UNIT 4

NETWORK ANALYSIS
OUTLINE
Session 4.1:

Introduction

Session 4.2:

Critical path analysis CPM limitations

Session 4.3:

Terminologies

Session 4.4:

Notations for drawing network diagrams

Session 4.5:

Constructing network diagrams

Session 4.6:

Activity on node (AON) diagrams

Session 4.7:

Critical path

Session 4.8:

Early times

Session 4.9:

Late times

Session 4.10:

Float

Session 4.11:

Project time reduction

Session 4.12:

Activity on arc (AOA) diagrams

Session 4.13:

Program Evaluation and Review technique(PERT)

OBJECTIVES
By the end of this unit you should be able to:
1. Distinguish between AOA and AON notations
2. Draw network diagrams using AON and AOA notations.
3. Calculate normal project completion time and cost
4. Calculate and explain floats, early and late times of activities
5. Explain crashing and calculate crash cost of an activity
6. Distinguish between CPM and PERT

Note: In order to achieve these objectives, you need to spend a minimum of

four (4) hours and a maximum of six (6) hours working through the sessions.

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SESSION 4.1:

INTRODUCTION

This is a tool for organizing and planning large-scale projects, which consists
of a list of smaller tasks that need to be completed at various stages in order
for the project to progress and to be completed on time. Network analysis is a
generic term for a family of related techniques developed to aid management
to plan and control projects. These techniques show the interrelationship of the
various jobs or tasks, which make up the overall project and clearly identify
the critical parts of the project. They can provide planning and control
information on the time, cost and resource aspects of a project.
Network analysis is likely to be of most value where projects are:
1.

Complex. That is, they contain many related and interdependent

activities.

2.

Large, that is many types of facilities (high capital investment,

many personnel, etc) are involved.

3.

Where restrictions exists. That is where projects have to be

completed within stipulated time or cost limits, or where some or
all of the resources are limited.

Such projects might be for example:

1.

The construction of a transport link;

2.

Preparing a dinner party (organizing a wedding)

3.

Launching a new product. Etc.

Each of these projects involves a large number of activities, which all need
to be completed in a certain order before the whole project is finished. Some
activities can be performed simultaneously, whilst others can only be tackled
once other activities have finished. For example if you are planning a building,
clearly the plastering of the internal walls can be undertaken at the same time
as the grounds or landscaped. However, the walls cannot be built until the
foundations are laid.
Here we can see a natural precedence relation between the activities and as
each activity can only be completed in a certain time scale, the project
manager faces the dilemma of carrying out all the activities in the best time
and at reasonable cost so that the project completes on time and meets the
budget constraints.

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Businesses are constantly working on projects and from your own

experience, you will know that management of these projects is very
important. There are a number of methods that can be used to successfully
manage a project, but we will be focusing on one particular aspect - time:
extremely important to all businesses we acknowledge.
An unexpected delay or similar time crisis can put a business under a lot of
pressure. So, how can you plan your time and identify where delays could
occur, leaving you to make decisions to compensate for such situations? A
useful tool to use would be the Critical Path Analysis(CPA)

SESSION 4.2:

CRITICAL PATH ANALYSIS

Critical Path Analysis can be defined as the logical sequencing of a series of

events necessary for a successful research project in such a manner that the
most efficient route to some culmination point can be calculated.
Consequently, the critical path technique has a multitude of uses: (a) As an aid
in time management, (b) as a provider of ongoing data for assessing progress,
and (c) to give the researcher or program planner considerable information for
decision-making.
The critical path analysis is a tool that illustrates the individual tasks of a
project highlighting the expected starting and finishing tasks of each. More
precisely, the critical path analysis can be used to:

Estimate the minimum/maximum time that tasks will be started and

completed

Estimate the minimum time that the whole project will take to
complete

Identify if resources are not being used effectively

Make aware any tasks that could create a possible delay

Sequence logically of activities that must be made

Ultimately, the critical path analysis will suggest which tasks are critical to
keep on time anticipating that the delay in any one of the tasks will delay the
whole project.

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The critical path analysis is hard to explain in more detail without the use of
diagrams, and so the working example in the following section will make it
all clearer.

Illustration
Jubilant Limited have decided to carry out some research to ultimately create
a selling strategy for their new product. They have decided to create a
questionnaire, which they will issue to the public personally. In addition, they
will use a mail shot to send out a similar survey to get the opinions of those
that live outside of the area.

Each task (A - F) has been given an expected completion time (in

weeks). Time is crucial for Jubilant Limited and so the Manager has requested
a Critical Path Analysis of the project
Task

Description

Order/Logic

Time

Plan Primary Research

To be completed first

1 wks

Prepare Mail Shot (Postal

Survey)
Prepare Questionnaire

Start when A is complete

3 wks

Start when A is complete

2 wks

Send and Wait for Mail Shot Start when B is complete

Replies
Issue Questionnaire
Start when C is complete

3 wks

Compile and Analyze Results Start when D & E is

complete
Plan Selling Campaign
Start when D, E & F is
complete

2 wks

C
D
E
F
G

3 wks

2 wks

Now, take a good look at the diagram below. Each circle (Node) will be used
to enter specific data. The numbers currently in the nodes (1 - 7) are only
there to make following the diagram easier - nothing more. The arrows
represent the tasks and each is given their respective completion times.

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Before we move on, look at the above table again and ensure that you
understand what is being said by linking it back to the diagram. Basically, all
tasks cannot start until the previous task has been completed. This is not true
for tasks B and C which can start at the same time - this is the only tricky area.

Each of these projects involves a large number of activities, which all need to
completed in a certain order before the whole project is finished. Some
activities can be performed simultaneously, whilst others can only be tackled
once other activities have finished. For example if you are planning a building,
clearly the plastering of the internal walls can be undertaken at the same time
as the grounds or landscaped. However, the walls cannot be built until the
foundations are laid. Here we can see a natural precedence relation between
the activities, and as each activity can only be completed in a certain time
scale, the project manager faces the dilemma of carrying out all the activities
in the best time and at reasonable cost so that the project completes on time
and meets the budget constraints.

For each activity, there is a set of activities called predecessors of the activity
that must be completed before the activity begins. We need a list of all the
activities that make up the project. The project is considered complete when
all the activities have been completed

4.1.1: CPM Limitations

CPM was developed for complex but fairly routine projects with minimal
uncertainty in the project completion times. For less routine projects there is
more uncertainty in the completion times, and this uncertainty limits the
usefulness of the deterministic CPM model. An alternative to CPM is the
PERT project planning model, which allows a range of durations to be

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specified for each activity. CPM is a deterministic method that uses a fixed
time estimate for each activity. While CPM is easy to understand and use, it
does not consider the time variations that can have a great impact on the
completion time of a complex project.

SESSION 4.3:
1.

TERMINOLOGIES

Activity: This is a task or job of work, which takes or consumes time

and resources. For example, Build a wall, Dig foundations for a building,
Verify the names of debtors in a sales ledger, etc.
An activity is represented in a network by an arrow as shown

The tail of the arrow indicates where the task begins, and the head where the
task ends. The arrow points from left to right and it is not drawn to scale.
2.

Event: This is a point in time and indicates the start or finish of an

activity or activities. An event is represented in a network by a circle or node

as shown
3. Dummy activity: This is an activity, which does not consume time or
resources. It is used to merely show clear, logical dependencies between
activities so as not to violets the rules for drawing networks. It is represented
in a network by dotted arrow thus.
4. Network: This is the combination of activities, dummy activities and
events in logical sequence according to the rules for drawing networks. Thus a
small network might appear as shown below.

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Use of rectangles
4

6 10
B

1 11

0 4 4
A
0 0

11 3 14
D
11 0 14

4
4

7 11
C

0 11

Use of circles

Note: The circles/rectangles are divided into sectors as

Early Start Time

EST

Early Completion Time

DURATION

ECT

ACTIVITY NAME

LST

Late Start Time

FLOAT

LCT

Late Completion Time

shown.

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Early Start Time

(EST)

Duration

Early Completion
Time (ECT)

Activity Description
Latest Start Time
(LST)

Float

Latest
Completion Time
(LCT)

Note: In a project, an activity is a task that must be performed and an event is

a milestone marking the completion of one or more activities. Before an
activity can begin, all of its predecessor activities must be completed. Project
network models represent activities and milestones by arcs and nodes.
SESSION 4.4: NOTATIONS FOR DRAWING NETWORK DIAGRAMS
A network diagram is a graphical representation of the entire project. Each
activity in the project is represented by a circle (node) or rectangle. Arrows are
used to indicate sequencing requirements.

There are two main notations used in network diagrams. The first is arrow
diagram notation where each activity is represented by an arrow (or a line)
joining two circles (or nodes). The nodes represent transitions between
activities, which are referred to as events. The duration of the activity is
written against the arrow representing the activity. This type of representation
is called Activity on Arc (AOA). The diagram below shows activity A in an
arrow diagram. The duration of A being 4 days. The nodes are numbered
beginning from the start node and then move from left to right.

A
4

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The second notation is the Activity on Node (AON) diagram notation. Here
each activity is represented by a circle (or node) and the arcs(lines) represent
the events which are the transitions between activities. The duration of the
activity is written against the arrow emerging from its node (circle). The
diagram below shows activity A in AON notation, which has two successors,
B and C. The name of the activity is written in the node(circle) in this case.

AA

The following rules are used when drawing network diagrams:

i.

Node 1 represents the start of the project. An arc or arcs should

lead from node 1 to represent such activity that has no predecessor.
A network has only one start node.

ii.

A node (called the finish node) representing the completion of

the project should be included in the network. A network has only
one finish node.

iii.

Number the nodes in the network so that the node representing the
completion of an activity always has a larger number than the node
representing the beginning of an activity. (There may be more than
one numbering scheme)

iv.

An activity should not be represented by more than one arc in the

network

v.

Two nodes can be connected by at most one arc. That is activities

should not share the same start node (tail event) and finish
node (head event).

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vi.

Every activity must have one preceding event (tail event) and one
succeeding event(head event).

Note that

1. Many activities may use the same start node (tail event).

Start node

2. Many activities may use the same finish node (head event)

Finish node

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Illustrations - 1
(1). Suppose activity A is a predecessor of activity B, then we have:

AOA
A

AON

Illustrations - 2
2. Suppose activity A and B must be completed before
activity C can begin and that A and B do not start
at the same time but are performed simultaneously
AOA

AON
1

A
C
3

A
4

B
2

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Illustrations - 3
3. Suppose activity A is a predecessor of activities B and C.
( B and C start from the same start node).

AOA

AON
B

A
1

A
C
C

SESSION 4.5:

CONSTRUCTING NETWORK DIAGRAMS

The first stage in constructing a network diagram for a project is to consult

with the technical experts and summarise the information that they provide in
a table, as in the following simple example.
Activity

Predecessors

Duration

None

4 months

None

3 months

2 months

A, B

4 months

The predecessors impose constraints on the project: C cannot begin until A

has been completed, whereas D cannot begin until both A and B have been
completed.

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There are two types of network that we can draw for this project:
1. Activity-on-arrow (AOA)

The Dummy Activity (shown by the dotted line) is needed in the AOA
network to show the predecessors correctly, i.e. that D depends on both A and
B, but C depends only on A. AOA networks often need several dummy
activities. AON networks do not need dummy activities.

2. Activity-on-node (AON)

Which type of network is better? Students often find AON networks a little
easier to draw, and this can seem like a big advantage when doing it for the
first time. However, some of the more advanced types of network analysis are
best done using an AOA network. Every well educated student should be able
to draw and analyse either, so that they are never thrown into confusion if they
come across the one they havent learnt to use. For people in employment, if
your boss has a preference, then thats the one to use.

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SESSION 4.6:

ACTIVITY ON NODE (AON) DIADRAMS

Data below will be used to illustrate the drawing of AON diagram

Example 1: Draw a network diagram using the following data.

Activity

Preceding activity

Duration

B, C

Step 1: Since activity A does not have any predecessor, it uses the first
node as shown

Activity Preceding activity Duration

B, C

Note 1: Node 1 represents the start of the project. An arc or arcs should lead
from node 1 to represent such activity that has no predecessor. A network has
only one start node.

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Step 2: From activity A, move to activities B, and C

B
Activity Preceding activity Duration

B, C

Step 3: From activities B and C, move to activity D

B
Activity Preceding activity Duration

B, C

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SESSION 4.7:

CRITICAL PATH

The critical path of a network gives the shortest time in which the whole
project can be completed. It is the chain of activities with the longest duration
times.

Certain activities are critical to the on-line completion of the project. For
example, if you are planning a dinner party and spend all your time setting the
table and forget to put the main dish in the oven, the dinner will be late. This
also means that other activities have float or slack time (time to spare)
available such as laying the table

From the network diagram, the paths are:

1. A through C to D (4 + 6 + 3 = 13)
2. A through B to D (4 + 7 + 3 = 14)
The longer of this is A through C to D. Therefore, the critical path is: A
through C to D

SESSION 4.8:

EARLY TIMES

The Early Start Time (EST) is the earliest time at which the event
corresponding to node i can occur Calculations begin from the start node and
move to the finish node. At each node a number is computed representing
the Earliest Start Time (EST).

Note:
1. Let ESTi be the earliest start time of event i. If i=1 is the start event time of
event i, then ESTi 0 . That is, the EST of the first activity in any network
diagram is zero (0)

2. Let D be the duration of activity i. Then the Early Times calculations are
i
obtained from the formula: EST j Max( ESTi )
That is the EST of any activity is equal to the maximum of the ECT of the
preceding activities.

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3. ECTi ESTi Di . That is the ECT of any activity is equal to its EST plus
its duration.

4. The process of computing the Early Times is called Forward Pass.

The computations are shown in the diagram below.

EARLY TIMES

4 6
B

0 4
A

11 3

14

4 7
C

SESSION 4.9:

10

11

LATE TIMES

The Late Completion Time (LCT) for node i represented by LCTi is the latest
time at which the event corresponding to node i can occur without delaying
the completing of the project. Calculations begin from the finish node and
move to the start node. At each node a number is computed representing the
Latest Completion Time (LCT) the corresponding event.

Note:
1. LCTFinishNode ECTFinishNode . That is LCT of the last activity in a network
diagram is equal to the ECT of the last activity.

87

2. LCTi Min( LST j ) . That is the smallest of the earliest start times for all
activities that immediately follow the activity.

3. LSTi LSTi Di . That is the LST of any activity is equal to its LCT
minus its duration.

4. The process of computing the Late Times is called Back Pass.

The computations are shown in the diagram below.

Late Times

4 6 10
B
5 1 11
11 3

0 4 4
A
0 0 4

14

D
11 0 14
4 7 11
C
4 0 11

SESSION 4.10:

FLOAT

Float (spare time or slack time) is the amount of time a path of activities could
be delayed without delaying the overall project. A float can only be associated
with activities, which are non-critical. By definition, activities on the critical
path cannot have a float (spare time). In other words, the float for an activity is
the difference between the maximum time available for that activity and the
duration of that activity. The float for an activity with given by:
Float = Latest Start Time Earliest Start Time (F= LST EST ) or (LCTECT)

88

Example 1
Activity

Preceding activity

Duration

A
B
C
D
E
F

None
A
A
B
C
D,E

1
2
3
4
1
2

1 2

3 4

1 0

D
3 0

0 1

A
0 0

Activity

Preceding
activity

Duration

None

D,E

1 3

7 2

F
7 0

4 1

C
3 3

6 1

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EXAMPLE 2
Activity

Preceding activity

Duration

A
B
C
D
E
F

A
A
B,C
D,E

8
12
9
13
9
12

Solution
0 8

13

A
0 0

0 0

13 5

8 9

O
0 0

D
8

21

26

17

26

C
0

8 0

0 12 12

17

17

26 0

9 26
E

17

38

B
5 5

12

17

90

0 26

38

SESSION 4.11:

PROJECT TIME REDUCTION

One important aspect of project management is looking at ways of reducing

the overall project time at an acceptable cost. Reducing or shortening the
duration of an activity is known as crushing in the CPM terminology. The
normal duration of a project incurs a given cost and by employing more
labour, working overtime, more equipment, etc, the duration could be reduced
but at the expense of higher costs. Since some ways of reducing the project
duration will be cheaper than others, network time/cost analysis seeks to find
the cheapest way of reducing the overall duration. A common feature of many
projects is a penalty clause for delayed completion and or bonus for earlier
completion. Thus, project managers take these into consideration whenever
undertaking any project.
We use a network technique known as Critical Path Method (CPM) to enable
us to look at the order of activities in a project and to plan the time involved.
CPM can be thought of as an application of graph theory. The main objectives
of CPM are:
i.

To locate the critical activities.

ii.

To allocate the time of the other activities to obtain the most

efficient use of labour and resources.

iii.

To consider ways of reducing the total project time by speeding up

the activities on the critical path while monitoring the overall
project to ensure that the critical activities remain critical.

There may be more than one critical path in a network and it is possible for the
critical path to run through a dummy activity. The critical calculation involves
two phases:

1. Crashing: Reducing the duration of a project/activity at a minimum

cost. Before we proceed, let us look at the following terminologies.

91

2. Normal Cost: The cost associated with a normal time estimate for an
activity. Often, the normal time estimate is set at the point where
resources are used in the most efficient manner.

3. Crash Cost: The cost associated with the minimum possible time for
an activity. Crash costs, because of extra wages, overtime premiums,
extra facility costs, are always higher than the normal cost.

4. Crash Duration/Time: The minimum time that an activity is planned

to take. The minimum time is invariably brought about by the
application of extra resources, for example, more labour or machinery.

5. Cost Slope: This is the average cost of shortening an activity by one

time unit(day, week, month as appropriate). The cost slope is generally
assumed to be linear and is calculated as follows:
Cost slope = Crash cost Normal cost = Increase in cost
Normal time Crash time
Decrease in time

Illustration 1: Activity A has the following information:

Normal time and cost: 12 days @ $480
Crash time and cost: 8 days @ $640
Cost slope = Crash cost Normal cost = Increase in cost= 640 480= $40/day
Normal time Crash time Decrease in time 12 - 8
Illustration 2: The table below shows the data for a simple project
Activity Preceding Normal
Crash
Normal cost Crash
activity

time

time

None

None

D
E

Cost

cost

slope

360

460

60

300

510

70

170

270

50

220

300

40

B,C

200

360

80

92

0 4

A
0 0

0 0

D
4

4 5

START
0 0

14

14

4 0

0 8

1 1

14

FINISH
9

14 0

14

5 14
E

13

0 14

Normal project duration = critical path: 1 2 3 4 ( i.e.

activities A, C, and E)

= 4+5+5=14 days.

OR the LCT of the Finish node can be use: LCT = !4( see network diagram)

Normal Project Cost =Cost of all activities at normal time

=360+300+170+220+200 =$1250

Steps for crashing

1. Draw the network diagram for the project.
2. Determine the critical activities.
3. Calculate the cost slopes for the critical activities.

Note:
1. Only critical activities are crashed in order to reduce the project
duration.
2. An activity cannot be crashed beyond its crash duration

93

Illustration.

Crashing:-Example 1
Activity

Pre
Normal
activity
time

Crash
time

Normal
cost

Crash
cost

None

360

460

None

300

510

170

270

220

300

B,C

200

360

D, E

200

250

Step 1: Draw the network diagram

0 4

A
0 0

0 0

4 5

O
0 0

D
4

13

14

14

C
0

4 0

0 8

14 0

5 14

0 14

B
1 1

16

Step 2: Determine the critical activities. These are A, C, E and F

94

16

Step 3: Calculate the cost slopes for the critical activities

Activity

Pre

Normal

Crash

activity

time

time

A**

None

None

C**

Normal cost

Crash

Cost

cost

slope

360

460

100

300

510

170

270

220

300

E**

B,C

200

360

80

F**

D, E

200

250

50

50

Now suppose we want to crash the project by 5 days(that is finish the project
in 11 days instead of the 16 days), what will be the cost of the project within
this time?
1. The normal project completion time is 16 days(LCT = 16)
2. The cost of completing the project in 16 days is $1450.00
(360+300+170+220+200+200)
3. Crashing is done as follows;
i.

Crash activity C by 2 days = $50 *2= $100.00

ii.

Crash activity F by 1 day = $50*1 = $50.00

iii.

Crash activity E by 2 days = $80*2=$160.00

iv.

Total cost of crashing =$310.00(100+50+160)

v.

Total cost of completing the project in 11 days

=$1780.00(Normal cost of project + cost of crashing by 5
days). That is 1450 + 310

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SESSION 4.12:

ACTIVITY ON ARC (AOA) DIAGRAMS

The table will be used to demonstrate the drawing of AOA diagrams

Activity

Predecessors

Duration

None

4 months

None

3 months

2 months

A, B

4 months

The network diagram for the above table is shown below:

The dummy activity (shown by the dotted line) is needed in the AOA
network to show the predecessors correctly, i.e. that D depends on both A and
B, but C depends only on A. AOA networks often need several dummy
activities. AON networks do not need dummy activities.

1. Critical Activities
An activity is said to be critical if its duration cannot be extended without
delaying the completion of the project.

Notice that there are three paths through the network:

96

Path
Length

A-C

B-D A-D

The duration of the project is determined by the longest path - D cannot begin
until A has been completed. The critical activities are those which lie on a
longest path through the network - here A and D are critical. Any extension or
delay in a critical activity will make such a path longer still, thereby delaying
completion of the project. A longest path through a network is called a critical
path. On the diagram the critical path is shown in red.

2. Floats
In the simple network below the critical path is shown in red.

Any activity that is not a critical activity can be extended or delayed by a

certain amount without delaying the completion of the project. For example,
activity C should start after 4 months and be finished after 6 months.
However, the finish could be delayed by 2 months, i.e. until the end of month
8, without affecting the completion time of the project as a whole. We say
that activity C has a total float of 2 weeks.
The Total Float of an activity is the amount of time by which it may be
extended or delayed without delaying completion of the project, assuming no
extension or delay in any other activity. A critical activity can be defined as
one which has a total float of zero.
There are two other types of float that are sometimes used. To understand
these, suppose the durations are changed in the example above. The critical

97

path is now A-C of duration 8 months, B now has a total float of 2 and D has a
total float of 1.

The Free Float of an activity takes into consideration the effect on subsequent
activities of a delay. If B is delayed by 2 months it removes the spare time
that was available for D, since if D was now also delayed by 1 the total project
duration would extend to 9 months. However, B can be delayed by 1 month
without reducing the spare time for any subsequent activity. Therefore, B has a
free float of 1 month. D also has a free float of 1.
The Independent Float of an activity is calculated assuming the worst
circumstances, i.e. the activity's predecessors finish at their latest times and we
want subsequent activities to begin at their earliest times. If this is possible,
and there is still time to spare, then this is called independent float. The free
float of 1 month for B is also an independent float. However, assuming the
worst scenario in which B is delayed by 2 months then D cannot be delayed at
all. Hence D has an independent float of 0.

98

Example 2.

Draw a network diagram using AOA

Activity

Preceding activity

Duration

A
B
C
D
E
F

None
A
A
B
C
D,E

1
2
3
4
1
2

Network diagram-AOA
3
3
B

3
2

0
0

D
4

2
1

1
E
3

5
4

99

F
2

9
9

EXAMPLE 2
Task

Description

Order/Logic

Time

Plan Primary Research

To be completed first

1 wks

Prepare Mail Shot (Postal Survey)

Start when A is complete

3 wks

Prepare Questionnaire

Start when A is complete

2 wks

Send and Wait for Mail Shot Replies

Start when B is complete

3 wks

Issue Questionnaire

Start when C is complete

3 wks

Compile and Analyze Results

Start when D & E is complete

2 wks

Plan Selling Campaign

Start when D, E & F is

complete

2 wks

EXAMPLE 3

100

SESSION 4.13: PROGRAM EVALUATION AND REVIEW

TECHNIQUE(PERT)
The Program Evaluation and Review Technique commonly abbreviated
PERT is a model for project management invented by United States
Department of Defense's US Navy Special Projects Office in 1958 as part of
the Polaris mobile submarine-launched ballistic missile project. This project
was a direct response to the Sputnik crisis.
PERT is basically a method for analyzing the tasks involved in completing a
given project, especially the time needed to complete each task, and
identifying the minimum time needed to complete the total project. It was able
to incorporate uncertainty in the sense that it was possible to schedule a
project not knowing precisely the details and durations of all the activities. It is
more of an event-oriented technique rather than start- and completionoriented. This technique is used more in R&D-type projects where Cost is not
a major factor but Time is.
The Program Evaluation and Review Technique (PERT) is a network model
that allows for randomness in activity completion times. It has the potential to
reduce both the time and cost required to complete a project.
PERT originally was an activity on arc network, in which the activities are
represented on the lines and milestones on the nodes. Over time, some people
began to use PERT as an activity on node network. For this discussion, we will
use the original form of activity on node.
A distinguishing feature of PERT is its ability to deal with uncertainty in
activity completion times. For each activity, the model usually includes three
time estimates:

Optimistic time - generally the shortest time in which the activity can
be completed. It is common practice to specify optimistic times to be
three standard deviations from the mean so that there is approximately
a 1% chance that the activity will be completed within the optimistic
time.

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Most likely time - the completion time having the highest probability.
Note that this time is different from the expected time.

Pessimistic time - the longest time that an activity might require. Three
standard deviations from the mean is commonly used for the
pessimistic time.

PERT assumes a beta probability distribution for the time estimates. For a beta
distribution, the expected time for each activity can be approximated using the
following weighted average:
Expected time = ( Optimistic + 4 x Most likely + Pessimistic ) / 6
This expected time may be displayed on the network diagram.
To calculate the variance for each activity completion time, if three standard
deviation times were selected for the optimistic and pessimistic times, then
there are six standard deviations between them, so the variance is given by:
[ ( Pessimistic - Optimistic ) / 6 ]2

4.13.1: Benefits Of PERT

PERT is useful because it provides the following information:

Expected project completion time.

Probability of completion before a specified date.

The critical path activities that directly impact the completion time.

The activities that have slack time and that can lend resources to
critical path activities.

Activity start and end dates.

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4.13.2: Limitations
The following are some of PERT's weaknesses:

The activity time estimates are somewhat subjective and depend on

judgement. In cases where there is little experience in performing an
activity, the numbers may be only a guess. In other cases, if the person
or group performing the activity estimates the time there may be bias
in the estimate.

Even if the activity times are well-estimated, PERT assumes a beta

distribution for these time estimates, but the actual distribution may be
different.

Even if the beta distribution assumption holds, PERT assumes that the
probability distribution of the project completion time is the same as
the that of the critical path. Because other paths can become the critical
path if their associated activities are delayed, PERT consistently
underestimates the expected project completion time.

The underestimation of the project completion time due to alternate paths

becoming critical is perhaps the most serious of these issues. To overcome this
limitation, Monte Carlo simulations can be performed on the network to
eliminate this optimistic bias in the expected project completion time.

4.13.3: Terminology

A PERT event: is a point that marks the start or completion of one (or
more) tasks. It consumes no time, and uses no resources.

A PERT event that marks the completion of one (or more) tasks is not
reached until all of the activities leading to that event have been
completed.

A predecessor event: an event (or events) that immediately precedes

some other event without any other events intervening. It may be the
consequence of more than one activity.

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A successor event: an event (or events) that immediately follows some

other event without any other events intervening. It may be the
consequence of more than one activity.

A PERT activity: is the actual performance of a task. It consumes time,

it requires resources (such as labour, materials, space, machinery), and
it can be understood as representing the time, effort, and resources
required to move from one event to another. A PERT activity cannot
be completed until the event preceding it has occurred.

Optimistic time (O): the minimum possible time required to

accomplish a task, assuming everything proceeds better than is
normally expected

Pessimistic time (P): the maximum possible time required to

accomplish a task, assuming everything goes wrong (but excluding
major catastrophes).

Most likely time (M): the best estimate of the time required to
accomplish a task, assuming everything proceeds as normal.

Expected time (TE): the best estimate of the time required to

accomplish a task, assuming everything proceeds as normal (the
implication being that the expected time is the average time the task
would require if the task were repeated on a number of occasions over
an extended period of time).
TE = (O + 4M + P) 6

Critical Path: the longest pathway taken from the initial event to the
terminal event. It determines the total calendar time required for the
project; and, therefore, any time delays along the critical path will
delay the reaching of the terminal event by at least the same amount.

Lead time: the time by which a predecessor event must be completed

in order to allow sufficient time for the activities that must elapse
before a specific PERT event is reached to be completed.

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Lag time: the earliest time by which a successor event can follow a
specific PERT event.

Slack: the slack of an event is a measure of the excess time and

resources available in achieving this event. Positive slack would
indicate ahead of schedule; negative slack would indicate behind
schedule; and zero slack would indicate on schedule

4.13.4: Steps In The PERT Planning Process

PERT planning involves the following steps:
1. Identify the specific activities and milestones.
2. Determine the proper sequence of the activities.
3. Construct a network diagram.
4. Estimate the time required for each activity.
5. Determine the critical path.
6.

Update the PERT chart as the project progresses.

Illustrative Example
The following represents a project that should be scheduled using PERT

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Time estimates

Activity

1.

Predecessors
a

10

22

28

10

14

C,D

C,D

E,F

Calculate the expected time for each activity. This is given as

follows: E (t )

a 4m b
. Use the expected times to draw the
6

network diagram
2.

Determine the critical path. Using the expected times, a critical

path is calculated in the same manner as in the single time estimate

3.

Calculate the variance( 2) for the activity time: Specifically, this is

the variance associated with each E(t) and is computed using the

ba
formula below: 2

6
4.

Determine the probability of completing the project on a given

date. A valuable feature of using three time estimates is that it
enables the analyst to assess the effect of uncertainty on project
completion time. The mechanics of deriving the probability are as
follows:

i.

Sum the variance values associated with each activity.

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ii.

Substitute this figure along with the project due date and the project
expected completion time into the transformation formula. This
formula is: z

D E (t )

2
cc

Where:
D = Desired completion date for the project
E(t) = Expected completion date for the project
2cc = Sum of variances along the critical path.
iii.

Calculate the value of Z, which is the number of standard deviations

the project date is from the expected completion time.

iv.

Using the value of Z, find the probability of meeting the project due
date(using a table of normal probabilities)
Time estimates

Expected Time

E (t )
Activity Predecessor

a 4m b
6

Activity Variance

ba
2

10

22

28

21

10

14

C,D

C,D

1
9

E,F

107

2
9

1
9
1

7
9

Since there are two critical paths in the network(the above example), we must
decide which variances to use in arriving at the probability of meeting the
project due date. A conservative approach dictates using the path with the
largest variance since this would focus managements attention on the
activities most likely to exhibit broad variations. On this basis, the variances
associated activities A, C, F, and G would be used to find the probability of
completion. Thus:

2 1
9 2 0 11.89
9 9

Suppose management asks for the probability of completing the project in 35

weeks, then D = 35. The expected completion time was found to be 38.
Substituting these values in Z, we have:

D E (t )

2 cc

35 38
11.89

0.87

Using a table of normal probabilities, we see that a Z value of 0.87 yields a

probability of 0.19, which means that the project manager has only 19%
chance of completing the project in 35 weeks.

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SELF ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

QUESTION 1
The table below shows data for a simple project.
ACTIVITY

PRECEDING

DURATION

COST

ACTIVITY

CRASH

COST

DURATION

100

200

120

160

10

400

1000

300

700

11

200

10

250

400

800

D, E, F

300

300

i.

Draw a network diagram for the project above.

ii.

Find the critical path.

iii.

Find the normal duration time of the project.

iv.

Find the cost associated with the normal duration time.

v.

Find the cost associated with crashing for three. days

QUESTION 2
The table below shows data for a simple project.
Activity
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
i.

Preceding
Normal
Normal
Crash
activity
duration
cost
duration
3
1200
2
2
1250
1
A
6
1000
4
A
5
1500
3
C, D
5
1800
4
B ,D
3
500
1
F
2
500
1
Draw a Network diagram for the project using (a) Activity on arc
notation (AOA) and (b) activity on node notation (AON)

ii.

Find the critical path.

i.

Find the normal duration time of the project.

ii.

Find the cost associated with the normal duration time.

iii.

Find the shortest possible completion time of the project.

vi.

Find the cost associated with the shortest possible completion time

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Crash
cost
1500
1300
1800
2800
3000
1000
1000

QUESTION 3
The table below gives data for a simple project
Activity

Preceding

Normal

Normal

Crash

Crash

activity

duration

cost

duration

cost

25

37

16

16

35

75

A,C

49

95

B,C

60

130

D ,E

41

76

E ,F

23

45

40

65

i.

Calculate and state the critical path(s) and the cost of completion in
the normal time

ii.

Calculate and state the critical path(s) and the cost of completion in
the crash time

iii.

Calculate and state the minimum cost of completion and associated

critical path(s).

QUESTION 4
The table below gives data for a simple project
Activity

i.

Preceding

Normal

Normal

Crash

Crash

activity

duration

cost

duration

cost

100

200

150

350

50

90

10

100

400

100

200

C,E

80

100

Draw a Network diagram for the project using activity on node

notation (AON)

ii.

Find the critical path.

110

iii.

Find the normal duration time of the project.

iv.

Find the cost associated with the normal duration time.

v.

Find the shortest possible completion time of the project.

vi.

Find the cost associated with the shortest possible completion.

QUESTION 5
The Ressembler Group is looking at the possible test launch of a new type of
picture frame called Dale. The main activities have been identified. Times
estimated in weeks and costs estimated in dollars are shown below.

.Activity Preceding
Activity

NORMAL
CRASH
Time
Cost ($)
Time
Cost ($)
(weeks)
(weeks)
A
4
10,000
2
11,000
B
A
3
6,000
2
9,000
C
A
2
4,000
1
6,000
D
B
5
14,000
3
18,000
E
B, C
1
9,000
1
9,000
F
C
3
7,000
2
8,000
G
E,F
4
13,000
2
25,000
H
D,E
4
11,000
1
18,000
I
H, G
6
20,000
5
29,000
(a)Draw the network for this project.(Use AOA notation)
i.

State the critical path and critical activities

ii.

Find the normal project time.

iii.

Find the normal project cost.

(b). The project director decides to shorten the project duration by three (3)
weeks.
i.

What activities should be crushed?

ii.

What will be the total cost of the project in this time?

QUESTION 6
A manufacturing concern has received a special order for a number of units of
a special product that consists of two components parts: X and Y. The product
is a nonstandard item that the firm has never produced before, and scheduling
personnel have decided that the application of CPM is warranted. A team of
manufacturing engineers has prepared the following table.

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Activity Description

Predecessors

Expected Time(days)

Plan production

Procure materials for part X

14

Manufacture part X

Procure materials for part Y

15

Manufacture part Y

10

Assemble parts X and Y

C, E

Inspect assemblies

Completed

i.

Construct a graphic representation of the data above

ii.

Identify the critical path

iii.

What is the length of time to complete the project?

iv.

Find the floats

v.

Find the possible number of days by which the project duration can
be reduced and state the activities that need to be reduced.

QUESTION 7
The following represents a project that should be scheduled using PERT
Activity

Immediate

Time(Days)

predecessor(s)

11

C,D

D,E

F,G

a.

Draw the network diagram

b.

What is the critical path?

c.

What is the expected project completion time?

d.

What is the probability of completing the project within 16

days?

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QUESTION 8
The table below represents a plan for a project
Job No.
1

Immediate
predecessor(s)
-

a
2

Time(Days)
m
3

b
4

12

11

5,6

10

11

9 ,10

a. construct an appropriate network diagram

b. Indicate the critical path
c. What is the expected completion time for the project?

113