ENERGY ANALYSIS OF PIPES AND FITTINGS

EXPERIMENT NO. 7
I. Objectives
I-1.

To understand how to measure the pressure head, flow rate and amount fluid
passing through the pipe system.

I-2.

To determine the head losses in these fittings of the pipe system:

I-3.

Elbows
Orifice
Nipples
Unions
Entrance and Exit of the pipe
To be able to plot the Hydraulic and Energy grade line along the scaled diagram
of the pipe system.

II. Materials and Equipment used

Stop watch
Steel tape
22L Bucket
Pipes and fittings experimental set-up

III. Theoretical Background

Pipe friction loss is the loss of energy in a pipe flow due to effects generated by the
surface of the pipe. The loss of energy is dependent on the wall shear stress of the pipe inside
surface and the fluid that flows against it. There are several factors that create loss of energy. Yet
it mostly caused by rough inside surfaces and bends or sharp turns in the pipe. The thickness on a
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pipe is determined by a schedule number which will indicated the allowable stress and pressure
inside the said pipe though it is a must to have a factor of safety in computing its allowable stress
due to the quality that it is made of. The friction factor is a dimensionless quantity used to
determine the friction loss in a pipe flow from the Darcy - Weisbach equation.

Figure 1 Illustration of Laminar and Turbulent flow through pipes

Fig. 1 shows the laminar flow in fluid dynamics occurring when a fluid flows in parallel layers
with no disruption. In laminar flow, sometimes called streamline flow, the velocity, pressure, and
other flow properties at each point in the fluid remain constant. For this condition, the friction
factor becomes:
f=

where

is the Reynolds number at

64
eqn .1

<2300 .

Transitional flow is a mixture of laminar and turbulent flow, with turbulence in the center of the
pipe and laminar flow near the edges. The value of the Darcy friction factor is subject to large
uncertainties in this flow regime. Transition (neither fully laminar nor fully turbulent) flow
occurs in the range of Reynolds numbers between 2300 and 4000. Fig. 1 also shows the erratic
and unpredictable behaviour of flow that exists when

> 4000 . The flow at this condition is

called turbulent. In fluid dynamics, turbulence or turbulent flow is a flow regime characterized
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by chaotic property changes. This includes low momentum diffusion, high momentum
convection, and rapid variation of pressure and flow velocity in space and time. For this
condition, the friction factor becomes:

1
; Rough Pipes eqn . 2
12 d

1
; Smooth Pipes eqn .3
12 d

f =0.01 1+

f =0.005 1+
where d

is the diameter of the pipe.

Reynolds number is a dimensionless quantity used to predict flow patterns in different situations.
=

VD
eqn .4

where V is the fluid velocity, D is the pipe diameter,

fluid, and

is the density of the

is the viscosity of the fluid.

For both smooth and turbulent flows, the friction factor is estimated with the following equation
developed by Colebrook and white (1937).
1

2.523
=2 log
+
eqn .5
f
3.7 D f

where f

is the friction factor,

diameter, and

is the roughness of the pipe, D is the pipe

is the Reynolds number.

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The Colebrook-White equation is valid for Re values ranging from 2000 to 108, and for values of
relative roughness ranging from 0.0 to 0.05. The formula is often used in pipe network
simulations. Its form is notably implicit, as the value of f appears on both sides of the equation,
and its accurate solution is often very time consuming, requiring many iterations.
Bernoullis Equation
The Bernoulli Equation is an approximate relation between pressure, velocity, and
elevation. It is valid in regions of steady, incompressible flow where the net frictional forces are
negligible. The key approximation of its derivation is that the viscous effects are negligibly small
compared to the inertial, gravitational, and pressure effects. In general, frictional effects are
important in areas very close to the solid walls (boundary layers) and directly downstream of the
bodies (Cengel 2012). The motion of a particle and the path it follows are described by the
velocity vector as a function of time and space coordinates and the initial position of the particle.
When the flow is stead all particles pass through the same point and the velocity vectors remain
tangent to the path at every point.
In analyzing the flow of the piping system, we begin by accepting the following assumptions:

The flow across the entire piping system is steady.

The change in density of the water as it passes through the system is negligible (i.e. that

is to say that the fluid is incompressible).

The friction losses through the pipes are negligible.

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Figure 2 An Elemental Fluid

Consider an elemental fluid (Fig. 2) with uniform density as it moves from AB to AB, the
change of energy of this element as it moves through the pipe must be zero to satisfy the
conservation of energy. This implies that:
Work Done=Kinetic Energy+ Potential Energy

W = K + U eqn.6
By principle of continuity, it can also be assumed that the volume through AB and AB are
equal. From the position of the fluid and its characteristics given in Fig. 2, the following
equations can be determined:
For position AB:
W AB=P 1 V =

For position AB:

P1 m

W A ' B ' =P 2 V =

P2 m

1
K AB= m v 12
2

1
K A ' B ' = m v 22
2

U AB=mg z 1

U A ' B ' =mg z 2

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where P1 and P2 are the corresponding pressures at specific locations, v1 and v2 are
the velocities at specific locations, z1 and z2 are the elevations, m is the mass of
the fluid, and is the density of the fluid.
using conservation of energy:
W = K + U
(W AB W A B )=( K A B K AB )+(U A B U AB)
'

1
mg

'

'

'

'

[( ) ( ) ] (

'

P1 m
P m
mv 22 mv 12
1
2
=[

+ ( mgz 2mgz1 ) ]

2
2
mg

z2 z1
P1 P2
v 2 2 v 12
( )=( )+
g g
2g 2 g
P 1 v 12
P v2
+ + z1 = 2 + 2 + z2 eqn .7
2g
2g
where

is the specific weight of the fluid equal to the product of its density

and acceleration due to gravity.

In reality, throughout the piping systems, losses will have occurred debunking the third
assumption in the established Bernoullis equation (eqn. 6). However, the equation can still be
used to determine the systems behaviour as losses are considered which result from pipe fittings,
valves, and direct losses from the pipe itself. The extended Bernoullis equation may then be
written as:
2

P1 v 1
P v
+ + z1 = 2 + 2 + z2 +h losses
2g
2g
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; where hlossses are head losses

hlosses =

)(

P1 v 1
P v
+ + z 1 2 + 2 + z 2 eqn .8
2g
2g

*Considering that no other component within the system extracts energy or adds energy
in the system
Hydraulic Head
When a fluid is flowing steadily in a long straight pipe of uniform diameter, the flow
pattern as indicated by the velocity distribution across the pipe diameter, will assume a certain
characteristics form. Any impediment in the pipe which changes the direction of the whole
stream, or even part of it, will alter the characteristic flow pattern and create turbulence causing
an energy loss greater than that normally accompanying flow in straight, pipes. Because values
and fittings in a pipeline disturb the flow pattern they produce an additional pressure drop. The
wall thickness of pipe is indicated by a schedule number, which is a function of internal pressure
and allowable stress. Approximately:

Schedule number 10,000

P
eqn . 9
S

where P is internal working pressure ( force /area ) and S is the allowable

stress ( force /area )

The term refers to a piece that can do one of the following:

1. Join two pieces of pipe e.g. couplings, unions
2. Change pipeline direction e.g. elbows, tees
3. Change pipeline diameter e.g. reducers, bushings
4. Terminate a pipeline e.g. plugs, values
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5. Join two streams to form a third e.g. tees, wyes

6. Control flow e.g. values of a valve
Pressure loss test data for a wide variety of values and fittings are available from the work of
numerous investigations. However, due to the time consuming and costly nature of testing, it is
virtually impossible to obtain test data for every size and type of value and fitting. It is therefore
desirable to provide a means of reliably extra plotting available test information to envelope
those items which have not been or cannot readily be tested. Commonly used concepts for
accomplishing this are the equivalent length L/D, resistance coefficient K, and flow
coefficient Cv. This can all be found on Table 1.

Table 1.

L
K Factors of Various Pipe Fittings
D

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Head is a concept that relates the energy in a fluid to the height of an equivalent static column of
that fluid. It is useful in specifying centrifugal pumps because their pumping characteristics tend
to be independent of the fluid's density. There are different types of head used to calculate the
total head in and out of pump namely, velocity head, elevation head, and pressure head. A
velocity head represents the elevation needed for a fluid to reach the velocity V during
frictionless free fall. An elevation head represents the potential energy of the fluid. While a
pressure head represent the height of a fluid column that produces the static pressure. Hydraulic
head or piezometric head is defined as a specific measurement of liquid pressure above geodetic
datum. From the perspective of the Bernoullis equation, it is the energy comprised only of the
pressure potential and elevation potential.
let work done be dependent upon two independent parameters:
W =f ( P ,m , ) + g ( m, g , z ) eqn .10
where

P is the pressure, m is the mass,

gravitational acceleration,

is the density of the fluid,

z is the elevation.

Using Dimensional Analysis:

W =f ( P ,m , ) + g ( m, g , z )
0=f ( W , P , m , )+ g ( W , m , g , z )=f ( f ) + g( g)
Term 1

Term 2

solving for Term 1:

solving for Term 2:

f =W P a mb c

f =W ma gb z c
a

( MLT )0= ( M L2 T 2 ) ( M L1 T 2 ) ( M )b ( M L3 ) ( MLT )0=( M L2 T 2) ( M )a ( M L2 ) ( L )c

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g is the

0=1+ a+b+ c

b=1

0=1+ a

a=1

0=2a3 c

c=+1

0=2+ b+c

c=1

0=22 a

a=1

0=22b

b=1

f =W (

)
Pm

f=

W
mgz

substituting back to initial;

0=f ( W , P , m , )+ g ( W , m , g , z )=f

W =C1

W
+ g(
( W
)
Pm
mgz )

( Pm )+C ( mgz )

; C1 C2 are arbitrary constants

Where: W =F ht =mg ht

and Let: C1 =1C 2=1 ;

P
ht = + z eqn .11

Within a pipe system, there are two types of losses: major losses and minor losses. Major losses
(hLmajor) is composed of losses generated by pipe components.
a) Major Losses, hLmajor
The pressure drop through pipe systems where viscous effects resulting from shear
stresses that exist due to the interaction between the pipe wall and the fluid flow is
described as follows:
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 P=f ( v , D ,l , , , ) eqn .12

where

is the corresponding pressure drop along the pipe,

average velocity,
pipe,

is the pipe diameter,

is the dynamic viscosity of the fluid,

is the surface roughness of the

is the fluid density, and

is the length of the pipe.

using Buckingham pi Theorem:
0=f ( 1 , 2 , 3 , m )

0=f ( P , v , D , l, , , )

let

,v ,D

be repeating variables; m = 4 pi terms

1= P a v b Dc

2=l a v b Dc
a

(MLT )0=(M L1 T 2 ) ( M L3 ) ( LT 1)b ( L)c

0=1+ a

(MLT )0=(L) ( M L3 ) (LT 1)b ( L)c

a=1

0=13 a+b+ c

0=a
c=0

0=13 a+b+ c

c=1
0=2b

1=

b=2

0=b

P
2
v

2=

3= a v b Dc

l
D

4= a v b Dc
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is the

3 a

1 b

(MLT ) =(L) ( M L ) (LT ) ( L)

a

(MLT )0=(M L1 T 1) ( M L3 ) ( LT 1)b ( L)c

0=a

0=1+ a

a=1
0=13 a+b+ c

c=1

0=13 a+b+ c

c=1
0=b

3=

0=1b

b=1

4=

vD

Substituting pi values to the previous equation:

0=f ( 1 , 2 , 3 , 4 )=f (

P l
, , ,
)
2
v D D vD
P=c v 2

where c is a constant derived from experiments , D

the pipe while

vD

( Dl )( D )( vD ) eqn .13

describes the relative roughness of

describes the Reynolds number of the passing fluid. A

combination of these parameters can be described as the friction factor, f which can be
determined through a Moody diagram.

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Let:

( D )( vD )= 2f

then equation becomes:

2

1 (
fl v 1
P )=(
)
g
2 D g

dividing everything by

eqn .14

h Lmajor =

1
g

fl v
2 Dg

The equation now shows the Darcy Weisbach equation used to determine the major
losses through pipes.
b) Minor Losses
Since minor losses are caused by the difference of profiling of a pipe cross section
across a certain distance, the pressure drop,
only the average velocity of the fluid, v

may be described as a function of

and its density,

. That is:

P=f ( v , )
; where c , a ,b are constants

P=c v a b

to solve for ab , a dimensional analysis is performed.

P=c v a b
a

( M L1 T 2 )=( MLT )0 ( L T 1 ) (M L3)b

1=b
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eqn .15

a=2

2=a

P=c v 2

if the arbitrary constant c

k
2

is substituted by

; where k

is a factor associated by

a certain pipe component, the equation becomes:

( P=k

v2 1
)
2 g
2

h Lminor =k

eqn .16

v
2g

The total head loss then of the pipe system will be the summation of its major and minor losses:
hlosses =h Lmajor + hLminor

eqn .17

IV. Procedure
A. Experimental Set-up

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(courtesy of: Sasuman, Cyril Vincent)

Figure 3 Three Dimensional Layout of the Pipe System Experimental Set-up

B. Schematic Diagram

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Figure 4 Schematic Diagram of the Piping System Experimental Set-up

As shown in the Fig. 3, the axial pump is installed adjacent to the centrifugal pump which
assists the centrifugal pump in priming operation. The figure illustrates that the experimental set
up consists of three different pipe lines having a common receiving tank, wherein here we
collect data for the flow rate of the water. The water tank which is located beside the pipelines
receives the pumped water from the centrifugal pump. Below the tank is the crank lever wherein
the desired head is set.

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Table 2. Symbols used in the Analysis of Flow for Pipes and Fittings
COMPONENT

SYMBOL

PIPE #1

DESCRIPTION
6 cm

, BI,

Threaded
PIPE #2

6 cm

, BI,

Threaded
PIPE #3

3.2 cm

, BI,

GATE VALVE
UNION
45o ELBOW
90o ELBOW
ORIFICE

Threaded
Brass, Threaded
Threaded, Ordinary
Threaded, Ordinary
Threaded, Ordinary
Flanged, Ordinary

NIPPLE

Threaded, Ordinary

Note: The assembly of the fittings used can be found in Figure 3 and 4.

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B. Pre-Experiment
B-1.

Safety

The area is cluttered with slipping and tripping hazards so caution is advised.
When climbing up and down the ladder hold the ladder at the horizontal supports

to avoid slipping and falling.

Take extra caution since the water tank ladder may become wet and slippery.
Do not operate the power switches with wet hands.
Be careful when using chairs, tables or portable ladders to elevate yourself to take
measurements since the area is slippery and there might be instability in using the
items.

B-2.

Priming the Centrifugal Pump

Important notes:
The centrifugal pump requires priming since it requires water to flow through it

for it to begin working.

Air may be present in the centrifugal pump and it is a must that it is removed
before starting the centrifugal pump since it may cause cavitation on the pump

blades.
It took us about 5 minutes of operation of the axial pump before the centrifugal

pump was started.

The centrifugal pump is used to pump water towards the tank since the axial
pump could not increase the water level inside the water tank.

Procedure to prime the centrifugal pump:

a) Referring to Figure V-2A, close valve 1 and valve 2 so the flow of the water
by the axial pump may be directed to the centrifugal pump.
b) Referring to Figure V-2C, open valve 1 and valve 2.
c) Referring to Figure V-2B, turn on the axial pump.
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d) Referring to Figure V-2C, repeatedly close and open valve 1 to remove

bubbles inside the centrifugal pump until none remain and close valve 1.
e) Referring to Figure V-2D, Open the circuit breaker casing and turn on the
circuit breaker. Power up the centrifugal pump by pressing the on button.
f) Referring to Figure V-2B, turn off the axial pump once the centrifugal pump is
on.

(courtesy of: Sasuman, Cyril Vincent)

Fig. V-2A: Axial Pump of the experimental set-up

Fig. V-2B: Power Control of Axial Pump

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Fig. V-2C: Centrifugal Pump of the experimental set-up

(courtesy of: Sasuman, Cyril Vincent)

Fig. V-2D: Power Control of Centrifugal Pump

B-3.

Operating the Overhead Water Tank

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Fig. V-3A: Water Tank and Tank Control

Procedure to operate the water tank:
a) Referring to Figure V-3A, unlock the tank head control crank lock.
b) Turning the water tank head control crank lever in clockwise and counterclockwise direction will increase and decrease the tank head respectively.

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C.

Experiment Detailed Photographic Procedure (Refer to the 3D Layout)

C-1. Set the Water tank head to a head of 110cm

a) Let water flow only through pipe line 1.
Measure the height of the upstream manometers in the fittings.
Measure the difference in height of the manometers.in the fittings.
Measure the diameter of the pipe outlet
Measure the flow using a Bucket and a timer.
b) Let water flow only through pipe line 2.
Measure the height of the upstream manometers in the fittings.
Measure the difference in height of the manometers in the fittings.
Measure the diameter of the pipe outlet
Measure the flow using a Bucket and a timer.
c) Let water flow only through pipe line 3.
Measure the height of the upstream manometers in the fittings.
Measure the difference in height of the manometers.in the fittings.
Measure the diameter of the pipe outlet
Measure the flow using a Bucket and a timer.
d) Repeat the procedures using two different settings for the head. Namely at
70cm and 35cm.
C-2. Procedure to correctly turn off all the pumps after experiment.
a) Referring to Figure V-2D, turn off the centrifugal pump. Open the circuit
breaker casing and turn-off the circuit breaker.
b) Referring to Figure V-2C, close valve 1 and valve 2.
c) Referring to Figure V-2A, close valve 1 and valve 2.

V.

SUGGESTED TABULATION OF RESULTS:

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Table V-1:

Piezometric Column and Total Head at various points of pipe line 1 with variable
initial head

Location

Piezometric Column
110 cm
70 cm
45 cm

110 cm

Total Head
70 cm

45 cm

o- tank
a
b
c
d
e
f
where a is the gate valve upstream, b is the gate valve downstream, c is the union
upstream, d is the union downstream, e is the 45o elbow upstream, and f is the 45o elbow
downstream.

Table V-2:

Piezometric Column and Total Head at various points of pipe line 2 with variable
initial head

Location

Piezometric Column
110 cm
70 cm
45 cm

110 cm

Total Head
70 cm

45 cm

o- tank
a
b
c
where a is the nipple upstream, b is the nipple downstream and the 90 o elbow upstream,
and c is the 90o elbow downstream.

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Table V-3:

Piezometric Column and Total Head at various points of pipe line 3 with variable
initial head

Location

Piezometric Column
110 cm
70 cm
45 cm

110 cm

Total Head
70 cm

45 cm

o- tank
a
b
c
d
e
f
g
h
where a is the orifice upstream, b to e, are the orifice downstream, f is the rotameter
upstream, g is the rotameter downstream, and h is the 90o elbow upstream.

Graph V-1:

Energy Grade Line and Hydraulic Grade Line of pipe line 1 with variable initial
head

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EGL and HGL Curve

350
300
EGL-110cm

250

EGL-70cm

200

EGL-45cm

150

HGL-70cm

HGL-110cm

HEAD (cm)

HGL-45cm

100

Logarithmic (HGL-45cm)

50
0

tan
k

Graph V-2:

d
bLOCATION c(NTS)

dischar
ge

Energy Grade Line and Hydraulic Grade Line of pipe line 2 with variable initial
head

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EGL and HGL Curve

350
300
250

EGL-110cm
EGL-70cm

200

EGL-45cm

HEAD (cm)

HGL-110cm

150

HGL-70cm
HGL-45cm

100
50
0

tank

LOCATION
(NTS)
a
b

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c discharg
e

Graph V-3:

Energy Grade Line and Hydraulic Grade Line of pipe line 3 with variable initial
head

EGL and HGL Graph

350
300
250

EGL-110cm
EGL-70cm

200

EGL-45cm

HEAD (cm)

HGL-110cm

150

HGL-70cm
HGL-45cm

100
50
0

tank

a
b c

LOCATION
f (NTS) g

discharg
e

d e

VII. REFERENCES

Farzin, S., Rahman K., and Mohammad A. G. (2010). A study of friction factor formulation in
pipes using artificial intelligence techniques and explicit equations. Tabriz Iran. 123.
Crane (1991). Flow of fluids through valves, fittings, and pipe. Crane Co., Chicago, 4-5.
Della Rovere, C. A., Aquino, J. M., Ribeiro C.R., Silva, R., Alcantara, N. G., Kuri, S. E. (2014).
Corrosion behavior of radial friction welded super martensitic stainless steel pipes.
Rodovia Washington Luis.
Cengel, Y., Turner, R., and Cimbala, J. (2012). Fundamentals of Thermal Fluid Sciences. 4th
Ed., McGraw-Hill, New York, 471 474.
Daube K. (2003). Diagrams and Nomograms for the Flowtec Handbook. E+H Flowtec AG.
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Retrieved from Flow in Pipes:

https://www.uio.no/studier/emner/matnat/math/MEK4450/h11/undervisningsmateriale/m
odul-5/Pipeflow_intro.pdf

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