouth. O'Brien suggested that the reported
wave lengths from the lightship should be increased by about onethird to bring them into general agreement with those observed on
the coast. The predominant wave direction (as a function of the

square of the wave height) was found to be from west to southwest

(Table 8-2). In general, the observations show that the higher and
longer period waves occur in winter (October through March).

Neal, etal. (1160) inferred the deep water wave statistics off
Newport, Oregon, from observations on the beach of breaker heights
and periods. The average value of the significant breaker height
and period was determined from visual observations using the height
of eye technique. From solitary wave theory the deep
water wave height was related to the breaker height, HB by:

75

Table 8-1. Dimensions and periods of waves observed at Columbia

River Light Vessel

Percentage of total observations exceeding figure specified

20

January
February
March
April
May

H0

L0

ft

ft

8.4
6.6
8.4
4.5
6.2

310
280
326
227
252
192
275
193
238
293
296
325

50.

T ;H0L0
sec
8.9
8.4
9. 5

10.0
7.9

ft
5.3

3.8
4.4
2.7
3.9
3.3
2.5

ft
187
130
242
112
172
125
178
168

H0

sec ft
7.2 2.9
7.0 1.9
7. 5

2. 5

7.5
6.4
6.0

1.3
2.1

80
L0

ft
68
82
159
65
88

sec
5.6
4.8
6. 1

4.8
5.0

4.2
4.0

71
1.3
7.6
5.7
June
45
1.2
6.7
July
4.4
9.0
4.1
134
6.1 1.6
8.1 3.6
6.1
August
4.6
78
6.5 1.8
8.1 3.8 180
September 6.4
4.6
110
2.4
6.9
October
9.5 4.9 210
7.9
4.3
177
7.0 2.7
8.5 4.8 223
November 9.9
5.5
153
4.0
7.2
9.2 6.3 239
December 10.6
crests.
H0 = wave height; L0 = wave length; T = wave period between
(from O'Brien, 1164)

Table 8-2. Observed wave direction

Percentage we&ghted
in propor tion to H2
0.57
1.44
1.26

Percentage of
Direction total observations
over 12 months
0.73
N
1.80
NE
3.18
E
2.38
SE
15.02
S
18.74
SW
30.03
W
16.57
NW
11.54
Calm
(from O!Brien, 1164)

3.30
25.14
36.36
23.70
8.24

76

1 /2
H

H 3d1
B
S
0

0. 027 L0 d10

where the refraction coefficient, d15/di0, was assumed close to

unity and neglected. For, the beach at Newport this assumption
may not be valid due to the presence of both an offshore reef and
physical barriers to the north and south which greatly influence the
refractive pattern. The monthly averages of wave height, period
and direction are listed in Table 8-3. The number of observations
per month (from 3 to 9) permit only the most general conclusions to
be drawn. The significant wave heights ranged from 2. 8 ft. in
August to 14. 6 ft. in January averaging 7. 2 ft. with the highest waves
generated during winter (December through April). The significant
wave periods ranged from 5. 2 seconds in July to 17.8 seconds in
February averaging 1 0. 5 seconds for the year. The long period
waves (11 to 12 seconds) occurred in winter from November to May.
During the period September-April the direction of wave
approach was from the west; in summer (May-August) they
approached from WNW-NW.

The Coastal Engineering Research Center of the 15. S. Army Corps

of Engineers has established a program to measure wave data at
various coastal sites around the United States (Darling and Dumm,
11.25). The only site located within the study area is off the mouth
of the Umpqua River where, in August 1964, a pressure type sensor
was installed. Wave data from pressure sensitive devices can
provide accurate information provided the pressure fluctuations can
be properly converted to fluctuations of the sea surface. Recording
is not continuous, however. The available records cover the periods
of 13 August-13 September 1964 and 16 June-15 August 1966. No
analysis has been made of these records as yet; pertinent wave
statistics will be published as soon as the analysis is completed.

A prime source of deep water wave data is that measured from

offshore oil rigs. These rigs are equipped with automatic wave
recording instruments and have their vertical struts marked for
visual observations as well. Several articles in industrial journals

77

Table 8-3. Monthly wave averages, Newport, Oregon, September 1968-August 1969.

1969

1968

Dec.

Jan.

Feb.

May

June

July

Aug.

283

292

297

320

324

12.3

11.3

11.6

9.3

9.8

7.4

8.3

8.4

6.1

5.2

6.6

4.5

Mar.

Apr.

Sept.

Oct.

Nov.

Direction
from

2720

2760

2680

2770

2800

271

282

Period
(sec)

11.4

9.7

12.5

11.5

10.5

11.8

Ho(ft)

6.8

7.5

7.0

10.4

9.0

8.3

-I

No. of
Obs.

(fromNealetal. ,1160)

have reported the measurement of rather remarkable wave heights

developed during intense winter storms off the Pacific Northwest
coast. One rig survived a storm which generated 58-foot waves
(Watts and Faulkner,1220), only to be subjected to another even
larger storm which generated a 95-foot wave (SEDCO 135F,1188).
Other large waves recorded from oil rigs are reported by Rogers
(1183). None of these very large waves represent average wave
conditions during a severe storm, but are simply the chance increase
in wave height due to constructive interference from several large
waves.

Hindcasted Waves

One of the most detailed wave studies for the Pacific Northwest
region was conducted by National Marine Consultants in 1960 (1158)
and 1961 (1159). Since equipment to actually measure deep water
wave characteristics was not available at the time of the study, the
investigators resorted to wave hindcasting techniques employing the
spectral energy method of Pierson, Neumann, and James (1176).
Wave prediction based on spectral theory is obviously not as
accurate as prediction based on measured data, but it can provide
indicative figures. The accuracy of the hindcast depends on the
forecaster's experience and ability to interpret the synoptic weather
charts produced by the U.S Weather Bureau. The forecasters from
National Marine Consultants had been making verified wave forecasts
for four years prior to this study and were considered to be experienced.

The analyses of the deep water wave statistics were based upon
meteorological records and harts for the years 1956, 1957, and 1958
which, when considered collectively, would represent an "average"
year. The location of the four deep water stations shown in Figure
8-1 are:
Station 1 420O'N, 125 00'W (off Calif. -Oregon border)
2 4440'N, l2450'W (off Newport, Oregon)

3 46l2'N,l2430'W (off Columbia River)

4 4740'N, 12500'W (northwest of Grays Harbor,Washington)
The hindcasting method of wave forecasting has been shown to yield
varied results based upon the individual judgments of the, interpreters

(Wiegel, pers. comm.). Because of this inherent variability in the

results, the analysis by National Marine Consultants was considered
to be too detailed for data based upon hindcasting techniques. Their
79

480

GRA

HARBOR

WASH.

46

COLUMBIA R.

NEWPORT

440

ORE.
CAPE BLANCO

420

CALIF.
0

N
N

Figure 8-1. Location of deep water hindcast

stations (from National Marine
Consultants, 1159)

80

analysis has been made more general by grouping the data over four
octants (N-NW, NW-W, W-SW, SW-S) and over four seasons (winter,
spring, summer, fall). See Tables 8-4 and 8-5. The winter season
includes the months of December, January, and February; spring March, April and May; summer - June, July, August and September;
and autumn - October and November. These groupings were based
on the seasonal wind pattern of this region. The spring and autumn
seasons are transitional periods between the more stable climatic
seasons of summer and winter. A further generalization was to
report only the average value of the significant wave height and period
for each octant and season. The standard deviation (S. D.) of each
is also presented to provide a measure of variability. In addition,
the probable frequency of occurrence for each condition is shown.

The National Marine Consultants' report listed the data in terms of

sea and swell, the former being local waves of a random nature
located within the storm generation area and the latter being the more
uniform waves which were generated from distant storms. Several
different trains of swell may be present at the same time; only the
height and period of the dominant swell train is reported. Calm
periods are those times when no storm was present in the area to
generate local waves or "sea. " These periods also include the
infrequent occasions when the direction of wave approach was offshore.
Analysis of the data listed in Tables 8-4 and 8-5 indicates that
general conclusions may be drawn which are common to all four
stations... The most important of these are:
The predominant direction from which the swell approached
was from the NW-W octant during all seasons.

The predominant direction from which local seas approached

was from SW-SSE during autumn and winter and from N-NW during
spring and summer. The frequency with which the seas approached
from a particular direction showed more variability than did swell.

Waves generated by local storms were generally higher than

wave heights of swell.
The highest waves regardless of angle of approach always
occurred in winter.

81

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Throughout the year the highest waves came from the

SW-SSE octant.

The period of the swell was always greater than the period
of the locally generated wind waves.

The shortest periods for both sea and swell occurred

during summer.
The longest swell periods generally occurred during
autumn; the longest sea periods occurred during winter.
Throughout the year the longest period swell generally
approached from NW-W. At stations 2 and 3 long period swell also
approached from the W-SW octant.

During all four seasons the longest period sea generally

approached from the SW-SSE octant.
ii. During all four seasons the periods of calm occurred with
about the same frequency, 25-30%; the season of greatest calm was
autumn.
Wave Steepness

Based on data from the National Marine Consultants' report (1159)

for a station 20 miles west of the Columbia River, Ballard (1106)
has calculated the wave steepness and its effect on sediment transport.
The steepness of a wave is defined as the ratio of the wave height
to its length (H0/L0) and is a critical factor in determining its
capacity to move sediment (Savilie, 1185). The steepness values
computed from annual average conditions for both sea and swell were
divided into three groups and the relative frequency of occurrence
within each gmup determined for various wave directions (Table 8-6).
Most of the swell (81. 5%) fell in the H0/L0 range of <0. 015 while
local seas were dominant (90. 3%) in the 0. 015 to 0. 025 range.

Waves with steepness values in the 0. 015 to 0. 025 range result in

the greatest amount of sediment movement (1185). Ballard has plotted
the relative frequency of waves in this range for variotus wave directions

84

Table 8-6. Relative frequency of waves with given steepness (H0/L0) values from various directions.
Values represent average annual conditions for the years 1956, 1957, and 1958.

Condition

<0.015

0.0150.025

---

SSE

sea
swell

0.6

9.0

24.2

26.4

4.7

4.0

2.3

0.1

10.2

---

0.1

81.5

sea
swell

4.8

6.9

22.2
1.3

5.9
5.6

8.5
4.9

4.8

0.1

9.4
1.4

10.2
1.7

13.8
0.9

3.8

1.9

0.1

90.3
17.9

0.5

1.7

0.6

0.5

0.8

1.3

1.2

1.8

0.8

9.6

---

0. 1

0. 1

0. 2

0. 1

0. 1

sea
swell
(from Ballard, 1106)

> 0. 025

Percent occurrence from various wave dire tions

wsw SW I ssw

N INNWINWIWNW w

0.4

0.1

0. 6

as shown in Figure 8-2. The predominance of local seas over

swell in this range is evident. The inset of Figure 8-2 shows the
effect of summing up the frequency of occurrence for both sea and
swell from north-of-west and from south-of-west. The nearly equal
frequencies of occurrence imply no net movement of sediment or a
tendency to keep it localized.
30
OCCURRENCE (%)
DIRECTION

SEA SWELL
39.7 7.0
4.9
8.5
41.9 6.0

NORTH- OF-WEST

25

WEST

SOUTH-OF-WEST

fil

20

SEA

z
Lii

SWELL

C-)

cr

Li
>-

0
z
Li

0
Lii 10
IL

NNW NWWNWW WSW SW

DIRECTION

SSW

SSE

Figure 8-2. Relative frequency and direction of deep-water waves

with steepness values of H0/L0 0.015 to 0.025. All
values represent average annual wave conditions.
(from Ballard, 1106)

86

Chapter 9. COASTAL CURRENTS

by Robert H. Bourke and Bard Glenne

Introduction

Data on currents in the region of an ocean outfall are essential for

the solution of heat dispersion problems. Measurements of current
velocities in coastal waters are extremely sparse. Those measurements that have been made indicate that steady flow is not a common
occurrence, but rather eddy flow and current reversals with tide or
wind are more characteristic of the nearshore circulation. Defining
the circulation patterns throughout the entire project region would
be an enormous undertaking. A more efficient and practical approach
would be to survey only those areas that could be classified as "prime"
site locations. Detailed measurements made at these prime sites may
allow extrapolation to other similar areas based upon a limited number
of key measurements made in those areas.
Because of the many forces present to produce currents in coastal
areas, current speed and direction are highly variable. Some near-

shore currents have been found to respond to the changing forces on

a time scale of about one hour (Neal, et al., 1160). Due to this
variability average spatial as well as temporal values are usually
reported. In regions where local topography influences the interaction
of the driving forces the current may move as an eddy fluctuating
widely in both speed and direction. For such areas average values
may be meaningless. This is perhaps the reason why some offshore
oil spills have been found to disperse in directions quite different
from that predicted.

The primary forces that produce coastal currents are winds, main
ocean currents, and tides. Of lesser importance are the current
contributions from waves and pressure gradients.
Wind currents take place mainly on the surface. The extent of this
surface layer is still under investigation, but recent studies indicate
wind driven water motion to a depth of about 10 meters. Tidal wave
motion is a so-called "shallow water" phenomenon and extends theoreti
cally to the bottom of the oceans. Tidal currents, therefore, are
generally thought to be essentially constant with depth in near shore
regions. Currents due to wind waves (swell) decrease logarithmically
with depth and are essentially negligible at a depth equal to one-half
the wave length.
Main Ocean Currents

The circulation of the main ocean currents off the Oregon-Washington

coast is known only in general terms. The detailed circulation pattern

87

is still a topic demanding extensive investigation. In general, the

California Current is a broad, slow, and shallow southward flowing
current. It flows offshore as a diffuse band about 300 miles wide
with an average speed of 0.2 knots (0.34 ft/sec). It attains maximum
strength during the summer when surface winds are consistently from
North-Northwest.

The Davidson Current as reported bySchwartzlose(1l86) is a seasonal

northward flowing current attaining speeds of at least 0.5 to 0.9 knots
over extensive distances. It has a minimum width of 50 miles. The
current develops off the Oregon-Washington coast in September and
becomes well established by January. Towards spring it diminishes
and disappears by May. The driving force of the Davidson Current
is not well understood. Off Oregon it appears to result from local
wind stress (Ingraham, 1142), but Reid and Schwartzlose (1182) report
it as not due to the local winds but to some larger scale phenomenon.
Their direct measurements indicate support for the concept advanced
by Sverdrup, etal., (1192) that the Davidson Current is a surface
manifestation of a deeper northward flowing counter current that
develops when the winds weaken seasonally.
Tidal Currents at Pacific Northwest Lightships

Coastal tidal currents found 5 miles (9 km) offshore, as observed

by lightships along the Pacific Coast, are reported in the Tidal Current
Tables (U.S.C. and G.S., 1202). The currents are rotary, turning
clockwise, with a 12.5 hour period. Spring and neap tides, which
occur biweekly, increase and decrease, respectively, the average
tidal current by about 20 percent. Frequently, wind driven currents
and other nontidal currents are of such strength as to completely mask
the tidal current. These nontidal currents must be vectorially added
to the tidal current to obtain the resultant current.
The tidal currents measured at the Blunts Reef Lightship off Cape
Mendocino show very weak rotary characteristics with average
speeds of less than 0. 1 knots (0.17 ft/sec). At maximum flood the
current sets north; at maximum ebb it sets south. The tidal current
is generally masked by a nontidal current averaging 0.2 knots (0. 34 ft/
sec) setting towards the southwest from March to November and towards
the northwest from November to March. The greatest observed
velocity at the lightship is 3. 0 knots (5. 1 ft/sec).

The tidal currents observed at the Columbia River Lightship are also
rotary, but rather weak, averaging about 0.3 knots (0.51 ft/sec).
The set of the maximum flood and ebb currents are 020 T and 200T,
respectively. The discharge from the Columbia River completely
masks the flood current at the lightship. The set of the nontidal

current created by the river flow changes from SW (2 35 T) during

February through October to WNW (29 5 T) from October to February
in response to the seasonal wind pattern. The nontidal current speed

88

ranges from a monthly average of 15 cm/sec (0.45 ft/sec) in March

to, 39 cm/sec (1.28 ft/sec) in June (Duxbury, etal., 1128). During
periods of high river runoff the combined tidal and nontidal current
frequently is 2.0 knots (3.4 ft/sec) or greater to the SW. The greatest
observed velocity at the lightship is 3.5 knots (5.9 ft/sec). At the
river mouth between the north and south jetties surface currents
measured by the U. S. Army Corps of Engineers (1200) were 300 cm/
sec (9.8 ft/sec) on ebb and 120 cm/sec (3.9 ft/sec) on flood during
June. In September these values had changed to 240 cm/sec (7.3 ft/
sec) on ebb and 180 cm/sec (59 ft/sec) on flood.
The tidal currents at the Umatilla Reef Lightship off Cape Arago,
Washington are weakly rotary. Maximum currents occur 15 minutes
after maximum flood or ebb is observed at the entrance to the Straits
of Juan de Fuca. The average velocity of flood and ebb currents is
0.3 knots (0.51 ft/sec) setting 3450 T on flood and 165 T on ebb. Wind
driven currents usually mask the tidal current. From November to
April the flow is northerly (350T) at 0.7 knots (1.2 ft/sec) peaking
to 1.0 knots (1.7 ft/sec) during December; from April to November
the current is variable, generally setting SE at an average speed of
0.4 knots (0.68 ft/sec). The strong southeasterly winds of winter
produce a combined current of 2 to 3 knots. The greatest observed
velocity at the lightship is 3. 3 knots (5. 6 ft/sec).
Because changes in wind direction and speed may alter the wind
driven currents, tables have been prepared to account for these changes
(1202). Table 9-1 shows the increase in current speed due to increasing
wind speeds. The number of degrees by which the wind driven current
deviates to the right or left of the wind direction is listed in Table 9-2.
This deflection of the wind driven current, as measured approximately
5 miles offshore, appears to be primarily due to coastline configuration
rather than geostrophic effects.

Grays Harbor, Washington

A literature survey of this area conducted by the Oceanography

Department of the University of Washington (1218) describes the
average flood and ebb currents at the harbor entrance as generally
onshore-offshore at 2.5 knots (4.2 ft/sec). Velocities in excess of
5. 0.knots have been reported. The estimated velocity at a depth of
120-180 feet off the harbor entrance is 0.4-0.5 knots. The littoral
current is generally northward although affected by the prevailing
winds. In summer there is an occasional flow to the south with a
maximum velocity of about 1.5 knots (2. 5 ft/sec). The maximum
velocity in winter when the flow is northward is about 4. 0 knots

(6.8 ft/sec).

89

Table 9-1. Average speed of current due to winds of various strength.

Wind velocity (mph)

10

20

30

40

50

Blunts Reef

.2

.3

.4

.7

.8

C olumbia River

.4

. S

. 6

.8

.8

Umatila Reef

.2

.6

.9

1. 0

.9

Average current (knots) due

to wind

Table 9-2. Average deviation of current to Right or Left of wind direction.

Wind from

(in degrees)

Blunts Reef
L

N
NNE
NE

20

ENE
E
ESE
SE

32

10

28
11
1

SSW
SW
WSW

11
18
28

60

35
27

44

9
29

34

18

48
52
38
25
6

13

Umatilla Reef

17
2

SSE

WNW
NW
NNW

Columbia River

7
19

44
74

13

121

145
105

2
31

78
53

43

(from TidalCurrent Tables, 1202)

90

32
52
77
6

37
25

Depoe Bay, Oregon

An extensive study was made of the near shore water movement off
Depoe Bay by Mooers, etal. (1156) from moored current meters
and thermographs during August and September, 1966. Three arrays
were anchored at 5, 10, and 15 miles off the coast (DB-5, DB-l0,
and DB-15). The current meters were spaced at a depth of 20 meters
and 60 meters from the surface.

When the current speed and direction vectors for each recording
time increment are progressively summed (tail of one vector placed
against tip of preceding vector), a progressive vector diagram (PYD)
results. PVD's fo DB-5 (20m and 60m), DB-lO (20m), and DB-15 (60m)
are plotted in Figure 9-1. Several conclusions can be drawn from
these PYD' s: (a) The flow at 20 meters is to the south, and at 60
meters is to the north; (b) The flow tends to follow the local topography,
except for DB-l5 (60 meters) where a strong onshore component is
present; (c) There are frequent wiggles in the curves associated with
tidal-like motions; (d) Periods of acceleration and deceleration in
speed and reversals in flow direction are easily seen, e.g., at DB-5
(60 meters) the current changed direction three times within 20 days.

Table 9-3. Mean current measured off Depoe Bay, 15 August-24 September, 1966
based on a 10-minute sampling rate. S. D. is standard deviation.
Depoe
Bay

Station

Depth
(m)

Scalar Speed

(No. of
days)

(cmTs ec)
MeanS. D.

MeanS. D.

MeanS. D.

(cm/sec)

(cm/sec)

Vector Mean
Direction
(cm/sec) Deg.True
Speed

20
60

14.5

-2.111.4
2.7 6.7

-17.911.8
5.112.6

23.47.0

18.0

35.4

14. 35.8

5.8

028

20

37.1

-0.811.0

-13.6 8.6

18.46.3

13.6

183

4.8 7.6
15
60
39.8
(modified from Mooers, etal., 1156)

3.9 8.5

12.53.4

6.1

051

1OA

187

A summary of the basic current data is presented in Table 9-3. The

vector mean speed and direction at 20 meters depth, fivemiles off
the coast, is 18.0 cm/sec (0.59 ft/sec) flowing southward (187T).
At 60 meters depth the mean vector speed has been reduced to a third
of that at 20 meters and changed direction by almost 180 to 028T.
Histograms of current speed and direction and current velocity components
for DB-5, 20 meters and 60 meters, are shown in Figures 9-2 and 9-3,
respectively. These histograms are essentially unimodel indicating a
predominance in velocity and direction.

91

Figure 9-1. Progressive vector diagrams of currents,

Depoe Bay array, 15 August-24 September
1966. The figures indicate the number of
days since commencement of current meter
recordings (from Mooers, etal., 115.6).
92

30

p..

Ji-

10

(0

20

30

60

60

CO

Co

240

(60

120

300

DiRECTION (DEGREES)

SPEED z'coi soc-')

2S-

20x
-S

Is

(5-

IS-I
(0-

5-

-0

-40

-20

20

60

-60-40 -20

60

U (cii scc1)

20

40

CO

V(ciri sc'1

Figure 9-2. Histograms of current speed, direction, and

velocity components measured 5 miles off Depoe

Bay at 20 meters depth(fromMooers, etal.,

1156).

93

330

x
x

j-1

-10

J tr
30

20

40

50

60

CO

SPEED (cm sc-'J

240
60
120
DIi?ECT/ON (DEGREES)

300

35-

30-

25-

-Is'..-

20-

15

I-s -1

10-

10

r
5-

LI

-60

-40
W

-20
0
20
LI (cm sec-Il

40

-Co

60

f
0
20
-40 -20
V1cm soc1)

40

60

Figure 9-3. Histograms of current speed, direction, and

velocity components measured 5 miles off Depoe
Bay at 60 meters depth (from Mooers, et al.,
1156).
94

360

In order to establish the vertical structure of the horizontal current,

vertical profiles of current velocity were made at DB-5, 10, and 15
using a Savonius rotor current meter. These profiles, as drawn in
Figure 9-4, show that at each station a subsurface minimum and a
deeper maximum exist. No directions are given as these are single
profiles and current direction is known to be highly variable over a
tidal cycle. The speed minimum occurs at a depth near the base of
the thermocline while the depth of the deeper maximum is associated
with the base of the permanent pycnocine.
Additional nearshore current data is available from current meter
arrays located off Depoe Bay and Yaquina Head during the summers
of 1967 through 1969. Analysis and conclusions for the 1967 and the
1968 surveys are nearly complete (Pillsbury, Pattullo, and Smith,
1177). The analysis of the 1969 data is incomplete.
Newport, Oregon

A recent report by Neal, etal. (1160) discusses the currents near

an ocean outfall off Newport. Due to topographic features (a shallow
offshore reef, a prominent headland to the north, and a long jetty to
the south) the currents are quite variable and unpredictable exhibiting
the characteristics of a large eddy. The dominant driving force
appears to be the wind, but many exceptions are noted. The current
appears to deviate to the left of the wind direction for wind speeds
less than 10 knots and to the right for wind speeds greater than 10 knots.

South of Yaquina Head the predominant current direction was towards the
beach. Near the ocean outfall off Newport the flow was either northeast
or southwest. North of the jetties current flow was generally to the west.

Off Newport the littoral drift varies seasonally although the dominant
yearly drift along the coast is believed to be north (Kuim, et al., 1761).
From November-December to March the drift is northward revefrsing
direction from April to October-November. Neal, etal. (1l60),I however, report from drift bottle studies that the longshore currents are
definitely not sustained since at times the currents are in opposite
directions at different portions of the beach. They found that thet currents
were about evenly divided between northerly flow and southerly flow
throughout the year except during summer (June-August) when the waves
were consistently out of the NW. Measured values of the longshore
current velocity ranged from zero to over 1.6 ft/sec.

Additional current data is available from the work of James and Burgess
(1146) who have used aerial photography and drift cards in plume
dispersion studies off Newport. Surface current speed and direction
can be calculated from this data, but at present no analysis has been
undertaken for this purpose. Their aerial studies, however, do
corroborate Neal, et al' s findings that the outfall plume direction is
quite variable and disperses in all directions.

95

SPEED "M/SE1
N

25

50

75

25

50

50

00

Figure 9-4. Vertical profiles of current speed 5, 10, and 15 miles off Depoe Bay,
23-24 September 1966 (fromMooers, etal., 1156).

75

00

Goodwin, Emmett and Glenne (1232) measured tidal heights and currents
in the Yaquina, Alsea and Siletz estuaries. Higher flood velocities
than ebb velocities were observed. In the Yaquina estuary entrance
a maximum flood velocity of about 2. 4 ft/sec was observed. Near
Waldport in the Alsea estuary a maximum flood velocity of about 3. 0

ft/sec was measured. Near Taft in the Siletz estuary entrance a maximum flood velocity of about 6.7 ft/sec was found. In all three estuaries
an approximate 90 phase lag exists between tidal heights and tidal
currents. No attempts were made to track the estuary flows offshore.
Coos Bay, Oregon

From a literature survey similar to that undertaken for Grays Harbor,

Washington (1219), the average tidal current velocity is listed as 2.0
knots (3.4 ft/sec). Maximum ebb currents up to 7 knots (11.8 ft/sec)
and flood currents of 3.5 knots (5.9 ft/sec) have been reported. The
estimated velocity at a depth of 120-180 feet off the entrance is
0.4-0.5 knots. The littoral current is southerly in summer due to
winds from the northwest and reversed in winter.
Trinidad Head to Eel River, California
From an investigation undertaken for the California Water Pollution
Control Board, Humboldt State College has published a review of its
oceanographic study of the nearshore area of Northern California
(1140). The current pattern of this region is one of eddies superimposed
on the California and Davidson currents. The headlands of Cape
Mendocino and Trinidad Head, the jetties of Humboldt Bay, and the
Eel River canyon all contribute to a mixed circulation pattern. Tidal
currents, most pronounced near the entrance to Humboldt Bay,
dominate the flow when other influencing factors are minimal. Nearshore currents have been correlated with wind conditions, but a lag
effect of unstated duration was noted when the correlation was poor.
Based upon a variety of observational methods, the current direction
for each month from January to June (1959-1961) is presented in
Table 9-4. Throughout this period the predominant observed direction
was southward. Northward flow was observed most frequently during
winter (January-February).

Table 9-4. Summary of observations of surface current direction for

January-June, 1959-1961, between Trinidad Head and Cape
Mendocino

Flow Direction

Jan

Feb

Mar

Apr

May

South

27
33

20

23

24

15

13

18
0
2
5

North
West

East

None

2
0

(from Humboldt State College, 1140)

97

June

Total

28

24

146
97

11
0

13

Bottom Currents

The scouring action and differential forces acting on structures and

outfall pipes embedded in the ocean bottom are problems associated
with near bottom currents (Brown, 1112). When current velocities are
of appreciable magnitude, the bottom sediment may be loosely compacted
with considerable material in suspension. Such conditions invite severe
scouring and sedimentation near cooling water intake and outlet
structures.

Direct measurements of near bottom currents are difficult to make

and usually require special equipment. Few direct measurements are
available. Observations along the Pacific Northwest coast have been
made from sea bed drifters and moored current meters.
As reported in the section under Depoe Bay (1156), the direction of
current flow measured at 60 meters (60 feet above the sea floor)
was opposite to that measured near the surface (20 meters depth)
(Table 9-3). At a point 5 miles off the coast for a period of 35 days
during the summer the near bottom resultant current (vector mean current)
was 5.8 cm/sec (0. 19 ft/sec) at 028T. The mean scalar speed was
14.3 cm/sec (0.47 ft/sec). Fifteen miles off the coast at 60 meters
depth the resultant current was 6. 1 cm/sec (0.20 ft/sec) at 051T,
an increase in the onshore component probably due to the increased
depth. The mean scalar speed was 12.5 cm/sec (0.41 ft/sec).
Over the continental shelves of Washington and Oregon for water depths
below 200 meters Dodimead, Favorite, and Hirano (1126) reported
the current flow to be northward based on geostrophic calculations.
This deep northward flowing current was corroborated by Ingraham
(1142) who also employed the geostrophic technique.

The first direct measurement of the near bottom current off the
Washington coastline was made by Gross, Morse, and Barnes (1137)
using sea bed drifters, a saucer-like disk and stem arrangement which
drifts a few meters above the bottom. Data analysis is essentially the
same as that employed with surface drift bottles. Over the inner
continental shelf (waters <40 meters deep) the flow was towards the
coast apparently responding to the influence of waves and the ascendingshoreward motion of coastal upwelling. Speeds ranged from 0. 7 to 2. 5
km/day (0.03 to 0.09 ft/sec) averaging about 1.6 km/day (0.06 ft/sec).
Within 10 km of the Columbia River mouth the flow was towards the
river mouth at approximately 1.4 km/day (0.05 ft/sec). For shelf
waters in excess of 40 meters depth the dominant flow was northward.

98

These measurements were made over a period of 3 years which indicates

that these flows are persistent throughout the year. Seasonal variability
in the flow of the near bottom current has not been determined.
The prediction of bottom currents may be calculated to an order of
magnitude by investigating the relationship between current speed and the
size of the sediment found on the sea bed. A review of previous investigations in this area and the development of a more general relationship is
presented by Panicker (1171). For currents over a downhill slope he
proposes

U = V/Ka

9-1

where U is the average velocity of the bottom current,

V

is the average velocity of the sediment,

a is the bottom slope, and

K is the portion of available turbulent energy released by the
suspended particle to maintain it in suspension; proposed to
be of the order of 0. 1.
A calculation of maximum depths where wave motion tends to move sediments is carried out in Chapter 3 in the section on Sediment Motion.
Current Flow under the Influence of Coastal Upwelling

During the summer months, June through September, the process

coastal upwelling occurs along the Oregon coast (Bourke, 1111). The north-.
northwesterly summer winds produce a southward flow in the surface
layer and also an offshore surface flow due to the earths rotation. This
causes cold, saline water to upwell in eddies and form a rise in both the
seasonal and permanent pycnoclines (Figure 9-5). The seasonal pycnocline
(region of strong density gradients) breaks to the surface forming a surface
front approximately 10 to 20 kilometers offshore. Shoreward of the surface
front the waters take on the characteristics associated with upwelling -relatively low temperatures, low dissolved oxygen content, and high
salinities. Seaward of the surface front the surface temperature may be 5
to 7C warmer than the surface waters in the upwelling region. Other
indicators of upwelled water would be increased alkalinity, inorganic
phosphate, and hydrogen ion concentration (Park, et al., 1172).

99

The following summary of the general flow pattern for the coastal
upwelling region off central Oregon during the upwelling season
(Figure 9-6) is taken from that postulated by Mooers (1157).
column.

The flow is southward in the upper 40 meters of the water

The flow is northward below 40 meters tending to concentrate

beneath the inclined permanent frontal layer at about 100 meters.

The flow in the surface Ekman layer (a boundary layer in

which frictional effects predominate in the equations of motion) is
offshore. This transport layer is about 10 to 20 meters thick.

Within 10 to 20 meters of the bottom, the frictional effects

of the bottom create a bottom Ekman layer where the flow is onshore.
Beneath the seasonal pycnocline (formed by summer heating
and the influx of relatively fresh water from the Columbia River
plume) the flow is offshore at a depth of 10 to 30 meters.
Within the upper portion of the permanent pycnocline from
20 to 60 meters the flow is onshore.

A new water mass formed near the surface possessing a

characteristic temperature inversion sinks beneath the inclined permanent
frontal layer and flows offshore in a layer at a depth of about 40 to 80
meters.
Between the above, layer and the bottom Ekman layer the flow
is onshore.

The process of coastal upwelling may go through the phases of inception,

steady-state, and decay several times during the upwelling season
since itis believed to be a process which responds to a wind field
which is neither steady nor statistically stationary. Hence, these
longitudinal and zonal flows fluctuate in depth and rate of transport
commensurate with the current phase of upwelling.
The study of coastal upwelling undertaken by Mooers provides little
information on the effects of the upwelling process for the region
within 10 kilometers of the coast as the closest sensor was located

1 01

P/STANCE OFFShORE (fi7o,r,otors)

40

30

20

Surface
Front

to

01

iriiIfihI

ii!1

11111

ii

40

60

80-

100-

flow

in

-D------ onshoro

- .4 -

Ekman loyors

flo-,

In

geostrophic

interior

offshoro flow in goostrophic interior

Figure 9-6. Inferred onshore-offshore flow over the continental

shelf off Depoe Bay, Oregon during the summer
upwelling season (from Mooers, 1157).
1 02

10 kilometers offshore. He states that during the period of observation

it was uncertain how the upwelling process affected this region, but
believed it to be a region where mixing is dominant.
Analytical Approach to Tidal Currents

In lieu of the scarcity of observed current data approximate analytical

methods may be used to determine current velocities. One such
method would be to consider only the wind and tide as the driving
mechanisms for the establishment of coastal currents and to vectorially
add the contributions from each of these forces.
(a) Wind Driven Currents
The drag of the wind passing over the surface of the water produces
a drift current. Much of the initial investigation in this area was
done by Ekman (1130). He found for a homogeneous body of water of
infinite depth that the surface velocity of a pure drift current is proportional to the wind stress and, for an infinite ocean in the Northern
Hemisphere, directed 45 to the right of the wind direction:
T

- / p Af

9-2

where V is the surface current (cm/sec),

T is thewind stress (dyne cm2),
p is the density of sea water (gm cm3),
A is the eddy viscosity coefficient (gm cm'sec), and
f is the Coriolis parameter, f = 2Qsin4 (sec')
where 4, is the latitude and is the rotation rate of the Earth.
For waters of finite depth the angle of deflection of the surface current
from the wind direction is a function of h/D, the ratio between the water
depth and Ekman's depth of frictional influence. In shallow water h/D
decreases with increasing wind speed. Actual measurements have
shown the deflection angle at the sea surface to vary between 25-30 for
low velocity winds (<4 m/sec) and approach the actual wind direction for
high velocity winds (Neumann and Pierson, 1530).
One must use an "effective" eddy viscosity coefficient, A, which is
a function of wind speed, i. e., A must increase with increasing wind

103

speed. The following table (Table 9-5) for A as a function of wind

speed is from Neumann (1161).

Table 9-5. Effective eddy viscosity coefficient as a function of wind

speed.
Wind speed (rn/sec
A (gm/cm-sec)

4
58

10

14

18

161

332

577

1350

2520

Because of uncertainties in the values for wind stress and eddy viscosity
coefficient, empirical formulae relating wind speed and current velocity
directly have been postulated. These take the form
kW

9-3

where W is the wind speed in m/sec,

is the latitude, and
k is a coefficient which varies with wind speed; values used
range from 0.76 to 2.59 (1530).
Wind drift 'currents and the relationship between wind speed and current
speed at the surface have been discussed and studied, but few systematic
measureui.ents are available. Wide variability exists between actual
measurements and that predicted by theory. Wiegel (1542) emphasizes
that caution should be exercised when results based on theory are being
used. Neither of the two preceding formulas consider the influence of
a coast and should probably not be used in the nears hore region.
Bretschneider (1110) has developed a relationship between wind speed,
U, and the steady state mean longshore wind-driven current, V5, over
the continental shelf. Assuming shallow water conditions and constant
values of k = 3.0 x 10-6 and K = lO_2ftU'3 for the wind stress and bottom

stress parameters, respectively, the steady state mean current may

be expressed as:

104

V5

9-4

where 0 is the angle of the wind measured from the perpendicular

to the coastline or bottom contours,
D is the water depth (ft), and
is in ft/sec and U in knots.
vst
Figure 9-7 shows the relationship of -u- versus D for various angles 8.
Exact values for the wind stress and bottom stress parameters have
not been established.

(b) Tidal Currents

An approximate tidal current velocity can be found from the information
listed in the Tide Tables (1203) and the Current Tables (1202). The
time it takes a particular stage of the tide (e. g., HHW) to travel from
the Farallon Islands off San Francisco to Cape Alava off the northern
Washington coast has been determined from the Tide Tables for four
periods of the year. The pertinent data are listed in Table 9-6 along
with tidal heights at HHW. The approximate distance from the
Farallons to Cape Alava is 628 n. mi.

Table 9-6. Time of higher high water (HHW) and tidal height for four
periods in 1969 for Farallon Island, California and C&pe
Alava, Washington.

liFeb

l5May
23 July
26 Oct
Time Height Time Height Time Height Time Height
(It)

Farallonlslands
Cape Alava
Travel time (mm)

0459
0640
101

5.8
8.0

(ft)
2153
2340
107

105

5.6
8.5

(ft)

1659
1840
101

5.8
8.0

(ft)
1041
1228
107

5.9
9.3

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0.00o

20

30

200 300
50 70 100
Depth of Water, D (ft)

500

1000

versus D for various angles B.

Figure 9-7. Relationship of

(from Bretschrieider, 1110)

106

Using a travel time of 104 minutes, the velocity of propagation up the

coast is 610 ft/sec (362 knots). The Current Tables indicate that the
current is rotary but rather weak all along the Pacific Coast, setting
approximately 0600T on flood, 240T on ebb. Multiplying the computed
wave velocity by the cosine of 600 yields the resultant wave velocity
for a wave approaching the beach at an angle 30 normal to the shoreline
of 305 ft/sec.
The maximum horizontal particle velocity or the maximum velocity of
the net tidal motion is given by

u=ga/c

9-5

where u is the maximum horizontal particle velocity for a shallowwater progressive wave based on Airy wave theory (ft/sec),
g is the acceleration due to gravity, 32. 2 ft/sec2,
- 3. 55 ft,
a is the tidal amplitude and from Table 9-6 is about
c is the wave velocity, 305 ft/sec.
The above values yield a maximum net tidal current of approximately
0.37 ft/sec (0.2 knots) pproaching the coast from 240T. This speed
compares very favorably with that reported in the Current Tables based
on measured values at lightships five miles off the coast (1202, p. 238).

Due to decreasing water depths as the tidal wave approaches shore,

the wave speed decreases and the wave angle of approach becomes more
and more parallel to the shoreline. The net onshore-offshore component
of particle motion in this shallow coastal region can be computed from
a simple tidal prism analysis. Assume that a flow of unit width perpendicular to the shoreline with period T and height H enters a tidal prism
of volume (LavH) in time T/2 (Figure 9-8). The average onshoreoffshore particle velocity may be expressed as:
ZLavH

-u=

Tdav

9-6

where day is the mixing layer thickness assumed to extend to the bottom.

The area between the sea surface and the bottom, Lay x day, was
calculated from the coastline to 3 miles offshore. This area was
divided by the square of the water depth at 3 miles to yield the required
Lay/day relationship in equation 9-6. Average net onshore-offshore

1 07

tidal currents at selected areas along the Pacific Northwest Coast were
computed using mean tidal heights from the Tide Tables (1203). These
average tidal currents are listed in Table 9-7. Of primary interest
is a comparison of .the magnitude of these currents with location. The
largest currents appear to occur in regions where the beach slope is
relatively flat. The higher velocities of these regions implies better
dispersion of the thermal plume. However, this advantage may be
offset by the necessity of constructing a lengthy outfall to achieve the
desired discharge depth.

Table 9-7. Average net tidal currents for the Pacific Northwest Coastline computed from tidal prism analysis.
Location

Mean Tidal
Range (ft)

Average Onshore-Offshore
Tidal Current (ft/sec)

Humboldt Bay entrance

Crescent City
Coos Bay entrance
Yaquina Bay entrance
Tillamook Bay entrance

6. 2

0.08

5. 1

0. 12

5. 2

0.05
0.06
0.05

Columbia Riverentrance
Long Beach, Washington
Grays Harbor entrance
Pacific Beach, Washington

5.6
6.2
6.9
6.5

5.9
5. 7

0. 13
0. 14

0.25
0. 13

Figure 9-8. Sketch of tidal prism defining terms used in equation 9-6.
108

Longshore Currents
Most waves approach the coastline at an angle to the bottom contours.
The effect of refraction tends to bend the angle of wave approach such
that the wave crests are almost parallel to the shoreline by the time
the waves break. However, when waves do break at an angle to the
beach, the shoreward transport of water has a component parallel to
the coast. -This water motion parallel to the coast is the longshore
current. These currents are the major mechanism of longshore sand
transport. Most of the longshore sand transport takes place in the
surf zone.

Longshore currentvelocities can be computed from the relationship

listed by Eagleson (1129)
gH2n
sina sinOb S].fl 20b
2
f

9-7

where VL is the mean longshore current velocity (ft/sec) assumed to

be constant in the surf zone. The current will actually
decrease with distance from the-shoreline as the depth increases;
Hb and hb are respectively, the wave height (ft) and water depth (ft) at
the point of breaking;
nb is the ratio of the group velocity to phase velocity;
a.
is the beach slope,
0b is the angle between the breaker crest and the origihal wave
crest;
hb
f is the Darcy Weisbach resistance coefficient = [2 log10+ 1.74] 2
ke is the equivalent sand roughness, ft.
-

Hb and hb can be computed from solitary wave theory using

hb = 0. 667 (H0'T)2"3 and

98

Hb=O.78hb

9-9

where H0' is the deep water wave height considering the effects o
refraction, i. e. H0' KrHo
where Kr is the refraction coefficient.

109

Hb and hb can more easily be determined from Figure D-54 in the U. S.

Army Coastal Engineering Research Center Technical Report No. 4
(1121). A sample calculation using conditions appropriate to the Pacific
Northwest Coast follows:
- 0; bottom sand roughness,
Assume Ho' = 8 feet; T = 10 sec; a =
ke = 0. 0033 ft.
then:

hb= 12.3ft

from eqs. 9-8 and 9-9

Hb= 9.6ft

= 0.95 from linear wave theory tables

f = [2 log10

+ 1.74]

-2

= 0.013

23132.Zx(9.6)2x0.95ir0.0175X0.0872X0.1736}
it
- 8L
12.3

0.013

VL = 1.26 ft/sec.

This is in agreement with measured values off the central Oregon

coast as reported by Neal, etal. (1160).
Many attempts have been made to predict longshore current velocity.
Galvin (1553) in 1967 reviewed the theory and available data. More
recently Lonquet-Higgins (1554) has suggested using the concept of
radiation stress to. more satisfactorily estimate the momentum of
the incoming waves. However, the chief difficulty in estimating
longshore current velocity is the inability to accurately measure the
wave angle of approach.

110

Chapter 10. FIELD STUDIES OF THERMAL DISCHARGES

by Robert H. Bourke and Burton W. Adams

In the early nineteen sixties, several U.S. West Coast power companies initiated temperature studies of thermal power plant cooling
water discharges. Important contributions to West Coast field
studies of thermal discharges are described in the following paragraphs.
In 1962 Squire (1538), using an airborne infrared radiometer,
measured the distributions of surface temperatures around the
outfalls of four steam-electric plants in Southern California (Figure 10-1).
The overflights,made on 16 January and 4 February, revealed increases
of 4 to 20F above ambient surface temperatures. The temperatures
recorded in February were lower because the area had experienced
storm conditions following the January survey. He concluded that
the high surface temperature gradients indicated the existence of
a warm water lens on the surface.
The Pacific Gas and Electric Company (PG&E) has conducted temper-

ature surveys for a number of years at several of their thermal

power plants in Central and Northern California. Early studies in
19 50-1963 were made from surface craft using standard oceanographic
instrumentation. These surveys were considered inadequate because
the large distance between sampling stations and the time lag between
successive measurements prevented rapid temperature changes from
being accurately mapped. From 1963 to 1967 airborne infrared
radiometers were used by PG&E to map surface temperatures around
power plant outfalls.

Cheney and Richards (1507) examined the temperature outfall data

from three power plants--Morro Bay (an open coast), Contra Costa
(an estuary), and at Humboldt Bay (an enclosed bay). Their data are
presented as maps of surface temperature (Figure i0-2a) and areatemperature profiles (Figures lO-2b and lO-2c). The infrared measurements were continuously supplemented with surface temperatures
taken from a boat to provide calibration and temperature-depth
profiles. Cheney and Richards concluded that the warming effect

from power plant discharges, whether into a sea, a bay, or an estuary,

is undetectable beyond a mile from the outfall. At 1, 000 feet from
the outfall the data showed only an occasional temperature exceeding
SF above ambient. Subsurface temperature measurements in the

111

START

AIRCRAFT FLIGHT
TRACK

'ENERATOR
PLANT

F INISH

OUTFALL

CE NT ER

Figure 10-1. General pattern of infrared survey flight

tracks (from Squire, 1538).

112

OWER PLANT

IFTAKE

C,

N352Z

4/

o oi 02 0.3 0.4 0.OMtE

10- 2a.

SURFACE ISOTHERMS,Run No.2,Sept. 12,1963.

RunNo.

Average MW 758 833 868 570 200 160 660 660 660

14.111 111111
!1511111

upw

HI11III I

.ouIIII
II!iIII
i'II iuIiiiiuI

JJI1!IIiiIH
20

10

120

14!.

Isotherm Tcrnp.inus Intake Tamp.(F)

hUll I

111111111
4

.2

0
6
12
'O
4
Tomparoturs above Ambisnt(F)

10-2c.

I 0-2b.

Figure 10-2. Off-shore temperatures.

MORRO BAY POWER PLANT

(from Cheney and Richards, 1507)

113

UI

vicinity of the outfall indicate the warm water is normally confined

to a layer approximately 10 feet thick. The degree of wind mixing
dictates the extent to which these temperature gradients diminish.
Comparison with surface temperatures showed that the airborne
radiometer was accurate to 1F0 except under conditions of fog or
smoke when the error could be as much as 3 or 4F.
In 1968 North and Adams (1531) collected data from nine thermal
power stations which included measurements of the surface areas

enclosed by isotherms drawn from infrared measurements. From

these data (35 measurements) a regression equation was calculated
to determine the correlation between power output at a generating
station and the surface area enclosed by contour lines lOF and ZF
above ambient. The wide scatter in the data resulted in a rather
poor correlation.
Maps produced from radiometric data require subjective interpretation of the data points to plot isotherms (Doyle and Gorrnly,l509).
An objective map can be produced if the area under consideration can
be rapidly scanned and a computer program used to compose and
draw the map. PG&E began using a thermal mapper in 1967 to conduct their airborne surveys. The thermal mapper is an airborne
device, sensitive to infrared radiation, used to mechanically scan
the scene in its field of view in a line by line fashion. The output
can be recorded on film as an analogous image or on magnetic tape
(Doyle and Cartwright,1508). A computer program digitizes the
analog data from the magnetic tape and constructs a map of surface
isotherms (Figure 10-3). Additionally, the isotherms can be integrated by computer to yield a temperature-area relationship. This
relationship is used to compare theoretical and prototype values from
which projections of thermal influence from plant enlargements can
be made (1509). Regression equations for each plant have been
computed showing the area of influence as a function of excess
temperature.
Since July 1963 an oceanographic monitoring program has been
conducted by Marine Advisers, Inc. for the San Onofre nuclear
generating station (Marine Advisers,1153 and 1154). This power
plant utilizes a 2,600 foot submerged outfall discharging 350,000 gall
mm of coolant in approximately 25 feet of water. Sampling was
conducted monthly using standard oceanographic equipment. Since
1969 occasional airborne infrared radiometer surveys have been made

114

-.------,-----.---------------

-'------

,----.._.__--

Figure 10-3. Isothermal map of surface water produced by computer

conversion of electrical signal from scanner (from
Doyle and Gormly, 1535).

115

to supplement the oceanographic surveys.

Conclusions reached during the 5-year monitoring period are (1154):

The largest temperature increase at the outfall boil was
9F, but generally it is less than 6F (normal temperature rise
across the condenser is 18F)

Surface areas containing waters warmed more than 4F

are confined to the immediate vicinity of the outfall boil (Figure 10-4)
The maximum distance from the outfall the warm water
plume has been detected is 2 miles in the longshore direction

The thermal plume was confined to a shallow surface lens,

normally 5 to 12 feet thick (Figure 10-5).

From data available there seems to be little correlation

between the area influenced by the warm water discharge and the
local current speed and direction

116

II",'
e...,. ..w i*I.sioS

is

*1W

'i.ss

L'S

a's

56.50

C4N

CZN

5750

57.

580

b2N

'..-___,
4N

C2N
S.

570

C'S

570

--

04N

C's

/
/

25

.. -.-Outfall Operative; Worm Water Discharge

Temperature in F

Figure 10-4. San Onofre sea surface isotherms, 21 February 1969 (from Marine Advisers, Inc., 1154).

BO

0 r'

Boil

oo

CO

ITt

STATION NO.
EO

FO

65

60

rn

59

58

56.5

Bottom Profile

30

Li I

1000 feet

I _LJ

tORIZONTAL SCALE

Temperature in 0J

40

Figure 10-5. Temperature-depth cross sections, 21 February 1969

(from Marine Advisers, Inc. , 1154).

118

Chapter 11. REVIEW OF ANALYTICAL MODELS FOR THE

PREDICTION OF TEMPERATURE DISTRIBUTION
by Robert H. Bourke and Bard Glenne
Introduction

Analytical models to determine the distribution pattern of heated

effluents discharged into ambient fluids are based on theory developed
for the disposal of sewage effluent. This type effluent is usually discharged through multiport diffusers into the receiving water where
it undergoes mixing and dilution from the action of essentially two
distinct mechanisms: (1) turbulence and momentum associated with
discharge jets, and (2) natural turbulence and currents within the
receiving water body (Brooks, 1504).
Upon discharge from the end of an outfall pipe or diffuser port an
effluent possesses kinetic energy due to its velocity. This energy
is dissipated by the turbulent mixing of the jet with the surrounding
fluid. This mixing process is commonly termed "jet mixing. During the jet mixing phase the turbulent jet entrains part of the surrounding fluid resulting in an increasing volume flux with increasing distance from the outlet while simultaneously decreasing the jet velocity.

Zone of
Flow Establishment

Zone of
Established Flow

Center
Line

U0

i
I-L-...I
-1UmUo
flC
GCxCC)0O

c()

UmUo

---2&c?o ()dC)C30

Nominal Limits

of Diffusion Region

Figure 11-1. Schematic representation of jet mixing (from Wiegel, 1542).

119

The boundary between the jet and the receiving fluid is a region of
instability where high shear stresses exist. Mixing will occur with
a subsequent interchange of properties and constituents (Wiegel,
1542). In the zone of flow establishment (Figure 11-1) the centerline jet velocity, U0, is considered constant with longitudinal distance. Within the zone of established flow mixing takes place
throughout thejet. The velocity profile across this zone is assumed
to be Gaussian. The investigations of Frankel and Cumming (1518)
have shown that the concentration of effluent can also by reasonably
assumed as Gaussian in the established flow zone.

Within a short distance from the outlet the velocity of the jet
will be dissipated. If the fluid in the jet has a different density than
the receiving fluid, it will also possess potential energy. Mixing
will occur as the potential energy is dissipated by the discharge
rising or falling. The combination of this mixing and jet mixing
is often termed "initial dilution. " Further mixing may occur due
to natural turbulence and currents within the water body and the
wind over it (1504). When this mixing takes place on the ocean
or a lake surface, it may be termed "surface dispersion and
interface exchange." In this zone the effluent may move across the
water surface in the form of a dispersive plume.
Environmental Effects

The disposal of waste heat from thermal electric generating plants

discharging into the ocean, requires that certain environmental
factors be taken into consideration. The major factors and their
effects are discussed below:
(a) Buoyancy Effect

The density of the condenser discharge from a thermal-electric

generating plant will usually be less than that of the surrounding sea
water. This density difference, although quite small, creates a
buoyant force which measurably affects the behavior of the jet
(Figure 11-2). A jet which contains an initial buoyancy flux as
well as momentum flux is termed a "buoyant" jet (Fan, 151 5).
The buoyancy force is proportional to the difference in density
between the sea water and the rising jet and generally decreases
as the jet ascends (1518).

120

No density difference

With density difference

(p1 = Pa)

<

Buoyancy Effect

Homogeneous
(n'-a = constant)

Stratified

constant)

Stratification Effect

Stagnant
(Ua

With current

0)

(U

Current Effect

O)

Figure 11 -2. Effects of environmental conditions (from Fan and

Brooks, 1515).

121

Recipient Density Stratification Effect

Vertical temperature and/or salinity gradients in the ocean cause

density stratification of the water column. As the heated effluent
rises through the water column, it mixes with the sea water and
the mixture generally becomes more dense. If the density of the
mixture becomes equal to that of the receiving fluid (which is usually
less dense near the surface), the ascending motion ceases and the
mixture tends to spread horizontally (Figure 11-2). It may be
possible to obtain a plume which is completely subnerged below
a strong the rmocline (Rawn, et al. , 1 535). The submergence of
a sewage field is often a most favorable situation for coastal
pollution control (1515). However, the heated discharge from
steam electric generating plants will most likely rise directly
to the surface due to the large density difference and flow rate.
Ocean Currents Effect

The ocean currents may affect not only the dispersive plume
established at or near the sea surface, but also the jet mixing
characteristics (1515). The ocean currents usually consist of

large scale ocean currents, tidal currents, wind drift currents,

and currents due to waves. Although some of these currents may

not produce a net transport of water, they are the causes of turbulence which mixes the waters in a process akin to diffusion.
Atmospheric Effects

An important factor in the dissipation of heat from surface water

is the condition of the atmosphere. Air temperature, winds, air
humidity, and solar radiation all influence the sea-air heat trans-

fer rate.

Analytical Models

Analytical models have been proposed by investigators to describe

temporally and spatially the fate of constituents andpollutants when
discharged into lakes, estuaries, and oceans. The following sections
are a review and analysis of models pertinent to the discharge of
thermal effluents into coastal waters.

The discharge of cooling water from thermal electric plants generally takes place via one of two methods: (1) from a submerged
pipe at a significant depth and distance offshore, or (2) from a canal
which discharges into the ocean at the shoreline. Research has
1 22

indicated that for both types of discharges cooling of heated effluent

may occur via two processes: (a) initial dilution upon emission
from the outlet pipe or canal, followed by, (b) surface dispersion
and sea-air interface exchange.

Part I. Initial Dilution

(a) Submerged Jets

The turbulent mixing process that occurs when one fluid is discharged into another is a problem for which the theory is relatively
well known. The reference lists of Fan and Brooks (1515) and
Cede rwall (1 505) contain papers which have contributed to the understanding of turbulent jet phenomenon. Cederwall (1505) presents
a detailed review of these studies as related to marine waste water
disposal. Sewage outfalls are now often designed after the procedures developed by Rawn, Bowerman, and Brooks (1535) and
Brooks (1504).

Frankel and Cumming (1518) advanced the initial studies of Raw-n,

etal. and Brooks by investigating the efficiency of various discharge angles of pipes. They found the horizontal diffuser to give
the least concentrations, but that differences in concentration levels
for various discharge angles became insignificant for a ratio of
diffuser depth to diffuser diameter greater than 50.
Theory seems to underpredict concentrations in the surface transition zone where vertical flow changes to lateral spreading, Figure
11-3, (1535).

1v

/ I Zone of establishment (momentum

//
Figure 11 -3.

and buoyancy effects)

II Established vertical flow
III Surface transition zone (little
dilution)
IV Surface horizontal flow

Zone configurations of a jet for the case of a

stagnant, homogeneous environment. (from
Frankel and Cumming, 1518).
123

Fan (1514) showed that for a vertical jet, the trajectory of the
plume was bent toward the downstream direction of flow (Figure
11 -2). Turbulence induced by currents within the receiving fluid
may also affect the initial dilution, but these effects generally are
minor.
(b) Stability Considerations
A measure of the stability of a water column is provided by the
Richardson number, Ri, which indicates the degree of turbulence
present. The Richardson number may be expressed as:

Ri=!p

FJz

(jJz

where the numerator and denominator, respectively, describe

the strengths of the vertical gradients of density and velocity
within the water column.

A large density gradient or small vertical velocity gradient results

in a large value of Ri which indicates supression or extinction of
turbulence A small Ri generally indicates maintenance or an increase of turbulence.
Near the 1ischarge orifice the Ri of the jet is quite small due to
the large vertical shear, the turbulent and momentum fluxes are
at a maximum. With increasing distance from the orifice the
turbulent and momentum fluxes decrease increasing the Richardson number. The Richardson number, therefore, measured as
a function' of the distance from the discharge point, indicates how
rapidly the momentum of the jet.decays. As discussed previously,
the amount of ambient cooling water entrained by the jet decreases
as the velocity decreases; hence, further cooling of heated jets
by turbulent mixing becomes insignificant for large Ri.
The experiments of Hayashi and Shuto (1521) confirmed that for
small Richardson numbers (less than one) turbulent mixing was the
most influential factor in reducing the temperature of the jet.

In practice the Richardson number is difficult to determine.

Generally, velocity data is not available to determine vertical
velocity gradients in the vicinity of the plume. The densimetric
Froude number, NF is often used instead.

124

NF=

uo//(p/pcgDo

11-2

where U is the initial discharge velocity of the jet,

is the relative initial density difference between condenser discharge and ambient water,

is either initial discharge depth or outfall diameter.

Experimentation has shown that the relative density difference is the
most significant factor in determining the type of pollutant field
that may develop (Wiegel, 1542). Weak or negative relative density
gradients result in a surface field; strong relative gradients in a
submerged field. The relatively large negative density difference
and large volume flow rate associated with thermal power plant
discharges usually dictate that the heated effluent will pread as
a surface field.

(c) Horizontal Surface Jets

Commonly, thermal power plants dicharge their cooling water
through a channel or canal into the ocean at the edge of a beach. The
work of Abraham (1500) indicates a relationship for the distribution of salinity in a horizontal surface jet. When slightly modified, this relationship can be used for the distribution of ternperature in the jet if the buoyant effect of the warm water is small.
Such a relationship takes the form (Jen, etal. , 1524):
T*

T-T

T-T

exp{

where

- 2C12

11-3

is a dimensionless surface temperature i. e.

the 'temperature concentration,
Tw is the temperature of the receiving water (F),
T0 is the temperature of the jet prior to mixing (F
D0 is the diameter of the jet (ft),
x
is the horizontal distance along the jet axis, measured
from the point of discharge (ft),
r is the radial distance normal to the jet axis (ft),
C1 is an experimentally determined dimensionless constant,
0. 096.
125

Equation 11-3 is characteristic of jets with densimetric Froude

numbers which are large when compared to unity (Harleman and
Stoizenbach, 1520). High discharge densimetric Froude numbers indicate entrainment of the underlying cool water; rapid thickening
of the jet takes place until the Froude number decreases to below
unity (Lean and Whillock, 1527).

For buoyant discharges having smaller densimetric Froude numbers,

but greater than unity, Jen,etal. (1524) found that the buoyancy
does not appreciably affect the entrainment dilution. However,
the buoyancy tends to distort the temperature distribution from
that of the non-buoyant jet by horizontally expanding the plume.
For this condition Jen, etal. found the best temperature description
to be:
D

T*

-xexp[-C 2(NF

(y/x) 2 j

11-4

where C2 is an experimentally determined dimensionless

constant,
NF is the densimetric Froude number, and
is the horizontal distance normal to the jet axis, measured
y
from the axis of the jet (ft).
For dimensionless distances (x/D0) between 7 and 100 and densimetric
Froude numbers ranging from 18 to 180, equation 11-4 can be expressed
as:
T* = 7. 0

D
_a exp{-3(NF 1/2 (y/x) 2
x

11-5

An important result indicated by equation 11 -4 is that along the

centerline of the jet the discharge temperature decreases as 1 /x.

a continuation of the above study Wiegel, Mobarek, and Jen

(1541) investigated the mixing efficiency of horizontal surface jets
discharging over sloping bottoms. The constants C1 and C2 in
equation 11 - 4 were found to be dependent on the bottom slope and
also on the ratio of height to width of the rectangular nozzels used
to represent the discharge channel or canal. Wiegel, et al. concluded that steeper slopes resulted in more thorough mixing and,
hence, a more rapid cooling of the effluent plume. Beaches with
shallow sloping profiles do not provide enough water for optimum
entrainment. The mixing capability at 'low, mid, and high tide'
In

126

conditions were examined. The greatest amount of mixing

occurred logically at high tide.

Wiegel, etal. also observed that jet mixing depends upon the jet
discharge velocity. Low velocities result in laminar or low level
turbulent mixing, while high velocities produce "high level" turbulent mixing with large scale eddies at the jet boundary entrapping
the surrounding receiving water.

Part II. Surface Dispersion and Interface Exchange

(a) Surface Dispersion
Hayashi and Shuto (1521) investigated heated jets including the case
of no entrainment, i. e. , the velocity of the jet decreased to nearly
zero. For this condition they found the Richardson number to have
increased to a value slightly greater than one. This is the regime
of "horizontal or surface dispersion and interface exchange."

In this regime the plume of hot waste is mixed and transported

away from the region of the source by the action of surface currents. The depth of the plume slowly thickens with distance
from the source due to surface mixing. Heat may also be emitted
to the atmosphere.
The equation developed by Hayashi and Shuto to predict surface
temperatures within the dispersive plume (condition of negligible
entrainment) is:
K
T* =exp{-C3pcp

B02

lxJ

2
(x11

1i

11-6

where K is an atmospheric heat exchange coefficient (Btu

OF_i ft2 sec),
B0 is the width of the outlet (ft),

Q0 is the flow rate (cfs),

C3 is an experimentally determined dimensionless constant.
This relationship has been corroborated by the work of Harleman
and Stoizenbach (1520) using a hydraulic model. Equation 11 -6

127

indicates a temperature reduction at the rate e_C where

C is a function of the outlet width, B0, and discharge flow rate,
Q0. Harle man and Stoizenbach's experiments with surface dis charges showed that the centerline temperature decreased as
1 /x until a distance of x/B0 = 30 was reached when, the decrease
became more rapid and was well represented by T

e2.

From their hydraulic model study Harleman and Stoizenbach

concluded that changes in tidal elevation, condenser flow rate and
current velocities do nbt significantly affect temperature distribution, but
actual field studies have shown that these factors can affect temperature
distributions.
(b) Interface Exchange
Heat exchange with the atmosphere must be considered once the
turbulent motion of the jet has decreased to a level where entrainment of the surrounding cooling water is low. Equations which include this phenomenon are essentially similar to those used to
predict the dispersion of sewage, pulp miii wastes, or radionuclides except that the non-conservative term (decay term) now
must, account for the air-sea interface heat exchange.

The net rate of heat exchange across the air-sea interface, H,

can be expressed as the algebraic sum of: Hb, the effective long wave
back radiation; He, the evaporative heat flux; and Hc, the sensible
heat flux.

To overcome the difficulties inherent in directly measuring the net

heat flux from its component terms, Edinger and Geyer (1512) have
approximated the net rate of heat exchange across the air-sea
boundary by:
= K (T

- Te) Btu

Ft2

Day

-1

11 -7

where K is the 1surface heat exchange coefficient (Btu

Day

0F

Ft2

),

is the actual water temperature (F),

Te is the equilibrium temperature (F).
T

Edinger and Geyer define the equilibrium temperature, Te, as the water temperature at which there is no net heat exchange across the water surface,
i. e. H = 0. Procedures for the calculation of K and Te are fully
described by Edinger and Geyer (1512).
128

The dispersion of heated discharges into the ocean requires a

model equation in at least two dimensional form. Following the
development of Brooks (1504) for the dispersion and die-away of
coliforms from a sewage outfall, Edinger and Polk (1510) derived
a model to predict the temperature distribution based upon the
lateral dispersion of heat into a uniform longitudinal velocity
field with no vertical temperature gradient. Although the authors developed
this model primarily for rivers and lakes, they applied it to a coastal zone
environment (Morro Bay, California) with some success. The steady state
non-conservative distribution may be expressed as:

u88
ax

ay

Dy

ae

Ke

ay J

PCd

11-8

where the three terms represent the rates of decrease of excess

temperatui per unit volume for longitudinal advection, lateral

diffusion, and atmospheric cooling. Edinger and Polk choose a

solution for a constant D (ft2 /day) which results in a conservative
decay of temperature:
1/2

y)

where 0 (

-a(

11 -9

y) is the temperature rise (F) at some specified

lateral coordinate, y, and longitudinal coordinate,
xD Y
/
, where u is a constant stream velocity (ftisec),
u
,

is the temperature rise across the condenser(F),

is the position of the source given by
1
Q2

'SiT

ud

where
is the flow rate through the condenser (cfs)
and d is the depth of the water (ft), and
a

is a coefficient governing the rate of heat loss at the

surface,
K

cDd
where K is the surface heat exchange coefficient
a

oFl

Day

Ft -2.

(Btu

The reduction in temperature of the outfall plume may more conveniently be expressed as the surface area contained within given
temperature rise contours. Figure 11 -4 from Edinger and Polk
shows the relationship of the temperature rise ratio, 0c I Q, to :he
non-dimensional surface area ratio, A / A, for selected values
of , a dimensionless coefficient governing the rate of heat decay
at the surface. For selected values of 3, Edinger and Polk found
that atmospheric cooling had little influence on temperature
129

4 567891

5 67891

4 5 67891

4 567891

10

9
8
7
6
5

1t

4
3
2

1.0
9
8

z,TFZU:m 44;

7
6

III

IIT.Ti

tji

Three - dimensional
conserva/ive case

0.1

8
7
6
5
it.E54441-

4
3

0.01

0.1

1.0

10

100

A
A.

Figure 11-4. Relationship of temperature rise ratio to non-dimensional surface area ratio for selected
values of , a dimensionless coefficient governing the rate of heat decay at the surface (from
Edinger and Polk, 1510).

reduction until e/e had decreased to 0. 60. For values of

9/Q greater than

60 turbulent mixing was the dominant pro-

cess in reducing the plume temperature. These conclusions are

similar to those postulated by Hayashi and Shuto (1521) and corroborated by Harleman and Stoizenbach (1520).

Edinger and Polk also investigated a three dimensional conservative

model (no heat exchange across the air-sea boundary) which included
a vertical mixing term. For this case temperatures were reduced
at a faster rate than for the two dimensional non-conservative
case (Figure 11-4).
(c) Hydraulic Models
Concerning the model laws for coastal and estuarine hydraulic
models Keulegan (in 1144, p69l) states:
"Many of the flow conditions encountered in the natural
phenomena around coasts and estuaries unfortunately
are not amenable to mathematical analysis. The difficulty may be due to the nonlinear character of the equation of motion, to a lack of information on existing
turbulence and effective diffusion coefficients in instances
of mixing, to the multiplicity of interconnected flow

passages.. . . In such cases it becomes necessary to resort

to models in order to predict the behavior of a prototype
and in some instances to observe, in the model, details
that are not readily examined in nature."
Hydraulic models should not be treated as a substitute for field and
analytical studies, but should be considered as an aid to such studies by
contributing information not accurately obtained by other means.
Most hydraulic models are distorted geometrically in that the yertical
scale is exaggerated with respect to the horizontal scale. Such distortion is a consequence of the need to have workable water depths and
non-laminar flow in the model. The degree of distortion is dependent
on the area to be reproduced and the nature of the problem to be investigated. In order to reproduce frictional effects the model may be
"roughened" (generally vertically mounted thin metal strips are used).

In general, satisfactory model verification can be achieved for kinematic quantities (i. e., velocity, height, etc.); however, to simulate
water quality parameters (i.e., salinity, temperature, etc.) is
much more difficult. Vertical exaggeration prevents accurate
131

simulation of beach slope, channel geometry (depth to width ratios)

and lateral dispersion by turbulence (Ackers, 1503). In the vicinity
of the jet where turbulent entrainment is dominant geometric simi-

larity is also necessary.

To circumvent these incompatibilities two models may be used: (1)
an undistorted scale model of the area near the outfall to represent
initial dispersion and the buoyant plume zone, and (2) a vertically
exaggerated model to represent the whole area of interest (1503).
Another method is to build a distorted model and attempt to interpret
the affects of differences of the non-similar parameters on the
temperature distribution (1520).
Modeling of power plant outfalls has been practiced extensively
in Great Britain, Japan and the United States. In Great Britain the
Hydraulics Research Station at Wallingford and the University of
Strathclyde at Glasgow are the principal institutions engaged in
hydraulic model research. The reference lists of Ackers (1503)
and Frazer, etal. (1551) list pertinent papers in this field. In
the United States hydraulic modeling centers are the U. S. Army
Engineer Waterways Experiment Station, Vicksburg, Miss.;
the U. .S. Army Corps of Engineers San Francisco Bay-Delta
model; the Coastal Engineering Research Center, Washington
D. C.; Massachuetts Institute of Technology; and the University
of California, Berkeley.

(d) Numerical-Hydrodynamic Models

Solutions to most of the analytical models discussed in the previous
sections are possible only when simplifying assumptions are made,
e. g. , bindaries are of regular shape, distribution of velocity is
simple, etc. Such simplifications may result in solutions which
sometimes have little connection with actual conditions.
With the advent of high speed computers it has become possible
to solve model equations using numerical methods (i. e. , using a
finite difference scheme) which eliminates the need for some
of the simplifications. Applications of numerical hydrodynamic
(N-H) models were initially developed for rivers and estuaries
(Callaway, etal. , 1545; Bella and Dobbins, 1550; Fisher, 1547;
Glenne, 1548; Kent, 1549). Recently several N-H models have
been devised for application to open coasts. Among these are the
Walter Hansen model used by the Fleet Numerical Weather Central
(Laevastu and Stevens, 1526) and the Leendertse model (1529).
132

Obtaining a solution to an N-H model may be quite costly. Laevastu and

Stevens comment that the model must be run ten to sixty hours in real
time (dependent on the size of the area and grid length) before a correct
solution is obtained. This long running time is that required for initial
convergence, but after a converged solution is obtained, it may be that
it can be inserted repeatedly into a program which solves the advection-.
diffusion equation.

Part III. Dye Diffusion Studies

The use of dyes to study the movement and dispersion characteris tics of effluent plumes has become widespread with the advent of
sensitive measuring devices (Pritchard and Carter, 1534; Yudelson,
1543; James and Burgess, 1523; Ichiye, 1522; Foxworthy, 1516).
The vast majority of these studies have been oriented towards the
disposal of sewage. The use of dyes to trace the distribution of
heated effluents, however, has been limited since the distributions
obtained from tracer experiments have to be corrected for the
cooling process at the air-sea boundary.

Pritchard and Carter (1534) have proposed a technique to account

for the non-conservative process of heat loss at the surface when
rhodamine dye is used to trace the effluent plume. The rhodamine
dye must be injected into the water body in a special manner to
take into account the large differences in volume rates of flow of
dye and effluent. The concentration of dye is then related to the
concentration of heat through an expression which takes into account
the flow rates and mixing depths of both dye and effluent, i. e.
r h,00 where

Ph..P
0d

Dh

{rd(t)}

e -Yt/Dh dt

11-10

is the steady state concentration of heat in Btu lb1

rd (t)is the concentration of dye at time tin ppb (1O lb/lb),
Qh and Q are the flow rates of heated effluent and dye, in
Btu day' and lb day', respectively,
Dd and Dh are the mixing depths of the dye and heated effluent,

respectively, in feet, and

y is a rate coefficient which represents the loss of excess

heat to the atmosphere which for summer conditions was

found to be approximately 0.1 ft hr*

The time dependent concentration of dye, rd (t), was found to

approach the steady state value, r d,
asymptotically at a constant
133

which by best fit of the data was approximately 1.0 day*

After making appropriate substitutions integration of equation 11 -10
yielded the steady state concentration of heat as functions of the
steady state dye concentration emitted from a continuous source and
of the flow rates and mixing depths of dye and effluent:

rate, i

Qh
Qd

Dd

rdOO

134

PART II - CHEMICAL AND RADIOCHEMICAL ASPECTS

We wish to know the chemical characteristics of the nearshore waters

of the Pacific Northwest in order to make reasonable assessments of
the possible effects of the addition of industrial effluents. Dissolved

oxygen, inorganic micronutrients, pH, CO2 tension, trace metals,

radionuclides, pesticides, and pulp mill effluents have been considered.
Although this list does not include all constituents which might have
been studied, it does attempt to cover the major ones.
The general rationale for considering these factors can be simply
stated: that factors in the environment favorable to an organism
tend to reduce the effect of a harmful substance, and that factors
unfavorable to the organism tend to increase the effect. The various
factors can be interacting or independent. If interacting, they can
be 'Jsynergistictl or antagonistic. Although theories relating to the
toxicity of complex effluents in sea water are very crude, they do
outline the necessity of characterization of those substances which
affect how the system reacts to a specific effluent.
Page

Chapter 12.

CARBON DIOXIDE AND pH by Stephen W. Hager and

Robert H. Bourke

Chapter 13.

OXYGEN AND NUTRIENTS by Stephen W. Hager and

Robert H. Bourke

Chapter 14.

137

139

PULP AND PAPER INDUSTRY WASTES by Stephen

W. Hager

143

Chapter 15.

TRACE METALS by Stephen W. Hager

152

Chapter 16.

RADIOCHEMISTRy by William C. Renfro

191

Chapter 17.

OTHER POLLUTANTS

213

PESTICIDES by Stephen W. Hager

CHLORINE by Stephen W. Hager

135

213
218

Chapter 12. CARBON DIOXIDE AND pH

by Stephen W. Hager and Robert H. Bourke

Studies of the nearshore concentrations of dissolved CO2 in the

Pacific Northwest have been only recently undertaken. Only a
few of the pertinent features will be presented.
The concentration of dissolved CO2 in sea water in equilibrium
with the atmosphere in nearshore areas is about 320 ppm (Park
6093)

The concentration of dissolved CO2 at a depth of 2. 5m in the

Columbia River in December 1968 ranged from about 600 to
1000 ppm (Park et al., 6093)

Sea water values in nearshore areas were as high as 525 ppm

(Gordon and Park, 6092)

Sea water values in nearshore areas were as low as 155 ppm

(Gordon and Park, 6092)
Observed pH values correlate very well with CO2 values,
according to the equation
=

[H][co2I
+K'1K')

where

is the partial pressure of CO2 in air in equilibrium

with the water, a is the solubility coefficient of CO2 in sea water,
[H+] is the hydrogen ion activity as measured with a pH meter,
[CO2]is the total CO2 in the water, and K' and K' are the first
2
and second apparent dissociation constants for carbonic
acid
(Gordon, 6288).

High CO2 values are caused primarily by upwelling or by turbulent mix-

ing across the thermocline. Land runoff may play a role in some areas.
Low CO2 values are caused by uptake of CO2 by photosynthetic organisms.

137

Conclusions:

There are wide fluctuations in dissolved CO2 concentrations (or

E'co ) in nearshore areas. Due to the correlation between pH

measurement of pH, [CO], and temperature is often

adequate for determination of CO2 concentrations (Park et al, 6093)
Certain kinds of pollution such as surface active agents or organics

and

may change this relationship.

138

Chapter 13. OXYGEN AND NUTRIENTS

by Stephen W. Hager and Robert H. Bourke

Dis solved oxygen, inorganic mic ronutrient (phosphate, nitrate,
silicate) and pH data were obtained from NODC (see Appendix 6
for details), Oregon State University data reports (1231) and the
California Water Quality Control Board (7014). The data were
divided geographically into the sections shown in Figure 13-1.
Only values from inside of 10 nautical miles were considered.
Monthly means for 0, 10, 20, 30 and 50 meters (where available)
were obtained for each section and graphed against month. Values
from 10 and 30m were not included on the graphs since presentation
of surface, 20 and 50 meter values appeared to adequately describe
the distribution of the parameters. The data for Section 3 are shown
in Figure 13-2. Data from other sections are given in Appendix 6.

Generalized Features:
The data shown suggest that the water column from the surface to
20 meters is approximately homogeneous from October to April.
During the upwelling season, approximately May to September, the
waters at ZOm appear to be much more strongly affected by the upwelled waters than do the surface waters. This can probably be
attributed to more turbulent mixing in the surface waters.

There are no apparent latitudinal variations within our area.

Oxygen:

These observations can be made concerning the data:

Average surface values are higher than 20rn values throughout

the year.
The highest and lowest surface 02 values are found in the summer
months, June, July and August. This is probably due to the competing influences of photosynthetic production and upwelling.
The averaged gradient between the surface and ZOm is steeper in
the summer months. Surface values are not lowered as much by
upwelling as ZOm values.

Surface 02 values are about 6. 3 to 7.0 mi/i (N. T. P.) unless

affected by strong upwelling.

139

cAPE
FLATTERY

480

NO DATA
WASH.
GRAYS

HARBOR

SECT/ON 5

SECT/ON 4
46
T/LLAMOO/(
HEAD

SECT/ON 3
YAQU/NA
HEAD

44

SECT/ON 2

i;:

ORE.

CAPE BLANCO

42

NO DATA

SECTION

CALIF. -

cAPE MENDOCINO
400

125

1240

123

Figure 13-1. Study area, showing sections from which

dissolved oxygen, nutrient, and pH data
were taken.

0
3.0

2.0

PO4
1.0

0
30

20
NO3
I0

0
150

100

Sb2
50

9.0

pH
8.0
7.0

I.- O-

.0

Figure 13-2.

qJ

Data for Section 3, Newport, Oregon, to the

Columbia River. Oxygen is in mi/I (N. T. P.).
Nutrients are in g-at/l.
141

Nutrients: These observations can be made concerning the three

nutrients, phosphate, nitrate, and silicate:
The highest and lowest surface nutrient values are found in the
summer months. Silicate values strongly affected by runoff may
be higher at other times of year. Primary production and upwelling
are probable causes of the wide variations in surface values.
The averaged gradient between surface and ZOm is steeper in the
summer months.

Exclusive of upwelling, representative surface nutrient values are:

PO4:

0. 7 tg-at/l

5 tg-at/l
Si02: 10 ig-at/l
NO3:

pH: Very few pH data were available. These tentative descriptions

can be made:
pH values are lower in waters affected by upwelling.

Surface values are generally around 8. 1.

142

Chapter 14. PULP AND PAPER INDUSTRY WASTES

by Stephen W. Hager

The Pacific Northwest supports a major pulp and paper industry.

With increased restrictions on the introduction of wastes to river
and lake waters, coastal waters may be increasingly used for disposal of the wastes from the industry. There are presently four
pulp mills in our area with marine outfalls. Details of the locations
and sizes of these operations are shown in Table 14-1 (Anon., 6319).

Three kinds of pulping processes are in general use: the kraft

process, the sulfite process, and the groundwood process. In
addition, associated bleaching or paper-making processes add to
the mill wastes.

Wastes from pulp and paper mills are basically of two classes:
solid wastes such as woOd chips, bark, finely divided wood fibers,
etc., and dissolved wastes which vary depending on the processes
used.

The effects of pulp and paper industry wastes on the environment

can be classified as either chronic or acute. Chronic effects
generally involve changes in the sediments underlying the waters
to which the wastes are discharged. The solid portion of the wastes
contributes heavily to this "habitat destruction, " although the role
of dissolved materials sorbing on existing bottom sediments cannot
be discounted (Howard and Walden, 6309). Acute effects include
toxicity to organisms in the area, and avoidance reactions in organisms which would ordinarily migrate through the area (cf. Jones

etal., 6310).

Kraft process:
The kraft process of wood pulping involves digestion of certain types
of wood in a strong caustic solution containing sodium hydroxide,
sodium sulfate, and sodium sulfide. The used solution is called the
black liquor, and for economic reasons, 85-95% is recycled
(Waldichuk, 6316). The wastes from a kraft pulp mill are mostly
made up of the waters used to wash the pulp after it is physically
separated from the black liquor.

The characteristics of kraft mill effluents are shown in Table 14-Z.

143

Table 14-1. Pulp and paper mills in our area with marine outfalls.

Samoa, California. Georgia Pacific Corp.

Kraft pulp miii. 550 tons bleached kraft market pulp
per 24 hours.

Arcata, California. Crown-Simpson Pulp Co.

Kraft pulp miii. 500 tons unbleached kraft market pui:p
per 24 hours.
Gardiner, Oregon. International Paper Company.
Kraft pulp mill. 570 tons kraft containerboard per
24 hours, 545 tons unbieached kraft pulp per 24 hours
Toledo, Oregon. Georgia Pacific Corporation.
Kraft paper and linerboard mill. 880 tons per 24 hours.
Kraft pulp mill, 1075 tons unbleached kraft pulp per
24 hours.

Table 14-2. Kraft pulp mill effluents.

kraft pulp process'

bleached kraft pulp process2

volume

20,000-30,000 gal/ton
of product/day

35 x 1o6 gal/day

BOD

130 ppm

72 ppm

pH

7. 5-9. 0
1100 ppm

3.4

total solids
1

California S tate Water Pollution Control Board, Publ. No. 17,

generalized parameters (6300).
2
Howard and Walden, for a specific mill (6309).
144

Note the significant pH difference between the effluents of mills

producing bleached kraft pulp and unbleached kraft pulp.

The black liquor contains mercaptans, dimethyl sulfide, turpentine,

methyl alcohol, ammonia, lignin, fatty and, resinous acids, formic
acid, acetic acid, lactonic acid, and sodium salts of organic and
inorganic acids (McKee and Wolf, 6000). There may be other minor
components which are important (Servizi, Gordon, and Martens, 6313).
The toxicity of kraft mill effluents to marine species has not been
well studied. The results of studies reported in the literature are
shown in Table 14-3. Other studies using diluted black liquor and
synthesized draft mill effluent gave somwhat similar although less
interpretable results (McKee and Wolf, 6000; Anon., 6299).
Attempts have been made to study the toxicity of individual components
of the effluent (McKee and Wolf, 6000; Servizi et al., 6313) but are not
very useful due to the complexity of the factors involved in real effluent systems, and the variation of composition of actual effluents from
mill to mill (Black, 6301).

Of possible importance are the observations that salmonid fish.show

avoidance reactions to kraft mill effluents in fresh waters (Jones etal.,
6310) and that chlorine bleaching of pulps may produce compounds
analogous in behavior to the chlorinated hydrocarbon pesticides
(Servizi etal., 6313). However, recent work by Dr. Canton Dence
has shown, for instance, that chiorophenols exist in only trace amounts
in bleach mill effluents (Anon. , 6361).

There are a number of ways of treating kraft mill effluents to reduce

toxicity. Neutralization of wastes reduced toxicity toward fish (Howard

and Walden, 6309). Holding effluents in ponds reduced the BOD considerably (Gehm and Gove, 6307). Dispersion may be effective, but the

degree of dispersion necessary for protection of aquatic organisms has

not been adequately determined.
Sulfite process:

The sulfite pulping process consists essentially of the digestion of wood

chips in the sulfite of calcium, ammonium, or magnesium, usually
formed by addition' of sulfur dioxide to the appropriate hydroxide. It
has not been, economically feasible to recycle the calcium and ammonium
liquors, but magnesium liquors can presently be recycled, a desirable
step from the standpoint of pollution (Waldichuk, 6316; Hall, 6352).
145

Table 14-3. Toxicity of KME to marine organisms.

%KME

Organism

(unless otherwise specified)

English sole
Fluffy s culpin

6343

96 hour TLm
64 hour TL

Reference

Effect

18% and 30

at
sal.

6344

96 hour TLm

6343

Starry flounder

12.2

96 hour TLm

6343

Kelp greenling

15.2

96 hour TLm

6343

Walleye surfperch

est. 5

96 hour TLm
(prelim.)

6343

White seaperch

10.6

96 hour TLm

6343

Stickleba ck

12.5

72 hour TL

gtl in

Striped seaperch

Salmon, chinook

0. 6

growth rate reduced

6299

Salmon, chinook

1.2

30 day critical threshold

6299

Salmon, coho

1.0-3.6

tolerated both bleached and 62

unbleached effluent for 14 days9

Salmon, silver

30 day critical threshold

Salmon, sockeye, young

tolerated full bleached

Salmon, sockeye, young

2. 5

6299

effluent

6345

6345

Dungeness crab

50

tolerated full bleached

effluent at reduced 02
levels
no effect on 96 hours

Eastern oyster

0.05

decrease in feeding

6306

Bay mussel, embryos

1.5

48 hour ECSO for strong

6342

Bay mussel, embryos

0. 52

48 hour EC5O

6344

Bay mussel, embryos

0.12

48 hour ECSO for foam

collected on a beach near
an ocean outfall.

6344

expo sure

6343

waste from kraft mill

146

Spent sulfite liquor (SSL) is the term used for the wastes from the
digestion process. These wastes are mixed with wash waters and
other plant wastes producing an effluent characterized by large
volume, very high BOD, high dissolved organic content, and low
pH (Eldridge, 6303; McKee and Wolf, 6000).
A.n average mill uses about 60, 000 gallons of water per ton of pulp
produced (Hall, 6352). Most of this is wash water, with 2500-3000
gallons per ton being SSL (Eldridge, 6303). Thus, plant effluents
contain about 50, 000 ppm 10% SSL. The 5-day BOD of the washliquor effluent is about 1500 ppm (Eldridge, 6303) while the liquor
itself may have 30, 000 ppm BOD (Waldichuk, 6316; Anon., 6300).
Lignins may make up more than 50% of the dissolved organics in
the liquor. The pH of the effluent may be 3-4 (Eldridge, 6303).
The total dissolved solids content of SSL may range from 6% to 16%
(Eldridge, 6303). For convenience, all toxicity data are normalized
to 10% total solids. Results are then reported as dilutions of 10%
SSL. For instance, 10 ppm is 10 parts by volume of 10% SSL mixed
with water to make 1, 000, 000 parts. Another measure of the dilution of SSL is the Pearl-Benson Index (PBI)(Gunter and McKee, 6308).
This index is not necessarily correlated with toxicity. It is a
measure of the lignin content of the waste waters which may vary
from mill to mill. Background levels of natural lignins may vary
sufficiently over an area to make accurate determinations difficult
(Woelke, 6321).

Sulfite wastes are highly toxic to some marine organisms. Eggs and
larvae of oysters, and eggs of English sole were found to be particularly
sensitive to SSL (Anon., 6320). Ten ppm was suggested as an upper
limit for protection of this kind of aquatic life (Anon., 6320). Toxicities
of sulfite wastes to fish are generally lower, in agreement with the
observation of McKee and Wolf that BOD presents the major problem
with respect to fish (McKee and Wolf, 6000). However, 10 ppm has
been shown to affect internal organs of fresh watet fish on long exposure
(McKee and Wolf, 6000). Acute toxicities to various marine organisms
are given in Table 14-4.

147

Table 14-4.The toxicity of spent sulfite liquor to marine organisms.

Organism

Dilution of 10% SSL

(ppm)

Salmon, chinook

Effect

Reference

560-1175

5% mortality

6317

427-757

28 day tolerance

6299

(young)

Salmon, chinook

level (NH3 -base

SWL)

Salmon, chinook

28 day tolerance level

422-6 16

6299

(CaO base SWL)

Salmon, pink

530-1550

5% mortality

6317

1015-1230

5% mortality

6317

10 (Apr -Oct )

recommended
safe level

6308

20 ( .Tov-Mar)

Oysters, Olympia

8-16

harmful

6308

Oysters, Olympia

2-8

6312
reproductive cycle
affected, but not
necessarily detrimental

(young)

Salmon, silver
Oysters, Olympia

effect

Oysters, Olympia

adverse effect on
mortality

6318

Oysters, Olympia "16

adverse effect on
mortality

6318

Oysters, Olympia

8-16

adverse effect on
reproduction

6318

Oysters, Olympia
and Pacific

13

adverse effect on growth

and mortality

6318

reduction in % normal
larvae in laboratory experiments

6318

Oysters, Pacific
(larval)
148

Organism

Dilution of 10%
SSL (ppm)

Oysters, Pacific

Effect

reduction in % normal
larvae (bioassay of
natural waters)

6318

35

50% abnormal larvae

(24C, 25 0/00)
50% abnormal larvae
(20C, 25 0/00)
50% abnormal larvae
(24C, 15 /oo)

6302

8-16

threshold of toxicity

6308

affected

6312

(larval)

Oysters, Pacific
(larval)

26

17

Oysters, Pacific
(larval)

Oysters, Pacific

Reference

(larval)

Oysters, Pacific

". 100% abnormal

18

6312

(larval)

Oysters, Pacific

50-100

tolerated

6308

Oysters, Pacific

40 (Apr-Oct)
80 (Nov-Mar)

recommended safe level

6308

Oysters, larval

2-8

4% abnormal

6320

50% abnormal (in situ)

6320

Oysters, larval

<20

(Everett area)

Oysters, larval
English Sole, eggs

10

50% abnormal (in situ)

(Bellingham area)

6320

critical threshold for

6320

normal development

Monas sp. (oyster

1000-10, 000

lethal

6312

2. 5

"depressing effect"

6312

food organism)

Monas sp. (oyster

food organism)

149

Organism

Dilution of 10%
SSL (ppm)

Effect

Reference

Copepods

50- 157

significant mortalities
in 2to 14 days

6311

Phyto plankton

50

"significant injury"

6320

Marine food
organisms

500

harmful

6317

Fish (marine?)

10

affected internal
organs on long
exposures

6000

Young herring

599-1022

tolerance level

6311

Groundwood process:

The groundwood pulping process is a purely mechanical process,

involving no chemical additives. The wastes include some soluble
materials from the wood, but fine wood fibers are the primary
contributor to pollution (Waldichuk, 6316; McKee and Wolf, 6000).

Fates of pulp and paper mill effluents:

Hall (6352) states, " Clearly, if pulpmill effluent could be sufficiently

diluted, and quickly, in receiving waters of high oxygen content,
little trouble would arise.,. ." This statement reflects the feelings
of many people associated with the pulp and paper industry w.aste
problem that BOD is the major pollutional concern (McKee and Wolf, 6000).
However, it would be unwise to conclude that satisfaction of DOD
requirement is the only concern. In particular, the quantities and
fates of not readily biodegradable substances, whether natural or
added in the pulp and paper making processes, is not known.

1 50

The possibilities have only recently started to come to light. Most

pulp mill effluents are thought to remain in solution on contacting
sea water, with subsequent dispersal and biological and chemical
degradation (Schroeder, 6348; Mason and Oglesby, 6349; O'Neal,
6346). However there are indications that under certain conditions
some fraction of kraft process effluent precipitates on interaction
with sea water (Courtright and Bond, 6344; Fyn, 6347; O'Neal,
6346). In other situations, a fraction of kraft effluent may be foamed
off (Courtright and Bond, 6344). Another fraction may be sorbed on
any of a number of solid substances (Howard and Walden, 6309; O'Neal,
6346). The nature of the fractions undergoing these various reactions
is not well known, 'but the foamed fraction was shown to have higher
toxicity than bulk effluent, even though its PBIwas lower (Courtright
and Bond, 6344). The possibility that the chlorine bleaching of pulps
produces chlorinated hydrocarbons similar in behavior to chlorinated hydrocarbon pesticides and PCB's has been put forth (Servizi
et al., 6313) although this suggestion is yet to be confirmed. Moreover, chiorophenols are found in only trace amounts in bleach liquors
(Anon., 6361).

In general, the fate of the not readily biodegradable fraction of

effluents is unknown. The projected doubling of the pulp and paper
industry in the Pacific Northwest in the next 20 years (Hall, 6352)
makes it a matter worth investigating.
Summary:

There are four pulp and paper mill outfalls into the nearshore
marine environment of the Pacific Northwest. They discharge
wastes from the production of bleached and unbleached kraft
pulp, and kraft paper products.

Mill effluents differ significantly in their characteristics. A

pollution prevention program, then, should be tailored to a
specific plant and location.
Acute toxicities of kraft mill effluents to marine organisms are
not well known.

Toxicities of sulfite mill effluents are better known and suggest

a limit of 10 ppm of 10% SSL for protection of marine aquatic
life. This represents an approximately 5, 000 times dilution of
a typical sulfite mill effluent.
The amount and final disposition of less biodegradable products
of the industry are unknown.
1 51

Chapter 15. TRACE METALS IN THE NEARSHORE

MARINE ENVIRONMENT

byStephenW. Hager

The term trace metals" is not concisely defined. It applies to all

elements found in trace quantities (less than 1 mg/I) which show
characteristic chemical behavior of metals to a greater or lesser
degree. The "heavy metals" and "transition series metals" are
both subcategories of trace metals. In all, 54 elements were considered to be trace metals for the purposes of this study.
Use of the term in the text implies a definite lack of specific
information, not a generalization over large bodies of data. Where
detailed quantitative information is available, the elements for which
it is available are specified.

Trace metal pollution is not so spectacular as oil pollution nor so

obnoxious as pulp mill effluents. It cannot usually be detected perse.
Rather, effects on the biology of the area may be the first clue to
the fact of pollution. For these reasons, we must be concerned with
prevention and early detection of increasing trace metals concentrations.

This study was undertaken: (1) to provide information on existing

levels of trace metals in the nearshore marine environment of the
Pacific Northwest. The present low level of heavy industrial activity
in this area suggests that such data might well be used as a "baseline"
for future pollution studies. (2) to collect all data relevant to the
distribution of trace elements in the marine environment. From this
information it was hoped that an understanding of the behavior of
each element in the nearshore environment could be gained which
would enable formulation of a meaningful trace metal evaluation
program in the Pacific Northwest. The following discussion attempts
to point out information necessary for a consideration of coastal pollution by trace metals.
Chemical Form

Chemical forms of trace elements in sea water must be known before

an evaluation of their pollution potential can be made. Oxidation state
and physical state are equally important. The oxidation states of
many trace metals in sea water are reasonably well-known, either
by inference from thermodynamics or by direct observation.

152

It should be noted that thermodynamic estimates and observational data

sometimes conflict, as in the cases of arsenate and arsenite (Goldberg,
6059), chromium (III) and chromate (Fukai and Huynh-Ngoc, 6269), and
others. In such cases, the disagreements have been attributed to a need
for reaction sites (Goldberg, 6059), organic counter-reactions (Fukai
and Huynh..Ngoc, 6269), or analytical problems. It seems possible that
this problem might arise for other elements.

Adsorption on particulate matter and chelation by dissolved organic substances are processes which may control the concentration of a trace
metal in sea water. The quantitative partitioning between these reservoirs and the dissolved ionic fraction is largely unknown. We distinguish between particulate (>O.45p) and soluble material, but this is an
operational definition, related in an unknown way to the actual manner
in which the metal behaves.

Table 15-1 presents data on the chemical and physical states of trace
metals in sea water with appropriate references. In cases where
there is substantial agreement between investigators, only the most
recent is cited.
Table 15-1. Predominant physico-chemical forms of trace elements
in sea water compiled from the literature.
Element
Physical Form
References
Chemical Form
Al
Sb

particulate

ionic (?)

A102 (H20)
SbO+ (?)
Sb(OH)6

As

ionic

6060

H2AsO4

6059

---

H3AsO4, H3AsO3
Ba++, BaSO4

ionic

---

"soluble"
particulate (?)

'Bi
Cd

ionic
ionic

6061
6363

H3AsO3, H3AsO4
HAsO4

Ba

6139
6075

BiO+ (?)
CdC1+, CdCl2
Cd++, CdSO4
CdCl+
1 53

6059
6035
6112
6019

6ioz
6102
6059
6099

Table 15-1 continued

Element

Chemical Form

Physical Form

Cs

6059
6019

Cr
CrO

6269
6269

Co ++

6059
6019

Cs

ionic
Cr

particulate (?)
ionic

Co

References

ionic
Cu

soluble

Cu

6192

Ga

soluble (?)

Ga(OH)4

6180
6019

Ge(OH)4

6059
6019

AuCl4

6059
6109
6019

Hf

HfO

6179

In

In+++ (?)
In(OH)

6143
6285

Fe

Fe(OH)3 (soluble)

6059

particulate (?)
Ge

particulate (?)
Au

particulate
ionic

Pb

soluble,
particulate
soluble,
particulate
ionic

Li

ionic

Mn

particulate
ionic

Pb

6193

++

;-++,

PbOH+,

6019

PbC1 +

6363

Li+

6034

Mn

154

6160

++

6109
6110

Table 15-1 continued

Element
Hg

Physical Form

References

Chemical Form

soluble
ionic

6071
6059

Hg

HgC13 , HgCl

Mo

MoO =

6059
6102

Ni++

6059
6177

6027

ionic
Ni

---

ionic
Nb

particulate (? )

NbO (soluble) (?)

Pd

unknown

Pt

unknown

Po

Po(OH)4 (?)

6179

Rc04

6140

Re
Rb

ionic

Rb+

6059

Ru

mostly ionic

(?)

6028

Sc

6075
6019

HSeO3

Se0

6030
6059

Sc

particulate (?)
Se

Ag

---

AgC12

6102
6019

Sr

6059
6019

6144

ionic

Sr

---

ionic
TI

ionic

Ti

Sn

ionic

SnC1 (?),SnC13

particulate (?)

155

6179
6019

Table 15-1 continued

Element

Physical Form

Chemical Form

References

Ti

particulate (?)

H4TiO4

6062

W 04 =

6059

6102

ionic
H2VO4, V02(OH)3

ionic

6102, 6059
6019

particulate (?)

Y(OH)3 (soluble)

6117

Zn

ionic

Zn++

6117

Zn+f ZnOH+

6099

particulate (?)

6061

(?) indicates speculative

The problem of possible trace metal pollution of the nearshore marine
environment of the Pacific Northwest may be considered to be a flushing"
or "residence time" problem.

The important factors are input rates, output rates, and allowable
residual levels. Input rates include both those from natural and
industrial sources. Output rates include those effected by circulation
and by biogeochemicaiprocesses. Allowable residual levels are
those concentrations, resulting from the balance of inputs and outputs,
which do not constitute pollution.

Natural

There are three major natural inputs of water containing trace metals
to the nearshore areas of the Pacific Northwest; surface advection,
upwelling, and land drainage/rivers.
A.dvection of surface water trace metals into the area of interest is
the "background" input against which the other inputs, upwelling and
land drainage,operate. The magnitude of the effects of the other inputs will depend to a large extent on the rate of this advective input
which is discussed in Chapter 9.

156

Trace metal concentrations in the advecting waters are poorly known.

Gold and iron are the only trace metals which have been determined
in the nearshore waters (0-10 km) of the Pacific Northwest. Caidweli
(6025) found an average value of 0. 21 g gold/i in seven samples taken
at Waconda Beach, just south of Waldport, Oregon. He detected less
than 0. 05 jtg gold/i at Agate Beach, north of Newport, Oregon.
Putnam (6132) found 5. 1 pg gold/i at Copalis Beach, Washington,
and less than 0.5 tg gold/i at Bandon, Oregon. Strickland (6156)
found 8.4-16 ig/l total reactive iron on the Washington coast.
A determination of molybdenum at Muir Beach, Mann County,
California, is perhaps relevant, although not strictly in our survey
area. Bachmann and Goldman (6008) found 10.0 pg molybdenum/i.

The elements aluminum, arsenic, cobalt, copper, iron, lead,

manganese, nickel, selenium, and titanium have been determined
for the waters of Puget Sound, the Strait of Juan de Fuca, and the
Northeast Pacific, but these measurements may not be representative
of the open nearshore coastal environment.
Measurements of nearshore and oceanic trace element concentrations
suitable for direct comparison have been made for eight elements
(Table 15-2). Six of the elements compared give values which might
be explained by considering the mixing of sea water and land drainage
water (see Table 15-5). However, data are insufficient to permit
generalizations about concentrations to be expected in nearshore areas.
A compilation of probable values for various trace metals in near shore
and oceanic waters is presented in Table 15-3. The values given
result from a consideration of the frequency distribution of all values
available (see Appendix 4). Other factors considered were location,
proximity to land masses, methods, season, and depth. References
are for representative studies.

Previous compilations of oceanic trace metal concentrations have

been made by Richards (6261), Goldberg (6058), (6059), (6290), Hqigdahl
(6289), Riley (6181), and Bowen (6019).

The trace metal concentrations considered in this compilation may

be real and a result of various hydrologic, geologic, and biologic

1 57

Table 15-2. Direct comparisons of nearshore and oceanic values for

trace metals
Element

Nearshore Value
(Location)

Open Oceanic Value

t 1 ig Al/I (ionic)

g Al/I (ionic)
(Scripps Pier)

Al

21

Be

1. 7x104 i.g Be/I

3.9x104 g Be/I

Reference
6139
6112

(soluble)

(soluble)

g Be/I
(particulate)
(Scripps Pier)

1.8x104 g Be/i

Cs

0.335 0.012 g Cs/I

(Scripps Pier)

0.35 0.024tgCs/l

6052

Cu

ca. 20 g Cu/I
(tropical waters)

ca. 10 g Cu/l

6192

Fe

up to 25

as low as 0.5 g Fe/I

6194

Fe.

8.4 - 16 i.g Fe/I

(total reactive)

4.6 p.g Fe/l (total

reactive)

6156

as low as 0.2 p.g Mn/I

6137

0. 9x10

(particulate)

Fe/I

(tropical waters)

(Washington coast)
Mn

up to 3. 9 ig Mn/i
(Gulf of Mexico)

Rb

170, 190 g Rb/l

(Caribbean)

120, 120, 140 ig Rb/l

6014

Sr

5.5 mg Sr/i

7.5, 7. 8, 7.0 mg Sr/i

6014

158

Table 15-3. Probable values of trace metals in oceanic and nearshore

waters
Element
Al

Sb

As

Ba
Be

Form Measured
dissolved (ionic)

Nearshore
Concentration

/1

c /1

11

total <0.45k
particulate

<10

total
total

0.33

1 - 120
---

10, 000

est

1-7

6177, 6077
6149, 6128
6060, 6164

total
total

13

soluble

0. 00039

0. 00017

0.00018

0.00009

13

Cd

total

Cs

Cr

6139
6139
6139

0.3

15 - 37

0.033

Reference(s)

6141

2-3

total
total

6016, 6035
est
6112
6112
6130

0.03

est

0.11

0.11

6118,6091

total

0.35

0.335

6052

dissolved (total)
particulate

0.4
0.03 - 0.012
0.2
0.2

0.3 - 0.6

6274
6272
6274
6274

Cr(III)
Cr(VI)
Co

4l0

total
total
total

particulate
Bi

Oceanic
Concentration

total
total

0.2
0.1 - 0..4

0.27(0.035-4.1)

6141

0.2 - 0.7 ?

6163, 6177

159

Table 15-3. continued

Element

Form Measured
ionic
ionic
total <0. 5
total

Oceanic
Concentration
0.3 - 2

20

600

<0. 5

total

0.03

total

0.06

total
total

0.011

Hf

total

<0.008

In

ionic

<0.012

total <0.51j
total <0.5ii

0-6

ionic
particulate

<1

6192, 6193
6037, 6040
6192, 6193
6195
6192, 6193

6023

0.06 ?

6023

6141
6132

6141
6285

(inferred)

0 - 5

particulate

25

6108, 6162
6176, 6105
6193
6094, 6108

100

6176, 6105

200+

6164

1.5

6160
6109

total

Pb

total
total

0.03-0.3

Li

total

170 - 180

6034, 6136

Mn

total
total

0.2 - 4

6137, 6050

Hg

total

0.08-0.15

160

Reference(s)

pg/l

particulate

Au

Nearshore
Concentration

10

6165

6065

Table 15-3. continued

Element

Form Measured

Oceanic
Concentration

Nearshore
Concentration

ig /1

total
total
total

Reference(s)

/1

10
10

6172, 6186
6008, 6209
6189

<6

6141, 6055
6104, 6193

+0.1

6027

0. 8

total
total

5.4(0.43-43)

Nb

total

<0.005

Re

total

0.0084

Rb

total
total

120

---

400

6153, 6016
6014, 6078

Sc

total

<0004

---

6141

Se

total
total

0.05 - 0.5

Ag

total

0.29
(0.055-1.5)

Sr

total
total

6 - 10

TI

total

<0. 01

6121, 6144

Sn

total

0.30 - 1.22

6067

Ti

total
total

8-9
<6

6015
6015, 6062

total

0. 09 - 0. 12

---

6077, 6087

total
total

1-5

5-7

6089, 6029
6015

Ni

161

6140

6141, 6030
6077

19.6

6141

5 - 12

6038, 6197
6014, 6096

Table 15-3. continued

Element

Form Measured

Oceanic
Concentration

Nearshore
Concentration

Reference(s)

g/l

total

0.3

6075

total

0.6 - 25

6155, 6175
6189, 6114

40

total
total

0.011

- 0.041

6145

+ Signifies highest measured value

est Signifies estimated from trends in behavior, but not based on actual
?

measurements
Signifies great uncertainty in the value(s) cited

processes, or they may be analytical artifacts. Often, it is impossible

to decide which the case may be. No attempt was made, therefore,
to exclude outlying results from consideration. Where the results
of one investigator had been criticized by a subsequent investigator
on the grounds of the methods involved, however, this was considered.
Upwelling may provide the single largest perturbing influence on
trace metal concentrations off our coast. Schutz and Turekian (6141)
found that silver, cobalt, and nickel were significantly higher in areas
of upweiling. However, they did not state whether upwelling was
actually occurring at the time of sampling. Concentrations of
aluminum, chromium, copper, iron, gallium, lead, titanium, and
zinc, all with high concentration factors in plankton (Table 15-4),
might be higher in upwelled waters.
Land drainage probably does not play a significant role in determining
the dissolved trace metal concentrations on our coast. As can be
seen from Table 15-5, the concentrations of many trace metals in
the river waters are roughly similar to those in sea water. Thus,
the change in the salinity of a sample of mixed river-sea water
environment would be much greater than the change in the trace metal

162

Table 15-4. Concentration of trace metals by plankton: concentration

factor = ppm in fresh organism/ppm in sea water.
(Concentration factors from 6019.)
Element

Concentration Factor

Ag

210

Al

25, 000

Comment

Marine organisms may be able

to utilize particulate Al,
making this number of doubtful
meaning.

Ba

120

Cd

910

Co

4600

Cr

17, 000

Based on a S. W. concentration
of 0. 00005 ppm. It appears that
0. 0005 ppm may be more
reasonable, giving a concentration factor of 1700.

Cs

1-5

Based on a sea water value of

0. 05 ppb. Value is probably
nearer to 0. 3 ppb.

Fe

2000-140, 000

See comment on Al.

Ga

12, 000

See comment on Al.

Mn

750-9400

Mo

25

Ni

1700

Based on a sea water value of

30 ppb. Surface water value
is probably around 13 ppb.

Nickel concentrations in S. W.
show great variation, 0. 43 to
43 pg/l in one worldwide study
(6141).

Pb

41,000

Basedondeepwaterpbvalue
of 0. 03 ppb.

0. 1 to 0. 3 ppb is

probably a better surface value.

163

Table 15-4.
continued
I
Element

Concentration Factor

Ru

600-3000

Sb

50

Sn

2900

Sr

8,9

Ti

20, 000

620

Zn

1000-65, 000

Zr

1500-3000

Comment

Value is based on a sea water

value of 3 g/l (6121). Sea
water value may be around
g/l (6067).
1

164

Table 1 5-5. Comparison of trace element concentrations in rivers and

in sea water
Element

Rivers'

Columbia River2

Sea water 3
/1

Al

130

Sb

1.1

As

2-3

Ba

44

32

13

Be

0.01
0.24
0.02

<0. 03

0. 0004

<0.2

0.11
0.35

Co

3.2
0.3

0.02

0.3-0.6
0.2-0.7

Cu

10

10

1-10

Fe

40

30

0-6

Pb
Li

4.2

0.03-0.3

1.1

3.2
2.2

Mn

25

1.5

Hg

0.08

0.2-4
0.08-0.15

Mo

10

Ni

<23

5.4

Rb

<1.2

120

Se

1.3
0.20

Ag

0.19

0.12

0.29

Sr

80

62

6-10

Sn

0.04
8.6

"0

0.3-1.2

3.4

8-9

Cd

Cs

Cr

Ti

90

1-10
0. 3

170-180

0.05-0.5

165

Table 15-5. continued

Element

Rivers

Columbia River
g/1

Sea water

g/l

'2

1-5

Zn

10

20

Zr

2.6

"0

0.6-14
0.0110. 041

Durum and Haffty (6281)

Livingstone (6283)
Kopp and Kroner (6278)

Kharkar, Turekian, and Bertine (6282)

2Dururn and Haffty (6284)

Kopp and Kroner (6278)
Silker (6045)
3This review

concentrations. Aluminum, beryllium, chromium, iron, lead, manganese, strontium, and zirconium apparently have significantly higher
concentrations in river waters than in sea water.
All of these inputs undergo seasonal.cycles. Ambient nearshore trace
metal concentrations may be highest following winter periods of low
productivity (Atkins, 6007; Chow and Thompson, 6037). River inputs
are probably highest at the times of highest runoff, although river concentrations of trace metals may be highest at times of lowest runoff
(see Chapter 4). Upwelling occurs primarily in the late spring, summer,
and early fall, although winter occurrences have been observed (Burt,
McAlister, and Queen, 6329). The net effect of these variations may
be to reduce the seasonal variations in the sea water, while intensifying short term and local variations.

166

Industrial Inputs

One ultimate goal is to quantitatively estimate the rate of input of

potential pollutants which a given area can tolerate. In order to do
this, we must know the characteristics of the proposed effluent.
These data should include estimates of maximum volume of effluent
to be expected and maximum concentrations of various substances
which will occur in the effluent. Plans for such a waste inventory
on a national scale are presently beset with implementation difficulties (Anon., 6358). Such declarations are regularly required by
the Department of Environmental Quality of the State of Oregon and
the Water PollutjonControl Commission of the Stateof Washington
(Anon., 6356). The California Regional Water Quality Control
Boards require only a general "type of waste" declaration, with
the stipulation of
such additional information as it (the regional
board) deems necessary." (Anon., 6357). Each proposal is treated

as a separate case.

Removal Processes
A number of authors have adequately outlined the processes by
which trace metal pollutants may be removed from nearshore
marine waters(Waldichuk, 6284; Carritt and Harley, 6028). These
processes include advection, biological activity, sorption, flocculation, ion exchange, precipitation and coprecipitation (Waldichuk,
6284). However, research on removal mechanisms has progressed
little beyond the naming of the various possible mechanisms. There
are almost no quantitative data. In short, then when asked td predict
the fate of additions of toxic trace metals to nearshore waters of the
Pacific Northwest, we must answer, "we don't know. "

The reasons for this ignorance are several. First, the nearshore
coastal zone is very complex. The processes of removal of trace
metals vary in time and space. A measurement in the summer may.
not be applicable to the winter; a measurement in Southern California
may not be applicable to Northern California.
Second, the necessity for understanding the processes has not always
been clear. Much pollution prevention has, in the past, actually been
pollution correction. Admittedly, the prediction of pollution is not always possible, as, for instance, in the cases of the biological production of methyLmercuryand the worldwide dispersal of DDT. However,
as our technology rapidly advances, we must attempt to predict

167

environmental consequences, since they may be only slowly reversible.

In particilar, trace metals in sediment and biological reservoirs may
continue to supply pollutant long after the original source has been removed (Anon., 6337; Abelson, 6338).

What is needed, as specified by Carritt and Harley (6028) for radionuclides,

is sufficient information on assimilative processes to be able to construct
balance sheets, accounting for all of each specific pollutant added. For
example, the study of Duke etal. (6325) showed that of the zinc-65 added
to experimental ponds, up to 98. 8% was found in the sediments, 0. 2% in
the macrobiota, and 0. 0% in the water at approximately steady state conditions. Although it will not be economically feasible to do the same with
all industrial effluents, it is essential that we recognize such complete
knowledge as an ideal, and that we not lose sight of that ideal.

Precisely what do we know, relevant to the nearshorewaters of the

Pacific Northwest?
Advective Removal

The advection of nearshore waters of the Pacific Northwest is not well

enough known to allow its quantitative prediction for a specific site
(see Chapter 9). Generally, the advecting waters will remove the
dissolved fraction of the trace metal from an area. In addition, portions of other fractions (sorbed, precipitated, or flocculated) may be
removed. Consequently, advection will probably be a key concern in
outfall siting. The greater the rate of advective flow out of an area,
the lower the amounts of pollutant remaining in the area under steady
state conditions.

However, the metals may be removed from the water before it can be
advected from the nearshore zone. This may be accomplished by biological or geochemical processes which may act to prevent acute pollution by removing metals from the solution phase or to establish chronic
concentrating the pollutant in another form and in
pollution by
another place.
Bio1oical Removal

Net removal of trace metals by biological means depends on several

factors: a) primary production by phytoplankton, b) transportation of
organic matter by physical processes, c) destruction of organic
matter by organisms or non-biological processes, and d). rate of
inorganic sedimentation (Gross, 6122).
168

The surface sediments of the Pacific Northwest inside of 10 km are

generally characterized by large particle size (sand) and low organic
matter content (0. 1%)(Bushnell, 6148; Carey, 6134). Thus, although
production in areas of upwelling may be as high as 150 gCm-Zyr-1
(60 gCmyr1 is average for the area, Gross,. 6122), the net removal
of organic material in the nearshore region is probably low. However,
high concentrations of glauconitic sands (up to 90%), and organic carbon (up to 3%) in sediments from the continental slope about 30 miles
offshore (Bushnell, 6148) suggest that transport and deposition of organic material away from the coast may be significant.
Substantial burial of organic material by rapid sedimentation is not
probable due to the well-sorted characteristics of the nearshore
sediments (Bushnell, 6148).
Biological processes have been implicated in the removal of barium
(Goldberg, 6169), copper (Turekian, 6125), vanadium, tungsten,
cobalt, and nickel (Krauskopf, 6102), and cadmium (Brooks and
Rumsby, 6021).
Geochemical Removal

Geochemical removal processes include precipitation, complexing

and chelation, and solid-ion interactions such as sorption, ion exchange,
flocculation, and coprecipitation.

Precipitation: It is doubtful that solubiljties of inorganic precipitates

control the concentrations of many elements in sea water (Goldberg,
6059). However, precipitates formed by the reaction of an effluent
with sea water may occur, and it is this process which is of interest
in considering coastal pollution. The precipitates formed may act
as transport mechanisms and later redissolve producing no net removal
from sea water. However, by this process mass removal of pollutants
from nearshore areas or accumulation of the material in nearshore

areas may occur.

The main precipitates which might be formed by trace metals in sea

water are carbonates and hydroxides or hydrous oxides. Carbonates
of cobalt, copper, zinc (Goldberg, 6059; Duursma and Sevenhuysen,
6213), and lead (Goldberg, 6059) might be precipitated from sea water
of pH 8 at levels around 20 ig/1.

1 69

Copper hydroxide might also be precipitated from pH 8 sea water

at around 20 p.g/l (Duursma and Sevenhuysen, 6213). There is
great uncertainty in these estimates. The pH dependence of these precipitations is inherent in the anions involved. Associations with inorganic ligands and dissolved organic substances in sea water may also
alter these estimates considerably. Kinetics of precipitation will probably be unimportant due to the availability of nucleation surfaces
(particulate matter) in nearshore waters.
Complexing: Complexing by inorganic ligands does not physically
remove metals from the environment. It does change their ionic
form, however, which affects their geochemical behavior and possibly
their toxicity. The major ligands are the chloride and sulfate ions
which are present in consistently large quantities in sea water. Carbonate ions may also be important. Recent studies have indicated
that some trace metals may form ion pairs with the inorgaPic anions
of sea water. Specifically, there is evidence for hydroxyl or carbonate
ion pairs of zinc and lead in sea water (Zirino and Healy, 6275).
Chelation: Chelation of metals by the dissolved organic substances
in sea water is known to occur (Koshy and Ganguly, 6339; Williams,
6040; Barsdate, 6279; Rona et al., 6137), but the conditions under

which this process occurs in the natural environment are not well
known (Barsdate, 6279; Koshy and Ganguly, 6339). The major effect
1s "solubilization," or a tendency to keep metals in the soluble (<0. 45)
fraction of a sea water sample(Koshy and Ganguly, 6339). Chelation
thus affects the behavior of a metal with respect to removal processes
such as precipitation and sorption. The organic ligands which chelate
metals in sea water are unknown.
The quantity of dissolved organics in nearshore waters of the Pacific
Northwest is unknown. As shown by Duursma (6341), the factors
determining dis solved organic conc entrations are ins uffici.ently known
to allow prediction of the levels by considering the area to be a
typical nearshore, upwelling, high- productivity area.

Solid-ion interactions: The reaction of trace metal ions with solid

materials in sea water may result in the removal of the ions from
solution. The extent to which this process is capable of removal of
added metals from sea water will be determined primarily by the
form of the ions involved and by the nature and amount of solids involved.

170

The nature of the ions of concern will be determined by the composition

of the effluent, and its immediate interactions with sea water. Such
interactions may include inorganic complexing or organic chelation.

The solids which interact with metal ions in sea water are extremely
varied, including organic detritus, inorganic mineral grains,
hydrous oxide flocs, precipitates, etc. In addition, each of these
descriptive terms may encompass a wide range of materials with
equally widely varied sorptive characteristics. Even for relatively
well defined substances, factors such as previous history can change
sorption behavior. Thus, this discussion will deal only with the
general category solid materials.
Of the number of ways of considering solid-ion interactions which
may occur in sea water, the concept of reservoirs (see Carritt and
Goodgal, 6266) seems to be most useful. Although simplistic, it
provides a quantitative overview conspicuously lacking in some
other approaches
Although there are few real
numbers which we can use in this model to get useful answers, the
types of data needed will be made evident.

A schematic of a simple two-reservoir system is shown in Figure

15-1.

RI

R2
Figure 15.1.

The system can be roughly described by a distribution coefficient

between the two reservoirs, and by the sizes of the two reseryoirs.
It is the latter factor which is often neglected.

171

K may depend on X or C,, although within reasonable limits

of X5 dependence does not seem great (Duursma and Bosch, 6330).
At low solution concentrations, however, K's varied with solution
concentration (Hamaguchi, 6335).
K

and X are operational parameters. For instance, if Cs

and Cw are defined as the concentrations in the fractions which

are retained and which pass through a 0.45p filter, respectively,
f5 is then the fraction sorbed on the greater than 0. 45p. fraction,
and thus represents a lower limit to the material actually sorbed.
Organic chelation and sorption can change the entire system,
emphasizing the need to use natural waters and sediments.

The shaded area in Figure 15-2 represents that bounded by reasonable

KD(102- l0) (Duursma and Bosch, 6330; Ganapathy, Pillai, and Ganguly,
6365) and reasonable X (10- 1000 mg/kg) (Ganapathy, Pillai, and Ganguly,
6365) values. Note that the f5 values range from about .99 to 0. 001, or
from 99% of the metal sorbed on the sediment of 0. 1% sorbed. This
uncertainty again outlines the necessity of data specific to the region
of interest and the element of interest, using KD'S and Xe's observed
in the waters into which the proposed effluent will flow.

Although it appears that the suspended material in sea water

is qualitatively superior to the consolidated sedimentary material
with respect to sorptive capacity (due to particle size) and availability
(due to dispersion in the water column), the major limitation on the
suspended material will be quantitative. That is, while the suspended
materials will, in general, have a higher sorptive capacity per gram
and will be more likely to come in contact with the ions, the total
sorptive capacity (capacity per gram times gram available sorbent)
may not be sufficient to remove significant amounts of trace metals.
Therefore, although we do not presently have sufficient knowledge
of turbulent diffusion and mixing to determine which effluents will
be brought into direct contact with bulk sediment (see Chapter 11),
this distinction will be, as pointed out by Waldichuk (6284), an
important one. There seems to be little doubt that metals in
effluents which come into contact with bulk sediments will become
sorbed to a substantial degree (Pritchard, 6231; Duke, Willis, and
Price, 6325; Carritt and Goodgal, 6266; Postma, 6331; Duursma
and Bosch, 6330). This is borne out by a consideration of Figure
15-2. At a sediment-water interface, we can probably say that X
increases greatly, although, as pointed out in consideration number
3, it becomes difficult to quantitatively define.
172

A trace metal pollutant may be partitioned between reservoirs such

as suspended material, consolidated sediments, dissolved components,
and biota. The biological reservoir has already been discussed in
part.
In order to get some quantitative feeling for the partitioning of
a trace metal between the dissolved and suspended reservoirs,
consider Figure 15-2 which is derived from mass balance consider-ations. T is the total trace metal in the water-suspended material
system, Cs is the concentration of the metal on the suspended material, Xs is the concentration of suspended material in the water, Mw
is the mass of water being considered, C is the concentration of the
trace metal in the water, f5 is the fraction of the total trace metal which
will be found associated with the particulate matter, and KD is the
distribution coefficient for the metal between the particulate matter

and the water, defined as C5/C.

As mentioned above, such a diagram is only able to give a feeling

for the possible magnitude of some of the factors involved and cannot
and must not be used without consideration of these approximations
involved in its derivation:

It is assumed that the water and suspended material are the

only two "reservoirs" involved. A similar diagram could be
made for the relationship between amounts of metal in water
and in the biota. The vertical axis would be biomass concentration in the water and the horizontal axis the concentration
factor (see Table 15-4) for a given metal. Thus, only if other
reservoirs are small when compared to the suspended material
reservoir can we use Figure 15-2.
Obviously, this is an "equilibrium" model. Whether or not
this is a realistic model of the natural environment is now known.
In particular, the reversibility of sorption reactions is not well
known. Thus metals sorbed in one ionic environment and transported to another may or may not be desorbed (Turekian, 6282;
Johnson, Cutshall and Osterberg, 6047; Kharkar, Turekian and
Bertine, 6215).
The diagram cannot be used for waters in contact with bulk sediments. The model is very sensitive to variations in X5, which
would be difficult to define in such a case.

173

0-I

102

io4

io3

io5

106

KD
Figure 15-2. Nomograph representing approximate partitioning
of a metal between dissolved and suspended particulate
reservoirs. X5, concentration of suspended material
in the water in mg/kg; KD, observed distribution
coefficient for a specific metal on a specific material;
fraction of metal in water-suspended material
system sorbed on suspended material. T = CsX5M,+
F

CSXSMW
T

174

KdSs
KdXS+l

It was noted earlier that the nearshore sediments of the Pacific

Northwest are primarily well-sorted sands (X5 very large; KD
small). Much less is known, however, about the suspended material; its quantity (X5), its characteristics (KD), its sources and
sinks, and its rate of passage through the nearshore area. The
quantity of suspended material in nearshore areas of the Pacific
Northwest is thought to be high (Waldichuk, 6284). Areas affected
by the river drainage might be expected to be particularly high.
Not much is known about the characteristics of the nearshore suspended material. It might be guessed that suspended particulate
matter is primarily organic in the spring and summer months and
inorganic during thewinter months, but this is unconfirmed. A
median diameter of 2 to 3 microns has been observed (Carder, 6353),
suggesting that the surface to mass ratio would be high, and that
a high sorptive capacity would exist. In addition, the Stokes'
settling rate for particles of this size would be about 70 cm/year,
resulting in negligible sedimentation as compared to advection
into deeper waters. The observed distribution of sediment sizes
in nearshore sediments bears this out (Bushnell, 6296).
Allowable Residual Level

The establishment of allowable upper limits for trace metal concentrations in nearshore waters will require criteria for distinguishing
between change, and detrimental change (pollution). The "no change"
approach is rejected a priori, since if we detect no change it could
mean simply that we are looking at the wrong variables or with
insensitive techniques.
There are a number of approaches which one might take in order to
determine permissible trace metal concentrations in nearshore areas.
They include consideration of (1) the lethal limits and sub-lethal
effects for individual species, (2) lethal concentrations and sub- lethal
effects for natural populations, and (3) ecological models.
Individual species: Most studies aimed at determining the permissible levels of a toxic substance in the marine environment have determined the tolerance of certain species of organisms to that substance.
The toxicities of various trace metals to marine organisms found in the
Pacific Northwest are presented in Table 15-6. The data are listed
alphabetically by species under the appropriate metal. Included are
the concentration and form of the metal, effect on the organism, duration of the exposure, and the pertinent literature citations. Data
for additional marine species are presented in Appendix 4. Reviews
175

Table 15-6. Response of marine organisms of the Pacific Northwest

to various concentrations of trace elements
Generic name Specific name (common name)
duration
trace element
effect on the organism
of test
concentration
(TLm, killed, not lethal)
Al

Gras sostrea virginica (oyster)

88 ppm
not toxic
5. 3 mg/i

Gd

"extremely harmful"

Gras sostrea virginica (oyster)

0. 2 mg/i
TLm
0. 1 mg/i
TLm

Mya arenaria (soft-shell clams)

0. 1 ppm
apparently not toxic
G12

6207

11 days

8 days

As203

8 weeks
15 weeks

6004
Cd(NO3)2
Cd(NO3)2

56 days

6131
----

Crassostrea virginica (oyster)

0. 01-

0.05 mg/i
1 mg /1

A1C13

6004

(pink salmon)

As

Reference No.
other
factors

6000

pumping activity
reduced
effective pumping
impossible

Macrocystis pyrifera (giant kelp)

1.0 mg/i
no effect
5-10 mg/i
10-15% photosynthesis
reduction
5-10 mg/i
50-70% photosynthesis
reduction
Mytilus edulis (adult mussel)
10 ppm
killed
2. 5 ppm
killed
1 ppm
killed

176

6000

5 days
2 days

5-7 days
6243

5 days
5 days
15 days

Table 15-6. continued

Cr

Cu

Macrocystis pyrifera (giant kelp)

1 mg/l
photosynthesis
diminished

6000

5 days

K2Cr2O7

Nereis virens, (polychaete worm)

1 ppm
threshold

5 weeks

Cr+6

Nereis virens (poiychaete worm)

0. 2 mg/i
similar to controls

20 weeks

Cr20.f

Acartia clausi (copepod)

0. 5 mg/i
50% mortality

13 hours

citrate

Acmaea scabra var. limatula (mollusc)

0. 10 ppm
lethal

3 days

- -- -

Balanus crenatus (adult barnacles)

10 mg/l
killed

2 hours

6236
CuSO4

Balanus crenatus (barnacle nauplii)

30 mg/i
killed

2 hours

6236
CuSO4

Haliotis fulgens (mollusc)

0. 10 ppm
100% mortality
0. 05 ppm
less than 100% mortality

3 days
30 days

Ischnochjton conspicuus (mollusc)

0. 15 ppm
100% mortality
0. 10 ppm
less than 100% mortality

10 days
60 days

10 days

s04= &Cl

Macrocystis pyrifera (giant kelp)

0. 1 mg/i
visible injury
0. 1 mg/i
50% photosynthesis
inhibition

Mya arenaria (soft-shell clam)

0. 02 ppm
least toxic concentration
(0. 05 ppm

studied

177

6203
6004

6255

6255

6255
-

6000

2-5 days

SO4= &C1

8 days

6131
Cu

Table 15 -6. continued

Cu

Mytilus californianus (mussel)

0. 20 ppm
0. 15 ppm
0. 10 ppm

6255

100% mortality

less than 100% mortality

less than 100% mortality

Mytilus edulis (mu s s el)

0. 55
ki lied
0. 14

0.08
0.04
0.02

2 days
30 days
60 days
6238

12 hours
1 day
2 days
3 days
4 days

killed
killed
some mortality
no mortality

Mytilus edulis (mussel)

0. 20 ppm
0. 10 ppm

citrate
citr ate
citr ate

citrate
citr ate
6255

100% mortality

less than 100% mortality

Mytilus edulis (mussel)

0.32 mg/i
"significant respons&'

17 days
35 days

- ---

6000
SO4

Mytilus edulis planulatus Lamarck (bivalve mollusc larvae) 6247

22. 2 mg /1
citrate
2 hours
50% mortality
pH 7.0-8.2
Neosphaerona oregonensis (isopod)
0. 02 mg/l
"significant response"

6000

Nereis virens (polychaete worm)

0. 1 ppm
threshold

6203

21 days

Paphia staminea var. laciniata (rnoilusc)

1 ppm
non lethal
30 days
3 ppm
'60 days
'50% lethal
Skeietonema c ostatum (phytoplankton)
0. 20 ppm
toxic (no growth)
0. 17 ppm
toxic (no growth)

6255

6240

8 days 20 C
8 days 30 oC

SO4=

EDTA,

cultured,'
static,
bacterially
contaminated

178

Table 15-6. continued

Cu

Spirorbis lamellosa Lamarck (tubeworm larvae)

0. 51 mg/i
2 hours
50% mortality

6247

citrate
pH 7.0-8.2

Staphlococcus aureus (bacteria)

18 gIl
lethal
Pb

Gras sostrea virginica (oyster)

0. 2 ppm
not toxic

---49 days
12 weeks
18 weeks
12 weeks

Macrocystis pyrifera (giant kelp)

4. 1 mg/l
no deleterious effects on
rate of photosynthesis

4 days

Mya arenaria (soft-shell clam)

0. 2 ppm
apparently not toxic
Hg

Acartia clausi (copepod)

0. 05 mg/i
50% mortality
0.05 mg/i
50% mortality

0.1 mg/i

0. 1 mg/i

Zn

Pb
Pb

Pb++
6000

6131

84 days
6241

2. 5 hours

C1

2.3 hours

4 days

6000
Ci

15% photosynthesis
decr ease

1 day

C1

inactivation

4 days

C1

4 days

S 04=
S 04=

4 days
4 days

6000
SO4
SO

Macrocystis pyrifera (giant kelp)

0. 05 mg/i
50% photosynthesis
decrease

Ni

6004

0.3 mg/l
TLm
0. 1-0.2 mg/i noticeable tissue changes

TLm

Cl
6131

Crassostrea virginica (Eastern oy ter)

0.5mg/i

6253

Macr ocystis pyrifera (giant. kelp)

1.31 mg/i
no effect
13. 1 mg/i
50% photosynthesis
reduction

Macrocystis pyrifera (giant kelp)

1.31 mg/i
no effect
10 mg/i
50% "inactivation"
179

6000

of acute toxicity information have been made by Doudoroff and Katz

(6235) and McKee and Wolf (6000). Ingols (6239), Jones (6291),
Sprague (6161, 6155) and Woelke (6232) and others have reviewed
factors which relate to the measurement of toxicity.

Acute toxicity has usually been measured as a 24-, 48-, or 96-hour

TLm (median tolerance limit) or roughly equivalent parameter
(LD0, etc.). The concept of a threshold concentration refers to
a concentration below which the organism could live almost indefinitely
(Lloyd and Herbert, 6359). The 96-hour TLm is an experimentally
feasible approximation to the above concept Because many log- toxicant
concentration vs log-time of measureable response plots are almost
parallel to the time axis at 96 hours (see Figure 15-3, also Lloyd and
Herbert, 6359), the approximation can be quite good. For points on
the left arm of the curve, a small change in some parameter (temperature, another toxin, etc.) may produce relatively large changes in the
time to 50% mortality (frequently observed), but small changes in the
observed TLm (see Lloyd, 6267).
It would be well to discuss the concept of "synergism" at this point.
There seems to be considerable imprecision in the literature in the
use of the word with respect to the effects of environmental pollutants (see Sprague, 6155) Synergism is defined as "cooperative
action of discrete agencies such that the total effect is greater than
the sum of the two effects taken independently. " (Webster's 7th
New Collegiate Dictionary, 1967). To clarify what is meant by
synergism, then, we must clarify what we mean by the "effect"
of the toxicant. There are two "effects" encountered in our normal
methodology: (1) shortening of survival time ("time potentiation")
at a given concentration of toxicant, and (2) lowering of amounts
necessary to kill a certain fraction of the sample in a certain time
interval ("threshold lowering"). Both are of concern in considering
nearshore pollution. In areas immediately around outfalls, the
rates of toxic reaction may be important, particularly to organisms
which depend on avoidance reactions for survival In areas away
from outfalls, long-term exposure to slightly elevated levels of
"synergistic" toxicants would be important
Figure 15-3, taken from the paper of Sprague and Ramsay (6260)
illustrates the distinction between time potentiation (vertical displacement of the lower part of the curve) and threshold lowering (horizontal
curve-displacement). In fact, no study was found in, the literature
which conclusively demonstrates trace metal-trace metal threshold
lowering as opposed to time potentiation.
180

t
.2

0
IC,
0

03

3.0

P.O

10.0

Metal) Toxic Units

Figure 15-3.

Median mortality-time versus concentration of

metal expressed in toxic units for young salmon.
Toxic units for a metal are fractions or multiples
of its incipient lethal level (vertical line). The
strength of mixtures is the sum of the toxic units
of each component, in this case copper and zinc.
(After Sprague, 3. B. and B. A. Ramsay, Journal
of the Fisheries Research Board of Canada, 1965,
with permission.)

181

Trace metal-temperature "synergism has been frequently cited

as a potential danger attendent to thermal pollution (see review of
de Sylva, 6283). However, the recent conclusion of Sprague (6155)
that .. . no assumptions should be made about temperature effects
on toxicity" is well supported by the literature. Certainly, there
is often a time potentiation effect (see references given by Sprague,
6155). However, Lloyd (6267) presents data and cites four references
to show that trace metal-temperature threshold lowering may not
occur. A study by Portmann (6006) seems to suggest otherwise.
However, Portmann (personal communication, 6291.) agrees that
additional evidence is needed to confirm the presence of threshold
lowering. In addition, Sprague cites unpublished data to the effect
that the incipient lethal level of zinc to salmon is actually lower at
lower temperatures (6155).
Effects of sub-lethal levels of some trace metals on growth, respiration, and reproduction of some marine organisms have been studied
(Bougis, 6114, 6100; Clendenning and North, 6113, see Table 15-6),
but many more studies are needed.
Data obtained from laboratory toxicity tests using individual species
should be applied to the prediction of nearshore marine pollution
with caution. Estimates of acceptable environmental levels include
one-tenth of the 48-hour TLm (Burdick, 6323) and one-tenth of the
96-hour TLm (Wurtz, 6233). Beak (6276) had considered a similar
estimate to be "little more than an intelligent guess. One-hundredth
of the 96-hour TLm has been recently suggested by the U. S. National
Technical Advisory Committee (6004). Sprague (6155) reviews studies
on water quality criteria relating to the validity of these assigned levels.
Natural populations: The determination of the short-term tolerance
of a population is roughly equivalent to determination of the most
sensitive species in the population. Provided the appropriate techniques can be worked out, acute toxicity tests applied to natural
populations will be a systematic and relatively rapid method of sing-

ling out critical 'tindicator" species. In addition, such tests inherently take into account organism-organism interactions. Ways in
which toxicity may be altered in a natural population are uptake of
the toxic substance by less sensitive species (see, for example, Keil
andPriester, 6083), and excretion of organic substances which bind
or chelate the toxic substance (see Provasoli, 6367).

182

Studies of sub-lethal effects on natural populations may be prohibitively difficult with our present technology. If, however, we can
elucidate some simple interactions in a population, we may be able
to piece some meaningful "partial population" experiments together.
A.n example of an experimentally reasonable partial population study
has been suggested by Waldichuk (6248). He pointed out that laboratory predator-prey experiments could be expanded to include a study
of the effect of pollutants on this important relationship between
organisms.

Ecological models: No attempt has been made to list or evaluate

ecological models. Their mention here is to indicate the possibility
for their use in evaluating pollution problems.
The goals of ecological models are parallel to those of chemical
thermodynamics; o be able to describe the state of the system of
small "particles" in terms of observable macroparameters. The
choice of a "standard" or reference state of a biological system will
be difficult. The choice of variables is not obvious. There may not
be basic variables for biological systems corresponding to temperature, pressure and volume in gaseous chemical systems.
An example of a measurable parameter which may be usable in
modeling biological systems is species diversity, which has been
described by a number of statistical indices. It is thought that
"stability" of an ecosystem (ability to withstand environmental stress)
increases with increased species diversity. This relationship must
be further investigated (Pearson, Storrs, and Selleck, 6366).
Summary

The physical and chemical forms of trace metals in sea water

are important to a consideration of their behavior as potential
pollutants.

Very little is known about nearshore trace metal concentrations

on the open coast of the Pacific Northwest. Inference from other
"similar" locales is not justified at the present state of knowledge
about factors which control trace metal concentrations.

Some of the processes which may remove trace metals from sea
water are precipitation, sorption, flocculation and biological
uptake. The relative importance of these mechanisms for specific
areas is not known.
Although there is a fair amount of information on the short-term
acute toxicities of trace metals to specific marine organisms
from the Pacific Northwest, methodological questions and lack
of long-term or sub-lethal studies make it difficult to predict
safe levels.
183

In the course of this study, several individual metals were selected

for more intensive study. The metals selected were those with
apparently high potential for pollution of nearshore waters of the
Pacific Northwest. These metals were mercury, copper, lead,
and zinc.
MERCURY

In the late 1950's and early 1960's, organo-mercury compounds on

fish and shellfish from Minamata Bay, Japan caused severe neurological disorders in ill persons and killed 41. There were 19 cases
of congenital disorders attributed to the same cause (Irukayama,
6277).

In 1966, Sweden prohibited the use of methyl-mercury as a seeddressing after significant bird mortalities (Jernel$v, 6220).

In 1970, fish from Lake Erie were found by Canadian researchers

to contain mercury levels higher than those allowed by existing
health standards (Anon., 6013). The major source of mercury in
Lake Erie was from chlorine-caustic soda production plants (Anon.
6298). There are several chlorine-caustic soda plants in the Pacific
Northwest, primarily for the purpose of supplying chlorine needed
for bleaching pulps, although none yet are situated on the open coast.
In addition, the continued use of organo-mercurial fungicides as
seed treatment (Anon. , 6289), the limited use organo-mercurials
in the pulp and paper industry (which has been reduced in recent
years), and the presence of economic deposits of mercury-bearing.
ores in the area (Highsmith, 6340) warrant some consideration.

The quantity of mercury in nearshore waters and in rivers in the

Pacific Northwest has never been measured. There are very few
determinations of mercury in sea water. The range of observed
open oceanic values is from 0. 08 to 0. 27 .g/l (Hamaguchi, Kuroda,
and Hosohara, 6065; Hosohara, 6070). In Minamata Bay in 1960,
values for total mercury (oxidized samples) ranged from 1. 6 to
3. 6 g/1. Mercury in unoxidized samples was about one-tenth of
this value (Hosohara etal., 6071).

184

Mercury has been detected in marine organisms in the following

concentrations: brown algae, 0. 03 ppm dry weight; mollusca
(tissues), 1 (?) ppm dry weight; pisces, 0.3 (?) ppm dry weight
(Bowen, 6019). Question marks are those of the cited reference
and indicate questionable values. Haddock and cod caught near
Sweden contained 0. 044 ppm and 0. 031 ppm wet weight respectively
(West&, 6278).

The behavior of mercury in the natura[ environment is not well

understood. It has been established that inorganic mercury is
converted to methyl-mercury in anaerobic sludges (Jensen and

Jernelv, 6242). This may be a chemical transfer reaction, although regeneration of methylcobalamine, one necessary factor
for the reaction, is enzymatic (Wood, 6009).

Mercury in most of its chemical forms is adsorbed onto sediments.

Some of this adsorbed mercury is very slow to exchange with the
water (Hannerz, 6003). Marine sediments taken near the Hyperion
outfall at Los Angeles contained up to 50 times more mercury than
similar unaffected sediments (up to 1 ppm) (Klein and Goldberg,
6286).

Chemical form is extremely important to the biological behavior of

mercury. The species of primary concern in sea water will be
HgC14=, HgC13, HgCl2; CH3HgC1; and (CH3)2Hg; inorganic mercury, methyl-mercuric chloride, and dimethyl mercury respectively.
All are quite soluble in water. DimethLyl mercury[(CH3)HgJ is
volatile and is changed to methyl-mercuric chloride (CH3HgC1)
under slightly acidic conditions (Wood, Kennedy, and Rosen, 6010).
CH3HgC1 and (CH3)2Hg diffuse more easily than the inorganic
species through biological membranes(Wood, 6009). Uptake of

mercury by organisms is generally more rapid than excretion, which

is one factor involved in accumulation (Hannerz, 6003). Thus we
might expect organo-mercurials to be more highly concentrated by
organisms than inorganic mercury. This is observed (Hannerz, 6003).
Westh6 (6278) found that 82% of the mercury in Swedish marine fish
was CH3Hg Cl, although it is possible that (CH3)2Hg was converted
during the analysis procedure.
It should be noted that the concentration of mercury in organisms
is not necessarily related to its place in the food chain (trophic level),
but to such factors as the uptake-excretion balance (metabolism),
and size of individuals. The variations between individual organisms
of the same species are very large, with as much as a factor of
twenty between the lowest and highest concentrations in a single
laboratory sample (Hannerz, 6003).
185

Organo-mercurials are considerably more toxic than inorganic

mercury to marine organisms, particularly vertebrates (L'froth
and Duffy, 6281) due to the more rapid membrane passage. Bond
and Nolan (6222) tested 32 mercury compounds, 9 inorganic salts
and 23 organo-mercury compounds, on the snail Australorbis
glabratus. The most effective inorganic salt (HgBr2) produced
80% mortality in 24 hours at 1 ppm concentration, although it produced no mortalities at 0. 5 ppm in the same time interval. Twelve
organo-mercury compounds4on the other hand, produced significant
mortality at the 0. 3 ppm level.
The acute toxicity of mercury to marine organisms is high. Bivalve larvae were killed by 20 .tg/1 (McKee and Wolf, 6000). Copepods (Acartia clausi) were killed in 2. 5 hours by 50 .ig/1 (Corner
and Sparrow, 6241). Bryozoan larvae (Watersipora cucullata)
were found to have a 2-hour TL;0 of 100 rig/i (Wisely and Buck, 6247).
These short-term results, combined with the observation of Betius
(cited in McKee and Wolf, 6000) that mercury is "infinitely toxic"
if the exposure is long enough, suggest that acute toxicity of mercury
may be important.
Giant kelp (Macrocystis pyrifera) suffered a 50% decrease in photosynthetic capacity on exposure for 4 days to 50 i.g/1 (McKee and
Wolf, 6000).

A temperature-mercuric chloride synergism has been reported by

Portmann (6006). He showed that LID50 (48 hour) for the cockle
(Cardium edule) at 5C was 130 times that at 22C. The LID50

for the brown shrimp (Cragon crag) changed only by a factor

of 5 over the same temperature interval. However, Portmann
(personal communication, 6-291) has indicated that more study is
needed to confirm this apparent synergism.
Summary

Mercury has great pollution potential.

Mercury concentrations in sea water may be around 0. 1 to

0.3 g/1.
The behavior of mercury in the natural environment is not
well understood; certain conditions favor the production of
methyl-mercury in sediments.

186

Marine organisms concentrate mercury. Methyl-mercury is

even more highly concentrated.

The acute toxicity of mercury to marine organisms is high.

Temperature may have a effect on mercury toxicity.
COPPER

Our concern with copper as a potential pollutant stems from its

extensive use in industry and its relatively high toxicity to marine
organisms. Pollution with copper has been observed in a number
of harbors on Long Island Sound (Prytherch, 6195; Galtsoff, 6056).
Sources of copper pollution are copper pickling and plating processes (electronics industry, metals industry), algicides, corrosion
of condenser tubing in thermal electric plants ( see Roosenburg,
6324; USD1, 6240), marine antifouling paints, and many other
industrial processes (see Appendix 4). The addition of copper from
corrosion of the condenser tubing in thermal electric power plants
may be negligible (USD1, 6254), but may vary considerably depending on the antifouling additives which are used.

There are many measurements of copper in sea water. Only the

more recent ones distinguish between inorganic and organic copper.
Corcoran and Alexander(6193)and Alexander and Corcoran (6192)
working in the Caribbean found less than 2 g ionic copper/i with
less than 1ig/i below 50 m. Particulate copper was less than
0.5 g/1. Total soluble copper (z0.5ji) was 4-13 ig/1 with occa
sional values as high as 20 pg/i.
Williams (6040) found organically bound copper ranging from 0. 0
to 0.45 g/1, and inorganic copper from 0.38 to 4.26 g/1 in nearshore areas off San Diego. There was no correspondence between
amounts of organic and inorganic copper found. The percent organically associated ranged from 0-28% of the total. The nature of the
organic association is not known.

Although only ionic copper is toxic to fish, there are indications

that complexed copper may be as toxic to algae as ionic copper
(Ingols, 6239). Whether the organically associated copper has
a nature similar to this "complexedt' copper is not known. The
possibility needs further investigation, particularly in light of the
wide variations in ttorganichi copper reported above.
187

The ways in which the nearshore marine environment assimilates

copper pollution" may be very complicated. Divalent copper was
strongly and consistently adsorbed on all materials tested by
Krauskopf (6102). Chow and Thompson (6037) showed that under

certain conditions, shallow sediments release copper to sea water.

The concentration of Cu in equilibrium with Cu(OH)2 in sea water
is about 20ig/i (calculated from solubility constant values presented
Yet values up to
600 g/l total copper are observed (Prytherch, 6195). Thus the
organic involvement of copper in the marine environment seems to
by Duursma and Sevenhuysen, 6213) at 18_ZOO C.

ttsbi1izeJt relatively large concentrations of copper in solution.

There are more data on the toxicity of copper to marine organisms

than on any other metal, probably due to its extensive use in marine
antifouling paints. Bougis (6114) showed that 10 to 20 pg Cu/l slowed
the growth of sea urchin pluteaus. 26 p.g/l CuSO4 in the presence
of EDTA inhibited growth of the phytoplankton Exuviaella at 300 C
(USD1, 6240). A number of other phytoplankton species (Coccochloris
elabens, Glenodinum foliaceum Prorocentrum sp.) have similar
tolerance levels (USD1, 6240; Marvin, Lansford, and Wheeler, 6252;
Mandelli, 6354). On the other hand, the minnow, Fundulus heteroclitus tolerated 30 mg/i (30, 000 jig/i) for 4 days (Doudoroff and Katz,
6235). Even higher concentrations (up to 18 g/l) were used to kill
bacteria $ USD1, 6253). High copper concentrations in sea water make
oysters unfit for human consumption (Roosenburg, 6324).
Summary

Copper is common in many industrial effluents, particularly

those of heavy industry.
The processes by which the environment deals with copper are
complicated by organic involvement.

Copper has a high toxicity to marine organisms.

Sub-lethal copper pollution can make oysters unfit for human
consumption, and may slow growth of other marine organisms.

188

LEAD

It has been recently estimated that 100, 000 tons of lead aerosols
are produced annually in the Northern Hemisphere (Murozumi,
Chow, and Patterson, 6360), primarily by the burning of fuels
containing tetraethyl lead. The effect of this industrial input of
lead into the oceans is noticeable in oceanic lead concentrations.
The deep sea lead concentration is about 0. 03 p. g Pb/l. It has been
estimated that surface lead concentrations were similar prior to
the industrial revolution (Tatsumoto and Patterson, 6160). Now
surface values run fairly consistently between 0. 1 p.g/i and 0. 4
p.g/l(Chow, 6031, 6032; Tatsumoto and Patterson, 6160). In localized areas, valuesmay run as high as 1. 5 p.g/l (Loveridge et al.,
6109) or even 5 p.g/l (Noddack and Noddack, 6121).

Rivers in the Pacific Northwest have, generally, a high lead content,

around 4 p.g Pb/i (Durum and Haffty, 6208).
The acute toxicity of lead to marine organisms is poorly known. An

18-week TL for the oyster Crassostrea virinica was measured

to be 300 p.gi. 100 p.g/i was observed to cause noticeable tissue
changes in 12 weeks (USD1, 6004). On the other hand, 4 mg/i had
no effect on Plaice embryos (Doudoroff and Katz, 6235), and 200
mg/i was required to cause abnormalities in sea urchin eggs
(McKee and Wolf, 6000).

Lead is accumulated in marine organisms, although not to the same

degree as zinc. Marine plants have been observed to contain 8, 400
ppb compared to a sea water concentration of about 0. 1 ppb '(Bowen,
6019).

Summary

i.

Man has significantly changed the lead content of surface sea

waters.

The lead concentration in coastal waters of the Pacific Northwest

Rivers in the area have around 4 p.g Pb/i.

in unknown.

Sub-lethal effects will probably be more important than acute

toxicities.

189

ZINC

In spite of its relatively low acute toxicity, zinc is of concern in

our study of coastal pollution. This is primarily due to observed
sub-lethal effects. The high concentration factor of zinc in marine
organisms (USD1, 6004; McKee and Wolf, 6000) is also of interest.
Observed zinc values in nearshore areas range between 3 (Morris,
6117) and 50 ig/l (Brooks, 6189). Zinc apparently has a fairly
strong organic association in sea water, similar to copper (Bona
et al., 6137; Barsdate, 6280). The values of Buffo (6175) thought
to be affected by contamination (Cutshail, pers. comm.) but could
be largely due to upwelling (see Schutz and Turekian, 6141). Buffo
(6175) found an average of 22 g/l in surface samples from off the
Oregon coast.
Zinc in rivers of the Pacific Northwest is generally around 10 to
20 .Lg/1 (Kopp and Kroner, 6251; Durum and Haffty, 6208), but
values up to 300 i.g/1 have been observed (Kopp and Kroner, 6251).

Acute toxicities of zinc to marine organisms are generally around

5 to 10 mg Zn/i, although some of these were measured over very
short tirne intervals (Wisely and Buck, 6247). Invertebrate larvae
seem to be the most sensitive of the organisms tested (Wisely and
Buck, 6247). Growth of the larvae of Poracentrotus lividus (a sea
urchin) was retarded by only 30 ig Zn/i (Bougis, 6100). 160 g
Zn/I caused abnormalities in sea urchin eggs (McKee and Wolf,
6000). The division rate of the diatom Nizschia was reduced by
exposure to only 0. 25 mg/i (Cbipman, Rice, and Price, 6224).

Summy
Zinc is somewhat variable in nearshore waters but Oregon
coastal values are probably around 20 pg/1.
Organic involvement may rstabilizeJT high zinc concentrations
in sea water.

Acute toxicities are moderate, but sub-lethal effects may be

important.

190

Chapter 16. RADIOCHEMISTRY

by William C. Renfro

The Pacific Northwest coastal region is one of the unique areas of

the world from a radiochemica]. viewpoint. Any sample of water
from this area may contain radioactive elements from several
different sources, including the following:

naturally-occurring radionuclides,
fallout fission products from nuclear weapons tests, and
neutron-induced radionuclides from fallout and from the Hanford
plutonium production reactors.

To understand the levels of radioactivity in water, sediments, and

biota of the region, it is most convenient to discuss the radionuclides
on the basis of their origin.
A.

Naturally-occurring radionuclide s

Radionuclides occurring naturally are essentially of two kinds:

long-lived primordial radioisotopes with their decay produts and
cosmic ray-induced radionuclides.

From the standpoint of background radioactivity levels in sea water,

potassium-40 with a half life of 1. 26 x lO years is a most important
primordial radionuc].jde. More than 90% of the total radioactivity
in sea water is due to 40K (Burton, 4187) because potassium is a
major element in sea water averaging 0.39 g K/l (of which 0.0118%
is K). Furthermore, potassium constitutes a significant fraction
(0. 2-0. 3%) of the elemental composition of man, fish, and other
organisms so that the natural abundance of 40K accounts for a large
part of the internal irradiation all organisms experience.

191

Relatively few measurements of 40K in the Pacific Northwest

marine environment have been published, probably because this
radionuclide is so ubiquitious as to be of little interest to most
investigators. Gross, McManus, and Creager (4218) observed
40K concentrations averaging about 25 picocuri.es per gram (pCi/g)
dry sediment in the area around the mouth of the Columbia River.
This value (25 pCi/g) is in general conformance with the 40K
sediment levels measured by Toombs and Culter (4217) throughout the
lower Columbia River and Tillamook Bay.
The concentration of 40K in sea water is stated by Burton (4187)
to be 0.324 pCi/g. Osterberg (4069) measured 4OK in euphausiids
(small marine crustaceans), lantern fish, shrimp, and viper fish
caught along the Oregon coast. With few exceptions 40K activities
in these organisms ranged from 0.6 to 1.3 pCi/g wet weight.
Seymour and Lewis (4093) reported a range from 2 to 6 pCi/g
wet weight in intertidal marine organisms near the Columbia River
mouth. Almost all marine and estuarine organisms analyzed by
Toombs and Culter (4217) averaged 2 to 3 pCi/g wet weight. It
appears from these observations that the concentration of 40K in
marine organisms can be expected to be near 2 pCi/g regardless of
their habitat.
87Rb

Another radionuclide in sea water contributing a small fraction

to the total sea water radioactivity (less than 1% of that due to 40K)
is 87Rb with a 4.8 x 1010 year half-life. Since its activity in sea
water is only 0.003 pCi/mi. (Burton, 4187) and because most marin
organisms do not concentrate Rb to high levels (concentration factors
from 1 to 26; Polikarpov, 4219), 87Rb is not greatly important
as a source of internal radiation.
232Th 235U, 238U

Of particular interest to oceanographers and geochemists are the

naturally-occurring elements having atomic numbers greater than
83 (bismuth). All these elements are radioactive and belong to
the decay chains of 238U (4.51 x 109 years), 235 U (7.13 x i8
years), or 232Th (1.39 x 1010 years). Under certain conditions,

192

the relative activities of a parent-daughter pair of radionuclides in

a decay chain can be used to determine rates of oceanographic or
geochemical processes.
The concentration of uranium in well-mixed sea water averages
about 3.3 ig/i or 2. z pci/i (Burton, 4187) of which 99.3% is 238U
and 0. 7% is 235U. The amount of thorium in sea water is very low,
being on the order of 10-9 g/l (Prospero and Koczy, 4011). In
sediments uranium may be present in concentrations around
1 microgram per gram (g/g) but may be concentrated to high levels
in certain reducing conditions and when associated with highly organic
sediments (Burton, 4187). Thorium in oceanic sediments varies
largely with the amount of clay present, ranging from 2-12 g/g
(Prospero and Koczy, 4011). In marine organisms the concentrations
of both thorium and uranium are usually hundredths of ig/g wet
weight (Bowen, 4220). Despite the generally low concentrations of
uranium and thorium parent elements in marine organisms, some
daughter radionuclides further down the decay chains may contribute
significantly to the total radiation background. For example, 222Rn
is a radioactive gas in the 238U decay chain which escapes from
sediments, sea water, and land to the atmosphere. In turn, its
radioactive daughter, 210Pb, can return to the ocean in precipitation
and constitute a significant fraction of the internal radiation background
of marine animals (Beasley, 4193).

Other primordial radionuclides

Other primordial radionuclides having very long half lives from
to 1015 years include 5V, 15In, 38La, 144Nd, '47Sm, 52Gd,
174Hf, 76Lu, '80Ta, '87Re, and 190Pt. Most of these have low
concentrations in sea water, and many have not been detected. Hence,
these radioisotopes are responsible for only a negligible fraction of
the total radioactivity in sea water and, excepting vanadium in
tunicates, are not presently thought to be biologically important.
Cosmic ray-induced radionuclides

High energy cosmic rays which originate in outer space and are
accelerated by interstellar magnetic fields engage in nuclear
reactions with elements in the earth's atmosphere. Some of the
nuclear reactions involvin1g cosmic rays produce significant
amounts of 3H, 7Be, and Be as spallation fragments. At the
193

same time the radionuclides 3H (half-life, 12.3 years) and

(half-life, 5730 years) are continuously formed and have proved to
be valuable indicators of ocean and atmosphere mixing rates.
3H

Tritium, in addition to being continually produced b cosmic ray

neutron interaction with nitrogen ('4N + 'n-' 3H + 1'C) is also
produced in large amounts in nuclear weapons tests, reactor fuel
element reprocessing, and nuclear reactors. Although the concentration of 3H in sea water averages about 1 pCi/i (Pertsov, 4097),
it does not appear to be concentrated highly by marine organisms.
Nevertheless, large and continuing injections of 3H into the biosphere,
as from fuel reprocessing activities, should be avoided for they
increase the radiation background.

Carbon-14 'formed in the secondary cosmic ray reaction ('4N +

in -. '4c+ 'H) is also produced in nuclear weapons tests. Cosmic
ray-produced 14C is oxidized to carbon dioxide and enters the
atmosphe re-hydrosphere carbon dioxide cycle. Almost 95% of the
exchangeable carbon is in the ocean, mostly in an inorganic form
(Burton, 4187). Substantial perturbations in the specific activity
of 14C (activity of 14C/g total carbon isotopes) have occurred in the
past century due to the burning of '4C-poor fossil fuels and in the
past two decades from nuclear weapons tests. The concentration
of 14C in sea water is around 0. 2 pCi/i.
32Si

Silicon-32 with a half-life of 650 years is produced in the atmosphere

by cosmic rays, probably in a spallation reaction with argon (Burton,
4187). The concentrations of 32Si in sea water are very low, being
8 x 10-6 pCi/i (specific activity, 2.7 pCi 32Si/kg Si; Burton, 4187).
'OBe

Beryllium-b with a half-life of 2.5 million years is produced by

cosmic ray interactions with atmospheric oxygen and nitrogen.

194

It has been measured at very low concentrations in deep ocean

sediments and is unlikely to be of importance in the nearshore
coastal zone.

Fission product radionuclides from weapons tests

B.

When a neutron reacts with the nucleus of a heavy element such

as 235U, the nucleus often splits, producing two fission fragments.
In general, these fission products have unequal masses. The light
fragment has an atomic mass around 95 and the heavier fragment's
mass is around 139, although detectable amounts of fission products
are found throughout the mass region 72-1 66 (Katcoff, 4221).
Some of the important fission fragments and their half-lives are listed
below:

Nuclide
85

Kr
89
Sr
90
Sr

95

Zr

95Nb
103

Ru

106

Ru

Half-life

Nuclide

10.27 yrs

106

54 days

l27m Te

28 yrs
64.5 hrs

127

Rh
Te

l29m Te

58 days
63 days

129

35 days
41 days

133

1.0 yr

137

131

135

Te
I

Xe
I

Cs

Half-life

Nuclide

30 sec
90 days
9. 3 hrs
33 days

140

72 mm

8.05 days
5.27 days
6.68 hrs
26. 6 yrs

La

12.8 days
40.2 hrs

Ce

32 days

Pr

13.7 days

Ce

290 days

Pr

17.5 mm

Nd

11.3 days

Pm

2.6yrs

Sm

93 yrs

140
141

143

144
144
147
147
151

Half-life

Ba

Since these and other fission product radionuclides invariably have

an excess of neutrons in their nuclei, they decay by emitting negative
beta particles (Glasstone, 4222). In many cases, fission decay
chains result from successive beta emissions. For example,
the fission decay chain for mass number 140 is as follows:
140
16 sec 140
66 sec 140
140
40 hrs 140
Cs
Ba 12.8 days
La
e.
In this manner, a large spectrum of fission fragments and their daughter
radionucljdes are present following a nuclear fission test in the
atmosphere.

Xe

195

From the first nuclear explosion in the summer of 1945 to the

first test moratorium in late 1958, the United States, Great Britain,
and Russia detonated 250 nuclear devices. The total energy of the
fission events amounted to about 90 megatons (million tons of
TNT)as shown in Figure 16-1. In addition, 80 megatons of fusion
energy resulted from thermonuclear (fission-fusion) weapons tested
prior to the 1958 test moratorium (Eisenbud, 4207). In 1960 France
began testing nuclear weapons and in late 1961 and 1962 the United States
and Russia resumed tests. The fission products yielded by tests
in 1961 and 1962 totalled more than that of all previous fission
explosions (Figure 16-1). [n addition, massive fusion explosion
tests were carried out in 1961 and 1962 which added moderate
amounts of fission fragments to the biosphere. In 1963, the United
States, Great Britain and Russia signed a treaty banning nuclear
testing on the ground, under water, or in space. Since that time
only France and Mainland China have contributed fission products to
the biosphere.
Vaporized fission products and neutron-induced rdionuclides are
mixed with surface material swept up into the mushroom. This
debris reaches only into the lower atmosphere (troposphere) in
the case of fission devices. In contrast, radioactive debris from the
larger magaton weapons tests (thermonuclear or hydrogen bombs)
is thrown higher, much of it being injected into the stratosphere
(Mauchline and Templeton, 4126). Because the tropopause forms
a barrier to free exchange of material between the troposphere
and the stratosphere, the residence time for bomb debris in the
stratosphere is long. As a result, fallout of such material may
occur 'for several years after a bomb test and constitute a continuing
source of 'fission fragments to terrestrial and marine environments.
90

Sr

In 1966 Polikarpov (4219) stated that the cumulative contamination

of the earth's surface would increase to a maximum by about 1970
(in terms of 90Sr and '37Cs) as the result of inputs from the vast
reservoir of long-lived radionuclides in the stratosphere. Despite
continued atmospheric nuclear tests by France and Mainland China,
fallout of long-lived fission fragments has diminished. For example,
ground level 9OSr concentrations in air measured by Shleien, Cochran,
and Magno (4223) showed continual decline 'from late 1963 through

196

10076

40

38

25

21
1945-51

Figure 16-1.

1952-54

fl

1955-56

1957-58

1961

1962

Atmospheric nuclear tests prior to the 1963 moratorium.

Note that recent tests by China and France are not
included (Modified from Comar, 4208).

early 1969. Thus, while the nuclear test ban has resulted in large
reduction in fallout of fission fragments, the total levels of longlived fallout radionuclides is probably near a maximum at present.

The detonation of a nuclear weapon in the atmosphere can rapidly

increase the amount of fallout into the oceans. For example,
89Sr and 90Sr produced by the second Chinese test in the Lop Nor
area (90E-40N) in May 1965 was shown by Kuroda, Miyake, and
Nemoto (4224) to travel around the earth in the troposphere in less
than one month. Consequently, general statements about concentrations of fission-product radionuclides in the marine environment
should be based on long-term averages.
Because 89Sr and 90Sr are not gamma emitters, their measurement
is relatively difficult and comparatively few measurements of their
concentrations have been made in Pacific Northwest waters.
Concentrations of 90Sr in filtered Columbia River Estuary water and
in sea water 16 km off the river mouth in July 1964 were reported to
be 0.7 10% pCi/l (Park etal. , 4077). Reporting on the results
of more than 750 analyses for 90Sr in the North Atlantic Ocean surface
waters, Bowen etal. (4225) listed mean annual concentrations ranging
from 0. 08 to 0. 20 pCi/i from 1959 through 1967. Although 90Sr is of
great concern in the terrestrial environment because of its long
half-life, tendency to be incorporated into bone, and dangerous ionizing

radiations, it is greatly diluted by the relatively large concentrations

of stable Ca and Sr in sea water.
95Zr-95Nb

Fission product 95Zr is a beta and gamma emitter which decays

with a 65-day half-life to 95Nb, also a beta and gamma emitter
(half-life, 35 days). These radionuclide s attain transient equilibrium
and are present in sea water almost exclusively in the particulate
form. Watson etal. (4004) analyzed estuarine and coastal organisms
collected iiear the Columbia River mouth in April 1959 and in April
1960. They showed that 95Zr-95Nb levels, in all plants and animals
were declining as the result of decreased world-wide fallout. Furthermore euphausiids (small crustaceans) taken in Oregon offshore waters
in the 'first portion of 1961 gave no evidence of 95Zr-95Nb in
their gamma-ray spectra prior to the resumption of Russian nuclear
tests in September 1961 (Osterberg, 4069). However, Osterberg (4070)

198

reported 95Zr-95Nb activities as high as 618 pCi/g dry weight in

euphausiids taken off Oregon in November 1961. Such rapid changes
in levels of fallout fission fragments emphasize the necessity of
extended, periodic measurements to establish radioactivity levels
in the marine environment.
103

Ru and 106 Ru

Both 103Ru and '06Ru are important fission poducts which are
associated with ,particles in sea water. They decay by beta emission
to short-lived 3Rh and l06Rh. As with 95Zr-95Nb, '3Ru and
'06Ru declined in organisms near the Columbia River mouth from
April 1959 to April 1960 (Watson et al. , 4004). Similarly, these
fallout radionuclides increased by November 1961 to concentrations
from 10 to 30 pCi/g dry weight in euphausiids along the Oregon coast
(Osterberg, 4070). Seymour and Lewis (4093) also noted great
increases in fallout radionucljdes in coastal marine organisms as
the result of nuclear weapons tests in September 1961.
137

Cs

Cesium-137 is a long-lived (half-life, 30 years) fission product

which decays by beta emission to l37mBa (half-life, 2. 6 minutes).
It remains predominantly in the ionic form in sea water according
to Greendale and Ballou (4056). The concentrations of '37Cs in
Northeast Pacific Ocean surface waters during late 1959 and 1960
ranged from 0.05 to 0.23 pCi/l (Burton, 4187). Parketal. (4077)
reported '37Cs surface concentrations from 0. 3 to 0.8 pCi/i in
the Columbia River plume off Oregon in July 1964. Despite the
fact that 137Cs is a prominent 'fission fragment in.fallout, it is not
usually found in high concentrations in marine organisms because of the
relatively high levels of potassium, which is chemically similar to
and biologically more important than cesium. Polikarpov (4219) stated,
for example, that concentration factors of '37Cs (activity of 137Cs per
gram organism/activity of 137Cs per gram water) are two to three
orders of magnitude higher in freshwater organisms than in marine

organisms. Folsom etal. (4215) reported that '37Cs activities in

albacore muscle averaged 0.90 pCi/g wet weight, representing a
103-fold concentration over 137Cs concentrations of North Pacific
surface waters between January and March 1966.

199

141

Ce

Another fission fragment of interest in the marine environment

is Cerium-l4l, a beta emitter which decays with a half-life of
32. 5 days to Praesodymium-141. Cerium is an element which
occurs almost entirely in the ionic 'form in sea water (Greendale
and Ballou, 4056). Activities of 11Ce-144Ce in marine organisms
near the Columbia River mouth were observed by Watson et al.
(4004) to decrease generally between April 1959 and April 1960.
Following the nuclear tests of September 1961, Osterberg measured
141 Ce activities ranging from 5 to 175 pCi/g dry weight in euphauslids
along the Oregon coast. As with '370s, freshwater animals have
much higher radiocerium concentration factors than do marine
animals (Polikarpov, 4219).
C.

Neutron -induced radionuclide s

In addition to radioactive fission fragments produced by fission

and fission-fusion devices, there is an enormous flux of neutrons.
These neutrons interact with nonradioactive elements in the air,
soil, and bomb structure to form neutron-induced radionuclides.
These neutron-induced radionuclides are a conspicuous part of
local and worldwide fallout from atmospheric weapons tests.
A second source of neutron-induced radionuclides in marine waters
of the Pacific Northwest is the Hanford Atomic Products Operation.
This facility, located in Eastern Washington some 650 km up the
Columbia River 'from the ocean, is a site of plutonium production.
Plutonium (239Pu) is a fissionable element which serves as the
primary ingredient of some fission bombs and as a fuel in nuclear
reactors. In the production reactors at Hanford 239p is formed
in the following reactions:
238

U+n
1

239

239

23 mm

Np

2.3 days

239

Pu

To provide the neutrons for plutonium production, large nuclear reactors

are necessary and great quantities of heat must be dissipated from
the reactor cores. This is accomplished in modern reactors by a
closed primary cooling system coupled through a heat exchanger
to an external heat sink. However, the eight plutonium production

200

reactors constructed at Hanford between 1943 and 1956 use a "single

pass" cooling system in which Columbia River water was pumped
through the reactor cores, delayed in cooling ponds, then returned
to the river.
In passing through the reactor core various elements, dissolved
or suspended in the cooling water stream, are exposed to the great
neutron flux and become radioactive. Corrosion of neutron-activated
metal parts within the reactor structure also contributes radionuclides
to the coolant water. Finally, certain chemicals used to pretreat
the coolant water were also made radioactive by neutron activation.

Immediately after its discharge from the reactors the coolant

waters may contain up to 200 radioisotopes, the majority very
short-lived. Four hours after the water passes through the reactors
fewer than 20 radionuclides comprise 99% of the activity (Wooldridge,
4228). During the two to four week passage downriver the concentrations of radionuc]jdes are diminished by physical decay, sedimentation
to the river bottom, and accumulation by organisms (Osterberg, 4069).
As a result, only a few of the longer-lived radionuclides are readily
measurable at the mouth of the river.
Listed below are neutron-induced radionuc].ides present in fallout
and in the Columbia River:
Nuc].ide
3

32 p

Half-life

Nuclide

12.3 years

55

5730 years

57

14

58

Half-life

Fe

2.6 years

Co

270 days

Co*

71.3 days'

87.9 days

59Fe*

46Sc*

83.9 days

60C*

5.3 years

51Cr*

27. 8 days

65z*

245 days

54Mn*

303 da s
124Sb
60.4 da s
*Gamrna..emjtting radionuclides Occurring in measurable amounts
in the river between Hanford and Vancouver, Washington in 1964
(Perkins et al. , 4226).
201

The levels of neutron-induced radionuclides introduced into the

ocean vary with changes in a number of conditions including the
following:

number of plutonium production reactors in operation,

power levels of the operating reactors,
flow rate of the Columbia River,

operations of dams and reservoirs between reactors and ocean

condition of the fuel element cladding

methods of cooling water pretreatment, and

concentrations of elements in the water used for cooling.
The numbers of plutonium production reactors at Hanford has
decreased in recent years (Figure 16-2). Discounting the N-reactor,
which has a closed primary cooling system, the numbers of production
reactors in operation has decreased from eight in early 1965 to
one in early 1970. This decrease in reactor operations has reduced
the levels of neutron-induced radionuclides entering the Pacific
Ocean by at least five-fold.

In the nearshore coastal waters of the Pacific Northwest only

32p, 51Cr, 54Mn, and 65Zn have been regularly measured in
water, sediments, or marineorganismS.
32P

Among these neutron-induced radionuclides only 32P does not

emit gami'na rays and, for this reason, it is more difficult to measure
waters
accurately. Although very small amounts of 32P in marine
all
32P
may originate from cosmic ray interactions, essentially
present near the mouth of the Columbia River comes from Hanford.
Chakravarti etal. (4050) reported 32P activities from 3.6 0.6 to
8.0 0.6 pCi/i of filtered sea water at stations ranging 16 to 56 km
from the Columbia River mouth during July 1963. In June 1966,

202

Isakson (4211) measured the concentration of 32P in filtered sea

water at the mouth of the Columbia River at 2. 2 pCi/i. This decrease
is probably a reflection, in part, of reactor shutdown (Figure 16-2).
Isakson (4211) also radioanalyzed various organisms from a single
station at the mouth of the Columbia River from September 1965 to
September 1966. He observed 32P in clams (Siliqua patula) and
mussels (Mytilus californianus) to increase from February to a peak
in April or May with annual averages during the study near 150 pCi/g
dry weight.
51

Cr

Chromium-Si is the most abundant neutron-induced radionuclide

reaching the ocean from Hanford. It is introduced into the Columbia
River largely in a dissolved hexavalent anion and, except for small
amounts which are reduced to trivalent form and sorbed to particulates,
remains in this form at sea (Cutshall, 4229). Because 51Cr remains
in the dissolved state and is not appreciably concentrated by marine
organisms (Osterberg, Cutshall, and Cronin, 4026), it has been
used as a tracer of Columbia River water in the Pacific Ocean.
Frederick (4102) used large volume chemical coprecipitation and
shipboard gamma-ray analysis to trace the Columbia River plume
380 km south from the mouth in summer and more than 200 km
northward in winter during 1966 (see Figure A7-1, Appendix 7).
In general, the plume remains offshore from the Oregon coast in
summer so that 51 Cr concentrations in waters near to shore are
low. In the winter, however, the plume is concentrated in Washington
coastal waters and has 51Cr activities of 100 pCi/l or more.

Curl, Cutshall, and Osterberg (4030) reported that measurable

activities of 51 Cr were associated with particulate matter in the
Columbia River plume. These authors also showed in laboratory
studies that 1Cr in the trivalent oxidation state is actively sorbed
to particles in sea water. Although trivalent 5Cr is not to be
expected in sea water, since it is not thermodynamically 'favored
(Curletal. , 403O) this radionuclide was measured in sediments
as far as 56 km offshore from the Columbia River mouth in August
1962 (Osterberg, Kuim, and Byrne, 4034).

203

1945

50

60

55

65

1970

YEAR

Figure 16-2. Operations of nuclear reactors at the Hanford Atomic

Products, Washington. The N-reactor, which became
critical in 1964, has a heat exchanger system and,
thus, contributes relatively little radioactivity to the
Columbia River (Modified from Nakatani, 4204).

The levels of 51 Cr in marine organisms are not usually high because

chromium has little biological importance. Osterberg, Pearcy,

and Curl (4072) observed that 51 Cr wa not transferred up the

food web to higher trophic levels, although it was present in particulate
form at a concentration of 16 pCi/l of sea water 24 km off Astoria
in April 1962.
54

Mn

Manganese-54 is a neutron-induced radionuclide formed in the

nuclear reaction: 54Fe + in -. 54Mn + 1p. This-reaction can take
place in the fireball of a nuclear explosion or in the reactors at
Hanford. The relative contributions of 54Mn to Northeast Pacific
Ocean waters from fallout and from Hanford are not well understood.
Cutshall (personal communication, 4230) observed during 1963 that
the levels of 54Mn in sediments upstream were much lower than
sediments downriver from the Hanford reactors. This observation
strongly suggests that Hanford contributes significant levels of
54Mn to the Columbia River and plume. In contrast, Kujala, Larsen,
and Osterberg (4231) observed gradients in the concentrations of
54Mn in salmon viscera between the Columbia River mouth and Cook
Inlet, Alaska in 1964 which suggested that -fallout of 54Mn in high
latitude Alaskan waters was more important than 54Mn from Hanford.
These authors showed that 54Mn in chinook and coho salmon viscera
declined 4- to 40-fold between Alaska and Oregon, while 6Zn
(predominantly from Hanford) in the same samples had opposite
trends. Pearcy and Osterberg (4146), studying 6Zn and 54Mn in
albacore between Baja California and Washington during the summers
of 1962-1965, concluded that 54Mn enters the ocean from fallout
and is more available in offshore waters than in nearshore waters.
Folsometal. (4029) analyzed sea water and biota from Southern
California in 1963 and reported a 54Mn average concentration of
059 pCi/i in water and up to . 375 pCi/g wet weight of organisms.
55

Fe

Iron-55 is produced in the reaction: 54Fe + in 55Fe. Most of

the 55Fe present in the Northeastern Pacific Ocean probably has
originated from the large thermonuclear tests with negligible
amounts being contributed by the Hanford reactors (Jennings, 4120).

205

Although it has a half-life of 2. 7 years and is a major radionuclide

in fallout from recent nuclear tests, the weak (5.9 key) x-ray
associated with decay of 55Fe is easily absorbed and difficult to
measure quantitatively (Palmer and Beasley, 4024). For this reason,
it has not been extensively studied. Jennings (4120) reported 55Fe
specific activities in the viscera of salmon 'from Pacific Northwest
waters in 1964 ranging from 0.7 to 28.7 Ci/g Fe. Specific activities
of 55Fe in sea cucumbers and sediments collected off the coast of
Oregon were three to 'four orders of magnitude lower than those in
the salmon (Jennings, 4120).
57

60
Co
Co, 58 Go,

60
The radionuclides 57 Go, 58 Go, and Go are produced in nuclear
tests and are conspicuous in plankton samples in the vicinity of
test sites for many weeks after detonation (Lowman, 4149).
However, in Pacific Northwest coastal waters only small concentrations of 57Co and 60Go have been reported in plankton (Seymour
and Lewis, 4093) and sediments (Gross, McManus, and Greager,
4218; Osterberg, Kulm, and Byrne, 4034). Gross and Nelson
(4232) used the ratios of the activities of 6Zn and 6OGo to estimate
rates of sediment movement along the Oregon and Washington coasts.
59

Fe

Iron-59 is produced in the neutron activation reaction: 58Fe + in 59Fe

in nuclear reactors and in nuclear explosions. However, the natural
abundance of 58Fe is very low (0. 3%) so that relatively small amounts
of 59Fe are produced. Furthermore, the 45. 6 day half-life of 59Fe
results in its rapid decay so that it has not been found in measurable
amounts in the Pacific Northwest coastal area.
65

Zn

1
65
Zinc-65 is produced in the reaction: 64 Zn + n - Zn in both
nuclear reactors and weapons explosions. This is probably one
of the most-studied of all radionuclides for it is biologically important,
has a long half-life (245 days), is easily detected, and often
occurs in readily measurable amounts in the vicinity of test sites
and reactors.

206

Off the Washington and Oregon coasts 6Zn from the Hanford plutonium
production reactors occurs seasonally in all components of the marine
ecosystem: water, sediments, and biota. Comprehensive sampling
programs sponsored by the U. S. Atomic Energy Commission were
initiated in 1961 to learn the distribution and 'fate of Hanford-produced
radionuclides in the vicinity of the Columbia River mouth. Earlier
reports by Watson, Davis, and Hanson (4004,4022) established

the presence of 6Zn and other radionuclides from fallout and

Hanford in estuari.ne and coastal biota. These authors measured
6Zn in intertidal clams within 20 km north and south of the river
mouth ranging from 10 to 147 pCi/g wet weight in 1957, 1959, and
1960.

The distribution of 65 Zn in plankton 'from the offshore areas of

Washington and Oregon during the three-year period, 1961 -1963,
was studied by Lewis and Seymour (401 0). Although significant

seasonal fluctuations in 6Zn occurred, the levels of 6Zn in unsorted

plankton near the river mouth did not change greatly from 1961
to 1963. The geometric mean 6Zn concentrations were highest
(200 pCi/g dry plankton) to the north of the river mouth in winter
and at the mouth during spring (200 pCi/g) and summer (110 pCi/g).
In the autumn the geometric mean concentrations of the Washington
and Oregon coastal regions were low (19-41 pCi/g dry plankton).
A number of intertidal animals from the Washington and Oregon
coasts have been analyzed for 65Zn. Seymour and Lewis (4093)
reported that 6Zn concentrations in mussels (Mytilus californianus)
averaged over the period 1961 -1963 decreased sharply with increasing
distance from the Columbia River mouth. From a mean value of
540 pCi/g dry weight the mussel 6Zn levels diminished to roughly
210 pCi/g at a distance of 80 km north and to about 80 pCi/g at a
distance of 80 km south. In January 1966, Mellinger (4128)
repeated these coastal 6Zn analyses of mussels along the Washington
and Oregon coasts with the following results: mussels at the
Columbia River mouth.. .120 pCi/g, 80 km north.. .55 pCi/g, and
80 km south.. . 25 pCi/g dry weight. The higher 65Zn levels in
mussels from locations north are due to the fact that the winter
Columbia River plume is driven inshore along the Washington coast,
whereas the summer plume sets to the southwest and tends to remain
away from the Oregon coast.

207

There are abundant reports on 6Zn in pelagic and benthic animals

from offshore waters of Washington and Oregon. However, little
information is available regarding 6Zn concentrations within 1 0 km
of the coast. Carey (4233) reported that 65z specific activities
of echinoderms varied with season, depth, distance from the
Columbia River, and food habits. Specific activities of 6Zn in
echinoderms taken at depths of 200 m or less during June 1966
along the Oregon coast ranged from . 02 to . 25 pCi/g Zn. In
albacore (Thunnus alalunga) livers collected along the Oregon coast
in 1963, 1965, and 1966, Pearcy and Osterberg (4146) reported
6Zn specific activities from . 02 to . 37 pCi/g Zn. In earlier studies
Osterberg, Pattullo, and Pearcy (4033) observed that 65Zn
concentrations in euphausiids off Newport, Oregon (170 km south
of the Columbia River) were sometimes higher than those at the
river mouth. They suggested that this condition probably reflected
the length of time the euphausiids spentin water containing 65Zn.
The 6Zn concentrations in euphauslids taken within 50 km of the
shore from July 1961 through August 1962 ranged from 13 to 136
pCi/g dry weight at the Columbia River mouth, 12 to 93 pCi/g
at Newport, and 5 to 27 pCi/g at Coos Bay.
Although 6Zn is introduced into the river at Hanford in the cationic
form, it becomes increasingly associated with particulate matter
during its transit to the ocean (Perkins, Nelson, and Haushild,
4226). Some of the particulate matter in the Columbia River plume
settles to the continental shelf and can be identified by its radioctivity. During 1961 Gross, McManus, and Creager (4218) measured
5Zn in the top centimeter of sands along the Washington-Oregon
coasts at depths of 60 m or less. The 6Zn concentrations in thse
samples ranged from 1.3 to 16 pCi/g dry weight. Offshore sediment
values reported by these authors ranged from 0 to 460 pCi 65Zn/g
with most being less than 10 pCi/g. Osterberg, Kulm, and Byrne
(4034) reported that 6Zn concentrations in sediments in and around
the Astoria Canyon decreased from about 100 pCi/g dry weight
9 km offshore from the Columbia River mouth to undetectable levels
at stations 65 km offshore during August 1962. Recently, the
Oceanography Department at Oregon State University has measured
65Zn specific activities ranging from 100 nanocuries per gram zinc
(nCi/g Zn) at the Columbia River mouth to 15 nCi/g Zn at the Straits
of Juan de Fuca.

208

Antirnony-124 is formed in the reaction: 123 Sb +1n 124 Sb in

the nuclear reactors at Hanford. Like 51Cr, 124Sb tends to remain
in the ionic state during its passage downriver (Perkins, Nelson,
and Haushild, 4226). Both 51Cr and 124Sb appear to be conservative
radionuclides, that is, their concentrations are not altered significantly
by biological processes but are changed primarily by mixing. For
this reason, the ratios of 51 Cr-' 24Sb activities in Columbia River
plume waters may hold promise for determining mixing and movement
rates. To date 124Sb concentrations have not been reported,
although Pope (4205) measured 1 24Sb in the water at the Columbia
River mouth at 1.2 0.2 pCi/i in April 1969.

Future radioactivity levels in coastal waters

Man has little or no control over his exposure to radiations from
naturally-occurring radionuclides. Short of moving to another location,
a man is generally compelled to accept radiations from the rocks
on which he lives and the various building materials about him.
However, the levels of artificial radionuclides in the environment
from nuclear reactors and weapons tests can be controlled. Thus,
man is faced with decisions regarding the environmental costs
and the benefits to be derived from the use of nuclear 'fission and
fusion.

Despite the current ban on atmospheric nuclear tests, France and

Mainland China continue to explode nuclear devices in the atmosphere.
For this reason, the concentrations of 'fission fragments and neutroninduced radionuclides in fallout can be expected to fluctuate. Until
all such tests cease and the reservoirs of radionuclides in the
atmosphere stabilize, accurate predictions of. fallout radioactivity
in surface ocean waters are not possible.
The Limited Nuclear Test Ban Treaty between the United States,
United Kingdom, and Russia has contributed to reducing radioactive
fallout and to limiting the proliferation of nuclear weapons (Ehriich,
4234). Furthermore, a provision in this treaty prohibits any underground explosion that causes radioactive debris to be present beyond
the boundaries of the country initiating the explosion. This prohibition

209

may place formidable barriers to many peaceful applications

of nuclear explosions such as harbor excavations, sea level canal
projects, and other nuclear engineering works which might add
radioactivity to the biosphere.
An additional source of radioactivity in atmospheric fallout may
result from space vehicle incidents. For example, SNAP-9A,
an isotope power generator 'for a space vehicle, burned up in the
atmosphere in 1964. This resulted in increased levels of 238Pu
(the SNAP-9A power source) in ground level air samples taken
in Massachusetts from mid-1966 through 1968 (Schlein, Cochran,
and Magno, 4223).

Radioactivity from nuclear reactors is currently of great interest

in the Pacific Northwest. The history of reactor operations at
Hanford (see Figure 16-2) clearly shows that the number of plutonium
production reactors has been drastically reduced. On 29 January
1971 the last plutonium production reactor was shut down.
Following this the levels of 32P and 51 Cr in the coastal ecosystem
shouLd soon become negligible due to their short physical half -lives.
remain in coastal

However, traces of 6Zn (half-life, 245 days) will

sediments and organisms for several years.

According to Wooldridge (4228), an average of 40 Ci of 6Zn was

transported past Bonneville Dam each day during 1967. With
reductions in the numbers of operating reactorsin the following three
years (Figure 16-2), the transport rate probably decreased by at
least one-half. Hence, if we assume equilibrium between the rate
of decay in the ocean and a, constant input rate of 20 Ci/day, then
about 7, 000 Ci of 65Zn should exist in the Pacific Ocean and Columbia
River below Bonneville Dam as a result of the Hanford operation.

This total inventory in water, sediments, and biota will decay at

a rate of 65% per year following shutdown of the last reactor. Thus,
in two years (three 6Zn half -lives) less than 15% of the inventory
shaild remain.

At present only three electrical generating stations in the Western

United States are powered by nuclear fission. These are: (a) San
Onofre in Southern California with an electrical generating capacity
of 385 megawatts (MW), (b) Humboldt Bay in Northern California

210

with a capacity of 172 MW (North and Adams, 1531), and (c) the
N-reactor on the Columbia River at Hanford, Washington with an
800 MW capacity. These plants employ closed primary cooling
loops and thus add minimal amounts of radionuclides to the aquatic
environment. Scientists at Hanford are unable to distinguish
radioactivity originating in the N-reactor from the higher radionuclide
concentrations released to the Columbia River by the plutonium
production reactor situated upriver.

Despite the fact that all modern nuclear power reactors are provided
with closed loop primary coolant systems in which demineralized water
circulates, small amounts of radionuclides do escape to the environment
during normal operations. Salo and Leet (4194) stated that radionuclides
at the Humboldt Bay plant accumulated from the following: (a) reactor
water and steam-system drainage, (b) floor drainage of the radiation
zone, (c) liquids associated with fuel handling, (d) fuel storage basins,
(3) radiochemical laboratory, (f) laundry, (g) routine maintenance
operations, and (h) equipment decontamination operations. At
the Humboldt Bay plant these liquid wastes are stored in holdup
tanks for decay, filtered, and, if necessary, processed further prior
to release to the condenser cooling discharge canal. The principal
radionucljdes in the discharge waters at Humboldt Bay during 1965 were the
neutron activation products OS
54Mn, 59Fe, 51Cr, 60Co, and
the fission fragments 134Cs and '37Cs (Salo and Leet, 4194). The
most abundant radionuclide, 6Zn, averaged about 5 pCi/i in the discharge
waters during 1965 but was diluted
to io times within 30 m of
the point at which the effluent entered Humboldt Bay.
Although radioactivity may be expected to be present in exceedingly
low concentrations in discharges of a nuclear power reactor, various
marine organisms can accumulate and retain some of the biologically
important radionuclides for long periods. For example, oysters
in the vicinity of the Bradwell nuclear power plant on Blackwater
Estuary in England increased steadily in their 6Zn concentration from
early 1964 to an apparent equilibrium in early 1967 (Ministry of
Agriculture, Fisheries and Food, 4235). Other radionuclides found
in low levels around English nuclear power stations include: 32P,
55Fe, 6OCo, liOmAg 134Cs, '37Cs, and 144Ce (Mitchell, 4236).

211

To conclude, it seems reasonable to expect that radioactivity in Pacific

Northwest coastal waters will continue to diminish in the 197 0's.
Although natural radioactivity will remain, fallout radionuclide
concentrations may decline as the weight of world opinion continues
to be exerted on the nations still conducting nuclear weapons tests
in the atmosphere. Although nuclear generation of electric power
will increase in the Pacific Northwest, radioactivity from nuclear
reactors will probably decline as plutonium production at Hanford
is phased out.
Despite the possibility that total radioactivity may diminish in the
future, research on the distribution and cycling of radionuclides
in coastal ecosystems should continue. Such research provides
important insight into the fates of radionuclides released to the marine
environment by future nuclear power stations. In addition, these
studies furnish baseline radioactivity values against which future
levels can be compared. It is important, therefore, that detailed
studies of radioactivity, community structure, temperature, and
other environmental variables be carried on at each plant site
before construction and throughout its operational existence.
Summary

Coastal waters of the Pacific Northwest conta:in naturally-occurring

radionuclides, 'fission fragments from nuclear test 'fallout,
neutron-induced radionuclides from nuclear weapons tests, and
radionuclides from the plutonium production reactors at Hanford,
Washington.

Man has no control over the primordial or cosmic ray-produced

radionuclides in the ocean. However, these radionuclides occur
in very low concentration except for 40K which is present in all
sea water, living matter, and sediments.
Radioactivity from Hanford has declined due to serial shutdown
of the plutonium production reactors.

Fallout radioactivity has diminished since the nuclear test ban of

1963. Nevertheless, France and Mainland China continue to
create radioactive fallout through atmospheric weapons tests.
Research on the cycling of radionuclides now in the marine ecosystem
will aid in understanding the environmental impact of 'future coastal
nuclear facilities.
212

Chapter 17. OTHER POLLUTANTS

PESTICIDES

Introduction

The extensive use of pesticides in agriculture and forestry in the Pacific

Northwest warrants a brief consideration of the role of pesticides in
nearshore regions of the area. This section summarizes pesticide
residue levels which have been observed in the area, the toxicities of
various common pesticides to marine species, and the behavior of
persistent pesticides in the marine environment.
Pesticide Residues in the Pacific Northwest
Since pesticide levels in natural waters are generally low and quite
variable, a bioassay approach is usually taken to determine the
extent of pesticide pollution in an area. Since organisms are able
to excrete many pesticides only very slowly, the pesticide level
in the organisms represents an integrated value over some time
interval. Even then, however, there are large variations in pesticide levels from sample to sample and from individual to individual.
The cause of these wide variations is unknown.
The Bureau of Commercial Fisheries is conducting an extensive
pesticide monitoring program in the United States. Ten or more
pesticides were determined in selected organisms. Less than 3%
of the samples taken in Washington between 1965 and 1968 were
contaminated with pesticides. DDT residues (DDT + DDE), by far
the most commonly detected pesticides, were always less than 50 ppb
(Butler, 6273). Oysters, Crassostrea gigas taken in Humboldt Bay,
California in 1966-1967 also showed DDT residues to be less than 50
ppb. However, the ova of a king salmon taken in the American River,
California in January of 1968 contained 668 ppb total DDT residues
(Modin, 6272).

Kraybill (6063) cites observations made in the Willapa Bay area in

Washington which show the effects of aerial spraying of forests with
DDT on DDT concentrations in oysters (Crassostrea gias). When
the spraying was halted, DDT plus DDE values for shellfish dropped
to as low as 0.008 ppm, the lowest value recorded in the United States
at that time.

213

Kraybill (6063) also reported less than 0. 1 ppm each of o-p DDT and
p-p DDT in oysters from Sheldon, Washington and in shrimp from
Bodega Bay, California. Less than 0. 02 ppm each of Heptachlor
Epoxide, DDE, and Dieldrin were found in oysters from Sheldon and
shrimp from Bodega Bay.
Stout (6069) measured concentrations of DDT and its metabolites, DDE
and TDE in anchovy (Engraulis mordax), Dungeness crab (Cancer magister),
English sole (Parophrj vetulus), hake (Merluccius productus), ocean
perch (Sebastodes alutus), starry flounder (Platichthys stellatus), true
cod (Gadus macrocephalus), and yellowtail rockfish (Sebastodes flavidus)
taken in Oregon and Washington coastal waters. Concentrations were
generally low, less than 100 ppb. Significantly more residue was found
in yellowtail rockfish caught near the mouth of the Columbia River than
in those caught in Hecate Strait, British Columbia which is near no
major river. It was concluded that this was due to agricultural runoff
from Oregon and Washington.
Risebrough et al. (6271) found from 0. 2 to 2. 8 ppm total DDT residues in
northern anchovy, Engraulis mordax, English sole, Parophrys vetulus

Pacific jack mackerel, Trachurus symmetricus and hake, Merluccius

roductus caught south of San Francisco. These values may be more
representative of the southern California coast than of our area.

More recently, residues in mackerel have been monitored by the

Department of Public Health, State of California. Between November
1969, and 11 May 1970, 31 lots of mackerel gave DDT residues ranging
from 0. 50 ppm to 6. 0 ppm. Only 2 of the 31 lots contained more than
3 ppm (Buell, 6270).
The recent review by Edwards (6084) covers pesticide residues on a
nationwide scale.

Toxicities of Pesticides to Marine Organisms

An incomplete, but representative, listing of the toxicities of commonly
used pesticides to marine organisms is given in Appendix 5.

In general, "... organochioride insecticides are more toxic to marine

fauna than other agricultural, industrial, and domestic wastes--including
organophosphorous insecticides, soaps and detergents, aziridinyl insect
sterilants, slimicides, heavy metals and crude and refined oils" (Eisler,
6048).
214

Specifically, for phytoplankton, Ukeles (6101) found substituted ureas

to be most toxic, closely followed by Lignasan, an organo- mercurial.
Chlorinated hydrocarbons, carbamates, and organophosphates complete the list, with considerable differences observed between the
toxicities of the various chlorinated hydrocarbon pesticides tested.

For crustaceans, Eisler (6048) found organochiorine pesticides to

be generally more toxic than organophosphates, but there was considerable overlap between the less toxic organochlo rifle compounds
and the more toxic organophosphates.
For fish, Johnson (6072) gives a general order of organochlorine,
organophosphate, herbicide. He also notes that eggs and larvae are
generally more resistant than adults.

The specificity of certain pesticides toward certain kinds of marine

organisms may make them useful in marine aquiculture, but it is of
more interest in this study to discover which marine organisms will
be most affected by pesticide pollution. The specificity of organophosphates will not be considered since they are quite unstable in the
environment. Organochlorines will be our biggest concern. Lindane
and DDT have both been shown to be toxic to arthropods (copepods)
at concentrations which did not harm phytoplankton cultures (Ukeles,
6101).

In addition to the reductions in photosynthesis caused by sub-lethal

concentrations of pesticides cited in Appendix 5, sub-lethal concentrations increase the irbody burden" of pesticides in organisms.
This can affect carcinogenesis, resistance to disease and stress,
reproduction, genetic factors, longevity, and vigor in organisms.
There may be other factors as of yet unrecognized (Johnson, 6072).

A particularly pertinent example of the effects of sub-lethal exposure

is in the results of Ogilvie and Anderson (6274) who suggested that
DDT may interfere with the normal thermal acclimation mecha-.
nism" on the basis of observed changes in the "selected temperature"
of Atlantic Salmon.

21 5

Behavior of Chlorinated Hydrocarbon Pesticides in the Marine

Environment
Although DDT and other chlorinated hydrocarbon pesticides have
served mankind quite well, it has become increasingly evident in
recent years that their persistence in the environment precludes
adequate control and prediction of effects on non-target organisms.
As a result, the U. S. Department of Agriculture has announced
plans to phase out the use of DDT by 1971 (Anon., 6294). Use in
other parts of the world will probably continue for some time.

Although our understanding of the behavior of DDT (and other chlorinated hydrocarbons) in the environment is better than for other
compounds, it is still rudimentary. These points have emerged

as the relevant factors:

DDTis strongly hydrophobic, and has a very low solubility
in water. As a result, it is concentrated at sediment-water,
and atmosphere-water interfaces (Seba and Corcoran, 6046;
Keith and Hunt, 6292). In addition, its high solubility in.
lipid- containing biological materials produces high biological
concentration factors relative to the bulk water mass (Wurster,
6295; Keil and Priester, 6083).
The toxic action of DDT is not highly specific, affecting most
organisms (Wurster, 6295).

DDT is quite stable in the aquatic environment. The exact

residence time is difficult to determine (Wurster, 6295; Pterle,
6296).

Almost no area of the earth's surface is free from the influence

of chlorinated hydrocarbon pesticides, probably as a result of
significant atmospheric transport (Frost, 6297; Risebrough et al,
6271).

It has been suggested that DDT in the world ecosystem is in steady

state. That is, in the 25 years of its use, reservoirs of DDT have
been built up into which the rate of input (usage today) is equal to the
rate of output (breakdown into non-toxic substances and loss to sediments and other sinks) (Spencer, 6293). It appears, however, that
the data on the size of the reservoirs and on the rates of output are
at present insufficient to establish the existence of a steady state condition.

216

Summary

Pesticide residue levels in marine organisms in the Pacific

Northwest are generally low.
Acute toxicities of pesticides to marine organisms are probably
less of a concern than sub-lethal effects. Residues may be important to higher predators such as sea birds and man.
Although the behavior of DDT in the marine environment is
poorly understobd, its hydrophobic nature, non-specific toxicity, stability, and modes of transport make it a matter of,
real concern.

Much more information is needed on the overall behavior and

effects of DDT in the marine environment.

217

CHLORINE

Elemental chlorine, Cl2, does not occur naturally in sea water.

Concern with its effects stems from its use as an antifouling agent
in thermal electric power plants. Use of chlorine (or substances
which hydrolyze releasing Cl2) varies widely. Use of various
methods of preventing fouling are shown below, a response
to a questionnaire sent to 69 operating power plants in 1968 (USD1,
6254).

40
1

3
3
9
2
1

0
8
1

2
3
3
2
2

Chlorination
Chlorination 0. 6 ppm at condenser outlet
Chlorination, periodic shot feed
Intermittent chlorination
Sodium hypochlorite
Sodium hypochiorite, 3 lbs per mm for 20 mm for each
unit twice a day
Sodium hypochlorite, 1.4 lbs per mm for 20 mm for each
unit twice a day
Sodium hypochlorite shot fed daily
Polyphosphate addition

Ferrous sulphate
Sodium hydroxide (for pH control)
Thermal shock (to inhibit marine growth)
None

Chlorination, stable residual 7- 10 ppm as available Cl2

Chlorination as required to control slime
Sodium hypochiorite, 30 mm per day

Although intermittent chlorination is apparently the usual practice for

operating thermal power plants (USD1, 6254; Hamilton et al., 6322)
it has been pointed out that continuous chlorination at low levels is
necessary to prevent mussels from setting and growing on the effluent pipe (Beauchamp, 6326; Holmes, 6355).
Chlorine in water hydrolyzes rapidly to form HOCL which is the primary
toxic principal. HOCL oxidizes organic matter rapidly, and so it, too,
is short lived in the marine environment. The major effect of chlorination, then, will be on the planktonic organisms actually transported
through the cooling system of the power plant. The total amount of
218

water passing through a 1000 Mw plant in a year would fill an area

60 km by 1 km, 30 meters deep. The existing tidewater power
plants in the state of California pass a volume of water 1000 km
by 1 km by 30 meters each year (calculated using power generation
data of Adams, 6364). In short, a very large volume of planktonic
organisms may be subjected to short-term exposures of peak chlorine
concentrations.

The effects of such short-term exposures are poorly known. Waugh

(6268) showed that nauplii of the barnacle Elminius modestus suffered
heavy mortalities following a 10-minute exposure to 0.5 ppm chlorine.
Larvae of the oyster Ostrea edulis, on the other hand, were apparently
unharmed by up to 48 minutes exposure to 10 ppm chlorine at 10 C
over ambient temperature.
Chlorination to level of 2. 5 ppm (my calculation) was found to
decrease primary productivity of effluent waters by as much as
91%. A consistent effect on estuarine receiving waters was not detected, although the calculated maximum effect for the estuary
studied was 6. 6% (Hamilton et al., 6322).
Summary

Chlorine is used as an antifouling agent in many thermal

electric power plants.

The response of marine organisms to short-term, low level

doses of chlorine is highly variable.
Phytoplankton are apparently very sensitive to the action of
chlorine.
Effects on receiving waters are unknown.

219

PART III - BIOLOGICAL ASPECTS

Page

Chapter 18. INTRODUCTION TO BIOLOGICAL ASPECTS by

James E. McCauley and Danil R. Hancock

223

Chapter 19. THERMAL ECOLOGY OF NORTHWEST SPECIES

by Danil R. Hancock and James E. McCauley

Chapter 20. BIOLOGY OF SELECTED NORTHWEST SPECIES

OR SPECIES GROUPS by James E. McCauley
and Danil R. Hancock

2.21

228

246

Chapter 18. INTRODUCTION TO BIOLOGICAL ASPECTS

by James E. McCauley and Danil R. Hancock

The physical and chemical properties of the coastal zone are important
to man because they affect him either directly, or through some of the
organisms of the region. The biology of this outer zone becomes important
because man depends on many species for food, raw materials, and
recreation, but more importantly because he is firmly enmeshed in the
complete ecological system which includes marine as well as freshwater and terrestrial species. The coastal zone, considered by some
to be the most productive region of the world (Ryther, 5852), produces
95% of the organic matter in the sea. It is a heavily fished zone where
many species feed and where primary productivity is at its greatest. It
is important not only because it provides for man but because it is readily
accessible and seemingly inexhaustible.
Recent awareness of how man may damage this rich region by using
it for a dump has reemphasized the need to study nearshore coastal
zones. What will be the effects of dumping large amounts of solid,
liquid, and thermal wastes into the coastal zone? Can the biota survive
under such conditions Can man continue to pollute? Do we really
know what is there? Much has been written about the coastal zone biology,
most of it restricted to the intertidal zone or to commercially important
species. This section summarizes biological information as it applies to
the nearshore region of the Pacific Northwest. We have arbitrarily dealt
with the outer coastal zone from Cape Flattery at the northwest corner of
Washington to Cape Mendocino about 180 km south of the Oregon-California
border in California. This is a relatively straight coastline with sandy
beaches alternating with rocky headlands and with a biota that does not
differ greatly from place to place when similar areas are compared. The
estuaries and bays re:pre sent a special type of habitat; one that is critical
to many species of animals as breeding or nursery ground. These areas
are highly susceptible to damage from pollution and with few exceptions
should be rigorously protected from man's industrial activities. For these
reasons we have excluded the bays and estuaries from our studies except
in those cases where they were inseparable from the outer coastal zone;
e. g. , where a species that occurred in the outer zone spends part of its life
in an estuary or where research on the coastal species had been done on an
estuarine population.

223

Where feasible we have reviewed the information only of those

species occurring within 10 km of shore. This is the region where
man's impact will be most severely felt; the zone where pollutants are
most likely to enter and be diluted. Our goal was to determine the kinds
of organisms that occur in this area and to determine their vital
requirements, preferences, and limitations. Special emphasis has
been placed on the influence of temperature on the species; including
special thermal tolerance studies, and the casual notations included
in ecological or distributional studies.

The effects of temperature on aquatic organisms has been the subject

of a number of comprehensive reviews (Brett, 2796, 2770; Gunter, 2849;
Wurtz and Renn, 2565; Naylor, 2798; Warinner and Brehmer, 2690;
Kinne, 2378, 237; de Sylva, 6283; Hedgpeth and Gonor, 3856; and
Parker and Krenkel, 3222. In addition, a number of extensive
bibliographies have been produced (Trembley, 2692; Kennedy and
Milursky, 2926; American Society of Civil Engineers, 3673; Raney
and Menzel, 2946). Most of these reviews and bibliographies concern
fresh water aquatic organisms and only a few deal with marine or
estuarine species. None is specific to the Pacific Northwest coast and
none emphasizes the outer coastal region. Naylor (2798) and Kinne
(2378, 2379) have dealt primarily with marine and estuarine species
but have emphasized European, primarily estuarine species.
The volume of information covered in these reviews and bibliographies
is simply overwhelming. Krenkel and Parker (3222) assessed the
situation: "Unfortunately the sheer mass of detailed information in
these reviews leaves the reader with a feeling of hopeless frustration.

We have concentrated on a limited geographical region with a concerted

team effort, attempting to assemble all the known information about
species occurring here. To accomplish this study a detailed annotated
checklist has been assembled and is included (Appendix 8). Not all
groups have been included although some omitted may be extremely
important. The marine bacteria, marine fungi, Kiriorhynch, and
Ostracods have been intentionally omitted. Representatives of the
first two groups are often cosmopolitan and the literature is widely
scattered. Few of the papers on these groups deal specifically with
the Pacific Northwest. Only a single Kinorhynch was found to be
reported from the area. The Ostracods were excluded because a detailed
review is forthcoming from the University of Minnesota (Swain, in press),
and it did not seem necessary to duplicate part of this work.

224

From the annotated checklist a few species were selected for

intensive study. In general, these were the better known species, those
commercially or numerically important or subject to intensive
biological study.
The biological information available for the coastal zone of the
Pacific Northwest is indeed diverse, and the sources are many.
Much of the information has been derived from the published literature,
but some has come from less readily available sources: progress
reports, personal communications, in-house working papers, student
reports, etc. Not all the published information is readily accessible,
occurring in obscure and unexpected places.

The number of entries in our bibliography indicates the large amount

of information that is known, how scattered it is, and why it was
necessary to compile it in a review study. Very little of the information
can be used directly to assess the impact of an ocean outfall on the
environment. Many of the studies which would have seemingly been
useful were directed at estuarine or oceanic species instead of coastal
species. Still other studies of coastal species have dealt with problems
of resource management and have emphasized the effectiveness of
legal restraints or artificial propagation. Basic biological studies
have often been left to the academic sector, which has contributed
significantly to overall understanding of biology but may fail to answer
specific practical questions because these questions were not the
goals of the study.
We have attempted to assemble all the available biological literature.
Taxonomic Studies

By far, the largest body of information available on the organisms of

the outer coast of this region is taxonomic. Our bibliographic citations
reflect this situation, even after the omission of some of the very
early works which have been subsequently summarized. Many of the
citations contain taxonornic or distributional information, describing
species, listing the occurrence of a species, or a general group of
biota. Some of these listings include very detailed collection locations,
others simply infer the presence of a species. These works contain a
wide variety of literary.styles and therefore are quite erratic in
supplying pertinent supplemental information on the requirements,
225

preferences and tolerances of the organisms from this zone. Such

variety makes categorizations difficult. For many of the species
which do not have direct commercial value the only information known
is its collection record(s); i.e. , where it has been found. Few of the
groups have been monographed for large enough geographic regions
to be complete and therefore the amount of additional work required
for a coastal site will vary with the location.
The fauna and flora of the nearshore region is known mostly from
extensions of studies of intertidal areas, pelagic offshore fisheries
studies, or nearshore coastal studies performed in California.
Oceanographers are just becoming aware of the urgency for data
from this region and hopefully will endure the hardships required to
study this inhospitable zone. Generally the adult stages of the macrofauna of the coastal zone from our region will not present serious
taxono mic difficulties to qualified personnel studying the region, but
larval and juvenile, stages, even for the commercial species are not
well known taxonomically. Likewise, many of the less popular
smaller groups are not well known taxonomically. These include
such things as bacteria, fungi, protozoa, phytoplankton, annelids,
insects, certain of the crustaceans, and many others which may be
extremely important to the community. These groups generally
require specialists for identifications and may present real problems
to those responsible for siting outfalls on the coast of the Pacific
Northwe st.

Obviously, the familiarity of the fauna and flora is a function of the

number of studies and the kinds of studies previously made. Further,
these studies seem to be related to areas near marine biological stations.
Bibliographies

Bibliographies are a time-saving tool to the scientist facing a new

problem. If kept up to date, good bibliographies can give a gross
indication of the state of knowledge of a subject. Both the number of
entries and titles of citations however can be misleading.
Several bibliographies occur for the Cape Flattery to Cape Mendocino
region, none- of which is directed at the nearshore region. Some of
these are regional in nature; others concern an individual organism
or a group, while still others concern a general topic such as "Effects
of heated effluents on marine organisms," e. g. , of which only a
fraction is relevant to our region.
2z6

Many of the bibliographies concern bays in our region but have some
information pertinent to the outer coast. Bibliographies of some value
to our review were:

Bryan, (3851), A partial bibliography on Humboldt Bay; Ditsworth

(3833, 3854), Environmental factors in Coastal Waters; Pearce,
(3852), A bibliography on Marine Benthic Investigations; Butler,
(3611), A bibliography on the Dungeness Crab; and the University of
Washington's Literature Surveys on Grays Harbor, Coos Bay, and
Humboldt Bay (2569, 2568, 2008).

The assessment and prediction of pollution in the nearshore coastal

zone as well as determination of indications of normal or "baseline"
conditions are dependent on detailed, statistically valid ecological
studies. Such comprehensive studies of the nearshore coastal zone
of the region encompassed by this study are conspicuously lacking.
Our review indicates that only in the southernmost region has this
type of study been even attempted. This study was Allen's (2686) work
entitled "An oceanographic study between the points of Trinidad Head
and the Eel River."
Many pieces of important ecological data are contained in small-scale
ecological studies, rather than broad comprehensive investigations.
These data have been listed as annotations to the species checklist
of Appendix 8. The problem with this data is that it lacks continuity,
usually is without time sequence, and is usually directed at different
goals.

Chapter 19 deals with the thermal ecology of coastal species of the

Pacific Northwest, summarizing the information that is available.
It also includes the available information on other physical factors
such as salinity, oxygen, and pH. While Chapter 19 deals in general
terms, Chapter 20 singles out those species which we consider to
be important and which have received the most attention. This Chapter
summarizes the data which are available. Not only are ecological
data included but other biological data potentially important to
pollution studies are included as well.

227

Chapter 19. THERMAL ECOLOGY OF NORTHWEST SPECIES

by Danil B. Hancock and Tames E. McCauley

Of concern to many, especially to those involved in the siting of marine

coastal outfalls, are the physiological responses of organisms to environmental stresses such as increased temperature, rapid fluctuations in temperature, bxygen, and salinity. Recently, concern has also included the
actual environmental conditions dictated by the physiological requirements
of the organism i. e., the fact that some organisms actually require fluctuations in temperature (Kinne, 2379; Hedgpeth and Gonor, 3856).

Temperature

Interest in the effects of temperature on marine organisms is not new and

perhaps began early in the eighteen hundreds. As early as 1899, H. M.
Vernon published a paper entitled "The Death Temperature of Certain
Marine Organisms" (2912). EariLer works by Vernon included heat rigor
and effects of temperature on respiration (3307, 3306). Recent years have
seen a proliferation of information on the response of both freshwater and
marine organisms to increased temperatures. The listing of previous
general reviews and comprehensive tables covering the extremes of temperatures which can be endured by fishes has recently been done by Parker
and Krenkle (3222). The literature describing responses of aquatic invertebrates to thermal gradients by taxonomic groups has been discussed
by Jensen et al. (3855). Such reviews generally place major emphasis on
freshwater organisms. Although both of these reviews have some information
applicable to marine forms, the detailed reviews of Naylor (2798) and Kinne
(2379, 2378) are probably the best source for marine and brackish forms.
Hedgpeth and Gonor (3856) have presented a brief review of the literature
on the marine benthos, particularly as it relates to research needs of
the marine benthos.
The review by Jensen et al. (3855) states: UIt should be observed: the
data used to predict the effects of heated effluents on the biota, the focus
of this paper, have rarely been drawn from field studies deliberately designed for these purposes. Our study is in full agreement with this statement, but not, however, with their attempts to formulate general principles
and generalizations based on such heterogeneous information. We feel
that such broad conclusions must be subjected to further verification, least
we succumb to what Chamberlin (3858) refers to as the "Ruling Theory."
Most of these studies involve work done in regions of the world other than
the Pacific Northwest. The study of Hedgpeth and Gonor (3856), however,
includes some data from the central Oregon Coast.
228

Our attempts to summarize temperature and other physical information by

species is presented in Tables 19-1, 19-2, and 19-3. No requirements
for admission to this listing were set, therefore information came from
a wide variety of sources and may refer to an estuarine form, to anouter
coastal form, to an Atlantic population of a Northwest form or to a laboratory study. Jensen etal (3855) in their review of the role of temperature
in the aquatic ecosystem suggest that laboratory results are often bsed
upon the use of laboratory aquaria in which the water quality is less than
typical of that found in natural environments. In most laboratory studies
they found that aquaria water was either abnormally pure or polluted with
toxic nitrogen wastes, or that parasitism was often high due to the stress
of overcrowding, or high ammonia levels etc. "In addition, placing animals
in heated water cannot simulate natural conditions where heat decays and
where animals are free to move to cooler layers. " Maximum tolerable
temperature may be a poor predictive tool for scientists concerned with
the problems of thermal discharges (Jensen et al.,, 3855). Maximum thermal tolerance depends on water quality, age, condition and size of the experimental animal, reproductive state, previous thermal history, and/or
the rate of change of temperature. Thus, the precision of maximum thermal tolerance evaluations necessitate careful delineation of variables by
the researchers. For example, temperature limits on the "0" strain of
Mac rocystis from Baja, California are quite different from those of other
regions. We therefore urge that caution be employed when relating specific
values from one region to another or from field to laboratory.
Since the data in our tables came from widely scattered studies in which
no common denominator of life stage, age size, or previous temperature
history was recorded, we have attempted to include these "Classic" papers
along with the meager information from the Pacific Northwest and abstract
from them published temperature. We do not attest to the quality of this
previous temperature information, but present it only to .indicate what is
available to fulfill the needs of other investigators. Detailed summaries
of this information for selected species are presented in Chapter 20.

For the most part, the discussion restricts itself to the particular kinds
of temperature information found as compared to what is necessary to
make the kinds of decisions currently in demand. Interspersed with the
kinds of information available are critical remarks about the quality of
this information. We hope that such criticism is both justified and helpful
in the design of future research.
Tables 19-1, 19-2, and 19-3 summarize most of the temperature information
located in this review. The 129 species, at first glance, may seem quite
numerous, yet, when viewed in terms of the 3, 000-odd species recorded
from this coast it represents only a fraction of a percent.
229

Table 19-1
Summary of Physical Data ci Phytoplankton and Algae
See
pH

Sources

Na me

Temperature

Phytoplankton
Phytoplankton (gen.inform.)

10. 5-14 C(E)

(7032), (7030),
(3527), (7015),
(7006), (7008),
(7009)

Ampidiniurn cortesi
Asterionells japonica
Chaetoceros curuisetus
Chaetoceros gracilis

18_330 C ()
<300 C (L), 20-25C(0)
G.B. 17-18 C (E)
11410 C (B),

(7009)

Chaetoceros lacinisosus
Dunaliella tertiolecta

G.R. 17-18C(E)

(7012)

11_36+0C (B)

(7009)

39C (L)
G.B. 17-18C(E)

(7012)

8- <30C(B)

(7016), (7009)

Eucampia zoodiacus
Isochrysio gabana
Monochrysis lutheri

(7012)

23-37 C(0)

14- 25 C(0)
20-35 C(L)

Nitzochia closteriurn

8-< 27C(R),
G.R. 18_20C(E)

Procentrum micans
Phaeodactylurn tricornatum
Rhizosolenia setigra

5-30 C (B)

Skeletonema costaturn

5-30 C (B),
37-40 C (L)

Skeletonerna tropicurn
Thalanios era noudenskioldii

G.B. <13-31C(E)
< 2-19C (B)

(2469)

14. 2-39 C,
-1. 39- 12. 22 C

(7026), (7029)

Dinofl.agellates (gen. inform.)

9-25 C (B)

5-25C (B),

(7016)

G.R. 5-20C(E)

Mac roalgae
Bos sea

Chiamydomonus reinhardi

(7037)

(7009), (7012)

6-28C,
18-28 C(0)

230

(2949)

(2949)

Table 19-j (contd)

Corallina
Enteromorpha
Fucus
Mac rocys tis

15-17C(E),
18-20C(L)

Nereocystis Juetkeana

16-18 C (E)

Pe ivetia
Ulva
Key:

(2949)

(2949)

(2949)

(5816)
(5809)
(2949)

(2949)

R = Range

L = Lethal
E = Experimental
o = Optimum
Growth Rate
+ = Data Available
G. R.

231

Of those organisms listed in the tables Temperature Rangeu information

seems to be the most common entry. If all of these data were taken in the
same manner or if it referred to a single ecological factor, these so-called
ranges w9uld become both meaningful and useful. Such is not the case,
and therefore, each datum entered must be considered separately and becomes limited to a specific intended use. The temperature ranges in the
literature indicate almost anything. They can mean the two extreme temperatures under which a particular experiment or observation was made,
the end points of a temperature curve, the actual range determination made
by multiple experimentation, the upper lethal and the lowest temperature
at which an experiment was conducted, or any combination of these Some
reports such as Farmanfarmaian and, Giese(2835) and Reed (3092) were
very explicit and all necessary details were included Such studies are
most valuable.
The temperature at which an organism dies may have little significance if
it is far from the natural temperatures the organism might experience. As
previously mentioned, itis well established that these limits or tolerance
levels are quite dependent on many factors, such as previous temperature
history. Tropical species may be lIving nearer their upper temperature
limit and Arctic species may be living near their lower limit. Many of the
laboratory studies which have determined temperature requirements for an
organism do not use temperature values which would be similar to an
orgaiisms natural experience. A major criticism of the values listed
in Table 19-1, -2, -3 is that most were presented without the important
necessary background information.
In view of the heterogeneity of the information listed under the column 'Range"
it is perhaps a misnomer to have a column entitled IMiscellafleouS, yet
information listed is sometimes more specifically categorized as to whether
or not it was a rearing range, a temperature at which the organism was observed to live, its eggs hatched, or was spawned.

The optimum ranges of someof the organisms in this study have been determined. These are somewhat obscured by the fact thatfor at least some of
the species the best (optimum) temperatures for reproduction, for survival,
or for growth of the various life stages may not be identical. By and large,
however, this temperature informationis probably the most usable of any
temperature data that we encountered.
Information on temperature requirements of larval and juvenile stages is
scant. Studies of laboratory rearing of species seem to account for
most of the knowledge we have about these sensitive stages of an animals
life. Serious attempts at in situ rearing of larvae are absent and published
studies of temperature requirements are noticeably lacking for all but a
few species.
232

Although adequate temperature information for no species is completely

known, temperature information was found to be nearly adequate for sevemi
species. In general, this information was of applied value to the species
involved. The species included in Chapter 20 are the best studied and many

need only specific goal-related temperature measurements to be useful.

Of the many marine phytoplankton occurring in this region, only theubiquitous
Skeletonema costaturn is well studied. The temperature range and growth
range are known for Chaetoceros gracilis and the growth ranges of two other
members of the genus, C. lancjnjosus and C. curvisetus, are reported.
Similar information was not found for a very important member of this
genus C. armatum, which is thought to be the major food source of Siliqua
patula,the Pacific razor clam (personal communication, H. Tegelberg
and D. Magoon).

Only a single member of the marine macroalgae is well known thermally.

The commercially important Macrocystis pyrifera has been studied extensively off Southern California. It occurs in the Pacific Northwest but
is less abundant. Macrocystis integrifolia tends to replace it in the Pacific
Northwest. Studies of temperature, light requirements, effects of turbidity,
nutrients, effects of predation, and in situ growth rates have been attempted.
Much of the data is scattered in progress reports and agency reports. The
Final Report of the California Water Resources Agency "The effects of discharged wastes on Kelp" (29 9 4 ) contains a good deal of information on
M. pyrifera and its ecological associates.

Little temperature information is known for most of the marine bacteria,

and most of the smaller invertebrate phyla occurring in the Pacific
Northwe st.

A large amount of temperature information, most of which is far from complete relates to mollusks. Some of the more important commercial species
have been extensively studied with respect to the culture experiments. Temperature relations in the oysters, both commercial and imported, have been
reasonably well studied. For the most part, these are bay forms, although
beds are known from some outer coastal areas.
Mytilus californianus has been well studied with respect to community
interactions and community ecology. Information on temperature range,
growth range, salinity relationships, and larval stages is available.
Mytilus edulis (the cosmopolitan bay mussel)also found on the outer coast,
is one of the best known thermally of any invertebrate species found along
the coast of the Pacific Northwest, but most of the published studies have
come from other regions. Table 19-2 does not completely cover the thermal
233

Table 19-2
Physical Data on Invertebrates
See

Age

Temperature

Class

Name

Coelenterata
Actina equina
Aequoria aequoria

Salinity

Source

41.5-43.5 C(L)

Gonionemus

0.1 - 1lC(E)

5844

20-30 C(0)(R)

5845

Ctenopho r e

34. 2-36.4 C(L)

Beroe ovata
Kinorhyneha
Echinoderes pennaki

3583

16C (N)

Crustaceans
B ranchiopoda
A

6 - 18.5C(R) 2-35.47%o
2.46-19.8 C(R) 1.05-35. i%o

0 -10 C(R)

15 - 16 C(N)

? - 39C(R)

8. 2_13.9C(R) 4-8%o (B)

9.7-11.5 C(R) 33. 9%o (N)
il-32%o (B)
38-75F(B)

Evadne normanni
Pondon polyphemoides
Copepods

Calanus finmarchicus
Ismalia rnontrosa
'rigriops californicus
Decapods
Callianassa longirnanna

Cancer gibbosuius

Cancer magister
Cancer
Cancer magister

Key:

B = Range
N = Natural or

2695

2-90%o (B)
90-175%o (L)

3650

2184

2184

< io%o (R)

zo%o (L)
71F(L)
25-30%o (0)
50_57F(0)
6.1-21. 7C(L)
10-17. 8C(0)

?tjj

0 = Optimum L=Lethal
situ"E = Experimental
234

T = Tolerance level
Data Available
x

3635

Table 19-2 (cont'd)

Age

See

Class

Temperature

Cancer oregonensis

11.5- 13 C(E)
24-30 C(L)

Cancer productus

A&L

11C Adult
spawned and

Na me

Salinity

Source
5842

33%o+ 1%o (E)

3279

33.8-34.3%o(R)

5842

larvae reared
11.5-13C(E)
3o C(L)

Crangonalaskensis elongata

Crangon munita

9.3-12.2C(R)
24-27 (L)
11.5-13.0C(E)

5842

24-26C(L)

Crangon munitella
Crangon communis

11.0-13.5C(R) 26.6_31.6%o(R)
11.5-13.0 (E)

5842

24 C(L)

Crangon spinosissima
Hernigrapsus nudus

33.8-34.3%o (R)
9.3-11.4C(R)
ll.5-13.OC(E) 4%o-8%o(R)

5842

24C(L)

Hernigrapsus oregonensis
Oregonia gracilis

3585

9.8-11 C(?)

3.8-34: z%o (R)

2184

24-30 C(L)

Paurus samuelis

Pandalis dana

17-18C(E)reared
11.5-13.0C(E)

5842

24-30 C(L)

Pandalus jordani
Pandalus jordani

Paracrangon echinata

L
E

13+ 0. 2 C(reared)
50-54F(hatching) 7.8-24. 1%o(R)

2324

11.5- 13 C(E)

5842

2295

13+0.2C(0)

24 C( L)

Petrolistles eriomerus

11.5-13 C(E)
24C(L)

5842

Pugettia &Lacilis

11.5- 13 C(E)
24-30 C(L)

5842

235

Table 19-2 (cont'd)

Age

Name

Class

Segraacutifrons

Temperature

Salinity & DO

11.5-13.0C(E)

See
Source
5842

24C (L)

Spirontocaris cristata

13.8-14.6 C(N)

22. 5-34. 3%o (B)

20. 8-32. 2%o(N)

Spirontocaris raci.lis

9. 6-9.8 C(N)

34. 2-34. 3%o (N)

Uca pagnax

20 C (E)

7. 6-. 19. 4 C(R)

Isopods

Argeia pugettensis
Limnoria (gen)

20 C (E)
A

3636,
2689

7-23 C(T)
30C(L)
15 C (0)

Limnoria (gen)

Lirnnoria ligorum

9C =53 days incubation

21C =20 days incubation
28C-med. Tol. 1.0 mg/L
@ 15- 16C

Limnoria lignorum
Limnoria quadripunetata

11-16C(R)
7-8 C (lo. dev)

3636,
2689

1.0 rng/L
@ 15-16 C

0. 75 mg/L

2689

@15-16C

0.60 mg/L

3636
2710
2689

@ 22-26 C

Limnoria tripunetata
Limnoria tripunetata

10-30C(R)
15C(0)
20-30C(R)

1.0 mg/L
@ 15-16 C

3628
2710

1.18 mg/L

2689

@ 22-25C

Barnacles
Balanus balanus
Balanus cariosus
Balanus crenatus

7. 6-8.6C

Mollusca
Acmea digitalis
Acmea persona

42 C

3. 4-31 C(R)

236

3788
3772

Table 19-2 (cont'd)

Age

Name

Class

Acmea scabra
Adula californiensis
Botula falcata

Temperature

Salinity &DO

See
Sources
3772

42 -44 C(L)

3633

Brachidontes demissus plicatulus

Callistorna costaturn

15 C(0)

32. z%o (0)

5 &20C dcv.
stopped

DO max. @20 C
DO inc. @ 35. 3 C

2839
2839

10-20 (N) much other information

10 &20 (N) much other information

3796

60C air temp.

10-13 C(N)

Crassostrea gigas
Crassostrea virginica

muchternp. information under

culturing

Crassostrea virginica
Cymbulia peronii
Limacina helacina
Littorina (gen)
Littorina scutulata

E&L

Temp. & Development

5840
3783

35.2-35.7 C(L)
3807

3506

34-36.5C
Lower Limit
34-36.5 (R)
7.8-9.7(R)

Littorina sitkana
Mac oma

Mytilus edulus

16-20%olower

2385

limit
i6-2o%

3506

29. 2-31. 4%o

DO4.3-6.1m/L

3751

82-106F(L)?
77F(0)

02 max. @20C

2839
2798

7 -28 C(R)

1 7-45%o (R) well studied 2330,

15-20 C(0)

12 & 55%o (L)

2225,
2228

21.5%oLo survival

2228

much cther ecol. temp. infor.

Mytilus californianus
Mytilus californianus
Octopus vulgaris
Ostrea edulis

33. 7-36.0 C
15C gan-ietogenesis

237

much other
information

3789

Table 19-2 (cont'd)

Age

Name

Class

Temperature

Patella aspersa

Salinity &DO
Low

See
Source
2693

15_Zoo C

Patella vulgata

Low Q10
15-20C

2693

21.0-23.5C(L)
upper lethal raise
0 C/5 C inc. in
acclimation temperature

3764

Pododesmus cepio

15C (Garnetogensis)

3789

Pterotrachea cornata

39. 2-42. 5 C(L)

iliquapatu1a
Tegula fundbralis

24C; 51.5-63F

Placopecten magellanicus
Placopecten magellanicus

3635

60 C air
10- 13 C (N)

Tethys Janoriria

resuscapax
Echinodermata
Dendraster excentricus

40. 0-40.5
9C?

30.5%o (0)

3388

3012
3043

Pisaster ochraceous

10-16C(N)(R)
12-18C
21C(T)

5823
3286

Strongylocentrotus francis canus

7 4 C(N)

Strongylocentrotus purpuratus A

8-23. 5 C(R)Lab
25C(L)

3295
3286

Strongylocentrotus purpuratus E

13-20 C(R)
25C(L)
50 C & 30 C no fertilization

2835
5861
2798

238

17. 10 chlorinity(N)

2302

7. 85-8.55 rng/L

knowledge because we consider this species primarily a bay form.

ytilus
larvae are relatively sensitive to environmental changes, and have been
recommended as a standard for toxicity tests (De Ben, 3857).

Incidental temperature studies for the mollusks Macoma spp., and Littorina
spp. are also known.
Excellent temperature and other physical information exists for several
Arthropods. Calanus finmarchicus, a cosmopolitan form has been studied
in other regions. The wood-boring isopod genus Limnoria rivals Mytilus
in the amount of temperature information known. The destruction of wooden
structures by this genus has been the subject of much study. Information
on rates of boring with increased temperatures, O tonsumption, survival,
reproduction, and population dynamics have been s'udied. The validity of
this information applied to specimens of this genus on our coast is unknown
because many of these studies have been done elsewhere, under different
environmental conditions.
The barnacle genus Balanus has been quite extensively studied and information
on temperature, especially, as it relates to the zoogeography of this genus
is published. Although some of the species are cosmopolitan, most of the
studies were done in Europe and may have limited value.
The most important decapod crustacean which is well known thermally is
Cancer magister, the dungeness crab. This species has been very well
studied in many respects. At least partial temperature information exits

for all life stages: it has been reared in the laboratory and the thermal
tolerances of the adults are reasonably well understood. In situ studies,
especially of larval forms, present one type of study which is needed. Such
studies are necessary to predict the distribution, the expected yield or
the effects of a coastal outfall. Cancer productus, a closely related species
has also been reared in the laboratory, but due to its lack of commercial
importance, has not received the attention given C. magister.
A. small amount of temperature information is available for three other
genera of decapod crustaceans, Crangon, Pagarus and Pandalus. The
latter two genera have been reared in the laboratory.
The kinds of information available for some of the common species of the
Echinodermata is perhaps of better quality than fo.r most of the other groups
of organisms. The urchin genus Strongylocentrotus is represented in this
region by three species. Two of these Strongylocentrotus purpuratus and
S. fransiscanus occur commonly from Washington to Southern California.
A third, S. droebachiensjs is the common form in Puget Sound and is also
found on the outer coast of Washington and on the Atlantic coast. Strongylocentrotus purpuratus has been commonly used as a laboratory test animal
for numerous physiological, biochemical and histological studies. We have
239

not attempted to summarize these types of studies but have concentrated

on pertinent life history and temperature studies. The reason for the large
number of studies on this species is due to its large size, common occurrence, ease of collection, and readily obtainable reproductive cells for
developmental studies. The importance of S. purpuratus to the decline of
the kelp forests in Southern California also led to many detailed investigations
of this species.
Experiments by Farmanfarmajan and Giese (2835) indicate that S. purpuratus
does not acclimatize beyond the upper limit of its temperature range of
5 - 23.5C. (The Crinoids have also been shown similar in this respect.)
Temperatures of 25C'were lethal even after acclimation at 20 C for four
days. This species also exhibits a rather sharp upper tolerance boundary.
It appears healthy and normal at 23. 50 C but is killed at 25 C. Acclimatization
to lower temperatures, however, did occur. The same study by Farmanfarmaian
and Giese also presented information on the fertilization and development
in S. purpuratus . Animals developed normally between 13 - 20 C but at
50 C and 30 C no fertilization membrane or development occurred. The
low temperature of 50 C was not deleterious but 25 C was lethal to the eggs.
Reproduction is thought by Boolootian (5836) to be independent of temperature.

Gonor (3338) made internal temperature measurements on S. purpuratus

on the outer coast of Oregon. When the internal temperature rose above
26 C for 3-5 hours on several successive days, a heat kill resulted. This
heat kill was a natural occurrence and was attributed to the occurrence of
spring tides at a period of maximum solar heating for this region.
Limited information on oxygen utilization by the purple urchin is presented
by Farmanfarmaian and Giese (2835). Salinity tolerances of this genus have
not been specifically studied; however, the echinoderms in general are
considered to be unable to tolerate low salinities (Boolootian, 3286).

Such studies suggest that the urchin S. purpuratus is very sensitive to temperature
changes. Since it is not presently conceivable that large volumes of the
coastal region in the Pacific Northwest would be heated above 25 C, the
upper lethal temperature of the purple urchin may not be as imprtant as knowing
the effects of the rate of chaige of temperaLure within the viable range of this
species.
Strongylocentrotus fransiscanus and S. droebachiensis have not been subjected to such extenisve studies although they are also frequently used as
laboratory test animals.

240

Information on the effects of temperature on the thickness and structure

of the tests of Dendraster excentricus is the only temperature information
located for this species of sand dollar (Raup, 3012) although a goodly
amount of information was available on the natural history of this species.
Only scattered incidental temperature information was found for the asteroid, Pisaster ochraceous. It was observed that this starfish seldom experiences water below 100 C or above 16 C, but it tolerates air temperatures
of 21 C in the laboratory for 3 hours (3286). At 12-18C it can survive for
18 months without food (5283). Such information is not adequate to determine
the effect of temperature on this species.

The most frequently studied holothuroids from our area are Parastichopus
californiensis and Cucumaria curata. Most studies on this grciip centered
on behavior, ecology, natural history, or physiology.
To date, the work done on temperature requirements and tolerances of
marine vertebrates has been minimal. For mammals and birds, this
lack of knowledge may not be critical for they are homeothermic animals
and can stand a very wide range of temperatures. Most of the birds along
the Pacific coast undertake extensive migrations, spending their summers
in the Arctic and their winters along the California, Mexican, and South
American coasts. Some birds are perennial residents along the Pacific
Northwest coast and so obviously can withstand the large seasonal changes
in temperature. For the most part offshore marine birds are unstudied.

The mammals, such as the whales and sea lions, also migrate long distances, some from Arctic to sub-tropical waters as a normal part of their
life cycles.
Of all groups studied the largest amount of temperature information was
found for the marine fishes. The anadromous Salmonids have been extensively
reviewed, and temperature studies, expecially those pertaining to rivers
and fresh waters are numerous. A recent review of the Pacific salmon
is to be found in Parker and Krerikel (3 2 2 2 ). We have therefore omitted
the Salmonids from ou temperature discussion. However, Chapter 20
does contain a review of the coastal migrations and feeding of Pacific
salmon.
We have recorded (Table 19-3) temperature range information for some
life stage of thirty-one (31) species of marine fishes, of which approximately
50% are for adult stages. For some of these data, it is not known for which
life stage the information was obtained. Only eight species had information
for more than a single life stage; Trachurus symmetricus and Engraulis
mordax (Anchovy) had information recorded for adult, juvenile, and larval
stages.
241

Table 19-3

Optimum 8Ntt.
Upper
Lethal T.
T.
Env; T.

Age Clx.. T. Range

Ndma

Alosa !2dissuna

Summary of Phycical flala onFi.h

11 0 etc.

1625 F

45-70 F

55-70 F

Temp.
Miec.

Medium Tol.

Limit. Temp/

02 - coot.

Salinity

Salimty
Miec.

5614

Alosa sapi_
dissirna
Aloaa sapi-

dtsstn a
Artherinop
affinis oregonl*
Brachyietiva
frenatus

12. 8-28. 5C

13-19 C

26.32% 5

57F

Bramraii

Max Surv 26 C

Clsnocottus
globiceps
Clinocottus
recalvus

io

Clupea harangui

3.6
2.9

max 75%.
12 C L..

lolerated
44%. Z6C

20. 8-24. 7C

Clupue harangue

pallasi
Cymatogaster
agcregata
Cymatogaster

Nat. Hatch Hatch Exp.

'Large'

3.6 C

9-14 C

Ra'Large'

20- 100% 5

5902

25- 36% 5

582

agg rogata

Spawn Thre..

Engrautis mordax A
En8rauliu mordax A

14.5 &

20.O'C

Engraulie mordax L.

10.0-19.7 C

Engraulis mordax E

9. 9.23. 3 C

40.5-42

Fundutus
hoer rc.dituj

8.5 Z5.0C

hold ll.5-12.0C
Spawn. 13C

14.01?.4 C

13.0 I.

17.5C

Ernbiotocid

in aitu 32%.

13 C

Unfavorable
lO'C

3-8C

Breeding 2.3.

40.542 C

26%

5549
5502

1931%o 5

2 - llC

Gad.s macro.
cephalis
Girella nigrar..

11.8-27.0C
ZC-north

Hippoglossu.

10-llC..outh

st.nol,,4.

1-10C

I.E

10.6- 15. 0C

breeding
33.5.34.1%.

3.5 C

57645766
5772

Development

3. 5-6.5C

12-29. 5C

LeptocottuC
a rmCtuS

Merluccius
productu.

2687

2850

pa Ilasi

Hippoglossue
tonolepi

S.e

Sources

37. 5-67. 5%. 5

47. 5-67. 3F

Max. 67.5%

22 C

687

Oli.'.ottu

12-26.5' C

0. sv,teri

2-28'C
2.3-18'C

Q10.21

21-75%,1 max.75%..l2'C

maculosue

Oen.erus mordax
ParoohS.!

Paroprvs

vetlt

See Below

Parc.,hrys

30C
21.5-

25%.

28.5'C

2.3.13. 8 C Extremei Viable 10.6 + 0. 4'C Hatched at

4-13' C
2.3-18C Hatch

6.5-IOC

Embryo

Ps. 1ch!h.

Hatch

Mar. 37. 4+. I'C 1.

Sept.42.3+O.3'C

28.6 &

29.0C
30.2C(2 small)

29. 1-29. 5C
(2 large)
3 died at 26.5-

iata cadata

26.9C

30%.

14 C

lemiCOta

45.80F

.7

55-70 F

Can't tolerate

5614

11-2?.4 C

Spawn, 12.5.
16. 5C
Dcv. impaired

3818

Sarthnops
(cae ruca)

5614

45'F

Sa.tnnns sacax

13'C

cac rulca)

4-5.l4C

Sebastode, alutus
Squalus ..canthias
Thunns alalunga
Trachurus
A
syulmetricus
I.
Tra..urus

28.5 - 29.1 C

Spawn. 3.84. 2'C

5755

16. 3.22. 8'C

l0-19.5'C
14-16 C

14- 16' C

Spawn. 14-

15.5C

15.5'C10-19.5C

Parovrve vetujus - development time; 505'. hatching ranged from 3.5 days at l2'C and 25%oS to 11.8 days at
4C and 25%. S. Between 6.l2'C development time to 50% hatching was delayed by ealinitie. above and
brlose 25%.. At 4C hatching seemed to be accelerated by salinitiea greater and emaller than 25%.
N.t. Hatch. Natural Hatch conditions
Hatch Eap = Hatch F..peritnent conuttlons
Temperature
T.
b a'in Un burv;yal
M..x Sure
Lethal

20-34%,

7.9. C

max. crittcai
37C

erinacea

R. = Fang.

Hatch 10.40%,

20..32%,

Devel. l2.S'C

thaphanee

sv.,tjcu

viable hatch

28%.

Qu.ctula y-cauda

*1

0.560g/embrye/
hr.

8.8.10.5C

Phiis clemensi
?lati.hthvs

synrnetricus
Trtch.ru&

Con.umption

Won't hatch
at 2 C

muscuram
Rcccus saxatilis
Roccis saxattlis

2687

1-50%

5741

General information about the temperature of the water of the natural environment of fishes is also occasionally found in the literature. Information
on breeding and spawning especially for commercial species, although
meager, is best known for this grclIp. For marine fish the scarcity of
temperature data becomes more important. Many studies have revealed
that temperature is an important factor in the development, longevity and
distribution of various species. However, the information is woefully incomplete. Obviously, the fish are living in areas whose temperature is
suitable to their life cycle and diet. But in very few cases is it known how
much of an increase or decrease in temperature a particular species can
tolerate without upsetting its delicate metabolism, disturbing the development of its young, and altering its own position in the food chain.

The summary of available temperature information clearly indicates the

need for high quality temperature measurements, on a wide variety of
outer coastal marine species. Especially important would be studies on
early life stages and effects of change in temperature on coastal habits
such as feeding and migration. Such studies will be useful only if sufficient background information is simultaneously collected to make comparisons
and inferences. Concentrated efforts must be made to determine the critical
organisms from a biological, economic, and practical standpoint and obtain
as much in situ temperature information as possible. It is evident that one
of the first goals to do this type of research will be the development and
standardization of methods. A similar finding was derived by Parker and
Krenkel (3222) who made the following statement:
11The authors would like to stress the need for future investigators to conform to a standard methodology in determining temperature effects on the biota. For example, information on maximum lethal temperatures is rather useless unless simlutaneous
data are collected on the acclimating time, the length of time the
fish (and other organisms-authors) are exposed to temperature,
the rate of change of temperature, the size of the animal, the
condition of the organism, the salinity and dissolved oxygen concentration and the concentrations of ions which might be synergistic
or antagonistic to the effects of increased temperature (Doudoroff,
1957). Furthermore, even if the animals die or were dying at
these temperatures, many experiments do not disclose if sublethal,
irreversible physiological reactions had occurred well below the
so-called upper lethal limit (de Sylva, 1969). 1

244

Other Factors
Temperature is not the only factor which affects the distribution and abundance of marine organisms. Physical factors such as salinity, dissolved
oxygen, light, turbidity and pH are also important. Previous reviews of
the literature on the combined effects of temperature and salinity are limited
to Kinnets (2378) discussion. In discussing the effects of physical factors
on marine organisms, we must remember that animals and plants do not compartmentalize the various physical and biotic factors in their environment.
The organisms see the combined effects of all of the complex interacting
environmental factors and a small change in one may have a significant
effect on some other factor (Kinne, 2379; Hedgpeth and Gonor, 3856).

Our review of supplementary physical factors was not as extensive as that

for temperature; we feel a quick perusal of Tables 19-1, 19-2, and 19-3
will indicate the appalling lack of supplemental factors for almost every
Species.

Salinity information was 'found for 28 species of marine invertebrates

from our area (Table 19-2) and 12 species of fishes (Table 19-3). These
data can generally be broken into two groups--optimum salinity which
generally corresponds to a given temperature and salinity range which,
like the temperature range, is not comparable between species.

Oxygen data are meager. Several studies confirmed the increase of 02

consumption with increasing temperature. The importance of 02 may be
a matter of concern only seasonally, if at all. Information on pH is recorded
for seven species of marine algae, and this in an abstract of an unpublished
report by Blinks (2949).
In view of the fact that there is so much variance in the amount and the
quality of temperature, salinity and other physical data on the organisms
of the outer coast of the Pacific Northwest we strongly recommend referring
to specific entries in Chapter 20, or to appendix 8.

The effects of other factors such as chemical pollutants are found in Chapters
15, 16, and 17.

245

Chapter 20. BIOLOGY OF SELECTED NORTHWEST SPECIES

OR SPECIES GROUPS

by James E. McCauley and Danil R. Hancock

This chapter presents comprehensive summaries of the information

collected for 20 selected species or species groups which we concluded
were important. Importance is a highly subjective concept often
reflecting the views of the writer. It, therefore, becomes necessary
for the writer to state his position when selecting a group of species
which he wishes to call important. To derive such a list we
reviewed the amassed literature available on species from the region
of our study. This literature involved more than four thousand
species; most included simply reports of the species occurring in
the region. From this literature review a checklist of the species
from the region was compiled; this list, with appropriate annotations,
is included in this report as Appendix 8. Among the species included
in this list, a few stood out as being much more thoroughly studied
than the rest. The reasons for this more intensive study were
usually rooted in the economic importance of the species, but in some
cases were related to abundance or to other less specific factors.
Although 20 species or species groups are included in this Chapter,
we do not intend to infer that these are the only important species
in the region of our study. The listing is comprised mostly of fishes,
probably because this group has been subjected to a great deal of
study by State and Federal fishery agencies and by other interested
groups. Many species have been omitted from this Chapter simply
because there is not enough information available to allow us to
assess their importance in the nearshore marine community.
In this Chapter the ecology of each of the 20 species (or species groups)
has been described. Data on such environmental factors as temperature
and salinity have been discussed fully but information of other factors
sometimes is limited to a literature reference. Whereas most of the
literature used to derive the big checklist (Appendix 8) has referred
to the Pacific Northwest, more distant sources were included in these
detailed studies.
The assembled information included here should be useful in
quickly determining significant basic facts about some of the important
organisms of the region and, perhaps more importantly, should point
out those areas in which more research is needed.

246

We wish to acknowledge the assistance of Dr. Emory Sutton,

Mrs. Nancy Blind, and Mrs. Dianne Dean for their assistance in
compiling this information.

The species (or species groups) are arranged alphabetically by

scientific name except for the group Phytoplankton which comes first.
The following are included:

Page

Phytoplankton

247

Clupea harenus pailasi (Pacific herring)

Cymatogaster aggregata (Shiner perch)
Cancer magister (Dungeness crab)

251

Engraulis mordax (Northern anchovy)

Eopsetta j_ordani (Petrale sole, brill)
Hippoglossus stenolepis (Pacific halibut)
Macrocystis spp. (Giant kelps)
Merluccius productus (Pacific hake)
Microstomus pacificus (Dover sole)
Mytilus californians (Sea mussel)
Oncorhynchus spp. (Pacific salmon, five species)
Ophiodon elongatus (Ling cod)
Parophrys vetulus (English sole)
Pandalus jordani (Pink shrimp)
Sardinops sagax (Pacific sardine)
Sebastodes alutus (Pacific ocean perch)
Siliqua patula (Razor clam)
Thallichthys pacificus (Columbia River smelt)
Trachurus symmetricus (Jack mackerel)
1.

253
255
259
262
263
266
269

272
273
277
283
285
288
291

294
296
300
301

Phytoplankton
by Emory Sutton

The knowledge of the inshore marine phytoplankton of the area may

be divided into three categories (1) taxonomy and distribution
(2) community structure (3) physiological responses to elevated
temperature. It is advantageous to discuss these three categories
separately so that the need for additional work may be easier to assess.

247

Taxonomy and species distribution

A review of the literature concerning species distribution reveals

that a large number of species are present wherever a taxonomist
is found, and that the phytoplankters in the areas between the focal
points of taxonomists are poorly known. The region with which we
are concerned is located between two such focal points and it must
be inferred in many cases that an organism exists in this area
because it exists both at the northern and southern sites of taxonomic
study. It may be further pointed out that both of the extensive studies
(Cupp off southern California; 7000, and Gran and Angst in Puget
Sound, 3527) were done over thirty years ago. Since that time
taxonomy has been largely a by-product of some other aspect of
planktonology and not the result of work by a full-scale taxonomist.
By contrast, Hendey (7039) has done quite a thorough study of the
British coastal waters. This work was begun in the mid 1930's
however.

What is needed for this area is a sampling program which would

give an adequate picture of what organisms are found in the coastal
waters of the region under consideration. This would take at least
a year since different organisms appear at different times of the
year. The validity of the flora of Puget Sound (Phifer, 7017;
Gran & Angst, 3527) might be questioned at this time due to the
influence of increased population, since 1930, in the Puget Sound
region. Another problem with the species distribution analysis is
the fact that few people are active in the field of taxonomy. The
University of Washington and Oregon State University both have
preserved samples from off the Oregon coast but so far no publications
have come from these sarnple which represent years of data.
Community structure

This aspect of marine phytoplankton research cannot actually be

separated from part (1) since the factors which control the distribution
of species also act to control the community composition at any
given location. It is this phase of research which should concern
the individuals engaged in determining the possible effects of elevated
temperature on the marine phytoplankton. So little is known about

248

the effects on community structure of a changing environment that

we cannot even predict with any certainty what will happen when
we change just one factor, temperature. It has been observed
(7032) in Monterey Bay, California, that when the temperature of
the water warmed from 12C to 14C the diatoms were displaced
as the dominant organisms by species of Peridinium, Gonyaulax,
and Cerati.um with accompanying red tide and bioluminescence.
When studying the effect of temperature variation on phytoplankton,
the situation is complicated by the combined interactions between
the organism, the community of light, nutrients, and temperature.
This is the one point upon which many phytoplanktonologists and
ecologists are agreed (Oppenheimer, 7041). In the laboratory the
light and nutrient variables may be controlled and the effects of
temperature examined before any predictions may be made on
the possible effects on the phytoplankton community of the introduction of effluent of high temperature into the environment.

Physiological responses to elevated tepratures

So little has been done in this area that in a recent publication
Strickland and Eppley (7038) devoted less than two pages to the
effects of temperature on the kinetics of marine phytoplankton
growth. A number of investigators have looked at the thermal limits
of some marine phytoplankters but oftentimes they were looking
at different aspects of the organism's responses to thermal stress.
A partial listing of the work and findings of investigators using
organisms found in this area follows. Kain and Fogg (7002), while
studying Asterionella japonica, found that this organism had an optimum
temperature for growth at 20-25C and a maximum of less than
30C in culture. This is considerably higher than that found in the
natural situation in the region under consideration. However,
the effects of adding nutrients, trace elements, and vitamins to
the medium must be considered in such laboratory cultures.
Asterioneila japonica is very common in the inshore region and
needs more attention before conclusions are drawn in regard
to the effects of thermal pollution. Thomas (7003) used another
organism which occurs in this region, Chaetoceros graci.lis,
and found that this organism had a lower limit of 11C and an upper
limit of 41C with an optimum between 23 and 37C. Skeletonema
costatum has been the subject of considerable research on the

249

influence of temperature on physiological processes. This

organism is important in the neritic phytoplankton and is of ubiquitous
distribution. Jorgensen and Nielsen (7006) found that photosynthesis
was little affected by temperature in the range 7-20C. Curl and
McLeod (7008) found this organism to be tolerant of temperatures
5-30C and reported that Matsue had found a tolerance to 37-40C.
Jitta etal. (7009) studied the cell division of Skeletonema costatum
and found that it would tolerate temperatures from 6C to more
than 28C. Braarud (7012) found that this organism grew well
at 17-18C. Ryther and Guillard (7015) found that S. costatum grew
from 5 to 25C.

The problem of assigning a label of "important' to a species of the

phytoplankton is nearly impossible whether it be for scientific or
economic reasons. Little is known about the effect on the higher
trophic levels of. changing phytoplankton community structure.
Some studies have been done on the feeding preferences of copepods
with respect to diatom shape by the Bureau of Commercial Fisheries
Laboratory at Auke Bay, Alaska. It has been suggested that the
diatom Chaetoceros armatum might be a principal food organism
for the razor clam along the Washington coast. If this is so then
this organism should be investigated with respect to its physiological
ecology. The diatom Skeletonema costatum is important because
of its ubiquity and its role in phytoplankton research. Chaetoceros
decipiens is important because of its abundance off the Oregon coast.
A group of organisms which is probably important but largely
unknown are the various unicellular flagellated forms which are
not studied because of the difficulty involved. These small
flagellates abound in the estuaries and inshore regions of the area
especially in the spring and summer months. A concentrated
effort is needed to gain some knowledge as to the distribution and
physiology of these organisms as well as their interrelations with
the higher trophic levels.

The fact is clear that there can be little possibility of assigning

importance values to the phytoplankters until there is more known
about their interrelationships with the next higher trophic level. The
fact that an organism which occurs in abundance in an area may
be displaced by another organism when the environmental conditions
change is important.

250

In conclusion it might be said that the need at present is to find

out what organisms are occurring in the area, the dynamics of
change in population size, and the dynamics of change in community
structure and then to find how a change in temperature changes the
above. The phytoplankton are small and easily overlooked when
concentrating attention on larger economically important species.
2.

Clupea harengus pallasi (Valenciennes) (Pacific Herring

by Nancy Blind

The Pacific herring is probably the most important fish in the

northeastern Pacific area. Not only is it important because of
the large commercial fishery it forms but also because of the
great number of animals that feed upon herring eggs, larvae and
adults.
The range of the herring is from Kamchatka to the San Diego area
(Schultz and DeLacy, 2049), with the largest fishery being in
British Columbia and Washington. The herring is fished commercially
in the fall when it begins to move inshore toward the spawning
grounds (Thompson, 2444).
Spawning takes place primarily in bays and estuaries along the
Pacific coast, in winter and spring. In British Columbia, spawning
is from mid-February to mid-April, with the peak occurring
slightly earlier in southern British Columbia than in the northern
area (Taylor, 5530).

The eggs are laid in the intertidal zone from approximately 0 to

4 meters above the low tide level (Taylor, 5530). Some sources
extend the area of egg deposition to a depth of 30 ft. (Fulton, 3635).
The spawn adheres to gravel, pilings, oysters and vegetation such
as Zostera marina, Phyllospadix scouleri, Sargassum muticum,
Fucus evanescens, and Laminaria sp. (Taylor, 5530).

251

Temperature and Larvae

Hatching time of the eggs has been shown to be temperature dependent.
In the natural environment, the water temperature is around 3-6C
and at this temperature, hatching occurs in 20-22 days. When
the temperature is raised to 9-10C, hatching takes 14-15 days,
and when increased to 12-14C, the eggs hatch in 9 days
(Nikitinskaya, 5673). The larvae are very small, thin and nearly
transparent and are easily sucked into water intake pipes (Fulton,
3635). They can withstand large ranges of temperature and
salinity. At the end of the first year, the larvae leave the bays
and sounds for the open ocean (Taylor, 5530).
Migration

Maturity is reached after 2, 3,, or 4 years and herring may live 8

years (Clemens and Wilby, 2390). Tagging of juveniles showed
52% homing after 2 years at large and 64% after 3 years, by subdistrict, which is defined as the region occupied by an adult
population. Adults showed 81% and 92% homing (Hourston, 5666).

Analyses of vertebral counts and tagging data also show that there
is more than one population along the west coast of Vancouver
Island. Each has a separate run and there is very little mixing
between populations (Tester, 5680). The largest migratory
populations form the greatest part of the fishery (Taylor, 5678).
Feeding

The herring is primarily a plankton feeder (Clemens and Wilby, 2390)

and (Fuiton, 3635). However, in Little Port Walter, Alaska, herring
were observed feeding on Oncorhynchus gorbuscha fry. The greatest
predation, in this instance seemed to be in daylight (Thorsteinson,
5681).

Predators
Most importantly, it is a food source for innumerable marine
animals. Herring eggs are eaten by fish and other filter feeders
such as jelly fish, combjellies and crustaceans (Clemens and
Wilby, 2390). Primary predators on herring eggs are the marine

252

birds. It has been estimated that mortality due to bird predation

ranges between 56% and 99% (Taylor, 5530). Losses up to 39%
within the first 3 days after spawning were calculated from predation
by the glaucous-winged gull and the herring gull alone. This was
calculated for eggs laid mainly on vegetation. Of the two, the
glaucous-winged gull consumed less vegetation and more spawn
than did the herring gulls (Outram, 5661). Larvae near the surface
are also preyed upon heavily (Taylor, 5530).
=

Larger herring are eaten by sharks, fishes, waterfowl, seals

and sea lions (Clemens and Wilby, 2390). Stomach analyses p1

1004 salmon (Oncorhynchus tshawytscha) caught in the year of
October 1954 to October 1955, showed that 12.7% of the stomach
contents was Clupea pallasii (Merkel, 5669). Herring is the principal
food of the Alaskan fur seal during the spring (Scheffer, 5674).
Ninety-nine percent of the food of 148 mature female Callorhinus
ursinus taken in January and March was C. pallasi. Also, one
harbor porpoise (Phocoena vomerian) taken had fed entirely on
herring (Wilke and Kenyon, 5682).

Very little has been done on temperature tolerances and we found

no information concerning the effects of various chemicals or
pollutants on the herring.
Other studies on the Pacific herring include:
Fecundity - Piskunov, 5671; Katy and Erickson, 5664; McHugh, 5668.
Egg description and fertilization information - Yanagimachi, 5690,
5691, 5692; Yanagimachi and Kaneh, 5693.
Fishery - Taylor, 5530; Kithama, 5665; Tester, 5529.
For catch data see - U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Current
Fishery statistics; U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service, and
Statistical Digest (Pacific Coast Fisheries).

Synonyms: Clupea pailasii, C. mirabilis

3.

Cymatogaster aggregata (Gibbons) (Shiner perch)

by Nancy Blind

The shiner perch, a fish of relatively small commercial value,

is of particular interest because it is so numerous along the Pacific
coast and because it bears live young. Sometimes called the pile
253

perch, it is common around docks and pilings. According to Schultz

and DeLacy (2049) the range of C. aggregata extends from approximately Port Wrangel, Alaska to Todos Santos Bay in Baja California.
Life history
The reproductive cycle of this fish has been the subject of much
study. Copulation occurs in mid-summer; sperm is retained in
the ovary of the female until December when fertilization takes
place (Wiebe, 5800; Eigenmann, 5736). The embryos are then
held until parturition in mid-summer.

Temperature studies
Temperature and photoperiod seem to have a definite effect on
the reproductive cycle of C. aggregata. Increasing or long photoperiod, such as in late winter,, spring or early summer, results
in spermatogene sis, development of secondary. sex structures
and reproductive behavior. Warm temperatures also enhance this.
Cold temperatures and short photoperiod, as in winter, result in
testicular restitution and growth of spermatogonia (Wiebe, 2484).

In the female, warm temperatures as in late summer and early

autumn aid in oocyte formation. Cold temperature as in late winter

helps oocyte maturation. Early gestation is aided by cold temperatures
but wa.rmer temperatures are required later on (Wiebe, 2484).

Adults regulate to dilutions from 20% to 100% sea water, but the
ability of the young to regulate was proportional to their stage oL
development. The youngest stages could only regulate well between
25-36% sea water due to greater permeability and less efficient
salt secretory mechanisms (Triplett and Barrymore, 5802).
Cymatogaster aggregata is more resistant to changes in oxygen
content or carbon dioxide content of sea water than either the salmon,
Oncorhynchus kisutch, or the herring, Clupea pallasii. This was
in keeping with the fact that the alkali reserve of the blood plasma
of C. aggregata changes very rapidly with changes in carbon dioxide
tension of sea water (Powers and Shipe, 2575).

254

The pile perch is found in shallow waters during the summer and
in deeper waters in the winter. They eat small crustaceans and
other invertebrates (2390). There is a record of a massive kill
of C. aggregata in British Columbia due to hydrogen-sulfide
production during a dredging operation (Hourston and Herlinreaux,
5797).

Other important studies include:

Reproduction - Wi.ebes, 5800; Turner, 5801; Eigenmann, 5736;
and Wilson and Millemann, 5799.
4.

Cancer magister Dana (Dungeness crab)

by Diane Dean

The Dungeness crab is one of the largest edible crabs of the United
States. It is also known as the Pacific crab, market crab, commercial
crab, and white crab (3361, 3342), ranging from the Alaskan Peninsula
(Aleutian Islands) to Magdalena Bay in lower California (Bees,
3275; MacKay, 3363). It occurs within bays and estuaries as
well as on the open ocean floor preferring sandy or sandy-mud
bottoms but found on all types (Waldron, 3232; Dewberry, 3356;
MacKay, 3363). The crab is found at varying depths. Bees (3275)
stated 12-120 feet and Dewberry (3356) stated from low tide to
an average of 50 fathoms. Other reports are from 2-20 fathoms
(Hipkins, 3361), 40-60 fathoms (Cleaver, 3333) and from intertidal
zone to 93 fathoms (Kenyon and Scheffer, 3372). Butler (3611)
has compiled an extensive bibliography for this species.

Life history

The diet of the Dungeness crab consists of small fish, shrimp,

small crabs, marine worms, isopods, amphipods, barnacles,
clams, oysters and other shell fish, preferring fresh, live food
or recently dead to stale food (Dewberry, 3356; Waidron, 3282;
MacKay, 3363). It is mainly carnivorous and will eat other
crabs in the soft-shelled stage (Dewberry, 3356).

255

Reproduction and life cycle

The female is usually 90 to 100 mm wide and about two years of age
at sexual maturity (Cleaver, 3333; Butler, 3329). The males
reach sexual maturity at a carapace width of 116 mm. Breeding
activity begins at about 140 mm carapace width or when the crab
is 3 years old (Butler, 3329). At the onset of maturity there is
a. definite segregation between males and females as shown by lack
of uniform distribution (Cleaver, 3333; Dewberry, 3356). In British
Columbia mating takes place from April to September on the tidal
flats. Males are polygamous (Dewberry, 3356). In Washington,
mating takes place during May and June (Cleaver, 3333). Hatching
takes place from December to June with the height in March in
British Columbia (MacKay, 3356). In Oregon waters hatching
takes place from December to April (Trask, 3279).

Larvae or "protozoea" swim to the surface of the water and moult

to zoea stages. Crab larvae are attracted by light and at times in
May and June in Washington waters they swarm near shore at the
surface of the water. Later in life they show an aversion to light
(Cleaver, 2039).
Poole (3273) reared larvae in the laboratory and watched them
develop through six larval stages, five zoea and one megalopa
which metamorphoses directly to the first crab instar (Reed, 3274).
Development occurred in salinities from 26-30%o at a temperature
of 51 F. Total development time from egg to first crab instar
was 111 days. High mortality during transitions appeared to be
due to inability of larvae to break completely away from casts.
Under natural conditions sand may aid in shedding casts. Food
for the zoea was Artenila nauplii. The megalops fed on larger
brine shrimp (Poole, 3273). Natural development in the ocean
appears to take from 128 to 158 days. Under natural conditions
the zoea feed on microscopic plants and minut&marine animals
(Dewberry, 3356). Crab larvae are eaten by a number of aquatic
animals, among them fish such as silver salmon, herring, pilchard,
mackerel and wolf eel, and also sea birds (Fish Commission of
Oregon, 3319; Waldron, 3282; Dewberry, 3356).

256

The megalops is cannibalistic and preys on small crustaceans,

crab eggs, and dying and dead planktonic life (Dewberry, 3356).
The megalops stage shows up about the month of August (Dewberry,
3356; Butler, 3332) and eventually loses its ability to swim,
sinking to the sea bed where it burrows into the sand and mud and
continues to molt (Dewberry, 3356).

Trask (3279) reared Cancer magister and Cancer productus in

the laboratory and indicated how to separate the larval stages of
these two species. He did not describe in detail the physical
conditions under which they were reared.

Temperature and salinities

MacKay (3397) reported that the crabs' distribution is bounded
by surface water isotherms of 75 and 40F and one report of
temperature-salinity range for the Dungeness crab is from 38-65F
and from 11-32%. Crabs can't live in fresh water, and adult
crabs retreat before a freshet. Juvenile crabs appear to have a
wider tolerance for they are commonlyfound in estuaries with
salinities less than lO%o (Cleaver, 3333).
In culturing zoeae, Reed (3092) found the optimum lab-culturing
ranges of temperature and salinities to be 10. 0-13. 9 C and
25-30% respectively. Faster zoeal development with lower
survival rate occurred at 17. 8C and 20-30%o. The effects of
temperature and salinity alone on zoeae didn't seem to cause large
fluctuations in zoeal survival, but reduced temperature and resulting
prolonged zoeal development combined with current transport may
effect survival of post larval crabs.
The Dungeness crabs are extremely susceptible to drying (Cleaver,
3333), but can be kept alive for 2-8 hours if their gills are kept
moist (Hipkins, 3361; Dewberry, 3356).
Migration

Both sexes show characteristic migratory patterns (Dewberry, 3356).

A predominant south to north movement occurs during spring and
summer months (January to June). Two other migratory patterns

257

are (1) on and off-shore and (2) coast wise. Tagged specimens
travel average distances of 10-12 nautical miles after six monthst
'freedom. One long migration was recorded 'from Grays Harbour
to Tillamook Bay, Oregon, a distance of more than 148 km
(Cleaver, 3333). Waldron (3282) found that the average nondirectional distance travelled was 15 km (range 0-250 km).
Crabs released in bays averaged non-directional distance of
8 km(range 0-150 km). Snow and Wagner (3278) and Butler (3331)
also made tag-migration studies.
Predation

Crab larvae have numerous enemies, and the adult is also subject
to prey. After molting it is defenseless. Enemies include the
conger eel, wolf eel, cod, dog fish, halibut, skate rays, nurse
hound sharks, marbled sculpin, rock fish, octopus and other crabs.
Cannibalism takes place when one crab is in the soft-shelled state
(Waidron, 3282; Dewberry, 3356; Gray, 3358).
Economic importance

Crabs are economically important. The Pacific Coast states

produce over 15,800 metric tons of shell crab with a value of at
least $5. 5 million to the fishermen (Poole, 3273). The crabs are
marketed as frozen, whole or dressed crabs and cooked meat
is sold fresh or canned (Walburg, 3287). California leads in
catches followed by Oregon, Washington and then Alaska (Rees, 3275).
Other important studies include:
Molting and regeneration - Dewberry, 3356; Phillips, 3405;
MacKay, 3363; Walburg, 3287.
Mating behavior - Snow and Nielson, 3277; MacKay, 3363.
Egg development - MacKay, 3363.
Growth and development - Butler, 3222 and 3321; Dewberry, 3356;
MacKay and Weymouth, 2067.

Physiological studies - Jones, 3362; Davenport, 3344; Collip, 3129;

Goode, 3318.

Needed research:
Although much work has been done on Cancer magister, no "in situ"
studies describing the effects of environmental changes on the life
cycle and ecology were found.

258

5.

Engraulis mordax (Girard) (Northern anchovy)

by Nancy Blind

The northern anchovy is probably the most abundant fish in the

northeastern Pacific ranging from the Queen Charlotte Islands in
British Columbia to Cape San Lucas, Baja California. The largest
concentration is found from San Francisco Bay to Magdalena Bay
(Baxter, 5697). Meristic characters such as the number of gill
rakers, vertebrae and fin rays, indicate three subpopulations along
the Pacific coast (McHugh, 5696). The first population extends
from British Columbia to central California, the second from southern
California to northern Baja California, and the third from central
to southern Baj a California (Baxter, 5697). There seems.to
exist for each characteristic an inverse relationship between the
mean number of meristic elements and the water temperature during
the fixation period in the larval stage (McHugh, 5696).

The anchovy, a pelagic fish inhabiting coastal waters, is found well

below the surface during the day and in the upper layers at night
(McHugh and Fitch, 5621). No north-south migrations have been
noted but the fish move offshore during fall and winter and inshore
during the spring (Baxter, 5697). Tagging studies indicate no
significant movement for this species (Wood and Robson, 5706;
Messersmith, 5703). At times when the water temperatur.e is
warmer than usual, fewer adults are found in inshore waters
(Baxter, 5697).
Biology

Spawning occurs over the entire range but is concentrated from

Point Conception, California, to Point San Juanico, Baja California.
The peak of the spawning period is in late winter and early spring,
however spawning does occur in every month of the year. Although
anchovies spawn as far as 480 km from shore, most spawning takes
place within 90 km. Each female spawns 2-3 times each year. The
eggs and larvae are pelagic and are found in the upper layers
(Baxter, 5697).

259

Off California, eggs are found in temperatures ranging from

9.9 to 23.3C with most between 13.0 and 17.5C. Ten percent
of the spawning takes place below 13. 0C (Baxter, 5697). Bolin
(5726) indicated that spawning occurred regularly at 10C. The
threshold temperature for spawning seems to be 11.5 or 12. 0C.
Fertilization is immediate and apparently very successful since
unfertilized eggs are uncommon (Baxter, 5697).
Hatching occurs in 2-4 days depending on the water temperature.
Larvae taken in California are found from 10. 0 to 19. 7 C with
95% being present in temperatures from 14. 0 to 17. 4C. Some
were taken in the upper 23 meters but the main concentration
seemed to be between 24-48 meters. The larvae are 2. 5 to 3. 0 mm
at hatching (Baxter, 5697) and colorless, in contrast to most fish
larvae which have some pigmentation (Ahistrom, 5724).

The growth rate is very rapid, however, there seems to be a

decrease in growth rate from August to November (Baxter, 5697).
Clark (5694) found that fifty percent of the females reach maturity
in 2-3 years. All are mature by the time they reach a length of
150 mm or by 4 years. The anchovy is relatively short-lived, with
a life span of approximately four years.
Feeding

Food is primarily organisms less than one mm in length filtered

from the water. L.rvae feed on crustaceans, especially copepods.
Adults feed also by biting on larger organisms. In this sense,
they are somewhat cannibalistic, since they occasionally prey on
smaller anchovies. Although they seem to prefer larger organisms,
anchovies will not abandon filtration unless other organisms are
in abundance (Baxter, 5697).
Ecology

Along the Pacific coast, there is a close competition between

the anchovy and the sardine (Sardinops sagax). The competition
seems to be that of two animals occupying the same trophic level
(Ahistrom, 5698) and is evident from the larval stages of both fish.
Both sardine and anchovy are abundant in the same area and eat

260

nearly the same food (Baxter, 5697). Indications are that anchovy
larvae can consume larger food particles than can sardine larvae
(Berner, 5725), perhaps, giving it an advantage. However, it
will be noted that the sardine is present in the Gulf of Mexico, an
area which has not yet been invaded by the anchovy (Ahlstrom, 5698).
Since 1954, the sardine population along the Pacific coast has
greatly decreased while the anchovy has increased. Recent surveys
show that eggs of the sardine are outnumbered not only by the eggs
of Engraulis mordax, but also of Meriuccius productus, Trachurus
symmetricus and Sebastodes spp. The anchovy now appears to be
the dominant species.
Predation
Enemies of the anchovy include nearly every species of predatory
fish. Not much is known about the percent of the anchovy population
consumed by the various species. Available data shows that in
California, the anchovy comprises 12.8% of the food of Senola
dorsalis and 29.1% of Oncorhynchus kisutch (Baxter, 5697).
It is also the main food in summer and fall for Roccus saxati].is
in San Francisco Bay (Johnson and Calhoun, 5695).

Temperature studies
From 1955 to 1964, samples of anchovy taken along the California
coast were taken in water temperatures ranging from 8. 5 to 25. 0C.
Of 617 samples from northern California to Magdalena Bay, 75.9%
were taken between 14. 5 and 20. 0C. From southern California to
northern Baja California, 340 samples were taken in 8.5 to 21. 5C and
72.5% of these were between 14. 5C and 18. 5C. Of 277 samples
taken in central to southern Baja California waters of 13. 0 to
25.0C, 65% were from water between 17.0 and 21. 5C (Baxter, 5697).
Economic importance

There are two fisheries for the anchovy:, the commercial and the
live bait fishery. The commercial fishery is concerned with fresh,
frozen, or salted fish for human or pet food; dead bait; feed for
hatcheries or mink farms and reduction of waste parts to meal and
qil. The anchovy comprises 98% of the live bait fishery (Baxter,
5697). It is mainly used in fishing for albacore. Most indications
are that the anchovy fisheries can be exploited to a greater extent
in the future (Prater, 2571).
261

Other important studies are:

Fecundity - Baxter, 5697.
Eggs - Ahistrom, 5724.
Photoreception and light intensity - OtConnell, 5700; Loukashkin, 5704.
Catch Statistics for California (other states not available) from
U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Statistical Digest. No. 55-60.
6.

Eopsetta jordani (Lockington) (Petrale sole, brill)

by Nancy Blind

In older literature, the name may appear as Hippoglossoides

jordani (2416).

The range of the petrale sole extends from Unalaska to San Diego
Bay (Schultz and DeLacy, 2049) however it is fished commercially
only from Santa Barbara, California, to Hecate Strait, British
Columbia, with the main area of concentration being in northern
Washington and southern British Columbia (California Fish and Game,
5729).

Feeding

Eopsetta jordani is usually found on bottoms of a mixture of mud

and sand. Although little is known about its feeding habits,
the sole is reported to eat herring, sandlance, anchovies, euphausiids,
rockfish, flatfish, and zoarcids. (Clemens and Wilby, 2390;
California Fish and Game, 5729; Cleaver, 5773).
Spawning and growth

Harry (5525, 5775) indicated .that spawning takes place from

November to March throughout the range with the heaviest spawning
being in December and January. The eggs are probably free floating;
very little information is available on development (California Fish
and Game, 5729).

262

Conparison of meristic characters indicate the existence of two

main stocks in the northern Pacific area: one extends from Hecate
Strait to Trinidad Head, California, and the other one ranges from
central to southern California. This is accounted for by the stable
conditions of temperature and salinity within the areas where
spawning takes place. South of Point Conception, the salinity is
similar but the water temperature is 1.0C higher (Best, 5774).
Migration

Although there is little mixing of the two populations, tagging

studies indicate a north-south spawning migration (Ketchen and
Forrester, 5793; Barraclough, 5789; California Fish and Game,
5729). There is a northerly inshore feeding migration in the summer
and a southerly, offshore spawning movement in the winter.
Spawning seems to take place in waters of about 200 fathoms (California
Fish and Game, 5729). The average rate of migration is 3.75 km/
day with the maximum for an individual being 7. 1 km/day (Best,
5774).

Additional important information on the petrale sole includes:

Trawling and catch data - Alverson and Pruter, 5735.
Feeding - California Fish and Game, 5729
Age, Growth and Size range - Alverson and Pruter, 5735; California
Fish and Game, 5729; Cleaver, 5773; Harry, 5775; Ketchen

and Forrester, 5793.

7.

Hippoglos sus stenolepis Schmidt (Pacific halibut)

by Nancy Blind

The Pacific halibut, Hippoglossus stenolepis Schmidt, forms the

basis for a significant industry along the Pacific Northwest coast.
It is widely distributed throughout the north Pacific, occurring
from Japan north into the Bering Sea and then southward along
the coast to northern California (Schultz and DeLacy, 2049). The
southern limit of the commercial fishery is Cape Mendocino,
California (Bell and Best, 5766).

263

Life history
Information concerning the life history of the halibut is not extensive.
The fish occurs from very shallow water to depths around 1100 meters
although it is most numerous between 55-400 meters (Clemens
and Wilby, 2390). Along the Washington and Oregon coasts, no
halibut are taken commercially deeper than 367 meters. Most
of the fish were caught on the inner continental shelf and the number
taken decreased with increased depth. Halibut comprised 15% to
42% of all flounders caught on the inner shelf (Alverson, 5735).
Spawning

Spawning takes place during the winter, usually from November

to January, at depths of 275-400 meters (Clemens, 2390). The
fertilized eggs and early larvae rise to midwater depths and are
carried great distances by the ocean currents. The northward
drift of the larvae is counterbalanced to some extent by a general
southerly movement of the adults (Bell and Best, 5766). Studies
in the Gulf of Alaska show considerable movement eastward
(Thompson and Henington, 5765), presumably toward spawning
grounds over the continental slope (Thompson and Van Cleve,
5764).

Russian studies in the Bering Sea indicate that the halibut breeds
in water of temperature 2.30 to 3.5C and salinity of 33. 5%o to
34. 1%o (Novikov, 5772). Thompson etal. (5764) report that the
larvae develop at 3. 5-6. 5C.

After six to seven months, the larvae become demersal, usually

Thompson and Van Cleve (5764) gave a

very detailed account of this as well as the taxonomic aspects of
the development of the eggs and larvae. Apparently, the young
halibut occupy somewhat shallower water thando the adults (Novikov,
5772). Females grow faster than males and have a longer life
span. Catches in the Bering Sea consisted of fish from 1 to 25
years of age. Males reach maturity sometime between their seventh
and thirteenth year and at lengths of 90 to 140 cm (Novikov, 5772).
Off the Oregon and Washington coasts, the range was 23 to 176 cm
during May and June.

with an average of 59.2 cm (Alverson etal. , 5735).

264

Food

Clemens and Wilby (2390) list food of the halibut as: various fish,

crabs, clams, squids and other invertebrates. There is some

indication that diet varies with age (Novikov, 2772).
Predators

Some of the halibuts' natural enemies are the sea lion (Eumetopea8
stelleri), the "ground shark," the lamprey and other halibut
(Thompson, 2442).
Temperature and Distribution
The geographic distribution of the halibut has been analyzed with
regard to temperature. Throughout the north Pacific it occurs in
boreal waters of 3-8C. This also seems to be correlated with
the ocean current pattern. The southern limits of the commercial
fishery occur at 10-11C and the northern limit is 2C (Thompson
and Van Cleve, 5764). Optimum temperature for the halibut in
the Bering Sea was given as 1-10C. This was considered to be
a wider range than evidenced for more southerly individuals (Novikov,
5772). Abundance of halibut broods and the temperature from 1910
has seemed to have a positive relationship 10 to 12 years later
(Ketchen, 5767).

Other important studies on the Pacific halibut include:

Size range - Alversonetal. , 5735
Fecundity - Alverson etal. , 5772
Egg size and composition - Thompson and Van Cleve, 5764
Growth - Southward, 5769
Food and Feeding - Thompson, 2442
Fishery - Thompson, 5762; Burkenroad, 5763; Southward, 5769, 5770
Catch statistics - see U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service statistical
digest for the years of interest.
Also see the publications by the International Halibut Commission
for additional information concerning catch statistics, regulation
and state of the fishery.

265

8.

MacrocyStis5PP. (Giant kelps)

by Diane Dean and Danil R. Hancock

community

Macrocystis, the giant kelp, 'forms the dominant plant(MacFarlaxld

and austral areas
of sub-littoral, temperate, boreal
North and South Pacific
and Prescott, 5817) growing along the
40N and 60S latitude.
coasts of the Western Hemisphere between
southern California
In shallow (8-25 m) rocky regions o'f
community, while
pyrifera is the dominant species in the climax
in relative dominance.
further north M. integrefolia increases
Puget Sound, the closely related
Northwest,
especially
In the Pacific
the dominant kelp.
NereocyStis luetkeana (the bull kelp) becomes
Growth
attaches to rocks by means of a hol4fast.plants
become
tends to diminish with depth and below 30 rn attached
, 5816). Kelp,
quite sparse (Anonymous, 5815; Leighton.i.
important food source for man
both directly and indirectly, is an
bold'fast system and
and 'for near shore animals. The extensive
provides both food and
the dense foliage canopy at the surface
the beds comprise
shelter for marine organisms and therefore Drifthl seaweed,
6).
prize fishing areas (Leighton et al. , 581 substantial
portions is
a
of which Macrocystis often comprises
observed Ofl the sea floor in
of importance and has often been
(Anonymous, 5815).
areas much deeper than it normally grows
are often present iti
Although agarophytes and edible seaweeds
marine plant in the California
abundance, giant kelp is the only 90,000 metric tons (wet)
region directly utilized by man and value, one million dollars).
are harvested annually (approximate
and the upper .parts
It is also used as 'fertilizer, for food additives, (North, 5811).
are harvested for certain chemical constituents
the giant kelp communities are
Most o'f our knowledge concerningCalifornia to determine the causes
the result of studies in southern
'for their decline since 1940.

MacrocyQ

266

Growth and photosynthesis

The giant kelps extend from the bottom into the zones of bright
illumination providing a large surface area of photosynthetic
tissue and creating a zone of plant productivity in deeper water.

The stipes, pneumatocysts and blades are photosynthetic (Clendenning,

5812), but the vegetative blades are the main site of photosynthesis.
The sporophyil.is located directly above the holdfast. Spore
liberation apparently continues throughout the year eventually
giving rise to gametophytes. Gametophytes are dioecious, the
female producing the egg which can be fertilized by the sperm to
produce the spermatophyte, known as kelp. It requires about 1/2
year from the time of spore liberation to the development of a
sporophyte 18 high (Anonymous, 5815).

Temperature, salinity and water quality

Kelp growth probably increases abOut two-fold for a 10C rise in
temperature (Leighton, 5816). Leighton cited Clendenning who
found a Q10 of 2.0 for kelp photosynthesis and North who obtained
a value of 1.7 for frond elongation (Leighton etal. , 1966).

Temperatures above 18C may affect kelp adversely, increasing

with the length of time the high temperature is maintaine.d. Beds
seem to deteriorate in warm water later in the summer and early
autumn but will revive in cold conditions (North, 5809).
There seems to be considerable geographic variation in the degree
of sensitivity of kelp to warm water (Anonymous, 581 5). The
strains of Macrocystis in southern California exhibit sensitivity
to elevated water temperature and large quantities of kelp are
lost in summer if water temperature exceeds 20C and persists
for several weeks. A strain of kelp labelled "0" in Baja California
has greater resistance surviving temperatures of 24C (North, 5809).

In a 90-day transplant experiment, plants kept at 15 meters

(temperature 15-18C; photosynthetically active light 5% of surface
intensity) doubled in area every 21 days and in length every 24 days.

267

Plants growing at comparable depths on natural substrates doubled

in length every 24 to 34 days (Haxo and Neushal, 5818). For additional
information on temperature and transplants see North and Neushal
(5809).

Salinity does not seem to have a detrimental effect on photosynthesis

following an 18-hour exposure to salinity of 25%o higher or lower
than natural seawater. In a 5-day incubation period at 20C
photosynthetic capacity was lower in samples that had been exposed
to seawater diluted 10% to 25% with distilled water. Water temperature
was held between 14-17 C. At 18C the kelp did not do well (Anonymous,
581 5).

Discharge of effluent may cause changes in salinity and/or temperature

which could be significant in the immediate vicinity of an outfall,
but certainly not at greater distances. In fact, investigations into
the effects of discharged wastes on kelp have revealed that no
chemical or effluent tested was sufuicietly toxic to account for
great losses in kelp (Anonymous, 5815).
Predation

Grazers use the kelp beds as a main supply of food. More obvious
grazers include fish, the abalone Haliotus fulgens; the wavy top,
Astraea undosa; the turban, Norriaia norrisii; the opaleye, Girella
nigricans; crustaceans; gastropods, and echinoids. Two important
urchins Strongylocentrotus franiscanus and S. purpuratus feed
on the sporophyils of the kelp (Leighton etal. , 5816; Anonymous,
5815). These sea urchins seem to be one of the most damaging
herbivores because they sever the stipe at the base (Leighton
etal. , 5816). Sewage may encourage urchins and cause a change
in the ecological balance between seaweed and grazers.

Predators of the urchins include: sheephead fish (Pimelometopon

pulchrum), the sun star (Pycnopodia helianthoides), the agile
sea star (Astrometris sertulifera), and the sea otter (Enhydra
lutris). Only the otter appears to be an effective controlling agent,
but it occurs in insignificant numbers (Leighton etal. , 5816).

268

Leightonetal. (5816) showed that a rise in temperature from 5-15C

can increase the average daily algal consumption by S. purpuratus
from about 1. 7 to 6. 4% of body weight. Above 17 C the consumption
rate declined. Over the range where rates increased, consumption

by urchins increased much more rapidly than the kelp growth

rates. Increased demands by grazers may occur during warm
water seasons when feeding rates may rise more rapidly than
plant growth rates.
Other important studies on the giant kelp include the following:
Measurements on respiration arid chlorophyll - MacFarland and
Prescott, 5817
Translocation of organic matter - Sargent and Lantrip, 5819
Growth - North, 5811
Transplantation - Anderson and North, 5813
Standing crop - MacFarland and Prescott, 5817; Anderson and
North, 5813
Grazing pressures - Leighton etal. , 5816

For further information on giant kelp see:

Clendenning, K. A. 1958. Quart. Prog. Rpt. Kelp mv. Prog.

Univ. Calif. Inst. Mar. Res. IMR ref. 58-3, Oct-Dec,

1957, p. 6.

Clendenning, K. A. 1959. Physiological Studies on Giant Kelp.

Kelp mv. Prog. Quart. Prog. Rpt. IMR ref. 59-9, Univ.
of Calif.

I. M. R. 1963. Kelp Habitat Improvement Proj. Final Rept.

1962-63. Univ. Calif. Inst. Mar. Res. I. M. R. ref. 63-13.
Leighton, D. L. 1960. Quart. Prog. Rept. Kelp mv. Prog.

Univ. Calif. Inst. Mar. Res. I. M. B. ref. 60-8, Jan-Mar,

1960, p. 28.
9.

Merluccius productus (Ayers) (Pacific hake)

by Nancy Blind

The biology of the Pacific hake has recently been reviewed in

detail by the U. S. Bureau of Commercial Fisheries (3081, 3082).
269

The hake is pelagic and sometimes demersal. It ranges from the

Gulf of Alaska to the Gulf of California but it is commercially
concentrated from south Vancouver Island to Baja California.
It is usually taken near the bottom anywhere in shallow waters to
depths around 800 meters, and particularly between 45 and 500
meters (Alverson and Larkins, 5712), (Nelson and Larkins, 3081).
In Washington, the hake is most numerous from Grays Harbor
to the Columbia River at depths of 37 to 92 meters, most occurring
within 18 meters from the sea bed (5714).
Spawning

Spawning is pelagic in the open ocean and the greatest concentration

of eggs and larvae seems to be at about 200 meters. Larvae
are abundant very near the coast to 380 km from the coast off
southern California (Alverson and Larkins, 5712). Some hake
larvae have been found as far out to sea as 650 km. Along the
California coast, hake larvae are the most numerous species
taken (Calif. Dept. Fish & Game, 5729). The largest concentration
of eggs and larvae occurs at temperatures between 10.6 and
15. 0C in southern California (Ahistrom and Counts, 5728).
Nelson and Larkins (3081) state larvae most often found with

or near the thermocline at temperatures 47.5-65.3F. An

obvious lack of knowledge concerns the distribution and ecology

of the juvenile (1-3 yr. old) hake (Nelson and Larkins, 3081).
Adult hake usually mature between 3 and 4 years. There seems
to be a high natural mortality among adults which has been
estimated to be around 40% (Alverson and Larkins, 5712).
Migration and schooling

The adult population occupies the northern part of the range in

spring, summer, and fall; and the southern part in the winter
(Alverson and Larkins, 571 2). This may be associated with
spawning which occurs primarily in January through April (Calif.
Dept. Fish & Game, 5729). During the summer, length-frequency
data shows a lack of juveniles off Washington, but an abundance
off southern California. This, too, indicates some north-south
migration. Migration patterns suggest that there is one homogeneous
stock off the Pacific coast. Genetic studies also indicate a single

270

population throughout the range (Nelson and Larkins, 3081). This

population may perhaps aggregate during the spawning season
(Alverson and Larkins, 5712).
Fee ding

Off the Washington coast, the main foods of the hake are the
euphausiids Thysanoessa spinifera and Euphausia pacifica, and
the pink shrimp Pandalus jprdani (U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service,
5713; Nelson and Larkins, 3081; and Gotshall, 5730). In addition,
the hake also eats some small fishes and squids (Clemens and Wilby,
2390). Alton and Nelson (3082) have recently published a complete
review of the feeding of the Pacific hake.

Predators
No specific major predators have been listed for the hake. The
dog-fish shark, Squalus acanthias, has been observed eating hake
(Shippen and Alton, 5639) and it can be assumed that probably any
one of the large predators will consume hake.

The interest in commercially fishing for hake has risen considerably

in the last ten years. With the use of special techniques, the hake.
can be easily and profitably reduced to meal and oil (Dyer etal. , 5731;
Alverson and Larkins, 5712). Also, it has recently been appearing
on the market in small numbers as fillets. It is still a large source
of animal food (Best and Nitsos, 5732). The standing stok in the
summer off Washington and Oregon has been estimated to be between
550 and 1,100 thousand metric tons. This means that the population
is second only to the anchovy, Engraulis mordax, in number
(Alverson and Larkins, 5712). There is no reason to doubt that
the hake may become even more important in the future.

Other important information on the Pacific hake includes:

Depth and Distribution - Calif. Fish and Game, 5729; U. S. Fish and
Wildlife Service, 5713.
Fecundity - MacGregor, 5637.
Vertical Migration - U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 5713.
Catch Data - U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service statistical digest for
years of interest.

271

10.

Microstomus pacificus (Lockington) (Dover sole).

by Nancy Blind and Danil R. Hancock

The Dover sole, which ranges from Alaska to Guadalupe Island,

Baja California, is one of the most important species o fiatfish
along the Pacific coast. It inhabits deeper waters than most flatfish.
and is found on muddy bottoms (Roedel, 2567; Clemens and Wilby,
2390). One fishery survey found Dover sole from 2 to 1090 meters
although catch rates were highest between 180 and 365 meters.
Off Washington and Oregon it was a dominant species, comprising
56-91% of the flatfish catch. It was found to be less abundant and
in shallower waters farther north (Alverson etal. , 5735).
Spawning

Spawning takes place from November to March (Harry, 5775).

Some references give the time as December to February (Hagerman,
2572). The larvae are pelagic. According to Hagerman (2572)
eggs and young tend to drift south and shoreward on currents.
Growth and development

Very little information is available on the growth and development

of the Dover sole. The trawls catch fish whose lengths range from
11 to 63 cm(Alversonetai. , 5735) but 14 in. (approximately 35 cm)
seems to be the accepted market minimum (Harry, 5775). The
females are larger than the males (Westrheim and Morgan, 5776).
Mean size seems to increase with depth (Alverson etal. , 5735).
The sole eats mainly invertebrates that inhabit mud (Hagerman, 2572).
Migration

No north-south migrations are indicated for this species (Harry, 5528)

but tagging studies have revealed a seasonal inshore-offshore migration
(Harry, 5528; Westrheim and Morgan, 5776). This probably accounts
for the fact that in California, the Dover sole fishery is most
important in the summer (Best, 5785). Tagging in the Willapa area
in Washington showed that inshore recoveries were made between

272

55-110 meters during June to September and offshore recoveries

were made between 180-3 00 fathoms from November to April.
Most of the fish tagged were males (Westrheim and Morgan, 5776).
Another study found that fish tagged in shallow water in the summer
were recovered in 365 meters in the winter (Harry, 5528).

There seems to be a limited exchange of stocks between British

Columbia and northern California (Westrheim and Morgan, 5776).
In the Willapa tagging study, only seven sole were recaptured at
distances more than 55 km from the original tagging area. Also
from this study, the annual mortality was estimated to be 0. 58
(Westrheim and Morgan, 5776).
Other information on Dover sole includes:
Fecundity - Harry, 5775.
Fishery - l3est, 5785; Westrheim and Morgan, 5776.
11.

Mytilus californianus Conrad (California sea mussel)

by Diane Dean

The California sea mussel is also known as the big mussel or rock
mussel. It ranges from 18 N to 54 N (Alaska to Mexico) (Keen,
2207). Reish (2898) pinpointed the two extremes of their range
at the Aleutian Islands in Alaska and Isla Socorro in Mexico. On
the Oregon coast these mussels are abundant at Netarts Bay, Cape
Mears, North Siletz Bay and Tillamook Head (Edmondson, 2345).
The habitat of the mussel is the intertidal zone on rocky exposed
coasts (Reish, 2898). The supposed stenobathic habitat of the
California sea mussel has been questioned by Berry (2542). He
stated that the mussel can survive long periods of immersion in
aerated sea water of widely different salt concentrations and further
that the mussel has the ability to live and thrive well below the
tidal zone; in fact as far down as 90 meters.

The mussel occupies a wide vertical zone in the marine intertidal

environment. Research on respiration showed that high-level mussels

273

have higher metabolic rates during submergence and post-exposure

periods. One consequence of high tide existence is an increase
in metabolic function above that found in low-level animals (Moon, 2335).

Salinity, tenperature and physiology studies

Studies of sex cells and larvae suggest that they are affected by
salinities less than 29. 6%. Fertilization usually occurs readily at
21. 5%o but survival of the larvae is low. Turbulence as well as
salinity may be a factor in determining the mussel's distribution
(Young, 2330).

Aeration is a factor very beneficial to prolonging the life span of

the mussel in water of any salinity that does not kill them in a
short time. Under conditions of continuous aeration, the mussel
possesses a wide range of tolerances for heterosmotic conditions
(17%o-45%0S). Foxetal. (2228) found that mussels immersed in
water of salinities about 1 2%o and less die in 4-7 days. Hypertonic
solutions of 55%o or more prove fatal also. Crowding indiyiduais
in an aquarium has a deleterious effect because of the accumulation
of nonvolatile waste products.
Temperature is another 'factor which affects the California sea
mussel. Naylor (2798) stated that intertidal molluscs show tolerances
for higher temperatures; the higher up the shore they are 'found, the
longer periods they are normally exposed to air. Sublittoral species
are much less tolerant. Mussels of higher latitudes had higher rates
of ciliary pumping action than did low-latitude species at lower
temperatures. A positive correlation between growth rate and water
temperature was found by Fox and Coe (2229), but there was a
decrease in growth during the month with the highest temperature.
Optimum growth temperatures are 15-19C with a decrease of growth
at 20C. Temperatures above 20C are less favorable for general
metabolism (Coe and Fox, 2225). Other temperature data listed
by Coe and Fox (2226) showed that mussels exhibit a rapid increase
in size at temperatures of 17-20C. Growth continues less rapidly
at 14C or lower. Feeding continues at temperatures as low as 7-8C
and as high as 27-28C.

274

Rao (2891) studied rate of water propulsion in the mussel as a

function of latitude. He found that (1) shell weight is a function of
latitude and, consequently, of the mean annual temperature (increases
with increasing latitude), (2) absolute rate as well as weight-specific
rate of pumping is greater at any temperature in mussels from higher
latitudes, (3) rate of decline, in absolute as well as weight-specific
rate of pumping with increasing size was slower in higher latitudes.
He speculated perhaps this is why there are larger sized mussels
in the more northern forms. The center of dispersal of species
such as Mytilus californianus is in the lower latitudes.
Rao (2893) made other studies concerned with tidal rhythmicity of
rate of water propulsion in the California sea mussel. Mussels
exhibit a pattern of activity (measured by rate of water propulsion)
which corresponds in time and degree to the tidal levels in the locality
in which they live. The rhythm is independent of temperature (range
from 9-20 C) and of various light conditions and no indication of
a diurnal rhythm in the rate of water propulsion is apparent.
Rao speculated that the frequency of the rhythm is intrinsic and
perhaps inherited and suggested that the degree to which the intrinsic
rhythm becomes marked and measurable depends on the amplitude
of the environmental rhythm.

The California sea mussel is a mucus, filter-feeding organism.

Mussels feed by extending their siphons and drawing a current of
water. Their principal food supply is minute particles of organic
detritus from disintegrating cells of all kinds of marine organisms
(plant andanimal), supplemented by living and dead unicellular
organisms and living or dead gametes (Coe and Fox, 2226). Detritus
comprises 4/5 of their nutrition (Foxetal. , 2228). Rapid growth
rate correlates ind:ire ctly with dinoflagellate populations, however,
dinoflagellates can supply only a small fraction of the mussei)s
nutritive requirements (Coe and Fox, 2226). Calcium used in shell
building is obtained from the water. The alkaline nature of the mantle
next to the shell permits calcium deposition by that tissue.
Biology

Sexes of the mussels are strictly separate (Fitch, 2227). Males

become sexually mature earlier than females (Coe and Fox, 2225).
Female mussels produce as many as 100,000 eggs during a season
(Bonnot, 2224).

275

According to Whedon (2329) spawning occurs at all times of the year

irrespective of temperature or other external stimuli, yet at the same

time he found spawning coincident with a falling rather than a rising.
temperature. The period of maximum spawning begins in early
October followed by two lesser periods in January-February
and May-June. Data indicating a definite annual spawning cycle
are also in the literature (Annonymous, 2706). Spawning begins
in September, increases to a maximum in midwinter and gradually
declines to a minimum from May to August. Occasional spawning
is observed in summer. A negative correlation exists between
rising temperature and spawning in Mytilus. The major spawning
season is between October and March.
Stimulation of spawning by Kraft mill effluent has been studied
(Breese etal. , 3810). Kraft mill effluent is highly effective in
triggering spawning in the bay and California sea mussels. Stimulation does not seem to affect viability and fertilization capacity
of the gametes.

Ecological studies
Hewatt (2233) studied ecological succession on an exposed rock which
had been scraped clean. He stated that the reestablishment of the
climax condition requires a period of at least more than 2 1/2 years;
therefore, he cautioned against exploitation of mussel beds. Predators

of the mussel include gulls, sharks, rays, fish., starfish, flesheating snails and crabs (Fitch, 2227).

The mussel affects the physical properties of the environment,

(1) by removing minute material, altering turbidity and light penetration
of the water, (2) by depositing feces and pseudofeces to change the
character of the bottom, (3) by altering the chemical composition
of the water slightly (02 -CO2, etc.), (4) by adding to a temporary
supply of proteins, lipids and carbohydrates where it dies, and
(5) by contributing to gametes and itself a food supply for fish and
other invertebrates (Fox and Coe, 2229).

There are several reasons why the California sea mussel is

economically important. It can be one of the greatest expenses to
steam and other industrial plants by growing in large clumps and
fouling intake pipes (Fitch, 2227).

276

The mussel is used as a food source by man (Fitch, 2227). Joyner

and Spinelli (2446) stated that mussels can be readily processed
into dried concentrate, rich in protein.
Other studies Ofl the California sea mussel include:
Attachment and locomotion - Bonnet, 2224

Organic matter and soluble nutrient removal, utilization and

fixation - Coe and Fox, 2226
Clumping, crawling as a distributional and competitive factor Harger, 3753
Paralytic shellfish poisoning, Pharmacological and biochemical
studies - Murtha, 2334; Schantz, 2332
Parasitological studies - Berry, 2543; Chew etal. , 5534; Naylor,
2798; Coe and Fox, 2525

Predator prey relationship - Pilson and Taylor, 2333

Portions of the life cycle of this mussel are well studied while
information on other phases, especially larval stages is less well
known. A comprehensive review of the life history of the California
sea mussel would be most useful. Although the larvae has been
shown to be very sensitive to toxic substances, only limited information
on the mussel's tolerance to temperature and other pollutants is
available. Work in these areas would be advisable.
12. Oncorhynchus spp.

(Pacific salmon)

by Diane Dean and Danil R. Hancock

This report deals with five species of Pacific coast salmon: Oncorhynchus
gorbuscha (pink salmon), 0. keta (chum salmon), 0. kisutch (coho
salmon), 0. nerka (sockeye salmon), and 0. tshawytscha (chinook
salmon). These salmon have been intensively studied with regard
to their fisheries which are primarily brackish and fresh water.
We therefore placed emphasis on reviewing the coastal migratory
patterns of these fishes although a succinct summary of the life
cycle, biology, and ecology has been attempted. A review of the
Pacific salmon has recently been published by Parker and Krenkei (3222).

277

Review of life history

Salmon hatch in streams, rivers and lakes of the mountainous coasts
of North America and eastern Asia. They journey out to the sea
where they grow to a fairly large size and then by some unknown
mechanism return to their natal streams to spawn and die.
All species of Pacific salmon are anadromous, meaning the adults
must migrate to fresh water to spawn. Spawning usually takes place
in the summer and autumn months. Females deposit their eggs in
redds (or nests) in the stream's gravel. The accompanying male
fertilizes the eggs and the eggs are covered over by gravel. Hatching
depends on water temperature and the particular species, but usually
takes about three months. Fry absorb food from their yolk sacs
and then leave the gravel in search of food. They often move downstream to a lake where they may remain for a time before going on
to the sea. Seaward migration depends on the species. Some fish
may go to sea as fry and some as late as two years. During summer
young fish tend to occupy a single region of thermocline. Later,
in autumn and winter when temperature is more uniform, a vertical
distribution occurs. With the onset of spring, yearlings tend to
become more active and start to school. Their movement and the
current flow to outlets brings fish to stream outlets of the lakes and
then they are caught in the streams. Now they are under the influence
of the current. Some fish (in Georgia Strait) tend to remain in the
upper less saline water. This places them in the location of the
strongest seaward current. Young salmon are sometimes carried
in a coastal current causing them to move in a north and northwest
direction (Clemens, 2424). The time at sea and the miles they tr.vel
is as yet not definitely known. When salmon eventually reach the
ocean their oceanic life spans one to four years depending on the
species. As they begin to mature they change physically: (1) increasing
in endocrine activity, (2) changing body metabolism, and (3)
altering osmotic regulation. The fish tend to occupy water of lower
salinity which will be surfaceward and shoreward. They also respond
rheotactically and will be led to the rivers, whereupon they begin
their upstream migration to spawn (Clemens and Burner, 2424, 3020;
Foerster, 2502).

278

Food

Young salmon depend on plankton organisms which are abundant both

in fresh and salt water (Burner, 3020). All salmon eat crustaceans,
especially the pinks (2390), chum (2771), sockeye (Burner, 3020)
and king (5507). Pinks also feed on squid and other 'fish (2390).
Coho are more pelagic in 'feeding and accept a wider variety of food
than the chinook salmon. Herring is one of the main 'foods but studies
show that if the herring is eliminated 'from their diet, the salmon
would turn to other food sources (5507).
Food of the Pacific Salmon.
Sockeye
Chinook
Pink
Chum Coho
0. gorbuscha keta kisutch tshawytscha nerka
Plankton
organisms
Crustaceans
polychaete s
pteropods

Cope pods

amphipods
euphausiids
Crab megolops
Squids

small fish
herring

C
C
C
C
C
C
C

ABD

HJ
3.

3.
3.

3
3

F
AB
AB

AD
AD
AD

sand lance
insects
A - Clemens and Wilby, 2390
B - Manzer, 3032
C - Brett and Alderdice, 2771
D - Carl, 2:336
E - Prakash, 5507

F
EF
E
G

F - Merkel, 5669
G - Sosaki, 3144
H - Burner, 3020
J - Fulton, 3635

279

Temperature and salinity factors

Studies show that young chum, chinook, coho, sockeye, and pink
salmon prefer salinities less than 33. 6%o and temperatures less
than 15C. They avoid water of greater than 34%o salinity and
temperatures of 20C. Young pinks and chum have intolerance
to temperatures below -0. 5C and -0. 1 C is the low limit for lethal
temperatures (2771). Young coho have a fairly high minimum
temperature limit of 5.0-5.9C and prefer 7C (Manzer etal. , 3023).
Juvenile coho have a maximum cruising speed of 0. 3 rn/sec at 20C
and a minimum of 0.06 rn/sec at around 0C (5513). Juvenile
sockeye salmon had a maximum cruising speed of 0. 33 rn/sec at
the optimum temperature of 16C and a minimum of 0.12 rn/sec at
0C (5513). A high water temperature where chinook were caught

was 13-13.9C(Manzeretal., 3023).

Temperature and Salinities Information on Pacific Salmon
Pink

Salinities

Chum

Coho

Chinook

Sockeye

0. gorbuscha keta kisutch tshawytscha nerka

Young prefer
less than 33. 6%o

Avoid greater
than 34%o

Temperatures

Preferred less than

15C

Avoid greater than

20C

Complete intolerance
to temperature
below -0.5C

Lethal temperature
-0. 1C low limit

A - Clemens and Wilby, 2390

B - Brett and Alderdice, 2771
280

One research operation including 5,160,000 square meters off

the coast of Oregon and Washington to longitude 175C and from
latitude 43 N to 60 N captured salmon in surface water temperatures
of 0.5-14.5C. No juvenile sockeye or chumwere captured in
water temperatures below 4.4C. In warmer areas, the largest
salmon catches were made in waters ranging from 9.4-12.8C with
the largest total catch associated with a 10C surface temperature
Chinook and coho seem to be the
most resistant to high temperatures (5-24 C) while pinks and chums
are least resistant. Sockeye have greater resistance to prolonged
exposure to high temperatures than the latter two. None of these
species can withstand temperatures below 4C when acclimated to
20C , nor can they tolerate temperatures exceeding 25. 1C when
exposed for a week (Brett, 5568).
(Hanovan and Tononako, 2645).

Sockeye are native to practically all temperate and subarctic water

where summer surface temperatures range from 5-16C and summer
surface salinities are generally less than 32. 2%o. Salmon occupy
the upper 20-30 m (60-100 ft) strata of water (Foerster, 2502).
Spawning times: pink

late September to early November (2390)

chum
late in fall (2390)
sockeye late summer and autumn, August to

November (Foerster, 2502)

Most salmon in Aleutian waters spawn in streams either in Asia or

North America, exclusive of the Aleutian Islands. Migrations
ultimately must be more or less west or eastward (Johnson, 2840).
Migration patterns
Not much is known concerning the migratory patterns of salmon
at sea. It would seem that temperature and maturity of the fish
influence their location. A change in distribution of each species
may be due to maturing fish leaving the high seas for spawning
grounds and immature individuals remaining and responding to
various environmental factors (Manzer etal. , 3023). Salmon
evacuate the Bering Sea and northeastern Pacific in winter where
surface water temperature decreases and they move southward and
eastward (Manzer etal. , 3023).

281

Columbia River fall chinook are found principally north of the Columbia
River and predominant migration in the fail is to Columbia River
watersheds to spawn. Tagging in Northern British Columbia and
Alaska have shown large numbers of Columbia River fish.

Lower river populations must confine their ocean migrations to

areas between the Columbia River and Vancouver Island. Upper river
fish may not even make a' long northward migration but stay in the
local area through life.
Relatively 'few chinook are found in the ocean off the Columbia River
during June and July. In winter the 'fish gather in the area between

the Columbia River and Gray's Harbor. As the season progresses

most of the fish move northward on a feeding migration while the
rest turn south towards the Sacramento-San Jaoquin System. In
the fall mature fish enter rivers leaving immature fish scattered
along the coast. In the winter the remaining 'fish regroup in the
Columbia River-Gray's Harbor area making a spring and summer
northward migration again.
The northward shifting populations in the summer and southward
movement in the winter appear to be characteristic for all North
Pacific salmon. This could be due to a response to warming o'f
surface water or dif'ferences in distributional patterns between
mature and immature fish (Van Hyning, 3301).
Adult fall chinook return 'from the North in August and September
when the current is running south. Young may be carried north

earlier by currents.

Studies in British Columbia show that initial dispersion of immature fish

from stream mouth up to distances of 55-74 km is accomplished
within a few days. Pinks and chums intermingle and 'frequent the
shores until mid July. Their o'ffshore movement is gradual or
irregular. Pinks have been captured up to 11 -22 km 'from shore in
September. Distribution and movement during autumn and winter is
virtually unknown. Tagging in 1962 showed that in April and May
fish which subsequently migrated to central coastal areas in British
Columbia were to the south of their spawning streams or near the
latitude of the Columbia River (4531 'N, 12636'W). A northward

282

movement took place next and some went far north of their spawning
grounds (Neave, 3053). It is known that a concentration of sockeye
occurs near the middle of the Gulf of Alaska during April and May.
Distribution becomes complicated as fish go to their separate
rivers (Ricker, 3116).

It is known the sockeye reproduce in North American watersheds

from the Columbia River to the Bering Sea (Margolis etal. , 3202).
The fry gene:rally emerge in 80-140 days (April-May) (Foerster, 2502).
Avoidance reactions of Pacific salmon to pulp mill effluent were
tested. Chinook showed marked avoidance to toxic concentrations
of sulphate and sulphite wastes. Coho showed reduced avoidance
compared to chinook (Beak, 2152).
Studies of ocean migrations for salmon are being conducted and
perhaps in the future predictions can be made.
13.

Ophiodon elongatus (Girard) (Ling cod)

by Nancy Blind

The ling cod ranges from Alaska to the San Martin Islands in
northern Baja California (Boedel, 2567) but it reaches its greatest
abundance north of California. It lives on the bottom in rocky areas
or kelp beds, particularly near a strong tidal current (Calif. Fish
and Game, 5729; Clemens and Wilby, 2390). It is sometimes taken
as deep as 370 meters but is found mainly in depths of around 110
meters (Calif. Fish and Game, 5729; Phillips, 5647).
Life history

The adult ling cod is rather sluggish and spends most of its time
resting on the bottom waiting for prey to swim within its reach.
Tagging studies by Phillips (5647) indicate that only nine percent
of the population move more than five miles from the area of release.
Sex does not seem to have any effect on migration,' but indications
are that large fish move less frequently than smaller ones (Hart, 5734).

283

In some regions there seems to be a shifting of spawning fish from

offshore waters to inshore sub-tidal rocky reefs (Calif. Fish and
Game, 5729).
Spawning

Spawning takes place from late December to February or early

March (Clemens and Wilby, 2390). The eggs are guarded by the male
ling cod until they hatch, around six weeks later. The larvae are
about 1.3 cm long and use their yolk sac in 10 days. Very little is
known ab9ut the post-larval stages (Phillips, 5647).
Growth and development

Both males and females start to mature at 63 cm in length and almost

all are mature at 65 cm. Females reach 63 cm in 3 years and 65 cm
in four years (Phillips, 5647; Calif. Fish and Game, 5729). Males
are somewhat shorter-lived than the females, which may reach
a maximum age of twenty years (Calif. Fish and Game, 5729).
Fee ding

The ling cod is an extremely voracious fish and will eat almost
anything. Its most common diet includes herring, flounders, hake,
cod, whiting, sand lance, young ling cod, squid, dog fish shark,
pollack, rockfish, crab and shrimp (Clemens and Wilby, 2390;
Phillips, 5647).
Economics

Although the ling cod is an important component of the west coast

fishery, there seems to be comparatively little information in the
literature about it. No temperature data seem to be available and
information about life history is minimal.

Other important information on ling cod includes:

Fecundity - Calif. Fish and Game, 5729; Phillips, 5647
Metabolic rate and biochemical studies - Pritchard, 2097
Egg description - Phillips, 5647
Survival rates - Chatwin, 2211
Catch statistics - U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Statistical Digest,

for years of interest

Fishery - Reeves, 2089; Calif. Fish and Game, 5729; Phillips, 5647.
284

14.

Parophrys vetulus Girard (Lemon sole or English sole)

by Nancy Blind

Parophrys vetulus ranges from Unalaska to Sebastian Vizcaino Bay

in Baja California (Roedel, 2567). More specifically, its range is
given as being from 2830'N, 115OO'W to 5430'N, 164000rW (Alderdice
and Forrester, 2453). The range for the commercial fishery i1s
from Santa Barbara, California, to Hecate Strait, British Columbia
(Jow, 5778). It is particularly important in Oregon and Washinigton,
but declines toward the northern end of its range (Alver son et al.
5735). Almost all lemon sole caught are sold as fresh fillets
(Calif. Fish and Game, 5729).
Biology

The lemon sole is found over muddy or sandy bottoms, often from
20 to 50 fathoms (Clemens and Wilby, 2390; Ketchen, 5522, 5523).
A trawling survey, primarily along the Washington coast, found
the sole in depths from 1 to 299 fathoms (Alverson etal. , 5735).
The spawning season is given by Budd (5737) as being from January
to May, whereas Harry (5775) believes it to be from November to
March. Alderdice and Forrester (2453) listed the lemon sole as
spawning over a four-month period ending in late March or early
April with the peak in early February.

The eggs are bouyant, pelagic, spherical, and transparent (Budd, 5737;
Alderdice and Forrester, 2453; and Calif. Fish and Game, 5729).
The eggs float at the surface but if not fertilized within 1 5 to 30
minutes, they begin to sink (Orsi, 5541).
Temperature and salinity
Alderdice and Forrester (2453) performed experiments to determine
the effect of temperature and salinity on the eggs and larvae of
Parophrys vetulus. Their study produced the following information:
The eggs were held at various combinations of salinities from 10%o
to 40%o S and temperatures of 40 to 12C. Hatching occurred at

285

every salinity and temperature. Development time to 50% hatching

ranged from 3.5 days at 12C and 25%o salinity to 11.8 days at 4C
and 25%o salinity. Between 6C and 1 2C, development time to 50%

hatching was delayed by salinities above and below 25%o whereas at

4C, hatching seemed to be accelerated by salinities greater and

smaller than 25%o.

In regard tolengths of the larvae, the greatest mean length (2.92 mm)
was obtained at 25% salinity and 8C. The total number of larvae
hatched seemed to be greatest at this level also. The oxygen consumption was calculated to be 0. 560 g per embryo per hour.
Salinities and temperatures encountered in the natural environment
were 20%o to 34%o salinity and 2.3 to 13. 8C. A change of 1C was
found to be approximately equivalent to a change of 4%o salinity.
Experimental evidence showed that 90% viable hatch was obtained
at salinities of 20-32%o and temperatures 6. 5-10C. Although
salinity may perhaps modify the effects of temperature on early
development of P. vetulus, it appears to have little direct influence
on egg survival. Temperatures at the extremes of the geographical
range for this species are 2.3C and 18C. These areas are probably
populated through larval drift and some adult migration. Irregularity
of catch and abundance over the area would suggest that other factors
such as water transport and availability of suitable areas for continued
larval development also influence egg and larval survival.

It has been noted that weak year classes are produced in years
when the water temperature is higher than normal since the elevated
temperature speeds up embryonic development. Thus the developing
larvae would not be carried to the proper rearing grounds by the
currents. Low temperature prolongs the pelagic stage allowing the
larvae to be carried to the rearing grounds (Ketchen, 5522).
The young, when hatched, are extremely weak swimmers and hence
are at the mercy of the water currents. They survive for approximately
14 days on the yolk sac (Orsi, 5541). The larvae are carried about
in the surface currents 'for about 6 to 10 weeks and then go to the
bottom (Calif. Fish and Game, 5729). Usually they are found close
to the intertidal zone and then move into deeper water as they mature
(Clemens and Wilby, 2390). In one bay survey, only young fish

286

(2 to 18 cm) were caught in the bay. Presumably no adults were present.

All but 5% of the young fish migrated from the bay to the ocean in the
late summer and early fall of their first year (Westrheim, 5542).
Feeding

Adult lemon sole feed mainly on invertebrates which inhabit muddy

bottoms, such as worms, molluscs, small starfish, small crabs,

brittle stars, clam siphons and shrimps. Occasionally they conrsume
small fish. Sharks, skates and lingcod are the lemon sole's main
predators however, no one species can be designated as the major
predator (Calif. Fish and Game, 5729; Clemens and Wilby, 2390).
Distribution and migragion

Various studies have indicated the existence of several stocks of

Parophrys vetulus along the Pacific coast. Two broad groups have
been defined; one ranging along the Washington coast and the other
centering around Cape Blanco to Cape Mendocino (Anon. , 5777).
In addition, two major stocks have been described off British Columbia;
one in the Strait of Georgia and the other around Hecate Strait.

Within these main stocks, there appear to be substocks (FOrrester,

5781). Four stocks have been described for California (Jow, 5778).

Along the Washington and British Columbia coasts, a spawning migration

seems to take place. Fish tagged in Washington went south along

northern Oregon; some as far as northern California, in the fail

and then north in the spring. All recoveries were made over the
continental shelf in depths less than 100 fathoms (Pattie, 5782).
Off British Columbia, the fish go north to feed in the summer. The
adults then are found around 20 fathoms. In the winter they are
somewhat deeper. Extensive migrations seem to be more characteristic
of the females than the males (Forrester, 5781). There appears
to be little mixing between stocks (K.etchen and Forrester, 5546).
Other important information on the English sole includes:
Egg description - Budd, 5737
Fecundity - Harry, 5775
Catch statistics - see U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Statistical

Digest, for the years of interest

Fishery - Palmen, 2063; Holland, 5779; Smith, 5780; Forrester, 5781
Growth and development - Van Cleave and El Sayer,-5783; Smith,

5790; Calif. Fish and Game, 5729; Alverson etaL

Harry, 5775.
287

5735;

15.

Pandalus jordani Rathbun (Pink shrimp)

by Diane Dean

The pink shrimp Pandalus jordani is distributed along the Pacific

coast from Una].aska in the Aleutians to Southern California
(Rathbun, 2328). San Diego is the extreme southern extension of
its range (Dahistrom, 2327). The pink shrimp is the dominant
species along the Oregon and Washington coasts, but north of
British Columbia P. borealis becomes the dominant species. Ronholt
(2294) stated that P. jordani, P. borealis and Pandalopsis dispar
all appeared to occur in concentrations adequate to support largescale commercial operations.
The pink shrimp have been taken at depths ranging from 37 to
450 meters, but are commonly caught within the depths of 110-180
meters. They generally occur in areas which are characterized
by green mud (Ronholt, 2294) or glauconite mud (Alverson et al.
2324).

Food habit of P. jordani are not well known. Dahlstrom (2327)

stated that the food of the p.ink shrimp was believed to be microscopic
material found in green mud bottoms. The only available temperature
information on the adults (Alverson et al. , 2324) reported that
shrimp were caught in water having a temperature of 42.1-46.7F
off Oregon and Washington and further that no apparent relation was
noted between catches of pink shrimp and differences in bottom water
temperature within that range.
Some comparisons of di'fferent species of shrimp were made as
to depth range (Anonymous, 2322). Spot shrimp collected in Dabob
Bay were found to occur only in the lower four rows of collector
bags. These were concentrated in the area between the bottom and
one meter. Pink shrimp and side-striped shrimp were found in
all openings of the bag particularly from . 03 to 1 meter off bottom.

That pink shrimp undergo a vertical migration to the near-surface

water during hours of darkness is well documented.

288

They have been located off the Queets River, 11 to 15 meters

below the surface over bottom depths of 79 to 81 meters. Before
midnight there was none caught and at 0412 hours there was no
yield (2321). Shrimp off the Washington coast may move off the
bottom at night. One night drag in autumn produced 30 kg pounds
of pinks while 4 night drags in spring produced an average of 2. 5 kg
per drag. A.lverson etal. (2324) also mentioned vertical movements
in response to diurnal changes. Daytime drags always produced
more shrimp (Tegelberg, 2325).

Magill and Erho (2296) reported that the species is small,

with the average length being 10 cm. Shrimp are measured
by count per pound and Dahlstrom (2327) listed figures of approximately 100/lb. or 60-180/lb. while Magill and Erho (2296) listed
70-150/lb. .Dahlstrom (2327) reported the average age of shrimp
to be about 4 years.
Pink shrimp are protandric hermaphrodites beginning life as males
and changing to females (Magill and Erho, 2296). During the period
when the males transpose to females the shrimp are termed
fitransitionalsit (Ronholt and Magill, 2326). Normally, the individuals
reach maturity as mature males at 1 1/2 years but up to 50% of
this age group may be mature females by the second autumn (Butler,
2323). Some confusion exists on the breeding cycles of the pink shrimp.
Certain instances in Oregon have been noted where shrimp continued
as males throughout the second winter while the majority of the year
class transposed to females and became gravid (Magill and Erho,
2296). Tegelberg and Smith (2325) noted 18 month old females bearing
eggs in the fall. They had either functioned early as males or had
skipped the male stage.
In distinguishing males from females after larval development
two points, including the male organ, are evident on the ramus
of the male. Atrophy of the male sex organ and lengthening of
the tip of the ramus take place during the transitional period. The
female has a single elongate ramus tip (Tegelberg and Smith,
2325). Tegelberg and Smith (2325) stated that females taken in
October and November could be identified by a distinct blue
coloration seen dorsally through the carapace.

289

At 2 1/2 years the pink shrimp are mature females carrying

1,000 to 3,000 eggs attached to their pleopods. Eggs are present
from October through January (Dahlstrom, 2327). The eggs are
ellipsoid,1. 2-1.6 millimeters long (2327). At approximately three
years of age (2327) spawning of the pink shrimp occurs. There is
a seasonal movement to deeper waters (160 fathoms) for spawning
(2327; Alversonetal. , 2324).
There is ifisagreement on timing of metamorphosis, spawning,
and hatching as shown in the following table.
Spawning

Time of
Hatching

Oct-Dec

Feb-Mar

Nov-Apr

late Mar-Apr

Time of

Time of
Me ta morpho sis

Reference
(2326)

Early August

(2323)

Feb-May

(2327)

Feb-Apr
Mature ova
visible under
carapace in Aug

(2296)

carried externally
by Oct-Nov

Larval development
Modin and Cox (2295) and Lee (3346) have successfully reared
pandalid shrimp in the laboratory. The former found that planktonic
larvae were subject to many physical, chemical and biological
phenomena in the ocean and that this stage of their life is a very
vulnerable one. In both studies egg-bearing shrimp were transported
to specially equipped aquariums where temperature was controlled

and the water could be filtered, aerated, and ultra-violet treated to

reduce bacterial growth. Modin and Cox (2295) maintained a
constant water temperature of 10-12C. Lee (3346) maintained a
water temperature of 13C (0.2C) and a pH and salinity of
7.8 and 24. 1%o respectively. Details of development are in both
papers.

290

Magill and Erho (2296) stated that pink shrimp may be particularly
susceptible to overfishing since the large shrimp which are most
available to the fishery are females. A reduction in the female
pink shrimp population could be conceived to be serious, if the
female brood stock became low enough to result in a year class
failure.

The information on the shrimp seemed to be limited in the sources

used. Some studies on thermal and salinity tolerances, food habits
and ecology wouldbe helpful.
Other information on the pink shrimp includes
Fishery - Alversoneta].. , 2324; .Magill and Erho, 2296; Modin
and Cox, 2295
Predators - Dahistrom, 2327.
16.

Sardinops sagax (Jenyns) (Pacific sardine)

by Nancy Blind

Sardinops sagax is the presently accepted name of the Pacific

sardine, but it is also found under Sardinops caerulea. It ranges
along the Pacific Northwest coast. It has been taken as far north as
southern Alaska, off the outer coast of Vancouver Island. It
has been found along the Washington, Oregon, and California coasts
and its southern range is lower California and the Gulf of California.
The sardine is not found more than 550 to 750 km from shore, usually
less than 180 km (Clark, 2976).

The Pacific sardine is an inshore, pelagic, south temperate fish.

The southernmost end of its range abuts on tropical waters and this
boundary seems to be relatively uniform geographically (Murphy,
2982).

Ecology and life cycle and biology

Much of the information concerning the behavior, locations, etc.
for spawning sardines seems to be speculative.

291

Farris (3428) studied the sardine and found that they exhibit diurnal
and seasonal periodicity but do not exhibit lunar periodicity.
Spawning

Sardines spawn pianktonic eggs under fairly specific temperature

conditions. The temperature range for spawning is between 12C
and 17 C (Ahistrom, 2473) but under lab conditions they have
spawned at 13-24C (Lasker, 2385).
Spawning centers are off Southern California and include Cedros
Island, Baja California, and Northern Baja California (Dahistrom,
2700). Most spawning takes place in April through June but it
does occur throughout the year (Ahistrom, 2473).

The eggs are fertilized after extrusion and float freely in the upper
50 meters of water. After three days the eggs hatch into tiny
transparent, thread-like larvae about 3 mm in length. The larvae
reach the sandy beaches of Southern and Lower California (Clark, 2976).
Temperature
Lasker (2385) ran some experiments on yolk utilization and found
that the energy provided by the yolk would meet the metabolic
needs of the animal at 14C until 160 hours after spawning. From
this time on, the larvae were on a continuing energy deficit and
were actually at a critical stage in their life. They must be able
to feed and food must be available. Lasker (2592) also showed how
important the temperature is tothe struggling larvae, for functional
jaws and pigmented eyes fail to develop in sardine larvae at
temperatures below 13C. Lasker (2592) ran some temperature
experiments with anchovies (which seem to be competitive) and
found that they hatch sooner and develop normally at these lower
temperatures. A two-degree decrease in temperature (from critical
temperatures) 'for the sardine larvae can prolong the rate of
development by one-third and larval survival may decrease
concomitantly (Lasker, 2592).
Temperature appears to influence both the time of spawning and
the length of the spawning season. If an abundant food supply is
available and there is a large area for young sardines, then survival
chances are good. All this would tend to depend on temperature
(Ahistrom, 2597).
292

Feeding
Scofield

(2591) stated that larval sardines are unable to strain food

because their gill rakers do not form on the gill arch until they
are about 20 mm long. Young sardines (40 mm long) feed primarily
on copepods, and sardines 100 mm long feed primarily on diatoms.
Other studies how little variation to this one (Arthur, 3644).
Hand and Berner (2593) felt that crustaceans are the most important
food source with copepods highest on the list, but they stated that
the size of the fish didn't have much to do with the food contained
in the stomach. They also stated that the sardine is primarily an
omnivorous filter-feeder rather than a particulate feeder.

Lewis

(5540) stated after feeding studies in the San Diego area that
sardines eat diatoms, dinoflagellates and crustaceans. He felt
that fluctuations in temperatures affected the abundance of diatoms
which affects sardines. He believed that lower temperatures favoring
growth of diatoms attracts sardines.

Salinity
Walford

made some studies on the correlation between

fluctuations in abundance of the Pacific sardine and salinity of the
sea water; salinity reflecting the intensity of upwelling which
increases plankton production. As has been pointed out, an environmental condition most critical to the young sardine is the abundance
of food. This varies directly with the availability of nutrient salts
which in turn is dependent on strength of upwelling. What is
suggested here is that intensity of upwelling or surface salinity
is highest in summer, and this is at the same time a critical period
in the life of the young sardine, and also a period of maximum solar
(2594)

heating.

A comprehensive review of the life history and biology of the sardine

has been compiled by Gates (5649). Investigations on thermal ecology
as such are limited to just the spawning temperature ranges and
development of the larvae. This report indicates that some information
is known concerning lower temperature tolerance but not the effects
of elevated te:mperatures. Knowledge of the early life history of the
sardine is incomplete. Ecological studies would also be of value.

293

Other studies on the sardine include:

Spawning behavior - Wolf, 2619
Fecundity - Clark, 2976
Behavioral studies - Fink, 2861; Yoshimuta and Mitsagi, 2595;
Clark, 2967; Loukashkin, 2596
Catch statistics - Kimura and Blunt, 2708; Marr, 3641
Parasites - Kunnenkeri, 3645
Morphology and Serology - O'Connell, 3638; Voorman, 2817
17.

Sebastodes alutus (Gilbert) (Pacific ocean perch)

by Nancy Blind

The genus Sebastodes, one of the largest on the northeast Pacific

coast, is represented by 52 species in this area. Several of the
species are important commercially but probably the one of greatest
importance is Sebastodes alutus, the Pacific ocean perch (DeLacy
etal., 5624). The Pacific ocean perch is found from the Bering
Sea to Santa Barbara, California (Clemens and Wilby, 2390), but
the fishery is concentrated in the northern parts of its range.
Westrheim (5567) reported its depth range as being 38 to 350
fathoms.
Biology

Information on the life history of the Pacific ocean perch is minimal

at best. Much recent information has come from Russian studies
carried out in the Gulf of Alaska and the Bering Sea. Because data
are wanting from the Pacific Northwest populations, some data
from the Bering Sea are included herein.
Reproduction

Westrheim (5567) concluded that birth for S. alutus occurred in

January, February and March. Paraketsov (5752), however, in
a study conducted in the Bering Sea, reported that fertilization
occurred in January and February and that hatching took place in
March through May. It has not yet been determined for this species
whether or not the eggs hatch within the ovary or after they have
been released (DeLacy eta.l. , 5624).
294

Distribution and migration

Usually, t:here is a 1:1 sex ratio in a catch of Sebastodes alutus,

but this varies during the year. Westrheim (5567) found that the
males see:med to dominate during February and March and that
their numbers reached a minimum in September. The lack of
females in the population during February and March may be

connected with s:pawning activities. Fadew (5759) found that spawning

populations tended to move to shallower waters. According to
Lyubimova (5753, 5758), the females forma separate group at
this time and move away from the males to the spawning areas.
After hatching, which takes place from March to April in the
Bering Sea, the females begin to feed intensely and then rejoin
the males. The adults are found at a greater depth in the winter
in the Bering Sea. Paraketsov (5752) reported that during the
winter, the largest aggregations were found at 340-420 meters
and in the summer at 140-3 60 meters. From May to September
the adults forage and fatten in open waters (Lyubimova, 5753).
Fertilization takes place in November and December according to
Lyubimova (5758), but Paraketsov (5752) reports it to be during
January to February.

The young ocean perch form separate schools from the adults.
The surface temperatures near the Pribilov Islands which are
the main spawning grounds in the Bering Sea were around 3.8C4. 2C (Paraketsov, 5752). However, temperatures at places of
larval shoaling ranged from 4-5C to 14C (Lyubimova, 5756).
The young eat planktonic crustaceans during their first two years
(Paraketsov, 5752). During their third year of life, they change
to a demersal mode of life. The growth rate is high during the
first 5 to 6 years (Lyubimova, 5756) and maturity is reached
between 6 and 8 years (Paraketsov, 5752).
Westrhejm (5567) found that fish in commercial catches ranged
in size from 25 to 48 centimeters with the main part of the population
occurring between 32 and 44 cm. Males were somewhat smaller
than females, and rarely exceeded 40 cm. The females ranged
between 32-44 cm. Paraketsov (5752) reported for the Bering Sea
that the average length for males was 46 cm and for females, 49 cm.
The maximum size for S. alutus according to Lyubimova (5758) is
40 cm and 1.5 kg. The maximum age seems to be around 25 years
295

with the 14 to 16+ age groups dominating the catches (Gritsenko,

5754). This figure was given as 11-18 year class by Paraketsov
(5752).

Feeding

The adult Pacific ocean perch feed in open waters mainly on

euphausiids, calanoids, hyperilds, mysids, amphipods (Paraketsov,
5752). Sebastodes alutus seems to be important as food for halibut
and albacore (Clemens and Wilby, 2390).
No extensive migrations have been indicated for S. alutus except
those connected with spawning activities (Fadew, 5759). However,
the populations in the eastern and western portions of the Pacific
are considered to be of the same biological stock with differences
in local populations (Lyubimova, 5756, 5758).
Additional information which is available:
Fecundity - Westrheim, 5567

Catch statistics - Niska, 5853; Westrheim, 5567; Alversonet.

5735; Greenwood, 5751.
18.

Siliqua patula Dixon (Pacific razor clam)

by Danil R. Hancock

The Pacific razor clam Siliqra patula Dixon is a most important

molluscan species in the Pacific Northwest. Its total value is
more than that of all other molluscs in the state of Washington
(McMillin, 2732). Although it ranges from the Aleutian Islands in
Alaska to Pismo Beach, California (Anonymous, 3597; Fitch, 2227),
its distribution within these limits is far from ubiquitous. Broad
flat beaches of fine sands retaining interstitial water are most
typical 'but it exhibits preference for ocean

beaches where a strong surf beats constantly and appears to be

dependent on wave action for carrying out its life activities.
Although sometimes found on the inland side of spits, it will not
grow in sheltered bays (McMillin, 2732).

296

Maximum abundance of young and old occurs at about 30 cm below

mean low water. Large clams are usually found about 30 cm under
the sand and smaller clams nearer the surface. According to
McMillin (2732), 350-550 m from low water line is the lower

limit of the razor clam, and the beds are limited in width to the
area near mean low water. Diving observations have indicated
at least a fair population of clams exists 1 km offshore but
Tegelberg, Magoon, and Woelke (personal communications)

further stated that the offshore distribution of the razor clam has
never been established, and that a separate offshore population may
exist.
Locomotion in razor clams is by means of digging with the large
muscular foot. The digging actions are so rapid that a large clam
can be buried in 1/2 to 2 minutes and a young clam can bury itself
in 5-10 seconds. Clams have been reported several feet beneath
the surface. Such locomotion provides protection from shifting
sands and predation from enemies (McMillin, 2732). Larger members
of a year class were found lower than smaller members, however
this comparison did not include offshore areas (Hirschhorn, 3816).
Razor clams orient to the direction of wave action, with the hinged
side toward the ocean.
The region of the Washington coast just north of the Columbia River
and extending to the Quinalt Reservation appears to be a region of
maximum density and supports the largest fishery. Densities
here have been recorded as high as 12,000/rn2 (1450 clams/square foot)
at Copalis Beach in August, 1923 (McMillin, 2732; Tegelberg and
Magoon, 3407). In Oregon, Clatsop county beaches are the region
of maximum abundance of the razor clams. These beaches have
supported a commercial and recreational fishery for many years
under a commercial minimum size limit of 3. 5 inches (90 mm)
and a sport fisheries bag limit of 36 clams.* In the period 19 55-1962
the Clatsop beaches yielded one million razor clams to the sport
fishery and 308,000 to the commercial fisheries (Anon. , 3597).
Until about 1914 many productive razor clam beds were known along
the entire coast of Oregon, but many of these have disappeared. In
1920 Edmondson (2345) wrote, "Until about six years ago beds of
razor clams of considerable size were known to exist at many points
throughout the entire coast of Oregon. There apparently occurred,
however, a sudden depletion of the species along the sandy beaches
south of Tillamook Head, a satisfactory cause for which has not
been ascertained."
*Currerit Oregon limit 24 clams/day, no size limit.
297

Spawning

Sexes are separate in the razor clam. The mature female (age
two years) produces six to ten million eggs. The rich, yellow,
Ifripel! ovaries contribute 30% of the anima]!s non-shell weight.

Ovarian follicles, each containing 100-150 eggs, rupture releasing

eggs through the siphon into the water. Both eggs and sperm are
released when the water temperature reaches 13C and fertilization
occurs in the water. The clams on one section of the beach spawn
simultaneously, and the triggering of this is thought to be due to
the release of certain chemical substances into the environment.
Washburn (3609) indicated the bulk of spawning occurred during
April and May. McMillin (2732) indicates the principal spawning
period was between May 15 and June 5 but noted that a very small
amount of spawn is released in October. On Clatsop beaches (Anon.
3597) spawning occurs in late spring and summer with almost 98%
of the spawn cast out in 2-4 days. Dispersal of eggs is determined
by the currents and waves and is thought to be limited. The fertilized
egg is !lpear shaped" with a white spot in the center. After subsequent
cleavage (about 3 weeks) the fertilized eggs become a veliger larvae
and begin swimming. The number of weeks before the free living
larvae tisetsil or begins to dig into the sand varies from 5 to 8 weeks
(Fulton, 3600; McMillin, 2732; Anon. , 3597). The veliger larvae
are distributed by currents and waves during the larval stages and
migration of adults is very limited (McMillin, 2732). Because of
small size, the young set are unable to withdraw rapidly from the
top layers of sand and hence their movement is likely to be governed
by upper sand layers. During erosional phase of the annual beach
cycle upper layers of sand move offshore and are a ready vehicle
for the redistribution of small razor clams (Hirschhorn, 3816). The
spawn develop in water ranging in temperature from 11-17C.
Mortality of larvae and young razor clams can be very high. McMillin
(2732) records 99% loss from fall 1923 to mid February 1924, and
Tegelberg and Magoon (3407) observed a 95% mortality of set during
a severe storm. Mortality of young is influenced by such things as
freshwater runoff (rain) crowding, predation, and sediment
disturbances. Natural predators are sea gulls, ducks and fish.
Man-caused mortalities of young are alteration of clam beds by
coastal construction (groins, jetties, outfalls), vehicular traffic on
clam beds, and careless digging.

298

After reaching sufficient size to actively dig, the mortality rate

is greatly reduced and life spans of 15 years have been recorded
in Alaska. At the southern end of the range the average life span
is four years, and the maximum life span on Copalis Beach, Washington,
is about 8 years (Anon. , 3597).
Food and feeding

The razor clam is a filter feeder. Water containing diatoms, organic

detritus, and some small animals is taken into the mantle cavity
by the inhalent siphon. As the water passes over the gills food

is taken out and passed to the stomach (McMillin, 2732). Tegelberg

and Magoon (3704) feel that the major food source of the razor
clam is the diatom Chaetoceros armatus, and that growth rate is
dependent on food supply. They conclude the poor growth in the
1966 set of clams on Washington clam beaches was due to overpopulation
which caused a drastic reduction of the plankton supply. Growth is
thought to be proportional to food intake while temperature of the
water influences the intensity of feeding (McMillin, 2732). Relative
shell width was found to increase during the period March-July,
as did maximum increase of total length. Size increase appears
to be associated with seasonal rises in water temperature
(Hirschhorn, 3816).
Tempe rature

Temperature cf the water is thought to play an important role in

spawning, feeding, and growth of the razor clam, yet there appears
to be little evidence for such thinking. In fact, very little is known
about either the thermal tolerances or the responses of this clam
to temperature. Some very preliminary temperature tolerance
tests on adult :razor clams indicated that a two-hour exposure to
75F (24C) was lethal (Tegelberg, personal communication).
Larval razor clams are expected to have a narrower temperature
tolerance than the adults (Fulton, 3600).
Ova are found in female clams throughout the entire year; therefore
if increased temperatures or changes in temperature play a role
in spawning, the effects of a lens of warm water from a thermal
outfall could be significant. Since the razor clam moves very little
after settling, such a warming of the water may cause spawning
at times that are not optimal. Growth parameters of the Pacific
razor clam are quantitatively associated with mean annual air
temperature at localities ranging from California to Alaska
(Taylor, 3831),
299

19.

Thaleichthys pacificus (Richardson)

(Columbia River smelt, eulachon)
by Nancy Blind

The eulachon is an anadromous member of the family Osmeridae.

Until 'fairly recently its range was thought to extend 'from the Bering
Sea to the Klamath River in California, but records show that it
has been found as far south as Bodega Head, California (Odemar, 5804).

Since spawning and the hatching of the larvae takes place in freshwater
from mid-March to mid-May, they will not be treated in any detail
here. "Little is known about the distribution of eulachon from
the time the larvae leave the river until the time the adults return
to spawn" (Barraclough, 5798). The eulachon spend two years in
the ocean and return to the rivers to spawn at three years. The
larvae and juveniles are prevalent in the echo-scattering layers.
The stomachs of those caught were full of euphausiids (Barraclough,
5798). The adults also seem to be plankton feeders; Cumacea
dawsoni is the only species positively identified from stomach
contents (Smith, 5795).

The eulachon may be an important link in the food chain as it is

consumed by a number of different species, among which are
sturgeon, halibut, cod, porpoise, finback whale, seals and sea lions
(Hart and McHugh, 5538). Adults have also been found in the stomachs
of the dogfish, salmon, hake, lingcod, harbour and fur seals but
its relative importance in these diets is unknown (Barraclough, 5798).
They also may be important in the food supply of Cancer magister
as well as other shore species (Smith, 5798).
Fishermen have reported large aggregations of eul.chon off the
mouth of the Columbia River in November, December and January,
just prior to their move up river. Migration upstream may be
influenced by temperature of the river water (Smith, 5795).
The 'fish are primarily caught as they go up river to spawn.
Males seem to predominate in the commercial catch (Smith, 5795).
Most of the spawning fish die but some may survive and return to
spawn again in their fourth year (Barraclough, 5798).

300

For catch data on the Columbia River smelt see U. S. Fish and
Wildlife Service Statistical Digest for years of interest.
Spawning - Hart and McHugh, 5538; Smith, 5795; Barracough, 5798.
20.

Trachurus symmetricus (Ayres) (Jack mackerel)

by Nancy Blind

The range of the jack mackerel extends from the Gulf of Alaska to
Cape San Lucas, but the fishery is concentrated in Southern California,
from Monterey to San Diego (Ahistrom, 5748; Anon. , 5729).
Adults have been taken 1100 km from shore and the eggs and larvae
have been taken as far seaward as 2000 km off the coast of Washington
(Ahistrom, 5748). Studies indicate that there is one population
along the Pacific coast (Roedel, 5746).

Spawning takes place primarily from February to October (Farris,

5619) with the peak ranging from April to June (Ahistrom, 5724).
Cruises along the California coast produced the following results:
1951--the peak number of eggs occurred in March, 1952--spawning
began in January with the peak in May and ended at the end of
September, i953--spawning began in February with the peak in
April, 1954--the peak occurred in May (Farris, 5747).
Spawning is pelagic and takes place (Ahistrom, 5724) mainly from
150 to 450 km offshore (MacGregor, 5741). Larvae have been
taken as far north as Washington (Anon. , 5729; MacGregor, 5741)
but the area of concentration seems to be from Point Conception,
California, to San Quentin, Baja California (Anon., 5729). The
jack mackerel lives in the upper water layers, between 16 and 90 m
(Ahistrom, 5724). In one survey, 97% of the eggs and 88% of
the larvae were taken in the upper 50 meters (MacGregor, 5741).

Very little is known about the mating activities of the mackerel but
evidence indicates that most spawning occurs around midnight
(MacGregor 5741). Indications are that females spawn more than
once in a season (Anon. , 5729).
,

301

Temperature of the water has a definite effect upon the incubation

time. It has been shown that hatching occurs in 108.5 hours at
14C and 84 hours (3.5 days) at 15C. Temperature may also have
importance in relation to where the jack mackerel spawns. The
spawning area is approximately bounded by the 26th parallel in
the south, the 45th parallel in the north and the 1 50th meridian on
the west. Within the southern California area, and at a depth around
10 meters, where the greatest abundance of eggs occurs, the
temperature remains fairly constant around 15. 5C. In one study,
it was found that 60% of the spawning took place within 1 of 15. 5C
(Farris, 5619). Another survey indicated that 70% of the larvae
collected were in waters of 14-16C (MacGregor, 5741). However,
despite the constancy of temperature in the California area,
spawning occurs only in the spring and summer. Therefore, it is
thought that photoperiod may also be of some importance (Farris, 5619).

At hatching, the larval jack mackerel is somewhat larger than the

larvae of either the anchovy or the sardine. However, it has no
eyes, fins or mouth (Ahlstrom, 5724). After the development of
these features, the larvae feed upon minute crustaceans (MacGregor,
5741). Microstella norvegica seems to be particularly important
(Ahlstrom, 5724). At this stage the jack mackerel eats nearly the
same things as do the anchovy and sardine but the specimens it
can consume are somewhat larger than those taken by the. other
species. This is probably one of the reasons for its success (Ahlstrom,
5724). Survival at the end of 30 days after hatching was calculated
as 131, 112, and 179 larvae per 100,000 eggs hatched for the years
1952, 1953, and 1954. The variation was considered insignificant
(Farris, 5619).
Very little is known about the juvenile stage except that juveniles
eat euphausiids, pteropods and copepods. Copepods seem to be
more important to the juveniles than to the adults(MacGregor, 5741).
The jack mackerel matures between the second and third year (Anon. , 5729)..

Predation by organisms other than man has not been studied (MacGregor,
5741) but it is assumed that the jack mackerel is consumed by sea
lions, porpoises and most of The large predatory fish in the area
(Anon. , 5729). The Pacific mackerel is considered its most important
competitor (MacGregor, 5741).

302

Feeding

dult jack mackerel is known to eat euphausiids, copepods,

pteropods, anchovies, lanternfish and juvenile squid (Anon. , 5729).
The 'fish have been observed feeding on saury and lanternfish gathered
beneath the floodlights of a ship at night. The jack mackerel congregated
3 to 5 meters below the surface in schools of around forty fish.
They selected and chased individual prey (Grinols and Gill, 5742).
Mackerel seem to feed at any time during the day but it is not known
if they feed at night (MacGregor, 5741).
The

Schooling and migration

The jack mackerel is a schooling fish and there has been some
research regarding the effects of light on feeding and schooling and
the organization of the schools before, during and after feeding.
Schooling seems to be determined by size. It was observed in one
laboratory study that schools of juveniles that were rather disperse
during 'feeding became more compact after feeding (Hunter, 5745).
Not much is known about migrations of the jack mackerel (MacGregor,
5741). In 1950, adult jack mackerel taken at a depth of 20 meters
were found in temperatures ranging 'from 10C to 19. 5C (MacGregor,
5741).

Other information on the jack mackerel includes:

Catch statistics - U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Statistical Digest,
No. 55-60. Information available 'for California only.
Growth, maturation and life span - MacGregor, 5741; Roedel, 5746;
Anonymous, 5729

Fecundity and egg description - Anonymous, 5729; Ahlstrom, 5724;

MacGregor, 5741
Behavior - Hunter, 5744

303

PART IV - INTEGRATED ECOLOGY

Chapter 21. THE NEARSHORE COASTAL ECOSYSTEM: AN

OVERVIEW by James E. McCauley,

William C. Renfro, Robert H. Bourke,

Danil R. Hancock and Stephen W. Hager

305

Chapter 21. THE NEARSHORE COASTAL ECOSYSTEM:

AN OVERVIEW

by James E. McCauley, William C. Renfro,

RobertH. Bourke, DanilR. Hancock and Stephen W. Hager
An ecosystem is defined as "any area of nature that includes living
organisms and nonliving substances interacting to produce an exchange
of materials between the living and nonliving parts," (Odum, 1959).
This broad concept can be used to advantage in considering an area
subject to possible pollution. Knowledge of the various living and
nonliving components in sufficient detail to understand their interrelationships enhances our ability to anticipate changes resulting
from pollution of the ecosystem. In one sense, pollutants, such as
toxic chemicals or heated water, might be thought of as additional
environmental factors which might alter the system drastically.
Patently, a certain minimal level of information is necessary for
even crude predictions of the effects of pollution.
No ecosystem is a completely self-contained unit, and the Pacific Northwest
coastal region is no exception. It is influenced by adjoining regions
such as the open Pacific Ocean to the west and the land mass to
the east. These adjacent regions have a marked influence on the
climate and are the sources of many inputs into the system. Although
we can look at the region as a somewhat discrete unit, we must
continually keep in mind the influence of these contiguous territories.
Within the coastal ecosystem there are many interrelated physical,
chemical, geological, and biological processes. In the following
section an attempt will be made to describe some of these important
factors and the manner in which they interact.

The area considered here is the coastline of the Pacific Northwest,

extending from Cape Flattery, Washington to Cape Mendocino,
California. It can be characterized as a series of sandy beaches
interspersed with rocky headlands. This coastline is oriented in a
north-south direction and, except for local headlands and bays, is
nearly straight. The absence of major embayments and irregularities
results in a smaller variety of habitats thanwould normally be
expected to occur on a more highly dissected coastline. A large
portion of the coastline is, therefore, subjected to the full impact
of breaking waves.

307

The sandy beaches generally lie at the foot of low bluffs which are
usually not more than 10 meters high. Occasionally the bluffs reach
much greater heights, especially along the southern Oregon coast.
In some areas the bluffs may be greatly reduced as along the Clatsop
Plains region of northern Oregon or along the spit that separates
Willapa Bay from the ocean near Long Beach, Washington. In
other regions the bluffs may be far inshore, separated from the
beach by extensive sand dunes as occurs near Florence, Oregon.

The beaches are composed primarily of quartz and feldspar that

have been derived from ancient marine terrace deposits found along
the entire length of the inner continental shelf off Washington and
Oregon. These beach sands are conspicuously lacking in shells
and shell fragments which characterize the beaches of the midAtlantic states.
Beach profiles exhibit wide annual fluctuations in response to
wind-generated wave conditions, being broader and steeper in
summer. The intertidal microfauna of the sandy beaches of the
Pacific Northwest has not been extensively studied. The macrofauna
is limited to a few species which are mostly burrowing organisms.
The well-sorted character and large particle size of these beaches,
combined with a low content of organic matter, results in low species
diversity. Particle size of the sand also affects the compaction
and aeration of the beach, thereby affecting its suitability as a
habitat for animals which burrow into it or obtain nourishment from
it. The shifting of the sand and the absence of rocks or cobbles
generally exclude macroalgae from the sandy beaches of the
Pacific Northwest. In northern Oregon and southern Washington
sandy beaches harbor vast numbers of razor clams, Siliqua patula,,
but no other intertidal species are of great economic importance.
Basaltic headlands alternating with the sandy beaches provide
rocky intertidal areas having an exceedingly rich flora and fauna.
In some areas, offshore rocks and reefs temper the force of the
surf on these headlands forming the well-known protected rocky
outer coastal habitat. This type of environment, cons idere.d to be
one of the most productive, is a graphic example of the moderating
effect of the geomorphology on physical oceanographic processes
which, in turn, profoundly influence the biology. Tides, with an

308

average range of about two meters, bare much of this area at low
tide, subjecting it to abnormally high temperatures. The degree
to which the exposed intertidal surfaces are heated by absorption
of short wave solar radiation is largely determined by the nature
of the substrate. Dark surfaces absorb greater amounts of energy
than lighter ones. Hence, organisms found on dark surfaces may
tolerate, or even require, broader daily ranges of temperature
and higher temperatures than those on lighter surfaces. Such subtle
differences in substrate characteristics may have significant effects
on the composition ad distribution of intertidal communities.
The water level changes due to tides have a marked effect on the
distribution of intertidal species. Vertical zonation is generally
quite evident, especially on the more vertical rock faces. The
California mussel, Mytilus californianus, the ocean goose barnacle,

Pollicipes polymerus, and the sea star, Pisaster ochraceous,

constitute a trio of species which form massive beds in the upper
intertidal zone. The splash zone above has its own biota, consisting
primarily of smaller species. The zones below also have characteristic
plants and animals and generally have a great number of species.
The Mytilus-Pollicipes-Pisaster zone is alternately exposed to
air and water and the upper limit of this zone is generally determined
by this exposure. The lower limit, however, is most likely
controlled by predation of the starfish on the other two species.
This illustrates the interaction of biological and physical influences
on the distribution of species.
The intertidal community is dually exposed to predation. When covered
with water, fishes, seals, diving birds and other marine species
have ready access to the organisms. At low tides, shore birds
and terrestrial animals invade the region. Man, too, has become
a major influence on the ecology of intertidal zone along the Pacific
Northwest coast. The impact of intertidal collectors (tourists,
school and college classes) and fishermen has become so great that
use of the region must be regulated to protect the species. In
many areas Pisaster ochraceous, the starfish that was once a
most conspicuous part of the fauna, is now a rare species, having
been removed by human visitors to the beach. How will man's

predation on Pisaste r effect the Mytilus -Pollicipe s -Pisaster zone

of animals? Will Mytilus and Pollicipes encroach upon the lower zones?

309

Man-made structures have altered the shape of the coastline and

provided solid substrates for the attachment of many sessile organisms.
Jetties have been constructed to protect practically all the harbor
entrances along the Pacific Northwest coast. These jetties disrupt
the movement of sand along the coast. The seasonality of this
alongshore movement, or littoral drift, causes sandy beaches to
build up on both north and south sides of some jetties. Breakwaters
and groins similarly alter the natural flow of sand in the littoral drift.

The nearshore subtidal area is largely composed of sands similar

to those found intertidally, but become finer farther from shore. The
sand characteristically has a median diameter ranging from 200 to
300 microns and makes up nearly 100% of the sediment. The supply
of sand to this area from coastal rivers is small, most of it
being trapped in the estuaries of the supplying streams. Silt and
clay sized particles, however, are supplied to the nearshore
region in significant quantities. These particles do not settle,
but remain suspended and are transported from the area, most
being deposited farther out on the continental shelf. This suspended
material may be important in removing toxic substances from the
water. For example, toxic organic substances, such as pesticides or
pulp mill wastes, and toxic trace metals (e. g. , mercury, lead,
etc.) may be absorbed or adsorbed by the suspended silt and clay
particles and be deposited farther offshore.
The subtidal region has a moderate slope of about 1 : 80 such that
at one kilometer from shore the average depth is about 10-14
meters. In the northern part of the area under consideration the
slope is somewhat less than this; in the southern part, somewhat
more. Gravelly or rocky substrates are found off the mouths of
many coastal rivers due to the scouring action of the more intense
tidal currents created by the flow of water entering and leaving
the estuary. Rocky outcroppings occur off most headlands either
as sea stacks which have resisted erosion or as rubble which has
fallen from eroding headlands. Sea stacks are common off the
major headlands such as Tillamook Head, Cape Arago, and others,
and are a dominant part of the seascape within several kilometers
o the shore south of Cape Blanco. These structures may have a
large influence on the local, nearshore circulation (to be discussed
later) which, in turn, may affect communities by altering the transport
of nutrients, pollutants, and pelagic larvae.

310

Two dynamic communities interact in this nearshore subtidal

region: (1) A benthic community consisting of those organisms
living in or on the sediment or near the sediment-water interface
and (2) A pelagic community consisting of those organisms drifting,
floating, or swimming in the overlying water. Because of their
interactions, the boundaries of these communities are not clear.
The Pacific herring, for example, deposits eggs which become part
of the benthic community while the larvae and adults are members
of the pelagic community. Conversely, many of the benthic species
produce eggs which float to the surface, hatch into planktonic larvae,
and become dispersed by ocean currents before settling permanently
to the bottom. In many other cases, benthic fishes swim up into
the surface waters to feed on pelagic organisms, while such pelagic
species as sea otters dive to the bottom to feed on benthic sea
urchins. The benthic community depends upon the continual "rain
of materials from the overlying waters in the 'form of decomposing
organisms, fecal pellets, suspended sediment particles, etc. , for
nourishment. These bottom organisms, including bacteria, marine
worms, etc. , perform the valuable function of breaking down these
organic materials into elemental forms which are recycled. The
cycling of some elements have been studied by 'following rad:ionuclides
artificially induced in the Columbia River at Hanford, Washington, and
subsequently incorporated into the marine biogeochernical system..

This nearshore subtidal region with its many interacting communities

is the site of several major fisheries in the Pacific Northwest. The
largest of these is the salmon fishery, but Dungeness crab, shrimp,
perch, sole, founder, bass, and rockfish 'fisheries contribute
significantly to the economy of the region.

The temperature of the nearshore coastal surface water varies

seasonally, ranging from an average high of 17.7C to an average low
of 7. 6C. The annual range in mean temperature is small, however,
with mean summer temperatures (14 C) being about C warmer than
mean winter temperatures (9C). Such a small annual temperature
range is in sharp contrast to that of many other coastal regions.
More variability is observed in summer than in winter. Summer
temperatures 'fluctuate within a 4 to 6C range while winter temperatures
are constrained to a 1 to 2C range. Due to the warming influence of
the, Columbia River, summer temperatures are 2 to 3C higher in
the vicinity of the river mouth ('from Willapa Bay to Tillamook Head).

311

Coastal upwelling, most prevalent off southern Oregon and northern

California, tends to suppress the high surface temperature normally
expected during summer. Average temperatures of 9. 5 to 10. 5C are
observed in regions of active upwelling. At the same time, temperatures
of 12 to 14C are found in nearby regions undergoing little or no
upwelling.

The net heat exchange across the air-sea boundary varies from year
to year due mainly to fluctuations in solar radiation and evaporation.
Seasonal fluctuations of these two factors also establish an annual
cycle of net heat transfer. From April through September the ocean
is warmed by a transfer of heat from the atmosphere to the oceans;
October through March constitutes a cooling period when the ocean
gives up heat to the atmosphere. Net solar radiation reaches its
maximum during the summer months. The insolation during April
through September is more than twice that received during the
winter months. Heat loss due to evaporation is at a maximum during
the winter months. The evaporative process is supressed during
the summer months when upwelling is prevalent.
Atmospheric temperatures observed at coastal weather stations
and at lightships range from a mean summer temperature of
approximately 14C peaking in August to a mean winter temperature
of approximately 10C during January through March.

Average surface salinities are higher in summer than in winter

(approximately 33. 5%o and 32%o, respectively). Coastal upwelling

tends to keep salinities high during the summer, while winter rains
and high river run-off tend to lower surface salinities. Where
coastal upwelling is prevalent, salinities are frequently observed in
excess of 33. 8%o but seldom exceeding 34. 4%o. In winter the discharge
from the Columbia River flows northward along the Washington
coastline. Mean salinities observed along the southern Washington
coast are low (25 to 28%o) with maximum salinities rarely exceeding
30%. In June, during periods of peak river flow, salinities less
than 20% have been observed from Seaside, Oregon to Willapa Bay,
Washington.

'

The quality-of sea water depends not only upon those substances which
are a natural part of the marine ecosystem, but also upon those
substanceswhich have been added by man. Little is known about

312

the natural properties of Pacific Northwest nearshore coastal waters

except for those tied closely to biological production and upwelling.
These properties, pH, dissolved CO2, inorganic nutrients, and
dissolved oxygen,are discussed later under considerations of upwelling.
Substances introduced into the nearshore waters of the Pacific
Northwest by man include domestic sewage, pesticides, and pulp
mill effluents. The interactions of these substances with the environment have not been studied thoroughly in this region. Although there
are four pulp mill outfalls in this coastal zone, little is known about
the interactions of these waste products with sea water and nearshore
communities.

One feature of the Pacific Northwest coast which sets it apart from
the more southerly coasts is the occurrence of much driftwood washed
ashore or water-logged in the sub-tidal area. This wood, carried
to the oceans from logging activities ashore or lost from log-rafts at
sea, provides a substrate for those communities which attach to
floating objects or bore into submerged wood. In the surf these
logs are a hazard to swimmers and boaters and may act as batteringrams dislodging attached animals and damaging sea walls.
The trend of the winds over this coastal area is largely influenced
by the barriers presented by the coastal bluffs and nearby mountains.
Summer winds prevail from the northwest (WNW in the northern
region, NNW in the southern). Winds observed at the lightships
off Cape Flattery, Cape Mendocino, and the mouth of the Columbia
River are similar to those observed at coastal stations suggesting
that the influence of the coastal bluffs and mountains is felt at least
10 kilometers offshore. Most winter storms are southwesterly,
but prevailing winds during the winter generally have an easterly
component. The net result of these wind forces is a seasonal
pattern of nearshore water movement either northward or southward
along the coast.

Littoral sand transport along the coast is responsive to the local

wind-generated wave action and moves sand northward during the
winter and southward during the summer. The more severe winter
storms generate higher waves tending to make the annual net movement
northward, hut this may vary locally. Except for seasonal changes in

313

the beach slope very near to shore, the onshore-offshore movement

is negligible. This absence of net offshore transport, combined
with reduced net alongshore drift due to seasonal reversals,
results in a low rate of removal of sands from a given area.
Dispersion of pollutants adsorbed on the sand particles would also
be limited by this containment or anti-dispersal mechanism.

The northerly summer winds are also associated with coastal

upwelling which brings cold, nutrient-rich waters to the surface to
replace the surface water which has been transported offshore by
the combined influence of wind stress and the Earth's rotation.
Upwelling is particularly apparent in the southern half of the region
(southward of Tiliamook Head) and generally is initiated in June,
becoming most intense in July and August and persisting until
September. Periods of subsidence occur during periods of calm
or when the wind shifts from the north. The upweliing phenomenon
is manifested as local pockets of relatively cool saline water
varying locally in intensity. The temperature of this upwelled
water is about 11 to 13C, approximately 5 to 7C less than that of
surface waters 40 kilometers farther offshore. Upweliing has a
marked effect on the coastal climate producing local fog and chilly
weather during the summer months. Recent studies indicate that
upweliing is more persistent in the vicinity of rocky headlands.
Upwelling is an important mechanism for bringing cold, nutrient-rich,
low oxygen water to the surface where it can be utilized by phytopiankton.
The rich supply of these nutrients, which often limit photosynthetic
production, stimulates the growth of phytopiankton resulting in a
population explosion or "bloom. Such blooms generally occur between
May and September along the Pacific Northwest coast. These blooms
are closely followed by an increase in the population of zoopiankton
which feed on the phytoplankton. The region is thus rich in food for
higher trophic levels. Important forage fish, such as anchovy and
herring feed on this rich food and in turn are fed upon by salmon and
other commercial species. Thus, the success and timing of the
fisheries in the Pacific Northwest is closely correlated with the
timing and location of intense upwelling zones.
In addition to its higher nutrient concentration, upwelled waters differ
from surface waters in other chemical characteristics. Values of

314

pH may be as low as 7. 7 or roughly twice as acidic as surface

waters (pH 8.1). Dissolved carbon dioxide may reach levels of
500 ppm or more while the level of typical surface waters is
generally less than 320 ppm. Oxygen values may be as low as
1. 5 mi/i (N, T. P0) whereas usual surface values are about 7 mi/i.
Higher concentrations of trace metals probably occur in upwelled
waters, and concentrations of dissolved organics and particulate
matter may also be high. The implications of these significant
changes in chemical composition are not yet fully understood, but
they may be as important as the nutrients to the biological systems.
Wave studies indicate that the predominant offshore swell is from
the northwest throughout the year. Thus, communities on the
exposed northern sides of headlands may differ in their species
composition from those on the more protected southern sides. The
average height of the swell is less in summer than in winter (1 m and
1.6 m); the average period during both seasons is about 10. 5 seconds.
Waves generated by local storms are superimposed on this general
swell pattern. These locally generated waves are higher (1.1 m
in summer, 2. 5 m in winter) and of a shorter period (6.4 sec in
summer, 8. 1 sec in winter) than the swell. Wave height and wave
length determine the depth at which bottom material can be resuspended
or moved. The resultant turbidity and movement of material may
significantly influence the bottom topography, benthic communities, and
chemical characteristics of the area. Upon reaching the nearshore
area the waves appear mostly as swell and are bent from their
direction of approach to arrive with their wave crests nearly parallel to
the shoreline. Where troughs, canyons, or other depressions occur
on the sea floor, there are regions of divergence where the wave
heights are diminished. Off headlands, reefs, bars, and other
shoaling areas (regions of convergence), wave heights are increased,
in some cases to a height where breakers occur.
Turbulent mixing by the large storm waves of winter causes thorough
mixing of the water column from surface to bottom. The small
temperature dif'ferences observed between surface and bottom waters
(about 1 C) during the summer are absent during the period from
December through March or April.

Reliable estimates of wind-driven current velocities beyond the

surf zone are not available at present, but observations 5 to 15
kilometers offshore show a general southward surface flow of 20
315

to 40 cm/sec during the summer. Depending on the strength of

the surface flow, a subsurface northward flow may also be present
near the base of the permanent pycnocline. It seems doubtful
that such subsurface flow would be observed because of the influence
of the shallower water and other coastal features. In winter the
direction of the southward current is reversed in response to the
seasonal shift of the winds. The conformation of the coastline
(headlands, reefs, etc.) has a marked influence on local circulation
patterns, creating complex eddies, most of which have not yet been
studied. Local circulation constitutes the main mechanism for the
dispersal of material added to the nearshore area by rivers, erosion,
and human activities.

These circulation patterns are also of great importance in transporting

planktonic organisms, particularly the planktonic larvae of benthic
plants and animals. Such offspring must be transported to a suitable
area during proper seasons in order to insure continued maintenance
of benthic communities. Distribution of materials such as nutrients,
trace metals, and pollutants are also influenced by the currents.
Disruption of the usual patterns of longshore water movement during
prolonged stormy periods may seriously affect planktonic organisms.
Currentsalso carry foods and other substances to various organisms,
especially those which are attached to the substrate, and may also
remove waste products which might become toxic if allowed to remain
in the area.
A number of rivers empty into the region, including coastal streams
and the Columbia River. The impact of the coastal streams is slight
compared to that of the mighty Columbia. These rivers introduce
fresh water with its load of sediment and diverse chemicals into
the ocean. Such riverborne chemicals as trace elements, organic
compounds, inorganic nutrients, and particulate matter, may have a
great influence on the ecology of the nearshore region. The specific
chemical characteristics of each stream are largely determined
by the nature of its drainage basin. The chemistry of Pacific
Northwest coastal streams is thus influenced by the geology of the
Coast Range; the markedly seasonal precipitation patterns; and the
activities of various industries, in particular, the forest products
industries. The generally low population density in these drainage
basins has helped to preserve the pristine quality of the water.

316

The effects of the coastal streams are generally local and seasonal
with discharges ranging from 3 to 30 m3/sec in summer and 300 to
600 m3/sec cfs in winter. The Columbia River, however, is much
larger (7500 m3/sec mean annual flow) and has a plume that can
be detected far at sea. Its impact on the coastal area is primarily
along the Washington coast where the winter plume flows northward
close to shore. The summer plume of the Columbia flows southwest
from the mouth of the river and is soon far offshore. The influence
of the Columbia is not entirely absent from the coastal region of
Oregon, however, for traces of radionuclides induced in the Columbia
River at the Hanford Atomic Works can be detected in the coastal
fauna and sediments at least 300 kilometers south of the river mouth.
The influence of the river on the biota is not always obvious, but
anadromous fishes such as salmon, bay smelt, and herring require
varying degrees of fresh water for spawning. It is also thought
that the chemical make-up of the rivers is important for the successful
navigation of these anadromous species, serving as a sort of
"fingerprint to identify the natal stream. Changes of the chefriical
make-up of a river can hinder their upstream navigation.
Most of the coastal rivers and the Columbia River enter the ocean
through well-developed estuaries. Estuaries are the sites of most
of the cities and smaller communities along the coast, and also
the location of most of the industry. These estuaries have a fauna
and flora that are more or less typical of the habitat, andare
important feeding grounds for the larvae and juveniles of many marine
species. Estuaries undoubtedly have an important impact on the
outer coastal zone, but they have been excluded from this study.

In summary, the general uniformity of this coastal region should

be emphasized. The plant and animal composition of the entire
region shows a remarkable similarity from north to south. Most
of the more common species reported from northern Washington have
also been reported from northern California and vice versa. There are
no major faunal or floral boundaries in the region, and the differences
in biota that can be seen between the extremes of the region generally
occur gradually. The general ecological factors which are thought
to control biological distributions (e.g. temperature, substrate,
salinity) all show a relative uniformity throughout the region so that
the absence of a biological boundary is not surprising.

317

In this chapter we have attempted to describe the nearshore coastal

region of the Pacific Northwest, to show that it is a dynamic ecosystem
interacting with adjacent ecosystems. We have tried to discuss
the various components of this ecosystem as they interact and to
show that there is great interdependence among these components.
In the preceding chapters and in the appendices to this report we
have brought together all the information that we could locate about
the area. It was necessary for this information to be compartmentalized,
although from the ecological viewpoint it cannot realistically be
separated into discrete parts. Much of the information is so fragmentary
and so incompletely understood that we cannot incorporate it into
a large interacting whole. Ecology has not yet reached the degree of
sophistication necessary for us to completely understand the complex
and subtle interactions within an ecosystem, but it is probable
that any available information may be useful and perhaps even
essential.

318

BIBLIOGRAPHY

In preparing this bibliography an attempt was made to uncover

all of the literature pertaining to the outer coastal zone.
Undoubtedly, important references were unintentionally omitted.
For this the authors apologize and would appreciate having such
omissions called to their attention.

Early in the preparation of this report the decision was made to

number literature citations serially, and a block of numbers
was assigned to each worker. Duplications have been deleted but
limited time and space have precluded indexing or alphabetizing
the references. Hence, the reader must reach the references
from the number citations in the text and appendices.
Only selected publications 'from the pre-1920 literature have been
reviewed and evaluated. This literature was often unavailable.
Changes in biological nomenclature made accurate placement of the
information difficult, if not impossible, without a complete
synonymy of the species. Furthermore, most of the significant
works published before 1920 have become incorporated into the more

recent literature.

319

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Adams, James R. 1969. Ecological investigations. related

to thermal discharges. Pacific Coast Electrical
Association, Engr. & Operating Section. Annual
Meeting. March 13,14. lOp.

1101

Thermal poweraquatic life, and

kilowatts on the Pacific coast. American Power Conference Annual Meeting. Chicago, Ill. April 22-25. 13 p.

1102

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1968. Ecological investigations around
some thermal power stations in California tidal waters.
Chesapeake Science (to be published). 13 p.

1969.

1105

Pacific Gas and Electric Company. 1969. Summary of

ecological studies and agreements between Pacific
Gas and Electric Company and California Resources
Agency for thermal power plants. PG&E Company,
San Francisco.

1106

Ballard, IL L. 1964. Distribution of beach sediment near

the Columbia River. Department of Oceanography,
University of Washington, Seattle. Tech. Report
#98.

82 p.

1107

Bijker, E. W. 1968. Littoral drift as a function of waves

and current. Proceedings 11th Conference on Coastal
Engineering. London. Vol. I: 421 -435.

1110

Bretschneider, C. L. 1966. On wind tides and longshore

currents over the continental shelf due to winds blowing at an angle to the coast. National Engineering
Science

1111

Company, Washington. 45 p.

Bourke, B. H. 1969. Monitoring coastal upwelling by

measuring its effects within an estuary. Master's
thesis. Corvallis, Oregon State University. 54 rium. lvs.

321

1112

Brown, R. L. 1967. Hydrodynamic forces on a submarine

pipeline. Proc. Journal of Pipeline Division. , ASCE.
93 (PL1): 9-19.

1113

Budinger, T. F. , L. K. Coachman, and C. A. Barnes. 1964.

1114

Budyko, M. I. 1964. Atlas of the heat balance of the earth.

U. S. Department of Commerce WB/T-106. 25 p.

1115

Burt, W. V. , W. B. McAlister, and J. Queen. 1959.

Oxygen anomalies in the surf near Coos Bay, Oregon.

Columbia River effluent in the northeast Pacific Ocean.

1961, 1962: selected aspects of physical oceanography.
Department of Oceanography, University of Washington, Seattle. Technical Report 99. 78 p.

Ecology 40(2): 305-306.

1116

Burt, W. V. 1954. Albedooverwind_roughenedWater.

Journal of Meteorology 11(4): 283 -290.

1117

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1958. Heat budget terms for Middle
Snake River reservoirs. Corvallis. (OSU Tech. Rpt. 6).

1118

Cairns, 3. L. 1968. Thermocline strength fluctuations

in coastalwaters. JGR73(8): 2591-2595.

1121

Coastal Engineering Research Center. 1966. Shore protection, planning and design. Technical Report No. 4.
Third ed. U. S. Army Corps of Engineers, Washington.
401 p.

1123

Committee on Thermal Pollution. 1967. Bibliography

on thermal pollution. Proc. ASCE. 3. of San. Engr.
Div. SA3: 85-113. #5303.

1124

Cooper, William S. 1958. Coastal sand dunes of Oregon

GeologicalSoc. of A.merica. , Memoir
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72.

169 p.

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Darling, 3. M. and D. G. Dumm. 1967. The wave record

program at CERC. 13. S. Army Coastal Engineering
Research Center Miscellaneous Paper No. 1 -67.
30 p.

1126

Dodimead, A. J. , F. Favorite, and T. Hirano. 1963. Salmon

of the North Pacific Ocean, Part II, Review of the oceanography of the subarctic Pacific region. International
North Pacific Fisheries Commission, Bulle tin 1 3.
195 p.

1128

Duxbury, A. , Betty-Ann Morse, and N. McGary. 1966. The

Columbia River effluent and its distribution at sea
1961 -1963. University of Washington, Dept. of Oceanog-

raphy, Seattle. Tech. Report #156. 105 p.

1129

Eagleson, P. S. 1965. Theoretical study of longshore currents

on a plane beach. M. I. T. Department of Civil Engineering

Hydrodynamics Lab., Report no. 82.
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1130

Ekman, V. W.

1905. On the influence of the earth's radiation

on ocean currents. Ark. f. Mat. , Astron. och Frysik,
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1131

Engineering Laboratory, TVA. 1969. Heat and mass transfer

between a water surface and the atmosphere. Water
Resources Research Lab. Report. #14 (revised).
Norris, Tenn. 98 p.

1132

Federal Power Commission. 1969. Problems in disposal of

waste heat from steam-electric plants. Bureau of Power,
Washington, D. C. 53 p.

1133

Frolande:r, Herbert F. 1960-1970. Unpublished hydrographic

data from Yaquina Bay, Oregon. Corvallis, Ore gon State
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1135

Gonor, J. 3. 1968. Temperature relations of coastal

Oregon marine intertidal invertebrates; a pre-publication technical report to the office of naval research.
Dept. of Ocean. , Oregon State University, Corvallis.
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1137.

Gross, M. G. , B. Morse, and C. A. Barnes. 1969. Move-

1138

Haertel, L. S. 1969. Plankton and nutrient ecology of the

Columbia River. Ph. D. thesis. Corvallis, Oregon

ment of near-bottom waters on the continental shelf

off the Northwestern United States. J. of ceo.
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State University. 54 numb, leaves.

1139

Hedgpeth, J. and J. 3. Gonor. 1969. Annual summary report

1140

Humboldt State College. 1964. An oceanographic study

between the points of Trinidad Head and the Eel
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1142

Ingraham, W. J. 1967. The geostrophic circulation and

distribution of water properties off the coasts of

for 1969 on Project #NR1O4-936. Marine Ecological

Studies. Dept. of Oceanography, Oregon State Univ.
Corvallis.

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1963.' Fishery Bulletin, 66(2):. 223-250.
1144

Ippen, A. T. 1966. Estuary and coastline hydrodynamics.

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1145

James, R. W. 1966. Ocean thermal structure forecasting.

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217 p.

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1146

James, W. P. and F. J. Burgess.

1147

Johnson, J. W. and B. L. Wiegel. 1958. Investigation of

current measurements in estuarine and coastal waters.
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Airphoto analysis
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1148

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1149

Laevastu, T. 1960. Factors affecting the temperature of

the surface layer of the sea. Societas Scientirurn
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1150

Lane, Robert K. 1965. Climate and heat exchange in the

oceanic region adjacent to Oregon. Ph. D. thesis.
Corvallis, Oregon State University. 115 numb, leaves.

1151

Law, W. P. 1965. Investigation into the short-period advective

change of sea surface temperature. Masters thesis.
Monterey, U. S. Naval Postgraduate School. 54 p.

1153

Marine Advisers, Inc. 1969. Summary report of San Onofre

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168 p.

1154

1969. Summary report of the San Onofre

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1155

Meteorology Committee, Pacific Northwest River Basins

Climatological Handbook Columbia
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1968.

1156

Mooers, C. N. K., etal. 1968. A compilation of observations

from moored current meters and thermographs (and of
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30. Ref. 68-5.) 98 p.

1157

Mooers, C. N. K. 1970. The interaction of an internal tide with

the frontal zone in a coastal upwelling region. Ph. D.
thesis. Corvallis, Oregon State University. 480 numb.
leaves.

1158

National Marine Consultants. 1960. Wave statistics for seven

deep water stations along the California coast. U. S. Army
Corps of Engineers, Districts Los Angeles & San Francisco.

1159

1160

1961. Wave statistics for three deep water

stations along the Oregon-Washington coast. U. S. Army

Corps of Engineers, District Portland & Seattle.

Neal, V. T. , D. F. Keene and J. Detweiler. 1969. Physical

factors affecting Oregon coastal pollution. Progress Report
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(Ref; #69-2.8).

1161

Neumann, G. 1952. On the complex nature of ocean waves and

the growth of the sea under the action of wind. Gravity
Waves, NBS Circular 521.

1162

North, Wheeler J. 1968. Biological effects of a heated water

discharge at Morro Bay, California. IV International
Seaweed Symposium, Madrid, Spain. 18 p.

1163

Northwest Water Resources Data Center, 1968. Average monthly

discharges for 15 year period, 1953-67, Table no. 1, Dec. 20.
Supplement to Current Discharge at Selected Stations in the
Pacific Northwest.

326

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O'Brien, M. p. 1951. Wave measurements at the Columbia River

Light Vessel, 1933-1936. Trans. AGU 32(6); 875-877.

1165

Oregon State Water Resources Board. 1959. Rogue River Basin..

Salem, Oregon. 440 p.

1166

. 1969. Summary report of Oregon's long range

requirements for water. Salem, Oregon.

1167

1168
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1965. Mid coast river basin. Salem, Oregon. 122 p.

1963. South coast river basin. Salem, Oregon. 15 p.

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1170

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28 pp.

1172

Park, K., 3. G. Pattullo, and B. Wyatt. 1962. Chemical properties

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1173

Pattullo, 3. and W. Denner. 1965. Processes affecting seawater

characteristics along the Oregon coast. Limnol. & Oceanog.
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1174

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heat content off Oregon: its variations and their causes.
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Pierson, W. J. , G. Neumann, and R. W. James. 1955.

Practical methods for observing and forecasting ocean
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U. S. Navy Hydrographic Office Pubi. No. 603.

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A compilation of observations from moored current meters
and thermographs. Vol. III. Oregon continental shelf.
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Oceanog. , OSU, Corvallis.

1178

Power Planning Committee, Pacific Northwest River Basins

Commission. 1969. Review of power planning in the
Pacific Northwest for 1968.

1179

Pritchard, D. W. 1969. Problems related to disposal of

radioactive wastes in estuarine and coastal waters.
Contribution no. 41 of the Chesapeake Bay Institute.

1180

Raphael, J. M. 1962. Prediction of temperature in rivers and

reservoirs. Proc. ASCE, J. Pow. Div. Vol. 88: 157-181.

1182

Reid, 3. L. and Schwartzlose, R. A. 1962. Direct measurements

of the Davidson Currentoff Central California. JGR 67(6):
2491 -2497.

1183

Rogers, L. C. 1966. Blue Water 2 lives up to promise. The

Oil and Gas Journal. August 15. p. 73-75.

1185

Saville, T. , Jr. 195C. Model study of sand transport along

an infinitely long, straight beach. Am. Geophys. Union
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1186

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United States and Baja California, as measured by drift
bottles. Calif. Coop. Oceanic Fish. Invest. Rpts, Vol. IX:
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1187

Scipps Institution of Oceanography. 1968-1969. Surface water

temperatures at shore stations, United States west coast.
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SEDCO 13SF takes a 95-ft. wave

1189

Skeesick, DelbertG. 1913. Astudyof some physical-chemical

characteristics of Humboldt Bay. Master!s thesis, Arcata,
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1969.

Ocean Industry 4(1): 21-22.

148 p.

1190

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Newport, Oregon. Newport, Marine Science Center.

1191

Sverdrup, H. U. 1951. Evaporation fromthe oceans. In:

Compendium of meteorology, ed. by T. F. Malone. Boston,
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1192

Sverdrup, H. U., MartinW. Johnson, and RichardH. Fleming.

1942. The oceans, their physics, chemistry, and general
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1193

U.S. Dept. of Agriculture Weather Bureau. 1936. Climatic

summary of the United States, Section 1. Western Washington.
Gov. Print. Office, Washington, D. C. 38 pp.

1194

U.S. Army Engineer Waterways Experiment Station. 1968.

Design for optimum wave conditions at Crescent City
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Tech. Rpt. H-68-6. (P.K. Senter and C. W. Brasfield)

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2994

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3005

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Dewberry, E. B. 1959. The Pacific Crab canning industry

of British Columbia--I. Food Manufacture 34: 425-429;
474-477.

3357

Clark, J. R. 1969. Thermal pollution and aquatic life.

Sci. Amer. 220: 19-27.

3358

Gray, G. W. Jr.

3359

Friedman, S. 1969. Thermal addition: One step from thermal

pollution. BioScience, 19: 60-61.

3360

Heath, W. C. 1967. Comparative osmotic regulation and

temperature resistance in several Gulf of California
and Puget Sound shallow water fishes. (Paper presented
at Int'l Symp. on Coastal Lagoons, Mexico City,
Nov., 1967.)

3361

Hipkins, F. W. 1957. The Dungeness Crab industry, Fish

& Wildlife Serv., Fish. Leaf. 439: 1-12.

3362

Jones L. L. 1941. See 2178.

3363

MacKay, D. G. C. 1942. The Pacific edible crab, Cancer

1964. Halibut preying on large crustacea.

Copeia 1964(3): p. 540.

magister. Bull. Fish. Res. Bd. Can. 62: 1-32.

3364

Thomson, D. A. 1969. Biological effects. In: Environmental

Impact of Brine Effluents on Gulf of California. Office
of Saline Water R. & D. Progress Report 316.

3365

United States Department of Interior (USD1) 1968. A Study

of the Disposal of the Effluent from a Large Desalination Plant.
Office of Saline Water R & D Progress Report 316

3366

USD1.

3367

USD1.

1969. Disposal of the Effluents from Desalination

Plants in Estuarine Waters. Office of Saline Water R & D
Progress Report 415.
1969. Disposal of the Effluents from Desalination
Plants: The Effects of Copper Content, Heat and Salinity.
Office of Saline Water R & D Progress Report 437.

465

3368

Woods, W. K. 1968. Warm Water Irrigation Proposal.

Douglas United Nuclear, Inc., Richiand, Washington
(Microcard # DUNSA-59).

3369

Shen-Miller, J. 1970. Some thoughts on the Nuclear

Agro-Industrial complex. BioScience 20: 98-100.

3370

Nash, Cohn. 1969. Thermal Aquaculture. Sea Frontiers

15(5): 268-276.

3371

Swan, E. S. 1961. Seasonal evisceration in the sea cucumber

Parastickopus californicus (Stimpson) Science 133: 1078-1079.

3372

Kenyon, K. W. and V. B. Scheffer. 1962. Wildlife surveys

along the Northwest Coast of Washington. Murrelet,
42: 29-37.

3373

Kirk, Ruth. 1962. The Olympic Seashore. Olympic National

History Museum, 2800 Hurricane Ridge Road, Porte
Angeles, Washington 98362. 80 p.

3374

Porter, Russell G. 1964. Food and feeding of staghorn sculpin

(Leptrcottus armatus Girard) and starry flounders
iatichthys stillatus Pahias) in euryhaline environments.
M. S. Thesis Humboldt State College.

3375

Allen, George H. and Peter A. Morgenroth. 1966. The

early development of Petrole Sole . Final Progress report
of Contract agreement S-1584 between Humboldt State
College Foundation and Calif. Dept. Fish. and Game.

3376

Leet, William S. 1969. Accumulation of Zinc-65 by oysters

maintained in a discharge canal of a nuclear power plant
M. S. Thesis, Humboldt State College.

3377

Allen, G. H., A. C. DeLacy, andD. W. Gatshall. 1960.

Quantative sampling of marine fishes--a problem in

fish behavior and fishing gear. Proc. 1st Intl. Conf.
Waste Disposal in mar. Environment Pergaman Press,
New Yorkpp. 448-511.

3378

Magoon, Charles D. 1965. An investigation of near-shore

phytoplankton of the Pacific Ocean off Northern California
M. S. Thesis, Humboldt State College, 157 p.
466

3379

Porter, Preston. 1964. Notes on fecundity, spawning, and

early life history of Petrole Sole (Eopsetta jordani),
with descriptions of flatfish larvae coilecters in the
Pacific Ocean off Humboldt Bay, California. M. S.
Thesis, Humboldt State College, 98 p.

3380

Sasaki, Ronald K. 1967. The anteology of the genus Saxidonnus

in southern Humboldt Bay, California. M. S. Thesis,

Humboldt State Coll. 42 p.

3381

McKee, J. E. and H. W. Wolf, (eds.) 1963. Water Quality

Criteria, 2nd ed. The Resources Agency of California,
State Water Quality Control Board. Publication No. 3-A.
548 p.

3382

Pappas, Peter W. 1968. The metazoan parasites of

sharks from Humboldt Bay and vicinity. M. S. Thesis
Humboldt State Coil. 66 p.

3383

Sims, Carl W. 1960. A study of the fishery and the population

of the Pacific razor clam Siliqua patula of Clam Beach
California. M. S. Thesis, Humboldt State College, 130 p.

3384

Anderson, Robert D. 1969. Age and Growth of three

surfperches (family Embiotocidae) from Arcata Bay,
California. M. S. Thesis, Humboldt State College. 69 p.

3385

Smith, Allan K. 1967. Population dynamics and ecology of

the embiotocids of Humboldt Bay, California. M. S.
thesis, Humboldt State College, 84 p.

3386

Chain, Richard K. 1962. A study of the oxidative metabolism

in the sponge Haliclona permollis (Bowerbank, 1866).
M. S. Thesis, Humboldt State College, 113 p.

3387

Grosy, Terry. 1966. Foodiiabits and parasites of the

Pacific White Wing Scoter (Melanitta fusea dixoni) in
Humboldt Bay Area. M. S. Thesis, Humboldt State
College, 44 p.

3388

Stout, W. E. 1967. A study of the antecology of the horse

neck clams Tresus capox and Tresus nuttalli in South
Humboldt Bay, Calif. M. S. Thesis, Humboldt State
College 51 p.
467

3389

Stroganov, N. S. 1956. Physiological adaptability of Fish

to the Temperature of the surrounding Medium AK
SSSR. Translation NSF, Dept of Intern by Isrene
Program for Scientific Translations (1962).

3391

Chitwood, B. G. 1960. A preliminary contribution on the

manine nemas (Adenophurea) of Northern California.

Trans. Amer. Micr. Soc. 79: 347-384.

3392

Wieser, - 1959. Free-living nematodes and other small

invertebrates of Puget Sound beaches. Univ. Wash.
Pubi. Biol. 19: 1-179.

3393

Murphy, D. G. 1964. Rhynconema subsetosa, a new species

of marine nematode, with a note on the genus Phylolaimus
Murphy, 1963. Proc. helminth. Soc. Wash. 31: 26-28.

3394

Murphy, D. G. 1964. Free-living marine nematodes I.

Southerniella youngi, Dagda phinneyi, and Gammanem
smithi, n. sp. Proc. helminth, Soc. Wash. 31: 190-198.

3395

Murphy, D. G. 1963. A new genus and two new species

of Nematodes from Newport, Oregon. Proc. helminth.
Soc. Wash. 30(1): 73-78.

3396

Murphy, D. G. 1963. Three new species of marine Nematodes

from the Pac. near Depot Bay, Oregon. Proc. helminth
Soc. Wash. 30( 2): 249-256.

3397

MacKay, D. C. G. 1943. Temperature of the world distribution of crabs of the genus Cancer. Ecology 24: 113-115.

3398

Mir, R. D. 1961. The external morphology of the first zoeal

stages of tIre crabs, Cancer magister Dana, Cancer antennarius Stimpson, and Cancer anthonyi Rathbun Calif.
Fish & Game, 47: 103-111.

3399

Murphy, D. G. 1965. Free-living marine Nematodes. II.

Thoracostoma pacifica n. sp. from the Coast of Oregon.
Proc. helminth. Soc. Wash. 32: 106-109.

3400

Pratt, I. and R. Herrmann.

1962. Nitschin qundritestis

sp. n. (Monogeneni Capsalidae) from the Columbia River
Sturgeon. J. Parasitol, 48: 291-295.
468

3401

King, R. E. 1963. A new species of Parahimiurus and

notes on Tubulovesicula lindbergi (Trematoda: Hemiuridae) from fishes of Bohia de San Quentin, Baja
California. Pacific Naturalist, 3: 330-336.

3402

Margolis, L. and N. P. Boyce. 1969. Life span, Maturation

and growth of two Hemiurid trematodes, Tubulovesicula
lindbergi and Lecithoster gibbosus in Pacific salmon
(Genus Oncorhynchus). J. Fish. Res. Brd. Canada.
26(4): 893-907.

3403

Hall, J. R. and I. Pratt. 1969. Some digenetic trematodes

of Oregon tidepool cottid fish: J. Parasitol. 55: 207.

3404

Laurs, R. M. andJ. E. McCauley. 1964. AnewAcanthocephalan from the Pacific Saury. J. of Par asitol.
50(4): 569-571.

3405

Phillips, J. B. 1939. The market crab of California and

its close relatives. Calif. Fish & Game, 25: 18-29.

3406.

Tegelberg, H., D. Magoon, and M. Leboki. 1969. The

1968 Razor clam fisheries and sampling programs.
Report. Res. Div. Wash. Dept Fish. 92 p.

3407

Tegelberg, H. C. and C. D. Magoon. 1969. Growth, Survival

and some effects of a dense razor clam set in Washington.
Proc. Nat. Shellfish Assoc. 59: 126-135.

3408

Ronholt, L. L. and C. R. Hitz. 1968. Scallop Explorations

off Oregon. Comm. Fish. Rev.
42-49.

3409

Liston, J. and C. R. Hitz. 1961. Second survey of the

occurrence of parasites and blemishes in Pacific Ocean
Perch, Sebastodes alutus, May-June 1959. USD1 F and

WL S. Special Scientific Report. Fish. No. 383, 6 p.

3410

Reish, D. J.

3412

Bu. Com.Fish. 1969. Cruise Report 69-11. JoIm N. Cobb.

3413

Bu. Com. Fish. 1969. Cruise Report 69-4 John N. Cobb.

1955. The relation of Polychactous Annelids

to Harbor Pollution. Public Health reports 70(12): 1168-1174.

469

3414

Templeton, W. L. et al. 1969. Biological effects of Thermal

discharge: Annual Progress Report for 1968. Battelle
Northwest, Richland, Wash. BNWL-105, 49 p.

3415

Barnard, J. L. and R. R. Ginen. 1960. Morphology and ecology

of some sublittorine Gums cean crustacea of Southern
California. Pacif. Nat. 22(4): 153-165.

3416

Calman, W. T. 1912. The Crustacea of the Cumacen

in the collection of the United States National Museum.

Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus. 41: 603-676.

3417

Coe, W. R. and D. L. Fox. 1942. Biology of the California

sea mussel (Mytilis californianus) I. Influence of temperature,
Food Supply, sex and age on the rate of growth. J.
Exptl. Zool. 90: 1-30.

3418

Kennedy, V. S. and J. A. Mihursky. 1967. See 2926.

3419

Pech, Morton E. 1941. A Manual of the Higher plants of

Oregon Binfords and Mort, Portland, Oregon 866 p.

3420

Marshall, S. M. and A. P. Orr. 1955. The biology of a

Copepod: Calanus finmarchicus (Gunnerus). Oliver and

Boyd, Edinburgh and London, 188 p.

3421

Danforth, Charles G. 1963. Bopyridian (Crustacea, Isopoda)

parasites found in Eastern Pacific of the United States,
Ph. D. Thesis, Oregon State University 110 p.

3422

Belcik, Francis P. 1965. The morphology of Ismaila

monstrosa Bergh (Copepoda), M. S. Thesis, Oregon State
University, 36 p.

3423

Baker, Carol D. 1968. A study of the effects of exposure

to air on the respiration of two intertidal snails.
M. S. Thesis, Oregon State University, 33 p.

3424

Lorss, Carl Albert,

3425

Spencer, Larry Thomas. 1965. A morphological study of

gonatid squids found off the Oregon Coast. M. A. Thesis
Oregon State University, 34 p.

1966. The oplophorid and pasiphaeid

shrimp from off the Oregon Coast. Ph. D. Thesis, Oregon
State University, 54 p.

470

3426

Tipper, R. C. 1968. Ecological aspects of two wood-boring

Molluscs from the Continental terrace off Oregon.
Ph. D. Thesis, Oregon State University, 137 p.

3427

Kincaid, Trevor. 1957. Local races and dines in the marine

gastropod Thais lamellosa Gmelin, a population study.
Seattle, The Calliostoma Company. 75 p.

3428

Farris, David A. 1963. Reproductive periodicity in the

sardine (S. caerulea) and the Jack Mackerel (Trachurus
symmetricus) on the Pacific Coast of North America.
Copela: 1963: 182-184.

3500

Karling, T. G. 1963. Marine Turbellarina from the Pacific

coast of North America II. Pseudostomidae and Clindrostomidae. Arkiv for Zoologi, Band 15 nr 10 p. 181-209.

3501

Karling, T. G. 1965. Marine Turbellaria from the Pacific

coast of North America. III. Otoplanidae. Arkiv for
Zoologi, Band 16 nr 26, pp. 527-556.

3502

Karling, T. G. 1967. Marine Turbellaria from the Pacific

coast of North America. IV. Coelogynoporidae and

Monocelididae. Arkiv for Zoologi Band 18 nr 22, pp. 493-528.

3503

Hyrnan, L. H. 1959. Some Turbellaria from the coast of

California. American Museum Novitates, 1943: 17 p.

3504

Hyman, L. H. 1955. The polyclad flatworms of the Pacific

coast of North America: Additions and Corrections.
American Museum Novitates, No. 1704, 11 p.

3505

Roth, Eric M. 1967, A report on five species of valviferous

isopods in the vicinity of Newport, Oregon. 16 p. Unpubl. Student report, Oregon State Univ. Mar. Sci. Center.

3506

Thomas, Robert I. 1966. The distribution and zonation of

Prosobranch molluscs of the genus Littorina on the
central Oregon coast. MSC, Newport. 44 p.

3507

Frank, Peter W. 1961. Growth and death rates in a natural

population of Acmaea. The Western Society of Naturalists.
Annual Winter Meetin, Univ. of Oregon, Dec. 27-29,
Abstracts of Contributed Papers, p. 10.
471

3508

Univ. of Washington, Dept. of Oceanography, 1954. (R. H.

Fleming, Executive Officer). Puget Sound andApproaches,
a Literature Survey, Vol. III. (Physical Oceanography,
Marine Biology, General Summary), 175 p.

3509

Andrews, Florence Ballaine. 1925. Resistance of Marine

Animals of Different Ages. Publications Puget Sound
Biological Station, 3J72): 361-368.

3510

Andrews, Henry. 1925. Animals living on kelp. Publications

Puget Sound Biological Station, 5: 25-27.

3511

Hobson, L. A. 1964. Some influences of the Columbia River

effluent on marine phytoplankton during January
1961. Dept. of Oceanography, Univ. of Washington,
Tech. Rept. no. 100. 46 p.

3512

Carter, Neal M. 1943. The stinging action of jellyfishes.

Fisheries Research Board of Canada, Progress Reports
of the Pacific Coast Stations, no. 55, p. 7-9.

3513

Chapman, W. M. and A. H. Banner. 1949. Contributions

to the life history of the Japanese oyster drill, Tritonella
japonica, with notes on other enemies of the Olympia
oyster, Ostrea lurida. State of Washington Dept. of Fish.,
Biol. Rept. no. 49A: 167-200.

3514

Chapman, W. M., M. Katz, andD. W. Erickson. 1941.

The races of herring in the State of Washington. State

of Washington Dept. of Fish., Biol. Rept. 38A: 36.

3515

Clemens, W. A. 1930. Pacific salmon migration: the tagging

of the Coho salmon on the east coast of Vancouver Island
in 1927 and 1928. Canada Biological Board, Bull. 15: 1-19.

3516

Curtiss, R. M. 1941. An ecological and taxonomic survey

of the Acmaeidae of the Northwest Pacific area. Thesis,

University of Washington, Seattle, Washington, 120 p.

3517

Daugherty, A. M. and L. C. Altman. 1925. Influence of

hydrogen ion concentration, salinity and oxygen upon the
rheotaxis of some marine fishes. Publications Puget
Sound Biol. Sta., 3(73): 365-368.
472

3518

Smith, H. S. 1956. Fisheries statistics of Oregon 19501953. Fish. Comm. of Oregon, Contr. no. 22, 33 p.

3519

Edmondson, C. H. 1922. Shellfish resources of the Northwest

coast of the United States. U. S. Bureau of Fisheries,
21 p.

3520

Fasten, Nathan. 1915. The male reproductive organs of some

common crabs of Puget Sound. Puget Sound marine station
Pubi. 1(7): 35-41.

3521

Fasten, Nathan. 1917. Male reproductive organs of decapoda,

with special reference to Puget Sound forms. Puget
Sound Mar. Sta. Publ., 1(26): 285-307.

3522

Schultz, Leonard P. 1933. The Age and Growth of Atherinops

Affinis Oregonia Jordan & Snyder and of other subspecies
of Bay Smelt along the Pacific Coast of the United States.
Univ. of Wash. Pub, in Biol. 2(3): 45-102.

3523

Schaefers, E. A., and H. C. Johnson. 1957. Shrimp

explorations off the Washington Coast, fall 1955 and

spring 1956. Comm. Fish. Rev. 1j1): 9-25.

3524

Gail, Floyd W. 1922. Photosynthesis in some of the red

and brown algae as related to depth and light. Pubi.
Puget Sound Biol. Sta. 3(66): 177-193.

3525

Gersbacher, W. M. and M. Denison. 1930. Experiments

with animals in tide pools. Pubi. Puget Sound Biol. Sta.
7: 209-215.

3526

Gilbert, Charles H. 1912-1925. Contributions to the Life

History of the Sockeye Salmon. Reports of the British
Columbia Commissioner of Fisheries.

3527

Gran, H. H. and E. C. Angst. 1931. Plankton diatoms

3528

Gran, H. H. and T. G. Thompson. 1930. The diatoms and

physical and chemical conditions of t1e sea water of the

of Puget Sound. Pubi. Puget Sound Biol. Sta. 7: 417-516.

San Juan Archipelago. Publications Puget Sound Biological

Station, 7: 169-204.

473

3529

Guberlet, John E. 1928. Observations on the spawning

habits of Melibe leonia (Gould). Publications Puget Sound
Biol. Sta. 6: 263-270.

3530

Guberlet, John E. 1934. Observations on the spawning

and development of some Pacific annelids. Proceedings of
the Fifth Pacific Science Congress, 4213-4220.

3531

Guberlet, J. E. and Melville H. Hatch. n.d. The distribution

of the bottom animals in Puget Sound and adjacent waters.
(1931-1941) Manuscript on file in the Department of
Zoology, University of Washington (unpublished).

3532

Hacker, R. L. 1934. The method of boring, spawning

season, larval stages, and food of Pholas (Zirfaea)
pilsbryi Lowe. Thesis, University of Washington,
Seattle, Washington, 23 p.

3533

Haistead, B. W. and N. C. Bunker. 1952. The venom

apparatus of the ratfish, Hydrolagus colliei. Copeia
1952, (3): 128-138.

3534

Tibby, R. B. and J. L. Barnard. 1964. Some physical

and biological characteristics of open coastal waters and

their relationship to waste discharge. mt. Conf. Water
Pollut. Res. Proc. 1st. Conf. 3: 219-246.

3535

Hower, J. H. 1938. The seasonal settlement of Bankia,

Lirnnoria, Barnacles, Bryozoa, and other Sessile
organisms at Shelton, Washington. Thesis, University
of Washington, Seattle Washington, 53 p.

3536

Soat-Ryen, T. 1955. A report on the family Mytilidae.

Allan Hancock Pac. Exped. 20: 1-175.

3537

Jones, Vicki. 1967. The Ecology of Onchidella borealis

Dall, unpublished class rept. Oregon State Univ. Marine
Sci. Center.

3538

Hurd, Annie May. 1916. Codiummucronatum. Puget Sound

Marine Station Publications (12): 109-135.

3539

Hurd, Annie May. 1916. Factors influencing the growth and

distribution of Nereocystis luetkeana. Puget Sound Marine
Station Publications 1(17): 185-198.
474

3540

Hurd, A. M. 1917. Winter condition of some Puget Sound

algae. Puget Sound Marine Station Publications, 1(29):
341 -348.

3541

Hurd, A. M. 1919. The relation between the osmotic pressure

of nereocystis and the salinity of the water. Publications
Puget Sound Biol. Sta., 2(2): 183-193.

3542

Johnson, H. P. 1901. The polychaeta of the Puget Sound

region. Proceedings Boston Society Natural History,
29(18): 381-437.

3543

Igelsrud, I., T. G. Thompson, and B. M. G. Zwicker.

1938. The boron content of sea water and of marine
organisms. American Journal of Science, 5th series,
35(205): 47-63.

3544

Johnson, M. W. 1934. The life history of the copepod

Tortanus discaudatus (Thompson and Scott). Biol.
Bull. 67(1): 182-200.

3545

Smith, A. G. 1955. Chitous of West Coast of N. America.

Mins. Conch. Club S. Calif. 145: 10-18.

3546

Johnson, M. W. 1943. Studies on the life history of the

marine annelid Nereis vexilosa. Biological Bulletin,
84(1): 106-114.

3547

Johnson, M. W. and R. C. Miller. 1935. The seasonal

settlement of shipworms, barnacles, and other wharfpile organisms at Friday Harbor, Washington. Univ.
of Washington Pubi, in Oceanogr. 2(1): 1-18.

3548

Kenyon, K. W. and V. B. Scheffer. 1953. The seals, sea

lions, and sea otter of the Pacific coast. U. S. Fish and
Wildlife Service, Wi1dlife Leaflet no. 344. (A brief
description of species and habits.)

3549

Martin, George W. 1938. The seasonal settlement of Bankia,

Limnoria, Barnacles and other wharf pile organisms in
the vicinity of Bremerton, Washington. Thesis,
Univ. of Washington, Seattle, Washington. 33 p.

475

3550

McCutcheon, Rob. S., L. Arrigoni, and L. Fischer. 1949.

A phytochemical investigation on the keips Cymathaere
triplicata, Hedophyllum sessile and Egregia mensiesii.
Journal of the American Pharmaceutical Association,
Scientific Edition, 38(4): 196-200.

3551

McKernan, D. L., V. Tarter, and R. Tollefson. 1949.

An investigation of the decline of the native oyster

industry of the state of Washington, with special reference
to the'effects of sulfite pulp mill waste of the Olympia
oyster Ostrea lurida. State of Washington Dept. of
Fisheries, Biol. Rept. no. 49A: 115-165.

3552

Miles, Ward R. 1918. Experiments on the behavior of some

Puget Sound shore fishes (Blenniidae). Publications Puget
Sound Biol. Sta., 2(3 7).

3553

McLean, A. J. 1921. Effects of thyroid and iodind feeding

upon the metamorphosis of two species of crab. Publications
Puget Sound Biol. Sta., 3(61): 93-103.

3554

Miller, R. C. and E. R. Norris. 1939. Some enzymes of

the northwest shipworm Bankia setacea. Proceedings
of the Sixth Pacific Science Congress, 3: 615-616.

3555

Monda, George J. 1926. The isopoda of Puget Sound and

adjacent waters. Thesis, Univ. of Washington, Seattle,
Washington, 104 p.

3556

Moore, Clarita L. 1927. Simple ascidians of the Friday

Harbor, Washington, region. Thesis, Univ. of Washington,
Seattle, Washington, 71 p.

3557

Nightingale, H. W. 1936. Red water organisms--their

occurrence and influence upon marine aquatic animals with
special reference to shellfish in the waters of the Pacific
coast. The Argus Press, Seattle, Washington, 24 p.

3558

Miller, A. P. 1937. Waste disposal as related to shellfish.

Sewage Works Jour. 9: 482.

3559

Pease, Vinnie A. 1917. North Pacific coast species of

Desmarestia. Puget Sound Marine Station Publications,
1(31): 383-396.
476

3560

Phifer, Lyman D. 1929. Littoral diatoms of Argyle Lagoon.

Publications Puget Sound Biol. Sta., 7: 137-149.

3561

Phifer, Lyman D. 1933. Seasonal distribution and occurrence of

planktonic diatoms at Friday Harbor, Washington. Univ.
of Washington Pubi. in Oceanogr., 1(2): 39-81.

3562

Phifer, Lyman D. 1934. Periodicity of diatom growth in the

San Juan Archipelago. Proceedings of the Fifth Pacific
Science Congress, 2047-2049.

3563

Phifer, Lyman D. 1934. Vertical distribution of diatoms

in the Strait of Juan de Fuca. Univ. of Washington
Pubi. in Oceanogr., 1(3): 83-96.

3564

Powers, Edwin B. 1921. Experiments and observations

on the behavior of marine fishes toward the hydrogenion concentration of the sea water in relation to their
migratory movements and habitat. Publ. Puget Sound
Biol. Sta., 3(57): 1-21.

3565

Schaefer, Mimer B. 1936. Contribution to the life history

of the surf smelt Hypomesus pretiosus in Puget Sound.
Washington State Dept. of Fisheries Biological Report
35B: 45.

3566

3567
3568

Schaefer, Mimer B. 1938. Preliminary observations on the

reproduction of the Japanese common oyster, Ostrea
gigas, in Quilcene Bay, Washington. State of Washington
Dept of. Fisheries Biol. Rept. no. 38E: 36.
Scheffer, Victor B. 1952. Outline for ecological life history
studies of marine mammals. Ecology, 33(2): 287-296.

Scheffer, Victor B. and J. W. Slipp. 1948. The whales

and dolphins of Washington State with a key to the cetaceans

of the West Coast of North America. American Midland
Naturalist, 39(2): 257-337.

3569

Scheffer, V. B. and C. C. Sperry. 1931. Food habits of

the Pacific harbor seal, Phoca richardii. J. of Mammalogy,
12(3): 214-226.

3570

Schultz, Leonard P. 1930. Miscellaneous observations on

fishes of Washington. Copeia 1930, (4): 137-140.
477

3571

Shelford, V. E. , A. O.Weese, L. A. Rice, D. 1. Rasmussen,

A. MacLean, N. M. Wismer, and 3. H. Swanson. 1935.
Some marine biotic communities of the Pacific coast
of North America. Ecological Monographs, 5(3): 249 -354.

3572

Swan, Emery F. 1952. Growth indices of the clam Mya arenaria.

Ecology, 33(3): 1962.

3573

Swan, Emery F. and J. H. Finucane. 1951. Observations

on the Genus Schizothaerus.

The Nautilus, 66(1): 19-26.

3574

Towler, Emmett D. 1926. The common barnacles of Friday

Harbor, Washington, and their distribution. Thesis,
Univ. of Washington, Seattle, Washington, 65 p.

3575

U. S. Dept. of Agriculture Bureau of Soils. 1914. Kelp groves

of the Pacific coast and islands of the U. S. and Lower
California. Office of the Secretary, Rept. no. 100,
Government Printing Office, Washington, D. C.

3576

Shotwell, 3. A. 1950. Distribution of volume and relative

linear measurement changes in Acmaea, the limpet.
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3577

Weese, A. 0. and M. T. Townsend. 1921. Some reactions of

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3578

Worley, Leonard G.

3579

Rigg, George G. 1917. Seasonal development of Bladder

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3580

Wells, Wayne W. 1931. Ecology and taxonomy of the Pinnotheridae of Puget Sound. Thesis, Univ. of Washington,
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3581

Tucker, John S. and A. C. Giese. 1958. Shell repair in

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1930.

See 2128.

478

3582

Tucker, John S. 1958. Bipolarity in the anemone Anthopleura

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3583

Chitwood, Benjamin G. The intertidal occurrence of

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3584

Clogston, Fred. L. and D. H. Montgomery. 1964. Spawning

and development in the abalone, Haliotis rufescens
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3585

Quade, Henry W. and G. C. Packard. 1963. Influence of

Salinity, Temperature, and Tide on the Population
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3586

Oglesby, Larry C. 1964. Chloride exchange in nereid

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3587

Kincaid, Trevor. 1961. The ecology and morphology of

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12 p. and 6 pls.

3588

Kincaid, Trevor. 1961. The Staphylinid genera Pontomalota

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52, Seattle, WA, 10 pp. and 4 pis.

3589

Usinger, R. L. (ed.) 1956. Aquatic insects of California

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3590

Lattin, John D. n. d. Selected Bibliography on Marine

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479

3591

Wirth, Willis W. 1949. A review of the Clunionine midges

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3592

Water Resources Research Institute. 1962. Publications and

Graduate theses in water research at Oregon State
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3593

Warren, Charles E. and Peter Doudoroff. 1957. Cooperative

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3594

Bali, J. M. and Carl E. Bond. 1960. Records of agonid

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3595

Bali, 3. M. and Carl E. Bond. 1959. The bigfin ellpout,

Aprodon cortezianus Gilbert, common in waters off
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3596

Mains, E. M. and J. M. Smith. 1964. The distribution, size,

time, and current preferences of seaward migrant
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Fisheries Research Papers, Wash. Dept. Fish. ,2(3): 5-43.

3597

Oregon Fish Commission. 1963. Razor Clams, Educational

3598

Markowski, S. 1965. See 2872.

3599

Tichenor, Bruce A. 1968. Thermal Pollution; a seminar

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Oregon.
3600

Fuiton, Leonard A. 1968. See 3635.

3601

Brongersma-Sanders, Margaretha. 1957. Mass mortality

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480

3602

Wurtz, C. B. 1968. The realities of thermal pollution-environmental limitations and ecological adaptations.
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3603

Ingram, William. 1952. Selected Biological references

applicable to water Pollution Control Programs.
Ohio-Tenn. Drainage Basins Office Div. of Water
Pollution Control Federal Sec. Agency, Pub. Health
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3604

Southward, A. J. 1955. The relation of cirral and other

activities to temperature. J. Mar. Biol. Assoc.

U. K.,34:403-422.

3605

Southward, A. 3. 1964. The relationship between temperature

and rhythmic c'irral activity in some cirripedia considered
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3606

Southward, A. J. 1957. Further observations on the

'influence of temperature and age on cirral activity.
3. May. Biol. Asso. U. K. 36: 323 -344.

3607

Southward, A. J. 1962. The influence of temperature on cirral

activity and survival of some warm water species. 3.
Mar. Biol. Assoc. U. K. , 42: 163-177.

3608

Wesley, Ronald D. 1966. The relationship between the distribution of the barnacle, B. glandula along the Yaquina Bay

estuary and their response to thermal variations. Unpublished Report, MSC.

3609

Washburn, F. L. 1900. Notes on the spawning habits of the

razor clam; recommendations regarding protective
measures, in Report of the State Biologist 1899-1900.

3611

Butler, T. H. 1967. A bibliography of the Dungeness crab,

Cancer magister Dana. Fish. Res. Brd. Canada, Tech.
Rept. no. 1.

361 5

Aubert, M. and 3. Aubert. 1967. Study on the diffusion of

bacterial pollution in the sea. J. Penn. Bed, 1967,
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481

3616

Survey of marine pollution. 1968. Surv. local Govt. Technol.,

132(3973): 20. (Wat. Poll. Abstr. 42(3) 1969, p. 142,
no. 647.)

3618

Pringle, B. H., D. E. Hissong, E. L. Katz, and S. T. Mulawka.

Trace metal accumulation by estuarine molluscs.
J. sanit. Engng. Div. Am. Soc. Civ. Angrs., 94, SA3,
455-475, Pap. No. 5970, Wat. Poll. Abstr. 42(2)
1969, p. 93, no. 422.
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3619

Oglesbury, R. T. and D. J. Jamison.

3620

Giesler, J. C. 1952. Summering birds of the Cape Arago

region, Coos Bay, Oregon. M. S. Thesis, Oregon

Intertidal
communities as monitors of pollution. J. Sanit. Engng.
Div. Am. Soc. Civ. Engrs., 94, SA3, 541-550,
Pap. No. 6008. Wat. Poll. Abstr. 42(2) 1969, p. 94,
no. 424.
1968.

State College, Corvallis.

3621

Institute of Biology.

1967.

Biology and the manufacturing

industries. Sump. Inst. Biol. No. 16, Academic

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Poll. Abstrs. 42(1) 1969, p. 34, no. 165.

3623

Lough, Gregory R. 1967. Effects of Salinity and Temperature

on development of Botula Falcata (Pelecypoda-Mytilidae)
Unpub. report Oregon State Univ. Mar. Sci. Cent.

3624

Lie, Ulf. 1969. Cumacea from Puget Sound and off the
Northwestern Coast of Washington. With Descriptions
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3625

Ridge, M. C. 1968. A Symbiotic Gammarid on the Purple

Sea Urchin Strongylocentrotus purpuratus. Unpubl. Res.
Proj. 2-451-452. Oregon State Univ. Mar. Sci. Cen.

3627

Wilson, D. P. 1968. Temporary adsorption on a substrate of

an oil-spill remover (tdetergentt): tests with larvae
of Sabellaria spinulosa. J. Mar. Biol. Ass. U. K.,
48: 183-186.

3628

Beckman, C. and R. Menzies. 1960. See 3198.

482

3629

Davis, H. C. 1958. Survival and growth of clam and oyster

larvae of different salinities. Biol. Bull. 114: 296-307.

3630

Henderson, J. T. 1924. The gribble: a study of the distribution factors and the life history of Limnoria
lignorum at St. Andrews, N. B. Cont. Can. Biol.
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3633

Lough, Robert Gregory. 1969. The effects of temperature and

salinity on the early development of Adula californiensis
(Pelecpoda-Mytilidae). M. S. Thesis, Oregon State

Univ., Corvallis.

3635

Fulton, Leonard A. 1969. A survey of biological and oceanogr.

information on Inshore and offshore areas of the
Washington coast north of Grays Harbor. (Unpubl.
manuscript) Bureau of Comm. Fish. , Seattle Washington.

3636

Eltringham, S. K. 1967. See 2689.

3637

MacGregor, John 5. 1964. The relation between spawningstock size andyear-class size for the Pacific sardine
(Sardinops caerulea) Girard. U. S. Fish and Wildl.

Serv., Fish. Bull. 63(2): 477-491.

3638

O'Connell, C. P. 1963. The structure of the eye of Sardinops

caerulea, Engraulus mordar and four other pelagic
Marine tellosts. J. Morph. 113: 287-330.

3640

Ministry of Technology. 1967. Water pollution research 1966.

H. M. Stationery Office, London, 1967. 186 pp.

5 pls., 15 s. 6 d. (Wat. Poll. Abstr. 41(1): 19#74).

3641

Marr. J. C. 1950. Apparent abundance of the Pilchord

(Sardinops caeralea) off Oregon, and Washington
1935-1943, as measured by the catch per boat. U. S.
Fish & Wildl. Serv. Fish. Bull. 51: 3 85-394.

3642

Wisner, R. L. 1960. Evidence of northward movement of

stocks of the Pacific Sardine based on the number of
vertebrae. Calif. C. 0. F. I. 8(1960): 75-82.

3643

Radovich, John. 1962. Effects of sardine spawning-stock

size and environment on year-class production. Calif.
Fish and Game, 48: 123-140.
483

3644

Arthur, D. K. 1956. The Particulate food and the food resources

of the larvae of three pelagic fishes, especially the
Pacific Sardine, Sardinops caerulea. Doctoral
Dissertation, Univ. of California, Scripps Instit.
of Oceanogr.

3645

Kunnenkeri, J. K. 1962. Preliminary report on the parasites

of the California sardine and the parasitic distribution
in Clupeidae. J. Parasitol. 48: 149.

3647

Druehl, L. D. 1967. Vertical distributions of some benthic

marine algae in a British Columbia inlet, as related to
7
som environmental factors. J. Fish. Res. Bd. Can.,
24: 33-46. (Wat. Poll. Abstr.: 41(2): 58#211)

3648

Verwey, J. 1966. The role of some external factors in

the vertical migration of marine animals. Neth.
J. Sea Res., 3: 245-266, 1 folding chart. (Wat. Poll.
Abstr. 41(2): 59#215)

3649

Hebard, J. F.

3650

Hawkins, Bernard. 1962. The Biology of the Marine Copepod

Tigriopus californicus (Baker) M. S. Thesis, Humboldt
State College.

3653

Bandy, 0. L., J. D. Ingle, andJ. M. Resig.

1966.

See 2626.

1965.

Foraminiferal trends, Hyperiod outfall, California.

Limnol. Oceanogr. 10: 314-332. (Wat. Poll. Abstr. .(3):
10 SIt 391)

3658

Mariscal, Richard N. 1965. The Adult and Larval Morphology

and Life History of the Entoproct Bareutsia gracilis
M. Sars, 1835). J. of Morph. 116(3).

3659

Ruggles, C. P. 1967. The effect of water pollution on

maritime fisheries. Can. J. publ. Hlth, 58: 77-79.
(Wat. Poll. Abstr. 41(3): 14l#508).

3660

Talbot, G. B. 1966. Estuarine environmental requirements

and limiting factors for striped bass. Am. Fish. Soc.
spec. Publ. No. 3, 37-49. (Wat, Poll Abstr. 41(3):
l41#509)

484

3661

Wicbman, S. H. andG. K. Ahlers. 1967. Recharging

conserves nuclear reactor cooling water. Wat. Wastes
Engng, 4(3): 79-81. (Wat. Poll. Abstr. 41(4):
149#54l).

3663

Woelke, C. E. 1967. Measurement of water quality with the

Pacific oyster embryo bio-assay. Spec. tech. Publs.
Am. Soc. Test. Mater. 1966, No. 416: 112-120;
Chem. Abstr. , 1967, 67: 9678. (Wat. Poll. Abstr.
41(4): 157#564).

3666

Chipperfield, P. N. J.

3669

Cameson, A. L. H., A. W. J. Bufton, andD. J. Gould.

1967. The pollution of estuaries:

an industrial view. Chemy md., 1245-1247. (Wat.
Poll. Abstr. 41:(5): l95#705).

1967. Studies of the coastal distribution coliform

bacteria in the vicinity of a sea outfall. J. Wat. Poll.
Cont., London. (J. Proc. Inst. Sew. Purif. )66: 501-523,
1 folding chart. (Wat. Poll. Abstr. 41(6): 283#llO7).

3670

Cross, F. A. and L. F. Small.

1967. Copepod indicators

of surface water movements off the Oregon coast.
Limnol. Oceanogr. 12: 60-72. (Wat. Poll. Abstr.

41(8): 349#l397).
3672

Kilburn, P. D. 1961. Summer phytoplankton at Coos Bay,

Oregon, Ecology 42: 165-166.

3673

American Society of Civil Engineers. 1967. Bibliography

on thermal pollution. J. sanit. Engng. Div. Am Soc.

Civ. Engrs., 93, SA3, 85-113, Pap. No. 5303.

(Wat. Poll. Abstr. 41(8): 384#l544).

3677

Hartman, Olga. 1969. Atlas of the sedentariate polychaetous

annelids from California. Allan Hancock Foundation,
Univ. of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA.

3678

Hartman, Olga. 1968. Atlas of the errantiate polychaetous

annelids from California. Allan Hancock Foundation,
Univ. of Southern California, Los Angeles. 1968.

485

3750

Schmidt, Ronald R. and J. E. Warme. 1969. Population

characteristics of Protothaca staminea (Conrad) from
Mugu Lagoon Calif., Veliger, 12(2): 193-199.

3751

Dunhill, R. M. and D. V. Ellis. 1969. The Distribution

and Ecology of Sub-Littoral species of Macema (Bivalvia)

off Moresby Island and in Satellite Channel near
Victoria, B. C. Veliger, 12(2): 207-219.

3753

Harger, J. R. E. 1968. The Role of Behavioral Traits in

Influencing the Distribution of Two Species of Sea
Mussel, Mytilus edulis and Mytilus californianus.
Veliger, 11(1): 45-49.

3754

McGowan, John A. and Takashi Okutani. 1968. A new species

of Enoploteuthid Squid, Abraliopsis (Watasenia) felis,
from the California Current. Veliger, 11(1): 72-79.

3755

Eaton, Charles McKendree. 1968. The activity and food of the

File Limpet Acmaea limatula. Veliger, 11(Supplement):
5-12.

3756

Craig, Peter C. 1968. The Activity Pattern arri Food Habits

of the Limpet Acmaea pelta. Veliger, 11(Supplement):
13-19.

3757

Rogers, Don A. 1968. The Effects of Light and Tide on

Movements of the Limpet Acmaea scutum. Veliger,
11(Supplement): 20-24.

3758

Rose, Tom L. 1968. Light Responses in the. Liiipet Acmaea

limatula. Veliger, 11(Supplement): 25-29.

3759

Miller, Alan C. 1968. Orientation and Movement of the

Limpet Acmaea digitalis on Vertical Rock Surfaces.
Veliger, 11(Supplemit): 30-44.

3760

Millard, Carol S. 1968. The Clustering Behavior of

Acmaea digitalis. Veliger, ll(Supplement): 45-51.

3761

Jesse, William I. 1968. Studies of Homing Behavior in the

Limpet Acmaea scabra. Veliger, ll(Supplement):
52-5 5.
486

3762

Berkely, E. and C. Berkely. 1954. Notes on the life

history of the polychaete Dodecaceria feukesi.

Journal of Fish. Res. Brd. of Canada. 11(3): 326-334.

3764

Dickie, L. M. 1958. Effects of high temperature on survival

of the giant scallop. J. Fish. Res. Board of Canada,
15(6): 1189-1211.

3765

Johnson, Samuel E., II. 1968. Occurrence and Behavior

of Hyale grandicornis, a Gammarid Amphipodi
Commensal in the Genus, Acmaea. Veliger,
11(Supplement): 56-60.

3766

Alleman, Lani Lee. 1968. Factors affecting the attraction

of Acmaea asmi to Tegula funebralis. Veliger,
11(Supplement): 61-63.

3767

Chapin, Dexter. 1968. Some Observations of Predation on

Acmaea Species by the Crab Pachygrapeus crassipes.
Veliger, ll(Supplement): 67-68.

3768

Jobe, Alan. 1968. A Study of Morphological Variation

in the Limpet Acmaea pelta. Veliger, .j.Supp1ement):
69-72.

3769

Kingston, Roger S. 1968. Anatomical and Oxygen Electrode

Studies of Respiratory Surfaces and Respiration in
Acmaea. Veliger, 11(Supplement): 73-78.

3770

Bulkley, P. Todd. 1968. Shell Damage and Repair in Five

Members of the Genus Acmaea. Veliger ll(Supplement):
64-66.

3771

Baldwin, Simeon. 1968. Manometric Measurements of

Respiratory Activity in cmaea digitalis and Acmaea
scabra. Veliger, 1l(Supplement): 79-82.

3772

Hardin, Dane D. 1968. A Comparative Study of Lethal

Temperatures in the Limpets Acmaea scabra and
Acmaea digitalis. Veliger, 11(Supplement): 83-87.

3773

Walker, Catherine Gene. 1968. Studies on the Jaw, Digestive

System, and Coelomic Derivatives of the Genus Acmaea,
Veliger, ll(Supplement): 88-97.

487

3774

Beppu, William J. 1968. A Comparison of Carbohydrate

Digestion Capabilities in Four Species of Acmaea.
Veliger, ll(Supplement): 98-101.

3775

White, T. Jeffrey. 1968. Metabolic Activity and Glycogen Stores

in Two Distinct Populations of Acmaea scabra. Veliger,
ll(Supplement): 102-104.

3776

Baribault, William H. 1968. Nitrogen Excretory Products

in the Limpet Acmaea. Veliger, 11(Supplement): 109-112.

3777

Burn, Robert. 1968. Archidoris odhxxeri (MacFarland,

1966) comb. nov., With Some Comments on the Species
of the Genus on the Pacific Coast of North America.
Veliger: 11(2): 90-92.

3778

Greene, Richard W. 1968. The Egg Masses and Veligers

of Southern California SacoglossanOpisthobranchs.
Veliger, 11(2): 100-104.

3779

Olsen, David A. 1968. Banding Patterns in Haliotis--Il

some Behavioral considerations and the Effect of
Diet on Shell Coloration for Haliotis rufescens,

H. corrugata, H. sorenseni, and H. assimilis.

Veliger 11(2): 135-139.

3780

Jessee, William F. 1968. A New Northern Limit for the

Limpet, Acmaea digitalis. Veliger, 11(2): 144.

3781

McBeth, James W. 1968. Feeding Behavior of Corambella

steinbergae. Veliger: 11(2): 145-146.

3782

Gosliner, Terrence. 1968. A New Record of Corambella

steinbergae Lance, 1962. Veliger, 11(2): 146.

3783

Loosanoff, Victor L. 1969. Maturation of gonads of Oysters.

Crassostrea virginica, of different geographical areas
subjected to relatively low temperatures. Veliger,
11(3): 153-163.

3784

Vassallo, Marilyn T. 1969. The Ecology of Macoma inconspicua

(Broderip and Sowerby, 1829) in Central San Francisco
Bay. Part I. The Vertical Distribution of the Macoma
community. Veliger, 11(3): 223-234.
488

3785

Stohier, Rudolf. 1969. Growth Study in Olivella biplicata

(Sowerby, 1825). Veliger, 11(3): 259-267.

3786

Canton, James. 1969. Littorina littorea in California (San

Francisco and Trinidad Bays). Veliger,ll(3): 283-284.

3787

Edwards, D. Craig. 1969. Predators on Olivella biplicata

Including a Species -- Specific Predator Avoidance
Response. Veliger, 11(4): 326-333.

3788

Kenny, Ron. 1969. Growth Characteristics of Acmaea persona

Eschscholtz. Veliger, 11(4): 336-339.

3789

Leonard, Vernon K., Jr. 1969. Seasonal Gonadal Changes in

Two Bivalve Mollusks in Tomales Bay, California.
Veliger, 1j14): 382-390.

3790

MacDonald, Keith B. 1969. Mollus can Taunas of Pacific

Coast Salt Marshes and Tidal Creeks. Veliger,

11(4): 399-405.

3791

Frank, Peter W. 1969. Sexual dimorphism in Tegula

funebralis. Veliger, 11(4): 440.

3792

Keen, A. Byra. 1969. Laternula Living on the Pacific

Coast? Veliger, 11(4): 439.

3793

Roller, Richard A. 1969. An Annotated List of Apisthobranchs

from San Luis Obispo County, California. Veliger,
11(4): 424-430.

3794

Medcof, J. C. and A. W. H. Needler. 194L The influence of

temperature and salinity on the condition of oysters
(Ostrea virginica), Joun. of Fish. Res. Brd. of
Canada. 5(3): 253-257.

3795

McLaren, Ian A. 1963. Effects of temperature on growth of

zooplankton and the adaptive value of vertical migration.

J. of Fish. Res. Brd. of Can. 20(3): 685-727.

3796

Berg, Carl J. Seasonal Gonadal Changes of Adult Aviparou.s

Oysters in Tomales Bay, California. Veliger, 12(1): 27-36.

489

3797

Talmadge, Robert R. 1967. Notes on Cephalopods from

Northern California. Veliger, 10(2): 200-202.

3798

Meredith, S. E. 1968. Notes on the Range extension of the

Boring Clam Panitella conradi Valenciennes and its
occurrence in the shell of the Calif. Mussel. Veliger,
10(3): 281-282.

3799

Helfman, Eugene S. 1968. A Ctenostomatous Ectoproct

Epizoic on the Chiton Ischnochito mertensii. Veliger,
10(3): 290-291.

3800

Edwards, Dallas Craig. 1968. Reproduction in Olivella

biplicata. Veliger, 10(4): 297-304.

3801

Zell, Clarace Plumb Bock. 1955. The morphology and

general histology of the reproductive system of Olivella
biplicata (Sowerby), with a brief description of mating
behavior. Univ. Calif., Berkeley, M. A. Thesis.

3802

Smith, Gertrude M. 1928. Food material as a factor in

growth rate of some Pacific clams. Trans Roy. Soc.
Canada 22(5): 287-291.

3805

Gross, James B. 1967. Note on the Northward Spreading of

Mya arenaria Linnaeus in Alaska. Veliger, 10(2): 203.

3806

Narchi, Walter. 1968. The Functional Morphology of

Lyonsia californica Conrad, 1837. Veliger, 10(4):
305 -3 13.

3807

Parajape, Madhu A. 1968. The Eff Mass and Veligers of

Limacina helicina Phipps. Veliger, 10(4): 322-326.

3808

Haderlie, E. C. 1968. Marine Fouling Organisms in

Monterey Harbor. Veliger, 10(4): 327-341.

3809

Beonde, Anthon Craig. 1968. Aplysia vaccaria, a new host

for the pinnotherid crab, Opisthopus transuersus.

Veliger, 10(4): 375-378.

3810

Breese, W. P., R. E. Milleman, and R. E. Dimick.

1963.

Stimulation of spawning in the mussles Mytilus edu1i

Linnaeus, and M. californianus Conrad, by Kraft Mill
effluent. Bid. Bull. Woods Hole, 125: 197-205.
490

3811

Bertsch, Hans. 1968. Effect of Feeding by Armina califorica

on the Bioluminescence of Renilla Koellikeri. Veliger,
10(4): 440-441.

3813

Marriage, Lowell D. 1954. See 2386.

3814

Bonnot, Paul. 1940. See 2224.

3815

Griffith, Lela M. 1967. The Intertidal Univalves of British

Columbia. Handbook No. 26, British Columbia
Provincial Museum, Dept. of Recreation and Conservation. p. 101.

3816

Hirschhorn, George. 1962. Growth and Mortality Rates

of Razor Clam (Siliquapatula) on Clatsop Beaches,
Oregon. Fish Comm. of Oregon, Contribution No. 27.
Portland, Oregon. 55 p.

3818

California Cooperative Sardine Research Program. 1950.

Progress Report 1950. California Marine Research
Committee, 54 p.

3819

California Cooperative Oceanic Fisheries Investigation. 1953.

Progress Report. July 1, 1952 - June, 1953. 44 p.

3820

Clark, F. N. and J. C. Marr.

3821

Burghardt, Glenn E. and Laura E. Burghardt. 1969. A

Collectors Guide to west Coast Chitons. San Francisco
Aquarium Soc. Inc. Golden Gate Parl San Francisco,
California. Sped. publ. #4.

3822

Barnes, C. A. and R. G. Paquette. 1957. Circulation near

the Washington coasts Proc. 8th Pacific Sci. Congr.

1955. Population dynamics

of the Pacific Sardine. California Coop. Oceanic Fish.
mv. Prog. Rept. July, 1950 - March 1955. p. 11-48.

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in British Columbia Waters, J. of Fish. Res. Brd.

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5515

Ketchen, K. S. 1956. Se 5630.

5516

Inque, M.

5517

Forrester, C. R. and D. F. Alderdice.

5518

Grinols, Richard B. 1966. Northeastern Pacific Records of

Anoplogaster cornuta Valenciennes (Anoplegastendae: Pisc es)
and Cyema atrum Ginthu (Cyemidae: Pisces) I. of Fish.
Res. Brd. Canada, 23(2): 305-307.

5520

Peden, Alex. 1966. Rare Marine Fishes from British

Columbia with first records of Silver Perch, Hyperprosopon
ellipticum, and Shanny, Leptoclinus maculatus. J. of
Fish. Res. Brd. Canada, 23(8): 1966, 1277-1280.

5521

Peden, Alex. 1966. Occurrences of the Fishes Pholis schultzi

and Liparis mucosus in British Columbia. J. of Fish. Res.
Brd. of Canada, 23(2): 313-3 15.

5522

Ketchen, K. S. 1956. Factors influencing the survival of the

lemon sole (Parophrys vetulus) in Hecate Strait, B. C. 3.
Fish. Res. Bd. Canada 13(5): 647-694.

5523

Ketchen, K. S. 1947. Studies on lemon sole development and

egg production Fish. Res. Bd. Canada, Pac.Prog. Rept.

1959. Studies on Movements of Albacore Fishing

Grounds in the Northwest Pacific Ocean. I. Adaptability
of Water Temperature for albacore in the winter season
from observations of records on catches and optimum
water temperatures by fishing boats. Bull. Japanese
Soc. Sci. Fish. 23(11): 673-679, Spo. Fish. Abs. 4(4): 2825.
1966. Effects of
Salinity and Temperature on Embryonic Development
of the Pacific Cod (Gadus macrocephalus), J. of Fish.
Res. Brd. of Canada, 23(3): 3 19-340.

No. 73: 68-70.

545

5524

Hickman, Cleveland P., Jr. 1959. The larval development

of the sand sole (Psettichthys melanostictus).
Wash. Dept. Fish., Fish. Res. Papers 2(2): 3 8-47.

5525

Harry, George Y., Jr.

5526

Hubbs, C. L. and L. C. Hubbs. 1954. Data on life history,

variation, ecology, and relationships of the kelp perch
Brachyistius frenatus, an Embiotocid fish of the
Californias. Calif. Fish and Game 40(2): 183-198.
Eberhardt, Robert L. 1954. Observations on the Saury
(Cololabis saira) seen near the California coast
during 1950-52. Calif. J. Fish and Game, 40(1): 39-45.

5527

1959.

See 5775.

5528

Harry, G. Y., Jr.

5529

Tester, A. L. 1938. Herring, the tide and the moon.

Fish. Res. Bd. Canada, Pac. Prog. Rept. No. 38: 10-14.

5530

Taylor, F. H. C.

5531

Stevenson, J. C. 1946. Growth of herring along the upper

east coast of Vancouver Island. Fish. Res. Bd. Canada,
Pac. Prog. Rept. 67: 32-35.

5532

Tester, A. L. and R. B. Boughton. 1939. Herring and herring

food at Klemtu passage. Fish. Res. Bd. Canada,
Pac. Prog. Rept. 39: 21-22.

5534

Chew, K. K., A. K. Sparks, and S. C. Katkansky. 1964.

First record of Mytilicola orientalis Mon in the
California mussel Mytilus Californianus Conrad, J.
Fish. Res. Brd. Can. 21(1): 205-207.

5535

Morgan, A. R. and A. R. Gerlach. 1950. See 2747.

5536

Harry, G. Y., Jr.

Analysis and history of the Oregon

otter trawl fishery. (A.bstract) Ph. D. Thesis, Univ.
of Wash., Seattle.
1956.

1964. Life history and present status of

British Columbia herring stocks. Fish. Res. Bd.

Canada, Bull. 143: 81.

Oregonpilchard fishery. Fish

Comm. Oregon, Researcy Briefs 1(2): 10-15.
1948.

546

5537

Harry, G. Y., Jr.

5538

Hart, J. L. and J. L. McHugh. 1944. The smelts (Osmeridae)

of British Columbia. Fish. Res. Bd. Canada, Bull.

1949. The pilchard situation in Oregon.

Fish Comm. Oregon, Research Briefs 2(2): 17-22.

64: 27.
5539

Schultz, Leonard P. 1933. The age and growth of Atherinops

affinis oregonia Jordon and Snyder and of other subspecies
of bay-smelt along the Pacific coast of the United States.
Univ. Wash. Publ. Biol. 2(3): 45-102.

5540

Lewis, R. C. 1929. The food habits of the California sardine

in relation to the seasonal distribution of microplankton.

Bull. Scipps Inst. Oceanogr. 2(3): 155-180.

5541

Orsi, James J.

5542

Westrheim, S. J. 1955. Size, composition, growth and

5543

seasonal abundance of juvenile English sole (Parophrys

vetulus) in Yaquina Bay. Fish Comm. Oregon, Research
Briefs 6(2): 4-9.
Manzer, J. I. and F. H. C. Taylor. 1947. The rate of growth
in lemon sole in the Strait of Georgia. Fish. Res. Bd.
Canada, Pac. Prog. Rept. 72: 24-72.

5544

Gharrett, J. T.

5545

Ketchen, K. S., Ruth I. Peterson, and C. R. Forrester.

The embryology of the English sole

Parophrys vetulus. Calif. Fish and Game, 54(3).
1968.

1950. The Umpqua River shad fishery. Fish.

Comm. Oregon, Research Briefs 3(1): 3-13.
1951.

Fluctuations in the length and age composition of lemon

soles and rock Lepidopsetta bileniata soles in northern
Hecate Strait. Fish Res. Bd. Canada, Pac. Prog.
Rep. 87: 27-31.

5546

Ketchen, K. S. and C. R. Forrester.

1955. Migrations of the

lemon sole (Parophrys vetulus) in the Strait of Georgia.

Fish. Res. Bd. Canada, Pac. Prog. Rept. 104: 11-15.

5547

Manzer, J. I.

First year returns of lemon sole tags used

off the west coast of Vancouver Island. Rish. Res. Bd.
Canada, Pac. Progr. Rept. 68: 51.
1946.

547

5548

Gnose, C. E. 1968. Ecology of the striped seaperch,

Embiotoca lateralis, in Yaquina Bay, Oregon, M. S.
Thesis, OSU Dep. Fisheries.

5549

Parrish, Loys P.

5550

Privol'nev, T. I. and N. V. Koroleva. 1955. Critical Content

of Oxygen in Water fro Fish at Various Temperatures

1966. The predicted influence of Kraft

mill effluent on the distribution of some sport fishes
in Yaquina Bay, Oregon. M. S. Thesis, Oregon State
Univ. 88 p.

According to Seasons. C. R. Academy of Sci. , (USSR),

89(1953): 175. Sew. and md. Wastes, 27(6): 666.

5551

Rubin, M. A. 1935. Thermal reception in Fishes. J. of

Gen. Physiol. 18: 643 -647.

5552

Roots, B. I. and C. L. Prosser.

5553

Smith, D. C. 1928. The Effect of Temperature on the Melanophores

of Fishes, 3. of Exper. Zool,52: 183-234.

5554

Seymour, Allyn. 1956. Effects of Temp. on Formation of

Vertebrae and Fin Rays in Young Chinook Salmon. Trans.

Temperature Acclimation
and the Nervous System in Fishes. 3. of Experimental
Biol. 39(4): 617-629. Biol. Abs. 42(4): 1963.
1962.

Amer. Fish. Soc. 88(1): 58-69.

5555

Meisner, H. M. and C. P. Hickman, Jr. 1962. Effect of

Temperature and Photoperiod on the Serum Proteins

of Rainbow Trout, Salmo gairdneri. Can. 3. of Zool.
40(2): 127-130

5556

Meek, E. M. 1922. The Effect of Temperature on the Growth

of Young Blennus (Zoarces viviparous) Dove Marine Lab.
Reports, 11: 102.

5557

Alabaster, 3. 5. 1962. Effects of Heated Effluents on Fish,

3. Wat. Pollut. Cont. Fed. 34(3): 207.

5559

Andrews, C. W. 1946. The effect of heat on light behavior of

fish. Trans. Roy. Soc. of Can. 3rd ser. no. 40, Sect 5,
pp 27-31.

548

5561

Angelovic, J. W. , W. F. Sigler, and J. M. Newhold. 1960.

The effect of Temperature on the Incidence of Fluorosis
in Rainbow Trout. Proceedings 15th md. Wastes Conf.
at Purdue Univ. , Lafayette, md. p. 496.

5562

Rechnitzer, Andreas B. and Conrad Limbaugh. 1952. Breeding

habits of Hype rprospon argentium, a viviparous fish
from California. Copeia 1952(1): 41-42.

5563

Pennsylvania--Dept. of Health. 1962. Heated Discharges--their

effect on streams. Report by the Advisory Committee
for the Control of Stream Temperatures to the Pennsylvania
Sanitary Wat. Bd. , Div. San. Engng, Bur. Envir. Health,

Penn. Dept. Health, Harrisburg, Pa.

5564

Minimal Oxygen Requirements for Certain Species of Fish. 1954.

Technical Bull. 66, Nat. Counc. on Stream Improvement,
Washington, D. C. , 1954; Sewage and Industrial Wastes,
27(6): 1955.

5565

Cleaver, F.. C. 1949. The Washington Otter trawl fishery with

reference to the petrale sole (Eopsetta jordanii), Wash.
St. of Dept. of Fish, Biolog. Rept. no. 49A, pp. 3-45.

5566

Bonnet, D. D. 1939. Mortality of the cod egg in relation to

temperature, Biology Bulletin, Woods Hole, 76: 428-441.

5567

Westheim, S. J. 1958. On the biology of the Pacific Ocean

Perch, Sebastodes alutus (Gilbert), M.S. Thesis, Univ.
of Wash. , Seattle, 106 p.

5568

Brett, 3. B. 1952. Temperature tolerance in young Pacific

salmon, genus Onchorhyncus, 3. Fish. Res. Bd. of
Can. 9: 265.

5570

Britton, S. W. 1924. The effects of extreme temperature on

fishes, American Journal of Physiology, 67: 411-421.

5571

Bull, H. 0. 1936. Studies on conditioned responses in fishes;

VII: temperature perception in teleosts, 3. Mar. Biol.
Assoc.

21: 1-27.

549

5573

cairns, J. , Jr.

5574

Collins, G. B. 1952. Factors influencing t1 orientation of

migrating anadromous fishes, U. S. Fish and Wildi. Serv.

The effects of increased temperatures

upon aquatic organisms, Proceedings of the 10th md.
Waste Conf. , Purdue Univ. Engng. Bull. , 40(1): 346-354.

Bull.

1956.

52: 373 -396.

5575

Craigie, David E. 1963. An effect of water hardness in the

thermal resistence of the rainbow trout, Salmo gairdnerii
Richardson, Canadian J. of Zool. , 41(5): 825 -830.

5576

Crawford, D. R. 1930. Some considerations in the study of

the effects of heat and light on fishes, Copeia, 73: 89-92.

5577

Dutton, G. J.and Montgomery, J. P. 1958. Glucuronide

synthesis in fish and the influence of temperature,
Proceedings, Biochemistry Society, 70(4): 178.

5578

Ellis, M. M. 1947. Temperature and fishes, Fishery

Leaflet 221, U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service.

5580

Embody, G. C. 1934. Relation of temperature to the incubation

periods of four species of trout, Trans. , Amer. Fish.

Soc., 64: 281 -292.

5581

Alverson, D. L. 1953. Notes on the Pacific Ocean Perch.

Washington,State of, Dept. of Fish. , Fish. Res. Papers.
1(1): 22-34.

5582

Evans, R. M., F. C. Purdie, and C. P. Hickman, Jr.

5584

Fry, F. E. 3. 1951. Some temperature relations of fish,

5585

Pearson, T. Gilbert (ed.).

5586

Garside, E. T. , and 3. S. Tait.

1962.

The effect of temperature and photoperiod on the

respiratory metabolism of rainbow trout, Salmo gairdneri,
Canadian 3. of Zoo. , 40(1): 107-118.

Abstract, Fed. Proc. 10(1): 46.

Birds of America. Garden

City Publishing Co. Inc. , Garden City, NY.
1936.

Preferred temperatui
of rainbow trout (Salmo gairdneri Richardson) and its
unusual relationship to acclimation temperature,
1958.

Canadian J. of Zool. 36: 563 -567.

550

5588

Hathaway, Edward S. 1928. Quantitative study of the changes

produced by acclimatization in the tolerance of high
temperature by fishes and amphibians, Bull. , U. S.
Bur. of Fish. ,43(2): 169-192.

5589

Hathaway, E. S. 1927. The relation of temperature to the

quantity of food consumed by fishes, Ecology, 8(4): 428 -434.

5590

Huet, Marcel. 1965. Biological problems in water pollution:

water quality criteria for fish life, Third Seminar: 1962,
PubI. No. 99-WP-25, Pubi. Health Serv., U. S. Dept.
of Health, Education and Welfare, 1965.

5591

Bernard, F. 1967. Prodrome for a distributional check-list

and bibliography of the recent Marine Mollusca of the
West Coast of Canada. Fish. Res. Bd. of Can. Tech.
Rept. #2.

5593

Huntsman, A. G. 1946. Heat stroke in Canadian maritime

stream fishes, 3. Fish. Res. Bd. of Canada, 6: 47 6-482.

5595

Kawajiri, M. 1928. The influence of variation of temperature

of water on the development of fish eggs. On the relation
of growth and death from starvation of the trout fry to
temperature. On the studies of the population-density
of cultured fishes, 3. Imp. Fish. Inst. , Tokyo, 24: 1-12.

5596

Kerr, J. E.

5597

Ketchen, K. S. 1952. Factors influencing the survival of the

lemon sole (Parophrys vetulus, Girard) in Hecate Strait,
B. C. , thesis presented to the Univ. of Toronto, at Toronto,
Ontaeio, Canada, in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy.

5598

Lawrence, W. M. 1940. The effect of temperature on the weight

of fasting rainbow trout fingerlings, Trans. , Amer. Fish.

1953. Studies on fish preservation at the Contra

Costa Stream Plant of the Pacific Gas & Electric Co.
Calif. Fish. Bull.92: 66.

Soc.
5600

70: 290-296.

MacCardle, R. C. 1937. The effect of temperature on Mitochondria

in liver cells of fish, J. of Morphology, 61: 613-639.

551

5601

Mantleman, I.

I.

1960.

Distribution of the young of certain

species of fish in temperature gradients, J. Fish. Res.

Bd. of Cand a, Trans. Ser. No. 257, p. 87.

5604

Marrow, J. E. , Jr. , and A. Mauro. 1950. Body temperature

of some marine fishes, Copeia, 2: 108-116.

5605

Miller, William T. 1956. Possible relationship of water

temperatures with availability and year class size in
the Pacific sardine, thesis presented to Stanford U.
at Stanford, Calif. , in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts.

5606

Mossman, William H. , and Anthony L. Pacheco. 1957. Shad

catches and water temperatures in Virginia, J. of

Wildlife Management, 21(3): 351 -352.

5607

Musacchia, J. , and M. B. Clark. 1957. Effects of elevated

temperatures on tissue chemistry of the Arctic sculpin,
Myoxocephalus quadricornis. Physiol. Zool. 30(1): 12-17.

5608

Nakano, T. 1961, 1962. Studies on the physicological chemistry

of phosphorus compounds in fish muscle. V. Quantitative difference of 'phosphorous compounds in muscle of

fish in di'fferent water temperatures, Bull. , Japan Soc.

Sci. Fish. , 24(4): 357 -360; Biol. Abs. 41(3): 1962.
5609

Pegel, V. A. 1959. Mechanism of adaptation by fishes to the

temperature 'factor, Biol. Fund, of Fishing Industry, Tomsk:
Tomskii Univ. , 1959, p. 135-142; Re'ferat. Zhur. , Biol. , No.
4D473, 1961; Biol. Abs. , 40(5), Abs. No. 18899, 1962.

5610

Peiss, C. M. , and J. Field.

1950. The respiratory metabolism

of excised tissues of warm and cold adapted fishes,
Biol. Bull. Woods Hole, 99(2): 213-224.
,

5612

Powers, E. B. 1920. influence of temperature and concentration

on the toxicity of salts to fishes, Ecology, 1: 95-112.

5613

Taverner, P. A.

5614

Tagatz, M. E. 1961. Tolerance of striped bass and American

shad to changes of temperature and salinity, Special
Science Report-Fisheries No. 388, U. S. Fish and Wildi.

Birds of Western Canada. Nat. Mus.

Canada, Bull. , No. 41 (Biol. series 10).

Serv.

1928.

8 'pp.
552

5615

Tauti, M. 1927. On the influences of temperature and salinity

upon the rate of development of 'fish eggs, J. , Imperial
fisheries Institute, Tokyo, 23: 31-37.

5616

Van Vliet, V.

5617

Waede, M.

5618

Wurtz, C. B. 1961. Is heat a new pollution threat? Wastes

Engineering, 32(12): 684 et seq.

5619

Farris, David A. 1961. Abundance and distribution of eggs and

Larvae and survival of Larvae of Jack Mackerel
(Trachurus symmetricus). U. 5. Fish and Wildi. Serv.
Fish. Bull. 187, 61: 247-279.

5620

Miller, B. 5. 1965. Foos and Feeding studies on adults of

two species of pleuronectids (Platichthys stellatus
and Psettichthys melanostictus) in East Sound , Orcas
Island, Washington. M. S. Thesis, Univ. of Washington,

1957.

1955.

See 2913.

See 2796.

Seattle, 131 p.

5621

McHugh, J. L. and J. E. Fitch. 1951. An annotated list of

the clupeoid fishes of the Pacific Coast from Alaska to
Cape San Lucas, Baja California. Calif. Fish and Game
37: 491-495.

5622

MacPhee, C. and W. A. Clemena 1962. Fishes of the San

Juan Archipelago, Washington. Northwest Science,
36: 27-38.

5623

Grinols, B. B. 1965. Check-list of the offshore marine fishes

occurring in the northeastern Pacific Ocean, principal'y

off the coasts of British Columbia, Washington and Oregon,

M. S. Thesis, Univ. of Wash. Seattle, 217 p.

5624

Delacy, A. C., C. B. Hitz, and B. L. Dryfoos.

Maturation
and birth of rockfish (Sebastodes) from Washington and
adjacent waters. Washington, State of, Dept. of Fish.
1964.

Fish. Res. Bd. Papers 3(2): 51-67. Also Contri. no.

164, School. of Fish. Univ. of Washington.

553

5625

Bayliff, W. H. 1954. A review of the Zoarcidae of the northeastern Pacific Ocea-i. M. S. Thesis, Univ. of Washington,
Seattle, 189 p.

5626

Tester, A. L. 1932. Local populations of herring. Fish.

Res. Bd. Canada, Pacific Progr. Rept. No. 12: 12-14.

5627

Tester, P. L.

1933.

The age and growth of herring in British

Columbia. Fish. Res. Bd. Canada, Pac. Progr. Rept.

No. 18: 10-13.

5628

Hart, J. L. and G. H. Wiles. 1931. The food of pilchards.

Fish. Res. Bd. canada, Pac. Progr. Rept. No. 11: 24-28.
Also Contr. Can. Biol. and Fish. , 7(19) (Ser. A. no. 16)
247 -254 (1932).

5629

Williams, B. W. 1959. The fishery for herring (Clupea

pallasii) on Puget Sound. Washington, Fish. Res.
Papers 2(2): 5-29.

5630

Ketchen, K. S. 1956. See 5515.

5631

Jewett, St. G.etal.

5632

Ingles, Lloyd C. 1965. Mammals of the Pacific States, Stanford

University Press, Stanford, California, 506 p.

5633

Arora, Hartans Lall. 1951. An investigation of the California

sand Dab, Citharichthys sordidus (Girard). Calif. Fish

Birds of Washington State, University

of Washingtor Press, Seattle, 1953, 767 pp.
1953.

and Game 37(1): 3-42.

5634

Beeder, William G. 1951. Stomach analysis of a groups of

shorebirds. Condor, 53: 43-45.

5635

Turner, Clarence L. 1938. Histological and cytological changes

in the ovary of Cymatogaster aggregatus during
gestation. 3. Morphology, 62: 351 -368.

5637

MacGregor, John 5. 1966. Fecundity of the Pacific Hake,

Merluccius productus (Ayres) Calif. Fish and Geme
52(2): 111-116.

554

5638

Carlisle, John G. Jr. 1966. Aerial Census of California

Sea Otters in 1964 and 1965.
52(4): 300-302.

Calif. Fish and Game,

5639

Shippen, Herbert H. and Alton Miles. 1966. Predation upon

Pacific Hake, Merluccius productus, by Pacific Dog fish,
Squalus acanthias. Calif. Fish and Game, 53(3): 218-219.

5640

Miller, Daniel 3. and John Schmidtke. 1956. Report on the

distribution and abundance of Pacific Herring (Clupea
pallasi) along the coast of central and southern
California. Calif. Fish and Game, 42(3): 163-187.

5641

Scheffer, Victor B. 1958. Seals, Sealions, and Walruses.

A Review of the Pinnipedia. Stanford Univ. Press,
Stanford, Calif. x + 179 pp.

5642

Radovich, John. 1963. Effect of ocean temperature on the

seaward movements of striped bass, Boccus saxatilis,
on the Pacific coast. Calif. Fish and Game 49(3): 191 -206.

5643

Hester, Frank J. 1961. A Method of Predicting tuna catch

by using coastal sea-surface temperatures. Calif. Fish
and Game, 47(4): 313-326.

5644

Robinson, John B. 1960. The Age and Growth of Striped Bass

(Roccus saxatilis) in California, Calif. Fish and Game,

46(3): 279 -290.

5645

Chadwick, Harold B. 1959. California Sturgeon Tagging

Studies, Calif. Fish and Game, 45(4): 297 -301.

5647

Phillips, J. B. 1959. A review of the lingcod, Ophiodon

elongatus: Calif. Fish and Game1): 19-27. Biol.
Abs. 33(1959), no. 31930.

5648

Phillips, J. B.

5649

Gates, D. E. 1960. Pacific sardine (Sardinops caerulea)

Res. Briefs Fish. Comm. Ore. 1960: 46-48.

5650

Otsu, Tamio and Richard N. Uchida. 1963. Model of the

migration of albacore in the north Pacific Ocean. U. S.
Fish and Wildl. Serv. Bur. Comm. Fish. Fishery Bull.

1958. The Fishery for Sablefish, Anoplopoma

fimbria. Calif. Fish and Game, 44(1): 79-84.

63(1): 33-44.
555

5652

USD1, Fish and Wildlife Service. 1952. Doctoral dissertations

on the management and ecology of fisheries. U. S.
Fish and Wildl. Serv. , Spec. Sci. Rept. - Fish. No.
87, 44 p.

5653

Wilimovsky, N. 3. and W. G. Freihofer. 1957. Guide to

literature on systematic biology of Pacific salmon. U. S.
Dept of the Interior, Fish and Wildi. Serv. , Spec. Sci.
Rept. Fish. No. 209, 266 p.

5654

Shimada, Be11M. 1951. AnAnnotatedBibUographyOfl the

5655

Ginsburg, Isaac. 1952. Flounders of the genus Paralichthys

and related genera in American waters. U. S. Fish &
Wildi. Serv. , Fish. Bull. 52(FB 71): 267 -351.

5656

Royce, William F., Lynwood S. Smith, Allan C. Hartt. 1968.

Models of Oceanic Migrations of Pacific Salmon and
comment on guidance Mechanisms. U. S. Dept. of mt.
U. S. Fish and Wildi. Serv., Bur. of Comm. Fish.
Fish. Bull. 66(3).

5658

Townsend, Lawrence D. 1942. The occurrence of flounder postlarvae in fish stomachs. Copeia 1942(2): 126-127.

5659

Cope, Oliver B. 1958. Annotated Bibliography on the Cutthroat

trout. U. 5. Fish and Wildi. Serv. Fish. Bull 40(58).

5660

Nagasaki, Fuzuko. 1958. The fecundity of Pacific herring

(Clupea pallasii) in British Columbia coastal waters.
3. Fish. Res. Bd. Canada, 15(3): 313-330, Biol. Abs.

Biology of Pacific Tunas, U. S. Fish and Wildl. Serv.

Fish Bull 52(58) 1-57

33(1960), 1959.
5661

Outram, D. N. 1958. The magnitude of herring spawn losses

due to bird predation on the west of Vancouver Island,
Fish. Res. Brd. Canada. Pac. Progr. Rpts. 111: 9-13,
1958. Biol. Abs. 33, 1959, (12690)

5662

Blake, James H. 1867. On the organs of copulation in the male

of Embiotocoid fishes. Proc. Calif. Acad. Nat. Sd.
3: 371-372.
556

5663

Kanoh, Yashiko. 1953. Uber den joponischen He ring (Clupea

paliasii Cuvier et Valenc) II Veranclemung im Ei bei
der Befruchtung odor Aktivierung. [Concerning the

Japanese herring (C. pallasii) II Changes in the egg during

fertilization or activation.] Cytologial8(1): 67-79,
1953, Biol. Abs. 29.
5664

Katz, M. and D. W. Erickson. 1950. The fecundity of some

herring from Seal Rock Washington. Copeia 1950(3): 176-181.

Biol. Abs. 25: 1951 (3433)

5665

Kithama, H. 1955. The secular variation of the total length of

spring herring Clupea pallasi C. and V. , on the western
coast of Hokkaido. [In Japanese with Eng. summ] Bull.
Japanese Soc. Sci. Fish. 21(8): 915-920. Biol. Abs.
31: 1957 (23464).

5666

Hourston, AlanS. 1959. The relationship of the juvenile

herring stocks in Barkley Sound to the major adult
herring populations in British Columbia. J. Fish. Res.
Bd. Canada 16(3): 309 -320. Biol. Abs. 35, (6561), 1960.

5667

International North Pacific Fisheries Commission. 1961.

The exploitation, scientific investigation and management
of herring (Clupea pallasi) on the Pacific Coast of
North America in relation to the abstention provisions of
the North Pacific Fisheries Conventions. Inter:nat. N.
Pacific Fish. Comm. Bull. 4: 1-100.

5668

McHugh, J. L. 1954. Geographic variation in the Pacific

herring. Copeia, 1954 (2): 139-151. Biol. Abs. 29,
19 55(2462).

5669

Merkel, Terrence J. 1957. Food Habits of the King salmon,

Oncorhynchus tshawytscha (Walbaum) in the vicinity of
San Francisco, California. Calif. Fish and Game
43(4): 249-270. Abs. 32.

5670

Outram, D. N. andF. H. C. Taylor. 1964. A quantitative

estimate of the number of Pacific herring (Clupea

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Clark, Frances N. and Julius B. Phillips. 1952. The northern

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Johnson, W. C. and A. J. Calhoun. 1052. Food habits of

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5700

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5701

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5702

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5704

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5705

Ahlstrom Elbert H. and David Kranmer. 1957. Sardine

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Wood, Richard and Robson A. Collins. 1969. First report of

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561

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5708

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5710

U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Seattle. 1967. Cruise Report

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5711

U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 1966. Cruise Rpt. , Exploratory

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5712

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5713

U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 1967. Cruise Report,

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5714

U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 1969. Cruise report,

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5716

Pruter, A. T.

5717

U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 1969. Cruise Report, USFWS

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5718

Hitz, C. R. , H. C. Johnson and A. T. Pruter. 1961.

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Hitz, C. R. and D. L. Alverson. 1963. Bottom fish

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5720

Pereyra, Walter T. William G. Pearcy and Forrest E. Carvey,

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5722

Heyamoto, H. 1963. Availability of small salmon off the

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5723

Fulton, Leonard A. 1968. Spawning areas and abundance of

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5724

Ahlstrom, E. H. 1956. Eggs and larvae of anchovy, jack

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5725

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5726

Bolin, B. L. 1936. Embryonic and early larval stages of the

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5727

Ganssle, D. 1961. Northern anchovy Engraulis mordax.

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5728

Ahlstrom, Elbert H. and Robert C. Counts. 1955. Eggs

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5729

california Dept. of Fish and Game. 1961. California Ocean

Fisheries Resources to the year 1960. Calif. Dept. Fish
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563

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Gotshall, Daniel W. 1969. Stomach contents of Pacific hake

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5731

Dyer, John A. , Richard W. Nelson and Harold 3. Barnet. 1966.

Pacific hake (Merluccius productus) as raw material for
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Length frequencies of
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5732

Best, E. A. and B. 3. Nitsos.

5733

Hart, 3. L.

5734

Hart, John Lawson. 1943. Migration of lingcod. Fish. Res.

5735

Alverson, D. L., A. T. Pruter, and L. L. Ronholt. 1964.

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5736

Eigenmann, C. H. 1894. On the viviparous fishes of the Pacific

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5737

Budd, Paul L. 1940. Development of the Eggs and Early

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5738

Randolph, P. G. 1898. The mating habits of viviparous

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5739

Hubbs, Carl L. 1933. Crossochir koelzi: A new California

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MacGregor, 3. S. 1966. Synopsis on the biology of the jack

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5742

Grinols, Richard B. and Charles D. Gill. 1968. Feeding behavior of

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5743

Duffy, J. M. 1968. Jack mackerel yield per area from California

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,5744

Hunter, John R. 1968. Effects of light on schooling and feeding

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5745

Hunter, John R. 1966. Procedure for analysis of schooling

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5746

Roedel, Phil M. 1953. The jack mackerel, Trachurus

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5747

Fanis, David A. 1958. Jack mackerel Eggs, Pacific Coast,

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5748

Ahlstrom, Elbert H. 1968. An Evaluation of the Fishery Resources

available to California Fishermen. in Fishery
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5749

Alverson, Dayton L. 1951. Deep-water trawling survey off

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5750

Alverson, Dayton L. 1953. Deep-water trawling survey off the

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565

5751

Greenwood, Melvin B.

1958.

Bottom trawling exploration off

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5752

Paraketsov, I. A. 1963. 0 biologii Sebastodes alutus Beningova

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5753

Lyubiomova, T. G. 1963. Osnourye chevty biologii i

raspredeleniya tikhookeanskogo morskogo okunya
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Trvses Nauch Is sled Inst Morskogo Rybn Khoz Okeanogr
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5754

Gritsenko, 0. F.

1963. Vozrast i temp rosta tikhook eanskogo

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5755

Lisovenka, L. A. 1964. [Distribution of Larvae of Pacific

Ocean perch Sebastodes alutus Gilbert in the Gulf of
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5756

Lyubimova, T. G. 1964. [Biological characterization of the

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5757

Westheim, S. J. 1967. Sampling research trawl catches at

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566

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Lyubimova, T. G. 1965. [The main stages in the life cycle of

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5759

Fadeev, N. S. 1968. [The migrations.of rock-fish] Izv

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5760

Hitz, Charles R. 1962. Seasons of Birth of Rockfish (Sebastodes

spp. ) in Oregon Coastal Waters. Transactions of Am.
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5761

Hitz, Charles R. and Allan C. Delacy. 1965. Clearing of Yolk

in Eggs of the Rockfishes, Sebastodes caurinus and S.
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5762

Thompson, W. F. 1950. The effect of fishing on stocks of

halibut in the Pacific. U. of Wash. Press; Seattle, Biol.
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5763

Burkenaoad, Martin D. 1950. A review of the effect of fishing

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5764

Thompson, William F. and Richard Van Cleve. 1936. Life

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5765

Thompson, William F. and William C. Henington. 1930. Life

history of the Pacific Halibut (1): Marking Experiments.

Rept. of the mt. Fish. Comm. No. 2.

5766

Bell, F. Heward and E. A. Best. 1968. The Halibut fishery

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5767

Ketchen, K. S. 1956. See 5515.

567

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Van Cleave, Richard and Allyn H. Seymour. 1953. The

production of halibut eggs on the Cape St. James spawning
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5769

Southward, MorrisG. 1962. A method of calculating body lengths

from otolith measurements for Pacific halibut and its
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5770

Southward, G. Morris 1967. Growth of Pacific Halibut, Rep.

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5771

Crutchfield, James and Arnold Zeilner. 1963. Economic

aspects of the Pacific halibut (Hippoglossus) fishery.
Fish Indust. Res. iji): 1-2. 1962. Biol. Abs.
45(103129).

5772

Novikov, N. P. 1964. Basic aspects of the biology of the

Pacific halibut Hippoglossus hippoglossus stenolepis
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1965.

5773

Cleaver, Fred C. 1949. The Washi ngton otter trawl fishery

with reference to the petrale sole, Eopsetta jordani,
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5774

Best, E. A. 1963. Movements of petrale sole, Eopsetta

jordani (Lockington) tagged off California. Pac. Mar.
Fish. Comm., Bull. 6: 23-35.

5775

Harry, George Y. 1959. Time of spawning, Length at maturity,

and fecundity of the English, Petrale, and Dover soles
(Parophrys vetulus, Eopsetta jordani, and Microstomus
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Briefs 7(1): 5-13.

5776

Westrheim, S.J. and A. R. Morgan. 1965. Results from

tagging a spawning stock of Dover sole, Microstomus
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568

1961. Migrations of English sole (Parophrys vetulus)

on the Pacific coast of United States. Thirteenth
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5777

Anon.

5778

Jow, Tom. 1969. Results of English sole tagging off California.

Bull. Pac. Mar. Fish. Comm. 7: 15-33.

5779

Holland, Gilbert A. 1969. Age, Growth and Mortality of

Paces of English Sole (Parophrys vetulus) in Puget
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5780

Smith, J. Gary and Richard J. Nitsos. 1969. Age and Growth

studies of English Sole, Parophrys vetulus in Monterey
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7: 73-79.

5781

Forrester, C. R.

5782

Pattie, Bradley H. 1969. Dispersal of English sole, Parophrys

1969. Results of English Sole tagging in

British Columbia Waters. Pac. Mar. Fish. Comm.
7: 2-10.

vetulus tagged off the Washington Coast in 1956. Bull.

Pac. Mar. Fish. Comm. 7: 11-14.

5783

VanCleve, Richard and Sayed Z. El-Sayed. 1969. Age, growth

and productivitiy of an English sole (Parophrys vetulus)
population in Puget Sound, Washington. Pac. Mar. Fish.
Comm. Bull 7: 51-71.

5784

Alverson, D. L. and S. J. Westrheim. 1961. A review of the

taxonomy and biology of the Pacific Ocean perch and its

fishery. Rapp. et Proc. -- Verb. , Cons. Expi. Mer,
150,A(1): 12-27.

5785

Best, E. A. 1963. Catch localities for Dover sole, Microstomus

pacificus (lockington), landed in California, 1950 through
19 59. Calif. Dept. Fish & Game, Fish Bull. 121:
48-56. Biol. Abs. 44(590).

5786

Ketchen, K. S. and C. P. Forrester.

569

1955.

See 5546.

5787

Best, E. A. 1957. Tagged dover sole (Microstomus pacificus)

at liberty six years. Calif. Fish & Game 43(7):
147.

Biol. Abs. 3(33762).

5788

Pruter, A. T. and R. VariCleve. 1954. English sole in

Holmes Harbor, Puget Sound. A preliminary study of
the population of English sole, Parophrys vetulus,
in Holmes Harbor, Washington. Wash. Dept. Fish.
Fish. Res. Papers 1(2): 3-18. Biol. Abs. 31(27128), 1957.

5789

Barraclough, W. F. 1954. Winter recaptures of tagged brili

from deep water off the West Coast of Vancouver Island.
Fish. Bes. Bd. Canada Pac. Frog. Rept. 100: 16-18.
Biol. Abs. 29(23159), 1955.

5790

Manzer, 3. I. 1952. The effects of tagging upon a Pacific coast

flounder, Parophrys vetulus. 3. Fish. Res. Bd. Canada.
8(7): 479-485. Biol. Abs. 27(12115), 1953.

5791

Westrheim, Sigurd

3.

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Absorption of trace elements by nearshore sea-bed
sediments. Bhabha Atomic Res. Cent. , BAR C-376.
I l3.p.

6366

Pearson, E. A. , P. N. Storrs, and P. E. Selleck. 1967.

Some physical parameters and their significance
in marine waste disposal. In Olson, T. A. and
F. 3. Burgess (eds). Pollution and Marine Ecology.
p. 297-315.

6367

Provasoli, L. 1963. Organic regulation of phytoplankton

fertility. In Hill, M. N. (ed) The Sea, Vol. 2.
Iriterscience, London. p. 163-219.

611

7000

Cupp, E. E. 1943. Marine Plankton Diatoms of the West

Coast of North America. Bull. Scripps Inst. Oceanogr.
Univ. of California, 5(1): 1-238.

7001

Smayda, T. 3. 1969. Experimental Observations on the

Influence of Temp rature, Light and Salinity on cell
Division of the Marine Diatom, Detonula confervacea
(Cleve) Gran, J. Phycology,5(2): 150-157.

7002

Kain, J. M. and G. E. Fogg.

7003

Thomas, William H. 1966. Effects of temperature and

illuminance on cell division rates of three species of
tropical oceanic phytoplankton. 3. Phycology, 2(1): 17-22.

7004

Curl, H. C. Jr.

7005

Lebonr, M. V. 1929. The Pianktonic Diatoms of Northern

Seas. Dulau and Co. Ltd. London. 244 p.

7006

Jrgensen, E. G. and E. Steeman Nielsen. 1965. Adaptation

in Plankton Algae. Mem. 1st. Ital. Idrobiol. 18 Suppl:

Studies on the Growth

of Marine Phytoplankton I. Asterionella japonica
Gran. J. Mar. Biol. Assoc. U. K. 37: 397-413.
1958.

1959. The Physiological Ecology of a Marine

Diatom Skeletonema costatum (Greve) Cleve. Proc.
of IX mt. Bot. Congress. Z: 83-84. (Abstract).

37-46.
7007

Nielsen, E. Steeman and E. G. Jqrgensen. 1968. The

Adaptation of Plankton Algae I. General Part. Physiol.
Plant, 21: 401 -413.

7008

Curl, H. C. Jr. and G. C. McLeod. 1961. The Physiological

Ecology of a Marine Diatom. J. Mar. Res. , 19: 7 0-88.

7009

Jitts, H. R. , C. D. McAllister, K. Stephens, and 3. P.

H.

Strickland. 1964. Cell Division Rates of Some Marine

Phytoplankters as a Function of Light and Temperature.
3. Fish. Res. Bd. Canada, 21: 139-157.

7010

Hobson, Louis A. 1966. Some influences of the Columbia

River effluent on Marine Phytoplankton During January
1961.

Limnol. and Oceanogr. 11: 223-34.

612

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Braarud, Tryguk. 1937. A Quantitative method for the

experimental study of plankton diatoms. mt. Council
for ExplOration of the sea, 3. Du Counseil, 12:321-332.

7013

Kofoid, C. A. 'and 0. Swezy. 1921. The free-living unarmored

Dino flageliata. Univ. of Calif. Press, Berkley,
562 p.

7014

California State Water Quality Control Board. 1964

25(an oceanographic study betwee'n the 'points of Trjn'idad
Head and Eel River), p 70-73.

7015

Ryther, J. H. and R. R. L. Guillard.

7016

Ukeles, R. 1961. The effect of Temperature on the Growth and

Survival of Several Marine Algal Species. Biol. Bull.

Studies on
Marine Planktonic Ciatoms III. Some effects on
Respiration of Five Species. Canadian 3. of Microbiol.
8: 447-453.
1962.

120(2): 255-264.
7017

Phifer, L. D.

7018

Chin-Chih, J. 1948. The marine myxomyceae in the vicinity

of Friday Harbor, Washington. Bot. Bull. ofAcademia
Sinica,2: 161 -178.

7019

Lewis, Ralph. 1927. Surface catches of Marine Diatoms and

Dino flagellates off the coast of Oregon by USS "Guide"
in 1924. Bull. Scripps Inst. Qf Oceanogr. (Tech. ser.

1934. Phytoplankton of East Sound, Washington.

February to November, 1932. Univ. of Wash. Pub, in
Oc. 1(4): 97-110.

1(11): 189-196.
7020

Allen, W. E. 1924. Surface Catches of Marine Diatoms and

Dino'flagellates made by USS Pioneer between San
Diego and Seattle in 1923. Univ. o'f Calif. Publ. in
Zool. 26(12): 243 -248.

7021

Allen, W. E 1927. Quantitative studies on inshore marine

diatoms and dinoflagellates of southern California in
1921 and' in 1922. Bull of Scripps Inst. of Oceanogr.
(Tech. ser.)1(2): 19-29.

613

7022

Allen, W. E. 1927. Surface catches of marine diatoms and

Dinoflagellates made by USS Pioneer in Alaskan waters
in 1923. Bull. Scipps Inst. of Oceanogr. (tech. ser.)
1(4): 29-48.

7023

Dorman, H. P. 1927. Studies on Marine Diatoms and

Dinoflagellates caught with the Kofoid bucket in 1923.

Bull. Scripps Inst. of Oceanogr. (tech. ser.) 1(5): 49-61.

7024

Dorrnan, H. P. 1927. Quantitative studeis on marine diatoms

and Dinoflagellates at four inshore stations on the coast
of California in 1923. Bull. Scripps. Inst. of Oceanogr.
(tech. ser.) 1(7): 73-89.

7025

Sleggs, C. F. 1927. Marine Phytoplankton in the region of

Latolla, California, during the summer of 1924.
Bull. Scripps Inst. of Oceanogr. (tech. ser. )1(9): 93-117.

7026

Allen, W. E. 1929. Surface catches of marine diatoms and

Dinoflagellates made by USS Pioneer in Alaskan waters
in 1924. Bull. Scripps Inst. of Oceanogr. (tech. ser.
2: 139-153.

7027

Fox, D. 1929. Quantitative studies on inshore marine diatoms

and Dinofiagellates taken at five stations on the east
Pacific coast. Bull. Scripps Inst. of Oceanogr. (tech.
ser.)2(5): 189-196.

7028

Allen, W. E. 1929. Quantitative Studies of Surface Catches

of Marine Diatoms and Dinoflagellates taken in Alaskan
waters by the international fisheries commission in the
fall. and winter of 1927-1928, and 1929. Bull. Scripps
Inst. Oceanogr. (tech. ser) 2: 39 0-399.

7029

Cupp, E. E. 1936. Seasonal distribution and occurrence of

marine diatoms and Dinoflagellates at Scotch Cap
Alaska. Bull. Scripps Inst. Oceanogr. (tech. ser.),
4: 71 -101.

7030

Gran, H. H. and E. C. Angst. 1931. See 3527.

7031

Sutton, E. A. 1969. Diatoms at NH-S. (17 Oct 69).

614

7032

Abbott, D. P. and R. Albee. 1967. Summary of Thermal

Conditions and Phytoplankton Volumes Measured in
Monterey Bay, California 1961 -1966. Reports

California Coop. Ocean. Fish. Invest. 11: 155-156.

7033

McCombie, A. M. 1960. Actions and interactions of temperature,

light intensity and nutrient concentration on the growth
of the green alga Chiannydomuos reinhardi Dangeard.
Fish. Res. Bd. of Canada, 17(6): 871 -894.

7034

Ukeles, Ravenna. 1961. The effect of temperature on the

growth and survival of several marine algal species.
Biol. Bull. 120(2): 255-264.

7035

Schiller, J. 1933. Rabenhorst's Kryptogramen-flora.

Di.no-

flagellatae akademische 'ye rlags ge sells chaft Leipzig.

1933.

7036

Wood, E. 3. F. 1954. Di.noflagellates in the Australian

region. Aust. J. Mar. Freshw. Res. 5(2): 171 -351.

7037

Kain, 3. M. and G. E. Fogg. 1960. Studies on the Growth

of Marine phytoplankton III. Procentrum micans
(Ehrenberg), 3. Mar. Biol. Assoc. U. K. , 39: 33-50.

7038

Eppley, R. W. and 3. D. H. Strickland. 1968. Kinetics of

Marine Phytoplankton Growth in Advances in Microbiology

of the Sea. 239 p. Ed. Wood, E. I. F. and M. R.

Droop, Acad. Press, New York.

7039

1964. An introductory account of the smaller

algae of.British Coastal Waters, Pt. V. Bacillariophyceae

Hendey, N.

I.

1-316.
7040

Strickland, J. D. H. , R. W. Eppley and Blanca Rojas de

1969. Phytoplankton populations, nutrients

and photosynthesis in Peruvian coastal waters. Instituto
Del Mar Del Peru Boletin 2(1): 37-45.

Mendiola.

7041

Oppenheimer, C. H. (ed.). 1966. Marine Biology, vol. 2.

New York Acandemy of Sci. 369 p.

615

Accession Number

Subject
Group

Fietd

SELECTED WATER RESOURCES AISTIACTI

INPUT TRANSACTION FORM
Organhsauon

Oregon State University, Department of Oceanography

6 TitIe

Oceanography of the nearshore coastal waters of the Pacific Northwest

relating to possible pollution
Date

10

WIlliam C. Renfro
James E. McCauley
Bard Glenne
Robert H. Bourke
Danil R. Hancock
Stphen W. Hager
22

Citation

23

Descriptors (Started First)

12

xx +615

1971
161

15

1 6070E0K

vi +744

Project Number

21

Contract Number

Note

*Oceanography, *Pacific Northwest, *Coast Review, U. S.

Water Pollution, Thermal Pollution

Bibliography,

25 1ditifiers (Starred First)

*Ljterature Review
27

Abstract

T1t study is limited to the coastal zone of the Pacific Northwest from high tide to
ten kilometers from shore, and does not include estuaries and bays. The literature

has been reviewed in 21 chapters including chapters on geology, hydrology, winds,

temperature and salinity, heat budget, waves, coastal currents, carbon dioxide and
pH, oxygen, nutrients, and biology. Special chapters deal with field studies on thermal
discharges, heat dispersion models, pulp and paper industrial wastes, trace metals,
radiochemistry, pesticides and chlorine, thermal ecology, and biology of 20 selected
species. A summary chapter is entitled The nearshore coastal ecosystem: an overview. " The bibliography contains more than 3100 entries, most from the open literature, but some-from unpublished reports.
A separate volume includes the following appendices: 1. Wind Data; 2. Temperature
and Salinity Data; 3. Wave Data; 4. Trace Metals (including trace metal toxicities);
5. Pesticide Toxicities; 6. Oxygen, Nutrient, and pH Data; 7. Radionuclides; and
8. An Annotated Checklist of Plants and Animals (including more than 4400 species).
This report was submitted in fulfillment of Grant No. 16070E0K under the sponsorship
of the Water Quality Office, Environmental Protection Agency. (McCauley - OSU)

RRIOS IRE..

Relic

isa.)

Abstracter

J. E. McCauley

Institution

Oregon State University

SEND TO: WATER RESOURCES SCIENTIFIC INFORMATION CENTER
US. DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIORWASHINGTON. DC. 20240

U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 1971-442-890/385