ChE 31
INTRODUCTION TO
CHEMICAL ENGINEERING
2nd sem. 2013-2014
Prepared by: CGAlfafara
Edited by: JACapunitan
PROCESS VARIABLES PART 2
PRESSURE
hydrostatic pressure
absolute pressure, gauge pressure and atmospheric pressure
barometric pressure
standard atmospheric pressure
vacuum pressure
manometers
PRESSURE
* Pressure = Force/Area
SI units = N/m2 = Pascal (Pa)
Other Units: lbf/in2 (psi), dyne/cm2
Physical Interpretations of Pressure
* Fluid Pressure = F/A = minimum force exerted on a frictionless plug in the
hole to keep the fluid from emerging
PRESSURE
Hydrostatic Pressure = pressure of the fluid at the base of a column
PRESSURE ON A STATIC (non-moving) COLUMN OF FLUID OF HEIGHT, h
Pressure at the
base of a column
of liquid
pressure at
the top
hydrostatic
pressure
P P0 g h
PRESSURE
In engineering practice, pressure is sometimes expressed as the head of a particular fluid.
Head of a fluid is the height of a hypothetical column of a fluid that would exert the
given pressure at the base if the pressure at the top were zero.
P P0 g h
P 0 0
P gh
P
h head of fluid
Practice Problems
Express a pressure of 2.00 x 105 Pa in terms of
mmHg. Density of mercury is13,600 kg/m3.
What is the pressure 30.0 m below the surface
of a lake? Atmospheric pressure at the surface
of the lake is 10.4 mH2O and the density of
H2O is 1,000 kg/m3. g=9.807 m/s2; 1
atm=1.035 x 105 N/m2 = 10.33 mH2O.
ABSOLUTE & GAUGE PRESSURES
Pressure can be expressed by either absolute or relative scales.
Absolute Pressure: pressure measured relative to a fixed reference point of zero
pressure, (in a vacuum).
Gauge Pressure: pressure measured relative to the atmosphere. (usually measured by
most pressure measurement devices).
Whether relative or absolute pressure is measured in a pressure measuring device depends on
the nature of the instrument used to make the measurements.
air
Open ended manometer
-open end exposed to atmosphere (Po = atmosheric pressure)
h =10 cm Hg
N2
(reference for the open end is pressure of air (atmosphere)
- Measured pressure is relative pressure or gauge pressure
vacuum
h =86 cm Hg
Sealed end manometer
-sealed end is under vacuum (Po=0)
N2
(reference is complete vaccum where pressure = 0)
-measured pressure reading is absolute pressure
Pressure reading in an open-ended manometer is less than a (vacuum) sealed-end manometer..
Why?
Absolute Pressure: pressure measured relative to a fixed reference point of zero pressure,
in a vaccuum).
Gauge Pressure:
pressure measured relative to the atmosphere pressure.
(many pressure measurement devices measure only gauge pressure).
The relationship for converting between absolute pressure and gauge pressure is
Pabs Pgauge Patm
Value of Atmospheric pressure (Patmospheric)
- can vary with location, weather conditions and other factors
- can be thought of as the pressure at the base of a column of fluid (air) located at
the point of measurement (example, at sea level) (see figure below)
Actual Atmospheric pressure can be measured from a barometer (also called barometric pressure)
vacuum
Patm or Hatm
open to
atmosphere
Barometer measuring atmospheric
pressure
(Fluid usually water or mercury)
Absolute pressure is based on a complete vaccuum as reference, which is fixed and unchanged regardless of
location, weather or other factors.
Therefore, absolute pressure established a precise, invariable value that can be readily identified.
Relative pressure or gauge pressure is based on atmospheric pressure as reference, which varies with location,
weather and other conditions.
Therefore, when calculating absolute pressure from gauge pressure readings, the barometric pressure must
be noted.
Pabsolute = Pgauge + Patmospheric (measured by barometer)
In chemical engineering problems where the barometric pressure is not given, the value of Patmospheric may
be assumed as the value of standard atmospheric pressure.
HOWEVER, when using standard atmospheric pressure, one must always keep in mind, that this is an
assumption.
The values of standard atmospheric pressure in different units:
1.000
atmosphere (atm)
29.92
inches Hg
760.0
mm Hg
33.91
ft H2O
101.3
kPa
14.7
psi (lbf/ft2)
1.013 x 105
Pa
*** Values of standard atmospheric pressure can be used as conversion factors to convert pressure units
Pabsolute = Pgauge + Patmospheric
SUMMARY ON COMPUTATION OF ABSOLUTE PRESSURE FROM GAUGE PRESSURE IN CHEMICAL
ENGINEERING PROBLEMS
Ideally, the actual atmospheric pressure (obtained from a barometer reading, for example) is used to
calculate absolute pressure from above equation.
However, if the barometric pressure is not given, the value of standard atmospheric pressure could be
used as an assumption.
Other Notes
(a) If the pressure units are in psi, absolute P and gauge P are designated psia and psig, respectively.
(b) Vacuum pressure (absolute pressures < atmospheric) can be referred to as
negative gauge pressure or positive vacuum pressure.
example: - 1cm gauge pressure = +1cm vacuum pressure
If Pg= - 1 cm Hg,
Pabsolute= 76cm-1cm=75cm Hg
Practice Problem
The gauge pressure of a gas is -20 mmHg at a point where
atmospheric pressure is 755 mmHg. What is the absolute
pressure? What is the vacuum gauge pressure?
The pressure gauge on a tank of carbon dioxide used to fill
soda-water bottles reads 51.0 psi. At the same time, the
barometer reads 28 inHg. What is the absolute pressure in
psi?
FLUID PRESSURE MEASUREMENT
According to Perrys Chemical Engineers Handbook, pressure measurement devices may be
classified as:
(1) Elastic-element methods: example, Bordon tube
(2) Liquid-column methods: example, manometer
(3) Electrical methods: piezoelectric transducers, etc
Bordon Gauge
- hollow tube closed at one end and bent into a C-configuration
- open end is exposed to fluid to be measured
- as pressure increases or decreases, the tube tends to straighten or
curl, causing a pointer attached to a tube to rotate
- the position of the pointer on a calibrated dial gives the gauge
pressure of the fluid
- can measure fluid pressures from near vacuum to 700 atm
FLUID PRESSURE MEASUREMENT
Manometer
-used for more accurate measurement of pressures below 3 atm.
- U-shaped tube partially filled with a fluid of known density (manometer fluid)
- both ends of the tube are exposed to different pressures causing differences in
the level of the manometer fluid in both arms.
- the differences between pressures can be calculated from the measured
difference between the liquid levels of each arm.
FLUID PRESSURE MEASUREMENT
Manometer Types:
(1) Open-end manometer
- one end exposed to the fluid whose pressure is to be measured
- other end open to atmosphere
(2) Differential manometer
used to measure pressure differences between 2 points in a process
line
(3) Sealed-end manometer
-one end exposed to the fluid whose pressure is to be measured.
- other end is near vacuum.
(some of the enclosed fluid will vaporize in the empty space, and
prevents the existence of a perfect vacuum.)
Barometer: unsealed end of the manometer is exposed to atmosphere.
GENERAL MANOMETER EQUATION
General Manometer Equation
- A formula that relates the pressure difference (P =P1-P2) to the difference in the fluid levels (h)
- Based on the principle that the fluid pressure must be the same at any two points at the same height in a
continuous fluid. (in particular, the pressure at the height of the lower surface of a manometer fluid is
the same in both arms of the manometer)
At points A and B:
Pressure at A = Pressure at B
P1 1gd 1 P2 2 gd 2 f gh
Differential Manometer Equation
Fluids 1 and 2 are usually the same so that 1=2=
P1 P2 f g h
At points A and B:
Pressure at A = Pressure at B
P1 1gd 1 P2 2 gd 2 f gh
If either fluid 1 or fluid 2 is a gas at moderate pressure (i.e., on arm open to the atmosphere), the density
of the gas is 100 to 1,000 times lower than the density of the manometer fluid
Therefore the corresponding gd terms may be neglected
Manometer Formula for Gases
If both fluids are gases, then
Pressure difference (P) can also expressed as
head of manometer fluid
P1 P2 f gh
P f gh
1
P P1 P2
h
f g
Manometer Formula for Gases
P1 P2 f gh
P f gh
If both fluids are gases, then
Pressure difference (P) can also expressed as
head of manometer fluid
1
P P1 P2
h
f g
If P2 is open to atmosphere
(as in an open
ended manometer)
If P2 is at atmospheric pressure
P1 P2 f gh
An open-end
manometer
P1 Patm f gh
provides a direct
reading of ther
gauge pressure of a
Pgauge
f g
Pgauge
Pgauge f gh
gas
Manometer Formula for Gases
P1 P2 f gh
P f gh
If both fluids are gases, then
Pressure difference (P) can also expressed as
head of manometer fluid
1
P P1 P2
h
f g
If P2 is under vacuum
(as in an sealed
end manometer)
If P2 is at vaccum pressure
P1 P2 f gh
A sealed
end
manometer
P1 0 f gh
provides a direct
reading of the
absolute pressure of
Pabs
f g
Pabs
Pabs f gh
a gas
PROBLEMS
(1) A differential manometer is used to measure the drop in pressure between 2
points in a process line containing water. The specific gravity of the manometer
fluid is 1.05. The measured levels in each arm are shown below. Calculate the
pressure drop between points 1 and 2 in dynes/cm2. (g=980.7 cm/s2, density of
water is 1.00g/cm3)
PROBLEMS
(2) The pressure of gas being pulled through a line by a vacuum pump is
measured with an open end manometer. A reading of -2 inches is obtained.
What is the gauge pressure in inches Hg? What is the absolute pressure if Patm=
30 inches Hg?
CLASS DISMISSED
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