Food irradiation

Cobalt-60 irradiation facility is used to test irradiation as a tool

in the battle for food safety.

A portable, trailer-mounted food irradiation machine, circa

1968

be transmitted without direct contact (radiation) capable

of freeing electrons from their atomic bonds (ionization)
in the targeted food.[1][1][2] This treatment is used to
preserve food, reduce the risk of food borne illness, prevent the spread of invasive pests, and delay or eliminate
sprouting or ripening. Irradiated food does not become
radioactive. The radiation can be emitted by a radioactive
substance or generated electrically.
Irradiation is also used for non-food applications, such as
medical devices.[3]
Although consumer perception of foods treated with irradiation is more negative than those processed by other
means,[4] a large amount of independent research has
conrmed irradiation to be safe.[5][6][7][8][9] One family
of chemicals is uniquely formed by irradiation, and this
product is nontoxic. When irradiating food, all other
chemicals occur in a lower or comparable frequency to
other food processing techniques.[6][7][10][11]

The international Radura logo, used to show a food has been

treated with ionizing radiation.

Food irradiation is permitted by over 60 countries, with

about 500,000 metric tons of food annually processed
Food irradiation is the process of exposing foodstus to worldwide.[12] The regulations that dictate how food is to
ionizing radiation. Ionizing radiation is energy that can be irradiated, as well as the food allowed to be irradiated,
1

3 IMPACT

vary greatly from country to country. In Austria, Germany, and many other countries of the European Union
only dried herbs, spices, and seasonings can be processed
with irradiation and only at a specic dose, while in Brazil
all foods are allowed at any dose.[13][14][15][16][17]

Uses

said, and the doses are eective in reducing the level

of disease-causing micro-organisms. People think the
product is radioactive, said Harlan Clemmons, president of Sadex, a food irradiation company based in Sioux
City, Iowa.[21] Because of these concerns and the increased cost of irradiated foods, there is not a widespread
public demand for the irradiation of foods for human
consumption.[3]

Irradiation is used to reduce or eliminate the risk of food

born illnesses. Depending on the dose, some or all of
the pathogenic organisms, microorganisms, bacteria, and 3 Impact
viruses present are destroyed, slowed down, or rendered
incapable of reproduction. Some foods are irradiated at
sucient doses to ensure that the product is sterilized and Irradiation reduces the risk of infection and spoilage, does
does not add any spoilage or pathogenic microorganisms not make food radioactive, and the food is shown to be
safe, but it does cause chemical reactions that alter the
into the nal product.[1]
food and therefore alters the chemical makeup, nutriIrradiation is used reduce post harvest losses. It reduces tional content, and the sensory qualities of the food.[3]
the pathogens in the food and slows down the speed at Some of the potential secondary impacts of irradiation
which enzymes produced by the food can change the food are hypothetical, while others are demonstrated. These
and therefore slows the spoilage, ripening, and or sprout- eects include cumulative impacts to pathogens, people,
ing of the food.[18]
and the environment due to the reduction of food quality,
Irradiation cannot revert spoiled or over ripened food to the transpiration and storage of radioactive goods, and
a fresh state. If this food was processed by irradiation, destruction of pathogens, changes in the way we relate
spoilage would cease and ripening would slow down, yet to food and how irradiation changes the food production
the irradiation would not destroy the toxins or repair the and shipping industries.
texture, color, or taste of the food.[18]
Food is irradiated to prevent the spread of foreign invasive species across national boundaries. The pests are
sterilized or destroyed when the food is treated by low 3.1 Immediate eects
doses of irradiation. This also allows food to pass quickly
through quarantine and avoid spoilage.[19]
The radiation source supplies energetic particles or
waves. As these waves/particles pass through a target material they collide with other particles. Around the sites
of these collisions chemical bonds are broken, creating
2 Public perception
short lived radicals (e.g. the hydroxyl radical, the hydroIrradiation has been approved by the FDA for over 50 gen atom and solvated electrons). These radicals cause
further chemical changes by bonding with and or stripyears, but the only major growth area for the commercial
sale of irradiated foods for human consumption is fruits ping particles from nearby molecules. When collisions
damage DNA or RNA, eective reproduction becomes
and vegetables that are irradiated to kill insects for the
collisions occur in cells, cell division
purpose of quarantine. In the early 2000s in the US, ir- unlikely, also when [1]
is often suppressed.
radiated meat was common at some grocery stores, but
because of lack of consumer demand it is no longer com- Irradiation (within the accepted energy limits, as 10 MeV
mon. Because consumer demand for irradiated food is for electrons, 5 MeV for X-rays [US 7.5 MeV] and
low, reducing the spoilage between manufacture and con- gamma rays from Cobalt-60) can not make food radioacsumer purchase and reducing the risk of food borne ill- tive, but it does produce radiolytic products, and free radness is currently not sucient incentive for most manu- icals in the food. A few of these products are unique, but
not considered dangerous.[22]
factures to supplement their process with irradiation.[3]
It is widely believed that consumer perception of foods
treated with irradiation is more negative than those processed by other means,[4] although some industry studies indicate the number of consumers concerned about
the safety of irradiated food has decreased in the last 10
years to levels comparable to those of people concerned
about food additives and preservatives.[20] These irradiated foods are not less safe than others, Dr. Tarantino

Irradiation can also alter the nutritional content and avor

of foods, much like cooking.[22] The scale of these chemical changes is not unique. Cooking, smoking, salting, and
other less novel techniques, cause the food to be altered
so drastically that its original nature is almost unrecognizable, and must be called by a dierent name. Storage
of food also causes dramatic chemical changes, ones that
eventually lead to deterioration and spoilage.[23]

3.1
3.1.1

Immediate eects

Misconceptions

higher than the doses used to during irradiation, and taking into account the presence of 2-ACBs along with what
A major concern is that irradiation might cause chemical is known of free radicals, these results lead to the conchanges that are harmful to the consumer. Several na- clusion that there is no signicant risk from radiolytic
tional expert groups and two international expert groups products.[5]
evaluated the available data and concluded that any food
at any dose is wholesome and safe to consume as long as
it remains palatable and maintains its technical properties 3.1.3 Food quality
(e.g. feel, texture, or color).[6][7]
Because of the extent of the chemical reactions, changes
Irradiated food does not become radioactive, just as an
to the foods quality after irradiation are inevitable. The
object exposed to light does not start producing light. Ranutritional contents, as well as the sensory qualities (taste,
dioactivity is the ability of a substance to emit high energy
appearance, and texture) are impacted by irradiation. Irparticles. When particles hit the target materials they may
radiation changes the sensory qualities and reduces the
free other highly energetic particles. This ends shortly
content of some nutrients in foods. Irradiation also imafter the end of the exposure, much like objects stop reproves the shelf stability of some sensory qualities and
ecting light when the source is turned o and warm obnutrients. For these components more of the original
jects emit heat until they cool down but do not continue
taste, texture, appearance, and nutrients get to the nal
to produce their own heat. To modify a material so that
consumer.[25][26][27] The changes in quality and nutrition
it keeps emitting radiation (induce radiation) the atomic
vary greatly from food to food.[18]
cores (nucleus) of the atoms in the target material must
There has been low level gamma irradiation that has
be modied.
been attempted on arugula,[28] spinach,[29] cauliower,[30]
It is impossible for food irradiators to induce radiation
ash gourd,[31] bamboo shoots,[32] coriander, parsley, and
into a product. Irradiators emit electrons or photons and
watercress.[33] There has been limited information, howthe radiation is intrinsically radiated at precisely known
ever, regarding the physical, chemical and/or bioactive
strengths (wavelengths for photons, and speeds for elecproperties and the shelf life on these minimally processed
trons). These radiated particles at these strengths can
vegetables.[27]
never be strong enough to modify the nucleus of the targeted atom in the food, regardless of how many particles Because the nutritional content changes after irradiation
hit the target material, and radioactivity can not be in- food advocacy groups consider labeling irradiated food
raw as misleading.[34] However, the degradation of vitaduced without modifying the nucleus.[22]
mins caused by irradiation is similar or even less than the
loss caused by other food preservation processes. Other
processes like chilling, freezing, drying, and heating also
3.1.2 Chemical changes
result in some vitamin loss.[18]
Compounds known as free radicals form when food is
irradiated. Most of these are oxidizers (i.e., accept electrons) and some react very strongly. According to the
free-radical theory of aging excessive amounts of these
free radicals can lead to cell injury and cell death, which
may contribute to many diseases.[24] However, this generally relates to the free radicals generated in the body, not
the free radicals consumed by the individual, as much of
these are destroyed in the digestive process.

The changes in the avor of fatty foods like meats, nuts

and oils are sometimes noticeable, while the changes in
lean products like fruits and vegetables are less so. Some
studies by the irradiation industry show that for some
properly treated fruits and vegetables irradiation is seen
by consumers to improve the sensory qualities of the
product compared to untreated fruits and vegetables.[18]

Quality Impact on Minimally Processed Vegetables

Free-radical theory of aging, Watercress (Nasturtium Ocinale) is a rapidly growing aquatic or semi aquatic perennial plant. It contains
health promoting phytochemicals endowed in therapeuWhen fatty acids are irradiated, a family of compounds tic properties.[35] Because chemical agents do not procalled 2-alkylcyclobutanones (2-ACBs) are produced. vide ecient microbial reductions, watercress has been
These are thought to be unique radiolytic products. Most tested with gamma irradiation treatment in order to imof the substances found in irradiated food are also found prove both safety and the shelf life of the product.[36] It
in food that has been subjected to other food process- is traditionally used on horticultural products to prevent
ing treatments, and are therefore not unique. Further- sprouting and post-packaging contamination, delay postmore, the quantities in which they occur in irradiated harvest ripening, maturation and senescence.[27]
food are lower or similar to the quantities formed in heat In a Food Chemistry food journal, scientists studied the
treatments.[6][7][10][11]
suitability of gamma irradiation of 1, 2, and 5 kGy for
Further information:
Oxidative stress

The radiation doses to cause toxic changes are much preserving quality parameters of the fresh cut watercress

3 IMPACT

at around 4 degrees Celsius for 7 days. They determined

that a 2 kGy dose of irradiation was the dose that contained most similar qualities to non-stored control samples, which is one of the goals of irradiation.[25] 2 kGy
preserved high levels of reducing sugars and favoured
PUFA; while samples of the 5 kGy dose revealed high
contents of sucrose and MUFA. Both cases the watercress samples obtained healthier fatty acids proles.[26]
However, a 5kGy dose better preserved the antioxidant
activity and total avonoids.[27]

3.2

Long term impacts

3.2.1 Misconceptions
The argument is made that there is a lack of long-term
studies and, therefore, the safety of irradiated food is
not scientically proven,[41] in spite of the fact that hundreds of animal feeding studies of irradiated food, including multigenerational studies, have been performed since
1950.[5] Endpoints investigated have included subchronic
and chronic changes in metabolism, histopathology, function of most systems, reproductive eects, growth, teratogenicity, and mutagenicity. A large number of studies
have been performed; meta-studies have supported the
safety of irradiated food.[5][6][7][8][9]
The below experiments are cited by food irradiation opponents, but either could not be veried in later experiments, could not be clearly attributed to the radiation effect, or could be attributed to an inappropriate design of
the experiment.[5][18]

If the majority of food was irradiated at high-enough lev

els to signicantly decrease its nutritional content, there
would be an increased risk to develop illnesses that are
nutritionally-based if additional steps, such as changes in
eating habits, were not taken to mitigate this.[37] Furthermore, for at least three studies on cats, the consumption
of irradiated food was associated with a loss of tissue in
the myelin sheath, leading to reversible paralysis. Researchers suspect that reduced levels of vitamin A and
high levels of free radicals may be the cause.[38] This effect is thought to be specic to cats and has not been reproduced in any other animal. To produce these eects,
the cats were fed solely on food that was irradiated at a
dose at least ve times higher than the maximum allow3.3
able dose.[38]
It may seem reasonable to assume that irradiating food
might lead to radiation-tolerant strains, similar to the way
that strains of bacteria have developed resistance to antibiotics. Bacteria develop a resistance to antibiotics after an individual uses antibiotics repeatedly. Much like
pasteurization plants, products that pass through irradiation plants are processed once, and are not processed
and reprocessed. Cycles of heat treatment have been
shown to produce heat-tolerant bacteria, yet no problems
have appeared so far in pasteurization plants. Furthermore, when the irradiation dose is chosen to target a specic species of microbe, it is calibrated to doses several
times the value required to target the species. This ensures that the process randomly destroys all members of a
target species.[39] Therefore, the more irradiation-tolerant
members of the target species are not given any evolutionary advantage. Without evolutionary advantage, selection
does not occur. As to the irradiation process directly producing mutations that lead to more virulent, radiationresistant strains, the European Commissions Scientic
Committee on Food found that there is no evidence; on
the contrary, irradiation has been found to cause loss of
virulence and infectivity, as mutants are usually less competitive and less adapted.[40]

Indias National Institute of Nutrition (NIN) found

an elevated rate of cells with more than one set
of genes (polyploidy) in humans and animals when
fed wheat that was irradiated recently (within 12
weeks). Upon analysis, scientists determined that
the techniques used by the NIN allowed for too
much human error and statistical variation; therefore, the results where unreliable. After multiple
studies by independent agencies and scientists, no
correlation between polyploidy and irradiation of
food could be found.[18]

Indirect eects of irradiation

The indirect eects of irradiation are the concerns and

benets of irradiation that are related to how making food
irradiation a common process will change the world, with
emphasis on the system of food production.
If irradiation was to become common in the food handling process there would be a reduction of the prevalence of foodborne illness and potentially the eradication
of specic pathogens.[42] However, multiple studies suggest that an increased rate of pathogen growth may occur when irradiated food is cross-contaminated with a
pathogen, as the competing spoilage organisms are no
longer present.[43] This being said, cross contamination
itself becomes less prevalent with an increase in usage of
irradiated foods.[44]
The ability to remove bacterial contamination through
post-processing by irradiation may reduce the fear of
mishandling food which could cultivate a cavalier attitude toward hygiene and result in contaminants other
than bacteria. However, concerns that the pasteurization
of milk would lead to increased contamination of milk
were prevalent when mandatory pasteurization was introduced, but these fears never materialized after adoption of this law. Therefore, it is unlikely for irradiation

4.2

Dosimetry

to cause an increase of illness due to nonbacteria-based For x-ray, gamma ray and electron irradiation, shielding
contamination.[45]
is required when the foods are being irradiated. This is
done to protect workers and the environment outside of
the chamber from radiation exposure. Typically permanent or movable shields are used.[46] In some gamma irra4 Treatment
diators the radioactive source is under water at all times,
and the hermetically sealed product is lowered into the
Up to the point where the food is processed by ir- water. The water acts as the shield in this application.
radiation, the food is processed in the same way as Because of the lower penetration depth of electron irraall other food. To treat the food, they are exposed diation, treatment to entire industrial pallets or totes is not
to a radioactive source, for a set period of time to possible.
achieve a desired dose. Radiation may be emitted
by a radioactive substance, or by X-ray and electron
beam accelerators. Special precautions are taken to 4.2 Dosimetry
ensure the food stus never come in contact with the
radioactive substances and that the personnel and the The radiation absorbed dose is the amount energy abenvironment are protected from exposure radiation.[46] sorbed per unit weight of the target material. Dose is
Irradiation treatments are typically classied by dose used because, when the same substance is given the same
(high, medium, and low), but are sometimes classi- dose, similar changes are observed in the target material.
ed by the eects of the treatment[47] (radappertization, The SI unit for dose is grays (Gy or J/kg). Dosimeters
radicidation and radurization). Food irradiation is some- are used to measure dose, and are small components that,
times referred to as cold pasteurization[48] or elec- when exposed to ionizing radiation, change measurable
tronic pasteurization[49] because ionizing the food does physical attributes to a degree that can be correlated to
not heat the food to high temperatures during the process, the dose received. Measuring dose (dosimetry) involves
and the eect is similar to heat pasteurization. The term exposing one or more dosimeters along with the target
cold pasteurization is controversial because the term material.[52][53]
may be used to disguise the fact the food has been irradiated and pasteurization and irradiation are fundamentally For purposes of legislation doses are divided into low (up
to 1 kGy), medium (1 kGy to 10 kGy), and high-dose
dierent processes.
applications (above 10 kGy). High-dose applications are
Treatment costs vary as a function of dose and facility us- above those currently permitted in the US for commerage. A pallet or tote is typically exposed for several min- cial food items by the FDA and other regulators around
utes to hours depending on dose. Low-dose applications the world.[54] Though these doses are approved for non
such as disinfestation of fruit range between US$0.01/lbs commercial applications, such as sterilizing frozen meat
and US$0.08/lbs while higher-dose applications can cost for NASA astronauts (doses of 44 kGy)[55] and food for
as much as US$0.20/lbs.[50]
hospital patients.

4.1

Process

Typically, when the food is being irradiated, pallets of

food are exposed to a source of radiation for a specic time. Dosimeters are embedded in the pallet (at
various locations) of food to determine what dose was
achieved.[46] Most irradiated food is processed by gamma
irradiation.,[51] however the usage of electron beam and
X-ray is becoming more popular as well . Special precautions are taken because gamma rays are continuously
emitted by the radioactive material. In most designs, to
nullify the eects of radiation, the radioisotope is lowered
into a water-lled storage pool, which absorbs the radiation but does not become radioactive. This allows pallets
of the products to be added and removed from the irradiation chamber and other maintenance to be done.[46]
Sometimes movable shields are used to reduce radiation
levels in areas of the irradiation chamber instead of submerging the source. For x ray and electron irradiation
these precautions are not necessary as the source of the
radiation can be switched o.[46]

4.3 Technology

Eciency illustration of the dierent radiation technologies

(electron beam, X-ray, gamma rays)

See also: Electron beam processing

Electron irradiation uses electrons accelerated in an electric eld to a velocity close to the speed of light. Electrons
have a charge, and therefore do not penetrate the product
beyond a few centimeters, depending on product density.

5 STANDARDS & REGULATIONS

Gamma irradiation involves exposing the target material to packets of light (photons) that are highly energetic
(Gamma rays). A radioactive material (radioisotopes) is
used as the source for the gamma rays.[51] Gamma irradiation is the standard because the deeper penetration of
the gamma rays enables administering treatment to entire industrial pallets or totes (reducing the need for material handling) and it is signicantly less expensive than
using an X-ray source. Generally cobalt-60 is used as a
radioactive source for gamma irradiation. Cobalt-60 is
bred from cobalt-59 using neutron irradiation in specically designed nuclear reactors.[51] In limited applications
caesium-137, a less costly alternative recovered during
the processing of spent nuclear fuel, is used as a radioactive source. Insucient quantities are available for large
scale commercial use. An incident where water-soluble
caesium-137 leaked into the source storage pool requiring NRC intervention[57] has led to near elimination of
this radioisotope outside of military applications.

fore regulations about irradiation dier from country to

country.
The United Nations Food and Agricultural Organization
(FAO) has passed a motion to commit member states
to implement irradiation technology for their national
phytosanitary programs; the General assembly of the
International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) has urged
wider use of the irradiation technology.

5.1 Labeling

Irradiation by X-ray is similar to irradiation by gamma

rays in that less energetic packets of light (X-rays) are
used. X-rays are generated by colliding accelerated electrons with a dense material (this process is known as
bremsstrahlung-conversion), and therefore do not necessitate the use of radioactive materials.[58] X-rays ability to penetrate the target is similar to gamma irradiation. X-ray machines produce better dose uniformity
than Gamma irradiation but require much more electricity as only as much as 12% of the input energy is converted into X-rays.[51]

4.4

Cost

The cost of food irradiation is inuenced by dose requirements, the foods tolerance of radiation, handling conditions, i.e., packaging and stacking requirements, construction costs, nancing arrangements, and other variables particular to the situation.[59] Irradiation is a capitalintensive technology requiring a substantial initial investment, ranging from $1 million to $5 million. In the
case of large research or contract irradiation facilities,
major capital costs include a radiation source, hardware
(irradiator, totes and conveyors, control systems, and
other auxiliary equipment), land (1 to 1.5 acres), radiation shield, and warehouse. Operating costs include
salaries (for xed and variable labor), utilities, maintenance, taxes/insurance, cobalt-60 replenishment, general
utilities, and miscellaneous operating costs.[50][60]

Standards & regulations

The Codex Alimentarius represents the global standard

for irradiation of food, in particular under the WTOagreement. Member states are free to convert those standards into national regulations at their discretion, there-

The Radura symbol, as required by U.S. Food and Drug Administration regulations to show a food has been treated with ionizing
radiation.

The provisions of the Codex Alimentarius are that any

rst generation product must be labeled irradiated as
any product derived directly from an irradiated raw material; for ingredients the provision is that even the last
molecule of an irradiated ingredient must be listed with
the ingredients even in cases where the unirradiated ingredient does not appear on the label. The RADURAlogo is optional; several countries use a graphical version
that diers from the Codex-version. The suggested rules
for labeling is published at CODEX-STAN 1 (2005),[61]
and includes the usage of the Radura symbol for all products that contain irradiated foods. The Radura symbol is
not a designator of quality. The amount of pathogens remaining is based upon dose and the original content and
the dose applied can vary on a product by product basis.
The European Union follows the Codexs provision to label irradiated ingredients down to the last molecule of
irradiated food. The European Community does not provide for the use of the Radura logo and relies exclusively on labeling by the appropriate phrases in the respective languages of the Member States. The European
Union enforces its irradiation labeling laws by requiring
its member countries to perform tests on a cross section

5.2

Food safety

of food items in the market-place and to report to the Eu- The U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) and the
ropean Commission. The results are published annually USDA have approved irradiation of the following foods
in the OJ of the European Communities.[62]
and purposes:
The US denes irradiated foods as foods in which the irradiation causes a material change in the food, or a material change in the consequences that may result from
the use of the food. Therefore, food that is processed as
an ingredient by a restaurant or food processor is exempt
from the labeling requirement in the US. This denition
is not consistent with the Codex Alimentarius. All irradiated foods must bear a slightly modied[61] Radura
symbol at the point of sale and use the term irradiated
or a derivative there of, in conjunction with explicit language describing the change in the food or its conditions
of use.[63]

5.2

Food safety

In 2003, the Codex Alimentarius removed any upper dose

limit for food irradiation as well as clearances for specic foods, declaring that all are safe to irradiate. Countries such as Pakistan and Brazil have adopted the Codex
without any reservation or restriction. Other countries,
including New Zealand, Australia, Thailand, India, and
Mexico, have permitted the irradiation of fresh fruits for
fruit y quarantine purposes, amongst others.
Standards that describe calibration and operation for radiation dosimetry, as well as procedures to relate the measured dose to the eects achieved and to report and document such results, are maintained by the American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM international) and
are also available as ISO/ASTM standards.[64]

Packaged refrigerated or frozen red meat[67]

to control pathogens (E. Coli O157:H7 and
Salmonella), and to extend shelf life.[68]
Packaged poultry control pathogens (Salmonella
and Camplylobacter).[68]
Fresh fruits, vegetables and grains to control insects and inhibit growth, ripening and sprouting.[68]
Pork to control trichinosis.[68]
Herbs, spices and vegetable seasonings[69] to control insects and microorganisms.[68]
Dry or dehydrated enzyme preparations to control insects and microorganisms.[68]
White potatoes to inhibit sprout development.[68]
Wheat and wheat our to control insects.[68]
Loose or bagged fresh iceberg lettuce and spinach[70]
5.2.2 European Union

In the United States, each new food is approved separately

with a guideline specifying a maximum dosage; in case of
quarantine applications the minimum dose is regulated.
Packaging materials containing the food processed by irradiation must also undergo approval. Food irradiation
in the United States is primarily regulated by the FDA[65]
since it is considered a food additive. The United States
Department of Agriculture (USDA) amends these rules
for use with meat, poultry, and fresh fruit.[66]

European law dictates that no foods other than dried aromatic herbs, spices and vegetable seasonings are permitted for the application of irradiation.[71] However, any
Member State is permitted to maintain previous clearances that are in categories that the ECs Scientic Committee on Food (SCF) had previously approved, or add
clearance granted to other Member States. Presently,
Belgium, Czech Republic, France, Italy, Netherlands,
Poland, and the United Kingdom have adopted such
provisions.[72] Before individual items in an approved
class can be added to the approved list, studies into the
toxicology of each of such food and for each of the proposed dose ranges are requested. It also states that irradiation shall not be used as a substitute for hygiene
or health practices or good manufacturing or agricultural
practice. These regulations only govern food irradiation
in consumer products to allow irradiation to be used for
patients requiring sterile diets.

The United States Department of Agriculture (USDA)

has approved the use of low-level irradiation as an alternative treatment to pesticides for fruits and vegetables
that are considered hosts to a number of insect pests, including fruit ies and seed weevils. Under bilateral agreements that allows less-developed countries to earn income
through food exports agreements are made to allow them
to irradiate fruits and vegetables at low doses to kill insects, so that the food can avoid quarantine.

Because of the Single Market of the EC any food, even if

irradiated, must be allowed to be marketed in any other
Member State even if a general ban of food irradiation
prevails, under the condition that the food has been irradiated legally in the state of origin. Furthermore, imports
into the EC are possible from third countries if the irradiation facility had been inspected and approved by the EC
and the treatment is legal within the EC or some Member
state.[73][74][75][76][77]

All of the rules involved in processing food are applied to

all foods before they are irradiated.
5.2.1

United States

8
5.2.3

7
Australia

Australia banned irradiated cat food after a national scare

where cats suered from paralyzation after eating a specic brand of highly irradiated catfood for an extended
period of time. The suspected culprit was malnutrition
from consuming food depleted of Vitamin A by the irradiation process.[78][79] The incident was linked only to
a single batch of one brands product and no illness was
linked to any of that brands other irradiated batches of
the same product or to any other brand of irradiated cat
food. This, along with incomplete evidence indicating
that the cat food was not suciently depleted of Vitamin A[80] makes irradiation a less likely cause.[81] Further research has been able to experimentally induce the
paralyzation of cats by via Vitamin A deciency by feeding highly irradiated food.[38] For more details see the
cumulative impacts of irradiation section.

5.3

Nuclear safety & security

Interlocks and safeguards are mandated to minimize this

risk. There have been radiation related accidents, deaths,
and injury at such facilities, many of them caused by operators overriding the safety related interlocks.[82] In a radiation processing facility, radiation specic concerns are
supervised by special authorities, while Ordinary occupational safety regulations are handled much like other
businesses.
The safety of irradiation facilities is regulated by the
United Nations International Atomic Energy Agency and
monitored by the dierent national Nuclear Regulatory
Commissions. The regulators enforce a safety culture that
mandates that all incidents that occur are documented and
thoroughly analyzed to determine the cause and improvement potential. Such incidents are studied by personnel
at multiple facilities, and improvements are mandated to
retrot existing facilities and future design.
In the US the Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC)
regulates the safety of the processing facility, and the
United States Department of Transportation (DOT) regulates the safe transport of the radioactive sources.

Irradiated food supply

Authorities in some countries use tests that can detect the

irradiation of food items to enforce labeling standards and
to bolster consumer condence.[83][84][85] The European
Union monitors the market to determine the quantity of
irradiated foods, if irritated foods are labeled as irradiated, and if the irritation is performed at approved facilities.
Irradiation of fruits and vegetables to prevent the spread
of pest and diseases across borders has been increasing
globally. In 2010, 18446 tonnes of fruits and vegeta-

TIMELINE OF THE HISTORY OF FOOD IRRADIATION

bles were irradiated in six countries for export quarantine
control; the countries follow: Mexico (56.2%), United
States (31.2%), Thailand (5.18%), Vietnam (4.63%),
Australia (2.69%), and India (0.05%). The three types
of fruits irradiated the most were guava (49.7%), sweet
potato(29.3%) and sweet lime (3.27%).[86]
In total, 103 000 tonnes of food products were irradiated on mainland United States in 2010. The three types
of foods irradiated the most were spices (77.7%), fruits
and vegetables (14.6%) and meat and poultry (7.77%).
17 953 tonnes of irradiated fruits and vegetables were
exported to the mainland United States.[86] Mexico,
the United States state of Hawaii, Thailand, Vietnam
and India export irradiated produce to the mainland
U.S.[86][87][88] Mexico, followed by the United States
state of Hawaii, is the largest exporter of irradiated produce to the mainland U.S.[86]
In total, 6 876 tonnes of food products were irradiated in
European Union countries in 2013; mainly in four member state countries: Belgium (49.4%), the Netherlands
(24.4%), Spain (12.7%) and France (10.0%). The two
types of foods irradiated the most were frog legs (46%),
and dried herbs and spices (25%). There has been a decrease of 14% in the total quantity of products irradiated
in the EU compared to the previous year 2012 (7 972
tonnes) [89]

7 Timeline of the history of food irradiation

1895 Wilhelm Conrad Rntgen discovers X-rays
("bremsstrahlung", from German for radiation produced by deceleration)
1896 Antoine Henri Becquerel discovers natural radioactivity; Minck proposes the therapeutic use[90]
1904 Samuel Prescott describes the bactericide
eects Massachusetts Institute of Technology
(MIT)[91]
1906 Appleby & Banks: UK patent to use radioactive isotopes to irradiate particulate food in a owing
bed[92]
1918 Gillett: U.S. Patent to use X-rays for the
preservation of food[93]
1921 Schwartz describes the elimination of
Trichinella from food[94]
1930 Wuest: French patent on food irradiation[95]
1943 MIT becomes active in the eld of food preservation for the U.S. Army[96]
1951 U.S. Atomic Energy Commission begins to coordinate national research activities

9
1958 World rst commercial food irradiation
(spices) at Stuttgart, Germany[97]

9 Notes

1970 Establishment of the International Food Irradiation Project (IFIP), headquarters at the Federal
Research Centre for Food Preservation, Karlsruhe,
Germany

[1] bulbs and tubers

1980 FAO/IAEA/WHO Joint Expert Committee on

Food Irradiation recommends the clearance generally up to 10 kGy overall average dose[6]

[4] improve hygienic quality

[2] to help clear quarantine

[3] fresh or frozen red meat, poultry, and seafood

[5] shelf stable without refrigeration

1981/1983 End of IFIP after reaching its goals

1983 Codex Alimentarius General Standard for Irradiated Foods: any food at a maximum overall average dose of 10 kGy
1984 International Consultative Group on Food Irradiation (ICGFI) becomes the successor of IFIP
1998 The European Unions Scientic Committee
on Food (SCF) voted positive on eight categories
of irradiation applications[98]
1997 FAO/IAEA/WHO Joint Study Group on
High-Dose Irradiation recommends to lift any upper dose limit[7]
1999 The European Union issues Directives
1999/2/EC (framework Directive) and 1999/3/EC
(implementing Directive) limiting irradiation a
positive list whose sole content is one of the eight
categories approved by the SFC, but allowing the
individual states to give clearances for any food
previously approved by the SFC.
2000 Germany leads a veto on a measure to provide
a nal draft for the positive list.
2003 Codex Alimentarius General Standard for Irradiated Foods: no longer any upper dose limit
2003 The SCF adopts a revised opinion that recommends against the cancellation of the upper dose
limit.[40]
2004 ICGFI ends
2011 The successor to the SFC, European Food
Safety Authority (EFSA), reexamines the SFCs
list and makes further recommendations for
inclusion.[99]

See also
Deinococcus radiodurans
Food labeling regulations (disambiguation)
Food and cooking hygiene
Irradiated mail
Chemical sterilization

10 References
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[38] The experimental induction of leukoencephalomyelopathy in cats. Retrieved July 15, 2009.
[39] FOOD IRRADIATION: WHY AREN'T WE USING
IT?". harvard.edu.
[40] Scientic Committee on Food. Revised opinion #193.
[41] R.L. Wolke, What Einstein told his cook Kitchen science explained, W.W. Norton & Company Inc., New
York, 2002; see p.310 Some Illumination on Irradiation

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[42] Ethiopia Is Using Radiation to Eradicate Tsetse Flies.

voanews.com. November 14, 2012. Retrieved June 18,
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[56] "''Annex III of Directive 1999/2/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 22 February 1999 on the
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[57] Information Notice No. 89-82: RECENT SAFETYRELATED INCIDENTS AT LARGE IRRADIATORS.
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[58] Whaites, Eric; Roderick Cawson (2002). Essentials of
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[59] (Forsythe and Evangel 1993, USDA 1989)

[45] Does the XL Foods E-coli Scare Make the Case for Irradiation?". issuu.com. February 11, 2001. Retrieved June
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[46] (PDF) http://www.sterigenics.com/services/food_safety/
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[47] D.A.E. Ehlermann, The RADURA-terminology and
food irradiation, Food Control 20 (2009), 526-528,
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[48] Cold Pasteurization of Food By Irradiation by Tim
Roberts, Extension Specialist, Food Safety, Virginia
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//www.ext.vt.edu/pubs/foods/458-300/458-300.html
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on
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[49] See, e.g., The Truth about Irradiated Meat, CONSUMER
REPORTS 34-37 (August 2003).
[50] The Use of Irradiation for Post-Harvest and Quarantine
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[51] anon., Gamma Irradiators for Radiation Processing,
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[52] anon., Dosimetry for Food Irradiation, IAEA, Vienna,
2002, Technical Reports Series No. 409 (PDF). Retrieved March 19, 2014.
[53] K. Mehta, Radiation Processing Dosimetry A practical
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[54] Irradiated Food Authorization Database (IFA)". Retrieved March 19, 2014.
[55] U. S. Food and Drug Administration. Center for Food
Safety & Applied Nutrition. Oce of Premarket Approval. ''Food Irradiation: The treatment of foods with
ionizing radiation'' Kim M. Morehouse, PhD Published in
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4, No. 3, Pages 9, 32, 35)". Wayback.archive.org. March
29, 2007. Archived from the original on March 29, 2007.
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[60] (Kunstadt et al., USDA 1989)

[61] "''GENERAL STANDARD FOR THE LABELLING
OF PREPACKAGED FOODS''. CODEX STAN 11985. (PDF). Retrieved March 19, 2014.
[62] http://ec.europa.eu/food/food/biosafety/irradiation/
scientific_advices_reports_en.htm Expand Food Irradiation Reports and select respective annual report and
language
[63] CFR - Code of Federal Regulations Title 21. Accessdata.fda.gov. Retrieved March 19, 2014.
[64] (see Annual Book of ASTM Standards, vol. 12.02, West
Conshohocken, PA, US)
[65] FDA, Irradiation in the production, processing and handling of food. Final rule, Fed. Reg., 51: 13376-13399
(1986) this is the initial and general ruling; later amendments on various details have been published in Fed. Reg.
[66] USDA/FSIS and USDA/APHIS, various nal rules on
pork, poultry and fresh fruits: Fed.Reg. 51:17691771
(1986); 54:387-393 (1989); 57:43588-43600 (1992); and
others more
[67] anon.,Is this technology being used in other countries? retrieved on November 15, 2007
[68] Food Irradiation-FMI Background (PDF). Food Marketing Institute. February 5, 2003. Retrieved June 2,
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[69] anon., Are irradiated foods in the U.S. supermarkets now?
retrieved on November 15, 2007
[70] Irradiation: A safe measure for safer iceberg lettuce and
spinach. US FDA. August 22, 2008. Retrieved December 31, 2009.
[71] EU: Food Irradiation Community Legislation
http://ec.europa.eu/food/food/biosafety/irradiation/
comm_legisl_en.htm
[72] Ocial Journal of the European Communities. 24
November, 2009. ''List of Member States authorisations
of food and food ingredients which may be treated with
ionizing radiation.''". Retrieved March 19, 2014.

12

[73] Ocial Journal of the European Communities. 23 October 2002. ''COMMISSION DECISION of 23 October
2004 adopting the list of approved facilities in third countries for the irradiation of foods.''". Retrieved March 19,
2014.
[74] Ocial Journal of the European Communities. October
13, 2004. ''COMMISSION DECISION of October 7,
2004 amending Decision 2002/840/EC adopting the list
of approved facilities in third countries for the irradiation
of foods.''" (PDF). Retrieved March 19, 2014.
[75] Ocial Journal of the European Communities. 23 October 2007. ''Commission Decision of 4 December 2007
amending Decision 2002/840/EC as regards the list of approved facilities in third countries for the irradiation of
foods.''" (PDF). Retrieved March 19, 2014.
[76] Ocial Journal of the European Communities. 23
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of approved facilities in third countries for the irradiation
of foods.''". Retrieved March 19, 2014.
[77] Ocial Journal of the European Communities of 24
May 2012 ''COMMISSION IMPLEMENTING DECISION of 21 May 2012 amending Decision 2002/840/EC
adopting the list of approved facilities in third countries
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11 FURTHER READING

[87] APHIS Factsheet (PDF). United States Department of

Agriculture Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service.
December 2008. Retrieved March 19, 2014.
[88] Guidance for importing mangoes into the United States
from Pakistan (PDF). Retrieved March 19, 2014.
[89] Report from the Commission to the European Parliament
and the Council on Food and Food Ingredients Treated
with Ionising Radiation FOR THE YEAR 2013 (PDF).
European Commission. February 25, 2015. Retrieved
July 18, 2015.
[90] Minck, F. (1896) Zur Frage ber die Einwirkung der
Rntgenschen Strahlen auf Bacterien und ihre eventuelle
therapeutische Verwendbarkeit. Mnchener Medicinische Wochenschrift 43 (5), 101-102.
[91] S.C. Prescott,The eect of radium rays on the colon bacillus, the diphtheria bacillus and yeast. Science XX(1904)
no.503, 246-248
[92] Appleby, J. and Banks, A. J. Improvements in or relating
to the treatment of food, more especially cereals and their
products. British patent GB 1609 (January 4, 1906).
[93] D.C. Gillet, Apparatus for preserving organic materials by
the use of x-rays, US Patent No. 1,275,417 (August 13,
1918)

[78] http://www.smh.com.au/national/
[94] Schwartz, B. Eect of X-rays on Trichinae. Journal of
catfood-irradiation-banned-as-pet-theory-proved-20090529-bq8h.
Agricultural Research 20 (1921) 845-854
html
[95] O. Wst, Procd pour la conservation d'aliments en tous
[79] http://kb.rspca.org.au/
genres, Brevet d'invention no.701302 (July 17, 1930)
What-is-RSPCA-Australias-position-on-the-irradiation-of-imported-pet-food-products_
307.html
[96] Physical Principles of Food Preservation: Von Marcus
Karel, Daryl B. Lund, CRC Press, 2003 ISBN 0-8247[80] Burke, Kelly (November 28, 2008). Cat food rm
4063-7, S. 462 .
blames death on quarantine controls. The Sydney Morning Herald. Retrieved April 29, 2013.
[97] K.F. Maurer, Zur Keimfreimachung von Gewrzen,
[81] Dickson, James. Radiation meets food. Physics Today.
Retrieved March 22, 2013.
[82] International Atomic Energy Agency. The Radiological
Accident in Soreq
[83] McMurray, C.H., Gray, R., Stewart, E.M., Pearce, J.,
Detection methods for irradiated foods, Royal Society of
Chemistry; Cambridge (GB); 1996
[84] Ra, J., Delince, H., Marchioni, E., Hasselmann, C.,
Sjberg, A.-M., Leonardi, M., Kent, M., Bgl, K.-W.,
Schreiber, G., Stevenson, H., Meier, W., Concerted action of the community bureau of reference on methods
of identication of irradiated foods; bcr information; European Commission; Luxembourg; 1994, 119 p.; EUR15261
[85] General Codex Methods for the Detection of Irradiated
Foods, CODEX STAN 231-2001, Rev.1 2003 (PDF).
Retrieved March 19, 2014.
[86] Food Irradiation in Asia, the European Union, and the
United States (PDF). Japan Radioisotope Association.
May 2013. Retrieved January 6, 2015.

Ernhrungswirtschaft 5(1958) nr.1, 45-47

[98] Scientic Committee on Food. 15.
[99] Statement summarising the Conclusions and Recommendations from the Opinions on the Safety of Irradiation of
Food adopted by the BIOHAZ and CEF Panels. (PDF).
Retrieved March 19, 2014.

11 Further reading
World Health Organization publications:
Food irradiation A technique for preserving and improving the safety of Food, WHO,
Geneva, 1991 (revised)
Wholesomeness of irradiated food, WHO,
Geneva, Technical Report Series No. 659,
1981
Safety and nutritional adequacy of irradiated
food, WHO, Geneva, 1994

13
High-dose irradiation: Wholesomeness of
food irradiated with doses above 10 kGy,
WHO, Geneva, 1999, Technical Report Series
No. 890
Facts about Food Irradiation, A series of Fact Sheets
from the International Consultative Group on Food
Irradiation (ICGFI), 1999, IAEA, Vienna, Austria
Diehl, J.F., Safety of irradiated foods, Marcel
Dekker, N.Y., 1995 (2. ed.)
Satin, M., Food irradiation, Technomic, Lancaster,
1996 (2. ed.)
Urbain, W.M., Food irradiation, Academic Press,
Orlando, 1986
Molins, R. (ed.), Food irradiation Principles and
applications, Wiley Interscience, N.Y., 2001
Sommers, C.H. and Fan, X. (eds.), Food Irradiation Research and Technology, Blackwell Publishing, Ames, IA, 2006
Hauter, W. and Worth, M., Zapped! Irradiation
and the Death of Food, Food & Water Watch Press,
Washington, DC, 2008.
The Food That Would Last Forever : Understanding the Dangers of Food Irradiation, by Gary Gibbs,
Garden City Park, N.Y. : Avery Pub. Group, c1993
anon., Food Irradiation: Available Research Indicates That Benets Outweigh Risks, RCED-00-217,
August 24, 2000, Government Accountability Ofce, United States General Accounting Oce, Resources, Community, and Economic Development
Division, Washington, D.C. 20548 Food Irradiation
Farkas, J. and Mohcsi-Farkas, C., History and
future of food irradiation, Food Sci. Technol.
22(2011),121-128
WHO Statement on 2-Dodecylcyclobutanone and
Related Compounds, 2003
Evaluation of the Signicance of 2Dodecylcyclobutanone and other Alkylcyclobutanones

12

External links

Codex Alimentarius
Codex Alimentarius General Standard for Irradiated Foods (CAC/STAN 106-1983, rev.1
2003)

Codex Alimentarius Recommended International Code of Practice Code for Radiation

Processing of Foods (CAC/RCP 19-1979,
rev.2 2003)
General Standard for the Labelling of
Prepacked Foods (CODEX STAN 1-1985)
Food Irradiation Processing Alliance FIPA represents the irradiation service industry, manufacturers of food irradiators and suppliers of cobalt-60
sources.
Food & Water Watch food irradiation page
U.S. Food Irradiation FAQ, Food and Water Watch
Remarks by Mark Worth, Public Citizen, to the
FDA, January 12, 2005
Irradiation of Food and Food Packaging, Center for
Food Safety and Applied Nutrition (US Government)
Irradiation Fact Sheet, Center for Food Safety (US
non-prot organisation)
Facts about Food Irradiation, a series of 14 fact
sheets, International Consultative Group on Food Irradiation, International Atomic Energy Agency, Vienna, 1991 (English)
Bibliography on Food Irradiation, Federal Research
Centre for Nutrition and Food, Karlsruhe, Germany
(English)
Should we irradiate fruit and vegetables? Dateline
NBC investigation
Irradiation FAQ provided by BENEBION of Mexico (English)
anon. Whats wrong with food irradiation, revised
February 2001, Organic Consumers Association,
US
Comment by Dr. Henry Delince on an adavit
misrepresenting the conclusions of his studies on
unique radiolytical byproducts
The Basics on the Foodght Over Irradiation |
health.usnews.com

14

13

13
13.1

TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

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Food irradiation Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Food_irradiation?oldid=744062744 Contributors: Ubiquity, RTC, DopeshJustin,

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Gaius Cornelius, Chewyrunt, Ospalh, Dbrs, Mishalak, Kilfoylea, Mirir, HereToHelp, Teryx, John Broughton, That Guy, From That
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robot, Siker, SmackBot, F, TestPilot, Adrian232, Eskimbot, Schmiteye, Chris the speller, Cadmium, Funeralprogression,
J. Spencer, Epastore, Learje, Theanphibian, James McNally, SpiderJon, DMacks, BlackTerror, Arnoutf, John, Euchiasmus, Gobonobo,
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13.2

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File:Cobalt-60_Irradiator.tif Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/43/Cobalt-60_Irradiator.tif License: Public

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File:Radura_international.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/0/0c/Radura_international.svg License: Fair use Contributors:
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1972, v. 12 p. 299-308. Vectorized by HereToHelp (<a href='//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User_talk:HereToHelp' title='User talk:HereToHelp'>talk to me</a>) . Original artist:
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13.3

13.3

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