ANALYSIS OF STRUCTURES 4-1 INTRODUCTION The preceding chapter on equilibrium has discussed the basic princi- ples and techniques of statical analysis. In this chapter, we extend these concepts to the determination of how the loads applied to a structure are distributed throughout the structure. In subsequent courses we shall learn how to determine the dimensions of the varios parts of a structure so they can safely resist these loads. ‘Although there are many kinds of structures, we limit the discus- sion here to pin-connected types, which are assemblages of bars and beams fastened together by smooth bolts that act as hinges. As a preliminary to their design, our objective is to determine the forces acting in the bars and upon the pins or hinges of the beams. To do so, we must compose supplementary problems involving these forces by means of properly constructed free-body diagrams. The construction of these free-body diagrams requires an understanding of how the structure was assembled so that we can intelligently apply assumptions (when necessary) that simplify the analysis of the struc ture. We feel it is proper to remind you that engineering is the art of obtaining answers to problems that frequently cannot be solved exactly; what we must do is to create a model of the real situation that we can solve, recognizing that the closer the model resembles the real situation, the more reliable the answers will ‘be.4.2 Construction of Trusses ‘After we have learned how structures are constructed, we shall see that the forces acting in or upon their various members create concurrent or nonconcurrent systems of forces in equilibrium. De- pending on the situation, sometimes we consider the free-body dia- grams of the joints that connect the members together; at other times we consider the free-body diagrams of the members. The unknown forces in these free-body diagrams are readily determined by apply- ing the methods and techniques studied in the preceding chapter. 4-2 CONSTRUCTION OF TRUSSES ‘A truss is a structure composed of members fastened together in such a way as to resist change in shape; it isa rigid structure.! The purpose of a truss is to support a larger load or span a greater distance than any individual member from which the truss may be built. To make a structure rigid, its members must be fastened together in such a way as to prevent any movement between them. A pin-connected structure meeting this condition consists of three bars forming the triangular truss shown in Fig. 4-2.1. A pin-connected structure com- posed of four bars is not rigid but is a mechanism (see Fig. 4-2.2) in which a specified motion of AB produces a predictable controlled motion of BC and CD; it is the basis of all machines. In Fig. 4-23, adding a bar BD to the four-link mechanism of Fig, 4-2.2 restores rigidity, while adding two bars BD and AC as in Fig. 4-2.4 produces a structure which is over-rigid and statically indeterminate. However, removing one of the bars from this over- rigid structure produces the trusses shown in (a) and (b) of Fig. 4.2.5 (p. 114), while in part (c) two bars are removed but stability restored by a hinge at A instead of a roller support. After we discuss the formation of simple trusses and the assumptions used in solving them, we shall develop a simple criterion to determine whether a truss is stable, unstable, or over-rigid. ‘As we have shown in the preceding discussion, the basic element of trusses is three bars arranged to form a triangle. To this base triangle, ABC in Fig. 4-26 (p. 114), two more bars may be added to locate a joint D which is rigid relative to the other joints. Since ‘The term rigid is used in the sense of having no deformation. Actual members are, of course, subject to deformation which can be neglected if very small compared with the dimensions of the truss. There are, how- ever, some types of trusses that are statically indeterminate in which the deformations must be taken into account; they must be solved by consider- ing the deformation of the members themselves. These types are beyond the range of this book; for their analysis, the student is referred to Timo- shenko and Young, Theory of Structures, McGraw-Hill; J. S. Kinney, Inde- terminate Structural Analysis, Addison-Wesley; or J. R. Benjamin, Stati- cally Indeterminate Structures, McGraw-Hill. Figure 42.1 Rigid truss. 2 Figure 42.2 Mechanism. g Figure 42.3 Just rigid truss. 2 Figure 42.4 Over-rigid truss.14 ANALYSIS OF STRUCTURES A and D are now fixed relative to each other, two more bars may be added at these joints to fasten together at E, after which two additional bars determine joint F. Thus, by continuing to add bars at joints rigid to one another, additional joints can be determined and a truss consisting of many members may be constructed. Trusses built up in this manner are known as simple trusses, Trusses consisting of two simple trusses joined by three nonintersecting bars or by @ common pin and a bar are known as compound trusses. See Fig. 4-2.7 consisting of two simple trusses ABCDE and DFGH joined by o a common pin D and the bar EH. Any other combination produces a complex truss, but these are relatively uncommon, Trusses are usually supported by anchoring one joint to the foundation by means of a fixed hinge as at F in Fig, 42.6. Since the truss could then rotate about this hinge, an additional support is necessary. This is supplied by mounting another joint, say A, on rollers in such a way that the reaction perpendicular to the roller support will prevent rotation about the hinge support. Then the truss. is completely constrained against any movement by three reactions consisting of two hinge components and one roller support. Observe a that the roller permits thermal and/or elastic bar deformations to occur freely. ASSUMPTIONS IN SIMPLE TRUSSES ‘The members ofa truss are joined together by means of pins at their ends (actually large bolts known as pins which act as pivots) or more often by riveting or welding the members to a common plate known asa gusset plate. If due care is taken to assemble the bars so that their centerlines intersect in a common point at each joint, experi- ments have shown that the forces in the bars may be calculated as if they were pin-connected, even though their ends are actually riveted or welded to a gusset plate. oslo Furthermore, trusses are designed so that all applied loads act Fe aaa Sa «ax the gach Gf Ghd unecabarsf This comtnation a Ilsotrebod in Fig. 42.8 for a simple bridge, Loads are carried by the flooring which is supported by stringers. The stringers in turn are supported by © a E FE E Figure 4-2.6 Formation of a simple truss. Figure 42.7 Compound truss.4-2 Construction of Trusses Figure 42.8 Simple bridge. crossbeams which are attached to the joints, The net effect is that all loads are applied at the joints of the truss. Further, it is usually assumed that the weight of the truss members is negligible in com- parison with the applied loads. In case their weight is not negligible, calculations are made on the assumption that the weight of each member is divided equally into two forces which act vertically downward on the end pins of the member. Since the space position of a truss member is fixed by the rigid construction of the truss and the loads are applied only at the joints, its free-body diagram would show it acted upon by only two equal, oppositely directed forces exerted by the pins at its ends. To satisfy equilibrium, these forces must be axially directed along the member as we learned in the discussion concerning bar AB in Fig. 3-4.2 on p. 81. Such members held in equilibrium by only two forces are called two-force members. The fact that the internal force in a two- force member is axial is important because it determines the action line of the force although its magnitude may be unknown. Members which are stretched are said to be in tension while those that are shortened are said to be in compression. In a typical truss, Fig, 4-2.9a, if the member CE were in tension, isolating it from the truss would give the free-body diagram shown in part (b), and its effect on the joints of the truss would appear as forces T which pull away from these joints. Another member, BD, assumed to be in compression, would be isolated as shown so that its effect on its end joints would be represented by forces C which push toward the joints. From these diagrams, we deduce the following rule: A member in tension causes forces which pull away from its end joints whereas ‘a member in compression causes forces which push toward its end joints. From the manner in which simple trusses are constructed, we us (2) Original truss (©) Compression 2 D (&) Tension Figure 42.9 A tension member pulls away from its end joints while a com- pression member pushes toward them.P ( Figure 42.10 (a) Stable (&) Unstable 116 ANALYSIS OF STRUCTURES can deduce that the relation between m members and j joints is m = 2j — 3. This relation is obtained by noting that to the three joints of the original base triangle, two additional members are needed for each new joint. Another way of obtaining this relation (which may give it more physical significance) is to observe that at each joint two scalar equations of equilibrium exist, so that at j joints there are a total of 2j equations which can be solved simultaneously for the forces in m members plus three external reactions; ie. Y=am+3 (4-21) Usually the three external reactions are found by applying three equations of equilibrium to a free-body diagram of the entire truss. As we shall see, solving first for the external reactions greatly sim- plifies the solution, since then there is no need to solve 2j sets of equations simultaneously. If 2j m + 3, there are too few members; i.c., the truss is unstable. The student should be wamed that although 2j = m + 3 is a necessary condition for stability, itis not a sufficient condition since the requisite number of members could be connected in a manner that would not produce astable structure. See Fig. 4-2.10, However, this will not occur with simple trusses built up with triangular elements, or with compound trusses consisting of two simple trusses joined either by three non- parallel bars, or by a common hinge and a bar. ‘A more general form of Eq. (4-2.1) applicable to mechanisms and frames as well as trusses is Yomte (42.2) where c is the number of constraint supports. Apply this equation to Fig. 4-2.5¢ to confirm stability. 4-3 METHOD OF JOINTS The assumption that all members of a truss are two-force members transmitting axial loads means that the free-body diagram of any joint is a concurrent force system in equilibrium. Since only two inde- pendent equations of equilibrium can be written for a plane con- current system, we start the analysis (after determining the reactions) with a joint acted on by only two members. The unknown forces in these members are determined by using any of the methods previ- ously discussed in Illus. Probs. 3-4.1 or 3-5.1. Once the forces at a starting joint have been determined, their43. Method of Joints Figure 43.1 next joint at which only two unknown forces act, and so on suc- cessively until the unknown force in each member has been found. This procedure is explicitly applied in the illustrative problems. Occasionally, we encounter loading conditions illustrated by the truss shown in Fig. 4-3.1. Joint B of this truss is subjected to the forces exerted by the three members AB, BC, and BD. Members AB and BD are in the same straight line, so that a force summation taken perpendicular to them will eliminate them and result in BC sin 9 = 0, where @ is the angle at which BC is inclined to AB. Obviously BC thust carry zero load under these conditions which we generalize in the following rule: At a joint subjected to the action of three members but no other load, if two of the members are collinear, the force in the third member must be zero. With BC = 0, joint C is subject to this rule, thereby giving CD =0, whence at joint D we find DE = 0 and then at joint E, EF = 0. Similarly, starting at J, JK = 0, and thence proceeding from K to H to I, we also find HK, HI, and FI to carry zero load. The obvious question is why have such members if they carry no load? The answer is that they are not useless; they would carry load under a different loading such as vertical loads also applied at B and J. They also are necessary to support the weight of the truss and the secondary loads induced by the tendency of long compression members to buckle. 7 43.1. For the pin-connected truss, loaded and supported as shown in Fig, 4-3.2, determine the force in each member. Solution We start by determining the reactions, using moment summations about F and A to obtain respectively A, = 600 Ib and F, = 1200 Ib. A horizontal force summation shows F, to be zero. Using the truss dimensions, compute and draw the slope triangles adjacent to each ILLUSTRATIVE PROBLEMSus hh 40018 ©1400 12001 Figure 43.4 Truss marked to show effect of members AB and AC on their end pins. ANALYSIS OF STRUCTURES nl Figure 4.3.2 sloping member. These slope triangles will establish the relations among the force and its components in the corresponding member. Start with joint A which, as shown in Fig. 4-3.2, has only two unmarked members (AB and AC) acting upon it. The FBD of joint A is shown in Fig. 4-3.3 which also shows for later discussion the FBD’s of all other joints in their original spatial position. 450 600 | A ina 9 a 3 SI 1200 ee 3 is ko 8 | am=75000) -=450 Ib “sca wii ce = 8007 Er = 8007 Figure 43.3 Free-body sie of all joints. For joint A to be in equilibrium, it is evident that AB must be directed toward pin A (thereby denoting compression) in order to have a downward vertical component of 600 Ib that balances the upward reaction. From the proportional relations between AB and its slope, we find AB, = 450 Ib and AB = 750 Ib C. Horizontal force balance requires that AC = 450 Ib pulling away from pin A and therefore denoting tension. The action of members AB and AC, indicating respectively compression and tension, on their end pins may now be shown by the arrows in Fig. 4-3.4. (These arrows should43 Method of Joints be inserted on the original truss diagram, but to indicate the marked and unmarked members more clearly, the truss is here redrawn, but to a reduced size to conserve space.) From Fig. 4-3.4, the next joint at which no more than two unmarked members act is seen to be B. On its FBD which is part of Fig. 4-3.3, the components of the now known value of AB act as shown, opposite to the action of AB on A. Clearly, horizontal balance requires that the horizontal component of BD be 450 Ib directed leftward on B. This requires BD to push toward joint B (ie., be in compression) and the slope relations give BD, = 150 Ib and BD = 474 Ib C. Vertical force balance at B is achieved by BC pulling down with a value of 750 Ib to balance the upward action of AB, (= 600 Ib) and BD, (= 150 Ib). The action of BD and BC at D and C may now be marked on the original truss diagram as is denoted by the arrows in Fig. 4-3.5. From this figure, the next joint having only two unmarked members is at C. At this joint in Fig. 4-3.3, reasoning as above, we first apply a vertical force balance to obtain the components of CD whence a horizontal force balance de- termines CE. Now complete the truss analysis as shown in Fig. 4-3.6. If we wish, we could formally apply 3H = 0 and ZV = 0 at each joint to obtain these results, but usually it is more convenient to reason as discussed above. Actually, we need not bother to draw the dashed horizontal and vertical components in a sloping member as we have done for AB and BD in Fig. 4-3.3, Instead, indicate them on a force triangle drawn between the end joints of the member on the original truss diagram, corresponding to those shown in Fig. 4-33 for members AB, BD, CD, and DF. Obviously each such force triangle is similar to its corresponding slope triangle. Omit direc- tional arrows of the components on these force triangles, since their direction at each joint is evident from the arrow denoting the action of the member upon its end joints. Asa final observation, it will usually be faster to carry out the above analysis directly upon an enlarged drawing of the truss rather than draw a separate FBD of each joint in its proper spatial position as we did for explanatory purposes in Fig. 4-3.3. 4.3.2, Determine the force in each member of the pin-connected truss loaded and supported as shown in Fig. 4-3,7. Solution ‘The given truss is symmetrical and also symmetrically loaded so that the forces need be found in only one-half of it. However, since the direction of each member is defined here by angles instead of its slope, the equilibrium of each joint is best determined here by using force triangles or the method of rotated axes rather than horizontal 9 6001 4001 ©1400 120018 Figure 4.3.5 After marking effect of members BD and BC on their end pins, the next joint having only two unmarked members is joint C. zB ~~ P = = F a 7 7] 6006 4001 14001 120018 Figure 43.6 Truss marked after CE and CD have been found. Any combi- nation of joints D, E, or F may be used to find forces in remaining un- marked members120 ANALYSIS OF STRUCTURES r Nhe sf “iy as-is ce ( Favors 0m ne=9h yy oN Kes 30°} cE acc=sf501) © Fore Figure 43.8 Aa 3000 16) Gx 3000 1b) Figure 43.7 and vertical force summations as we found convenient in the pre- ceding problem. From symmetry, the reaction equals 3000 Ib at A which is the first joint having only two unmarked members (AB and AC) acting upon it. For the three forces in equilibrium at A, we draw the force triangle shown at (a) of Fig. 4-3.8. Applying the sine law, we find AC = 8190 IbT and AB = 10,030 IbC. Tensile or compressive ac- tion is determined by marking the action of these members upon joint A to correspond with the directions of these forces in the force triangle. Clearly, AC pulls away from A and hence is in tension while AB pushes toward A and is in compression. The effect of AB and AC on B and C is of course opposite to their effect on A. It is suggested that you make a sketch of the truss and mark on it the action of each member on its end joints as the force in it is found. Then you will see that the next joint having only two unmarked members is B. Here four forces act so that a force triangle cannot be used; instead we use the concept of rotated axes as shown in the FBD of B at (b) of Fig. 4-38. Assuming BD and BC to be in compression and therefore acting toward B, we rotate the X axis to coincide with the unknown force BD, whence we obtain [py =0] BC + 10,030 sin 15° — 2000 sin 60° = 0 BC = —870Ib [2x = 0] 10,030 cos 15° — 2000 cos 60° — BD = 0 BD = 8690 Ib The positive result for BD confirms that it is in compression as assumed, whereas the negative result for BC means that we as- sumed the wrong direction; BC therefore pulls away from B and is in tension. Now we mark the correct action of BD and BC upon43 Method of Joints 121 their end pins and proceed to consider the equilibrium of the next joint C at which there are only two unmarked members. Assume both CD and CE to be in tension. The FBD of joint C can now be drawn as in Fig. 4-3.8c. Note that we show BC in its correct tensile action. The X axis coincides with CE, and we have [ZY¥=0] CDsin 45° + 870 sin 60° — 8190 sin 30° = 0 CD = 4720 Ib T [2x = CE + (CD = 4720) cos 45° — 870 cos 60° — 8190 cos 30° CE = 4185 1b T The positive values obtained for CD and CE confirm the assumption that these members are in tension. [As mentioned previously, the loading and the truss are symmet- rical so that the forces in all members are now determined. If the truss or loading were not symmetrical, however, the solution would be continued by proceeding to the next unmarked pin. This pin is D, but another pin having only two unmarked members acting upon it is pin G. It is preferable to avoid pin D, start anew from pin G and determine the forces in FG and EG. After the action of FG and EG upon their end pins is marked on the truss, the next pin to be selected for analysis will be pin F. From the FBD of F, the forces DP and EF can be found and their action marked on the truss. Next we consider the FBD of pin E to determine the forces in DE and CE. The force in CE will then have been determined independently from the FBD’s of pins C and E. A check on the accuracy of the computations is assured if the force in CE as found from pin C agrees with that found from pin E. PROBLEMS: 43.3. The members of the truss shown in Fig, P-4-3.3 are pin- connected only at the lettered joints. When the truss carries the vertical loads P and Q shown, determine by inspection which members transmit no force. AN, NM, KJ, JI, CN, CL, EL Ans. Figure P-43.3 .188 ANALYSIS OF STRUCTURES 43.4, Determine the force in each bar of the truss shown in Fig. P43.4, Hint: First determine which bars carry no force. CD = DE = OSTIPC; BF = 0.289P T Ans. 43.5. Determine the force in each bar of the truss shown in Fig. P-4-3.5 caused by lifting the 120-Ib load at a constant velocity of 8 ft per see. What change in these forces, if any, results from placing the roller support at D and the hinge support at A? 436. In the cantilever truss shown in Fig. P-4-3.6, compute the force in each member. \B = 1732 Ib BE = DE = 1541bC Ans. 43.7, Determine the force in members AB, BD, BE, and DE of the Howe roof truss shown in Fig, P-4-3.7, 600 tb 1000 18 400 th Figure P-4.3.7 43.8, Compute the force in each member of the truss shown in Fig. P-4-3.8. If the loads at B and D are shifted vertically downward to add to the loads at C and E, which members, if any, would undergo a change in internal force? 400 200 AB = 1500 Ib C; BC = 300 Ib T; BD = 948 Ib Figure P-43.8 CD = 141.4 1b T; CE = 800 Ib T; DF = 1443 lbC Ans.43 Method of Joints 123, 43.9. Determine the force in each member of the crane truss shown in Fig. P-439. AB = 12,000 Ib G; AC = 13,100 1b T; BC = 6000 Ib C; BD = 10,400 1b C; CD = 0 Ans. 43.10. Determine the force in each member of the truss shown in Fig. P-4.3.10. 30015 3001 900 1b Figure P-4-3.10 43.11, For the truss shown in Fig. P-4-3.11, find the force acting in each member. AB = 4240 Ib C; BC = 30001bT; CD = 11201bC Ans. 10001 100016 Figure P-43.11 43,12, Determine the force in member AD of the truss shown in Fig, 43.12, 5501 3301 43.13. Find the force acting in bar CE of the compound truss shown in Fig. P-43.13. 1801 549 |-—10' Figure P-43.12124 ANALYSIS OF STRUCTURES 1200 16 [Or 4-3.14, For the truss shown in Fig. P-4-3.14, find the force in members BD ines) BE BD = 2240 Ib C; BE = 7831bT Ans. 43.15. Solve for the force in members EF and EG for the truss shown in Fig. P-4-3.14. 43.16. The truss shown in Fig, P-4-3.16 is pin-connected only at the lettered joints. Find the force acting in each member. AC = 2100 Ib T; DE 1200 Ib T; GH = 2400 Ib T Ans. 2 2 E = Figure P-43.14 —-] 400 15 Figure-P-43.174-4 Method of Sections 43.17, Find the force in members AB, AC, BC, BD, CD, and CE for the truss shown in Fig. P-4-3.17. Assume that the loads P are zero and that each load Q = 4000 Ib. BD = 5660 lb C; CE = 6940 Ib T 43.18. Repeat Prob. 4-3.17 if the loads Q are zero and each load P = 20001b. 43.19. Repeat Prob. 4.3.17 if each load P = 1500 Ib and each load Q = 2500 Ib. BD = 4440 Ib C; CE = 5065 1b T 4-4 METHOD OF SECTIONS We have seen that the method of joints consists of analyzing trusses by applying the principles of equilibrium to the concurrent force systems acting at each joint. The principles of equilibrium of non- concurrent force systems may also be applied to truss analysis; the procedure is known as the method of sections.” Its use permits us to determine directly the force in almost any member instead of proceeding to that member by a joint-to-joint analysis. In the method of sections, a portion of the truss is isolated as a free body by passing an imaginary cutting plane through the entire truss, separating it into two parts. If possible, the separation should be done without cutting more than three members of the truss, We shall then have two isolated parts of the truss, each constituting a nonconcurrent system of forces in equilibrium under the action of the known loads that act on each part and the unknown forces that the cut members of one part exert on the other. For example, con- sider the truss shown in Fig. 4-4.1. If a cutting plane passes through the members DF, EF, and EG, the truss may be separated into two (Cutting plane 10001 10001» | 1000 1% 10001 100018 ky = 250015 Ry = 25001 Figure 4-4.1 Section through a truss. * Strictly speaking, the method of joints is really a variation of the method of sections; the section is taken around the joint, thus isolating the joint as a free body. It is traditional, however, to use the expression method of joints for the equilibrium of concurrent forces at a joint, and the expres- sion method of sections when considering the nonconcurrent force system set up by a section through the truss.”126 ANALYSIS OF STRUCTURES parts, each of which is acted upon by unknown forces equivalent to the loads being transmitted by these members. These two parts are shown in Fig. 4-4.2. Each part in this figure constitutes a system of nonconcurrent forces in equilibrium. Since the unknowns in either system are the same, it is generally best to determine the unknowns from the equations of equilibrium applied to the simpler system. Here part (a) is obviously the simpler system since it involves fewer forces. Do not show the forces in the uncut members since they are internal to the free bodies shown. Observe that the action of all uncut members on their end joints occurs in equal opposite pairs at their end joints and hence cancels out of any calculation involving the entire free body. cating pe F'l F HH J pF oe (er | EF “ rc | I sy iG ik t ‘Ry = 250018 100016 1000 8 1000 % 10001 10001 Ry = 25001 © cy Figure 44.2 Each segment of the truss is held in equilibrium by forces equal to those in the cut members. To simplify the calculations, use a condition of equilibrium that determines each unknown force independently of the other un- knowns. Usually a moment summation is best, the center of moments being chosen- at the intersection of the unknown forces to be elimi- nated from the moment summation. Thus, in Fig, 4-4.2a, if the force in DF is desired, select E as the center of moments. To determine the force in EG, select the moment center at the intersection of DF and EF. This will be at a point F” having the location of the original point F with respect to the left section. However, the moment method cannot be applied to determine EF because DF and EG, being parallel, intersect at infinity. Here we determine EF from a vertical summation of forces which eliminates the horizontal forces EG and DF. The procedure just described constitutes the method of sections. ‘This method usually lets the force in any member be determined without finding the forces in the other members. Merely pass the cutting plane through the member whose force is desired. It is essen- tial, however, that the plane does not cut more than three members whose internal forces are unknown, because the method of sections is based on the equilibrium of coplanar force systems for which only three independent equations of equilibrium are available to solve. 4-4 Method of Sections for three unknowns. An exception is the case where the cutting plane may pass through the desired member as well as several others, provided all these other members intersect at a common joint which is used as the center of moments. An example is the situation oc- curring in Prob. 4-4.20 where the force in BC can be found by using the curved section a-a and taking a moment summatian about G. Observe that the cutting section need not be straight; its purpose is to isolate the truss segment selected as the free body without involving more than three unknowns. This is illustrated by the curved section in Fig. 4-4.3 which isolates the truss segment ADE and ex- poses the forces in AB, CD, and EF. Although this curved section cuts through CF and BF twice, the equal opposite action of the exposed forces in these members cancels out of any force or moment summation. Then, after determining the forces in AB, CD, and EF from the isolated segment ADE, the method of joints may be used to find the forces in the remaining members. 137 Figure 44.3 Isolation of segment ADE by curved section. 44,1. Use the method of sections to find the force acting in members BD, BE, and CE of the bowstring truss shown in Fig. 4-4.4. Determine each force by means of an equation which does not involve the other unknown forces. 4, =18001 120016 1200 16 12001 Hy = 18001 Figure 44.4 Solution The required forces in BD, BE, and CE can be found by passing the section a-a through these members. Since the original truss is in equilibrium, the two segments into which it is divided by a cutting plane will also be in equilibrium if the loads transmitted by the cut members are replaced by external forces equal to these loads. These external forces are shown in Fig. 4-4.5 acting on the isolated left segment of the truss which involves a smaller number of forces than the right segment. ILLUSTRATIVE PROBLEM198 ANALYSIS OF STRUCTURES ‘To determine the value of CE, we use an equation of equilibrium which eliminates BD and BE. Since BD and BE intersect at B, these forces have no moment about B; hence, we apply the equation [+}2M, = 0] SCE — 12(1800)=0 — CE = 27001b T Ans. ‘The positive value of CE confirms its assumed direction; hence, the member CE is in tension since it pulls away from pin C. Ay = 1800 15 120010 BE. Figure 4-4.5 Free-body diagram of left section of truss. ‘The value of BD is found by taking moments about E’ which thereby eliminates BE and CE since their lines of action, if prolonged, intersect at E’. As a rule, the center of moments is chosen at the intersection of the two unknown forces to be eliminated from a moment summation. Note that here the spatial position of the mo- ment center E’ is determined from the dimensions of the original truss. ‘The moment of BD about E’ is most easily found as the sum of the moments of its horizontal and vertical components. By placing these components at D’ (located on the line of action of BD) we eliminate the vertical component BD, from the moment summation about E. We therefore obtain [+52Mp = 0] 12BD, + 12(2000) — 24(1800) = 0 BD, = 2400 Ib whence, using the proportionality between the force and its slope, we have BD _ BD, BD, _ 2400 vio 1 3 3 or BD, = 8001b and BD = 2530 Ib Ans. ‘To solve for BE independently of BD and CE, we take moments about the intersection of the forces to be eliminated. In this instance, the intersection of BD and CE is not at once evident, but it is easily4-4 Method of Sections located by observing that the slope of BD is such that it drops one foot vertically in each three feet horizontally. Hence, the point O must lie three times as far to the left of C as B is above C; ie, at 3(8)= 24 ft which locates O as shown in Fig. 4-4.5. In taking moments about O, replace BE by its horizontal and vertical compo- nents acting at E’, thereby eliminating the horizontal component BE, from the moment summation. Thus, we obtain [452M = 0] 36BE, — 24(1200) + 12(1800) = 0 BE, = 200 Ib whence, from the proportionality between the force BE and its slope, bed id BE _ BE, Vide Ga" 18 vad or BE, = 300Ib and BE = 3611bC Ans. We check the accuracy of our computations by taking a hori- zontal summation of the forces acting on the FBD of Fig, 4-4.5. Thus, [2H = 0) CE — BE, — BD, =0 or 2700 — 300 — 2400 = 0 Check 129 —————— PROBLEMS 44,2, The Warren truss loaded as shown in Fig. P-4-4.2 is supported by a hinge at G and by a roller at C. Use the method of sections to compute the force in bars BC, DF, and CE. BC = 448 lb C; DF = 800 Ib C; CE 100 Ib T Ans. 44.3, Use the method of sections to determine the force in bars DF, DG, and EG of the Howe truss shown in Fig, P-4-4.3. sop tb 800 400 15 1000 1b A, = 190010 Figure P-4-4.2 Figure P-44.3 200016 4 panels@ 12’ = 48" = 21001ANALYSIS OF STRUCTURES 4-44, For the truss shown in Fig, P-4-4.4, determine the force in BF by the method of joints and then check this result using the method of sections. Hint: To apply the method of sections, first obtain the value of BE by inspection. BF = 2500 Ib C Ans. 44,5. In the Fink truss shown in Fig. P-4-4.5, the web members BC and EF are perpendicular to the inclined members of their midpoints. If P = 2000 Ib, use the method of sections to determine the force in DF, DE, and CE. 446, Find the maximum value of P that may be applied to the Fink truss of Fig. P-4-4.5 if the maximum loads permitted in members BD, CD, and CE respectively are not to exceed 7000 Ib, 3000 Ib, or 5000 Ib. P = 24051b Ans. With this value of P, what will be the actual loads in these members? 12901 1890 1b 12001 600 16 Figure P-4-4.7 44,7, Determine the force in bars BD, CD, DE, BE, and CH of the truss shown in Fig. P-4-4.7. Hint: After finding DE, consider a FBD of joint D. BD = 878 Ib C; CD = 1750 Ib C; DE = 20151b C; BE = 1050 Ib T; CH = 7501b T Ans. 448. Find the force in member FG of the triangular Howe truss shown 300 tb 12001 12001 12001 12001 12001» Figure P-4-4.84-4 Method of Sections in Fig. P-4-4.8. Wind pressure creates the loads which are perpendicular to the inclined members. Hint: First use the method of sections to determine DF and then consider an FBD of joint F. FG = 5600 Ib T Ans. 44.9. Assume that the group of vertical 1200-Ib loads are removed from the triangular Howe truss of Fig. P-4-4.8, leaving only the wind loads which are perpendicular to the inclined members. Use the method of sections to determine the force in members FH, FG, and EG. Hint: Determine by inspection the forces in the web members of the left side of the truss. 44.10, After using the method of sections to find the force in bars BD and CD of the truss shown in Fig. P-4-4.10, find the force in bar AB. Hint: Use geometry to find the slope of CD. AB = 2477 IbC; BD = 17701bC; CD = 118IbT Ans, a ed Figure P-4-4.10 44,11. For the truss shown in Fig. P-4-4.11, determine each of the forces in bars BD, CD, and CE by means of an equilibrium equation that determines it independently of the others. 44,12. Use the method of sections to determine independently the force in bars AD, BE, and CE of the truss shown in Fig, P-4-4.12. AD = 1896 Ib C; BE = 361 Ib C; CE = 21001bT Ans, B 2 E 4 panels @ 18! = 72. Figure P-4-4.12 44.13. The loads on the Parker truss shown in Fig. P-4-4.13 (p. 192) are in kips. One kip equals 1000 Ib, Determine the forces in members BD, BE, CE, and DE. 131 1200 tb 4001 2001 Figure P-4-4.11ANALYSIS OF STRUCTURES Figure P-4.4.15 44.14, Determine the force in members DF, DG, and EG for the Parker truss shown in Fig. P-4-4.13. DF = 162 kips C; DG = 32.7 kipsT; EG = 140.6 kipsT — Ans. 44.15. For the truss shown in Fig. P-4-4.15, determine independently the forces in bars BD, CD, CE, and EF. Hint: To find EF independently, dot a force summation with a unit vector perpendicular to EG. BD = 896 Ib C; CD = 112 1b T; 283 Ib T ‘Ans. 44.16. In the cantilever truss shown in Fig, P-4-4.16, each side of the square BCFD equals a\/2 while the length of AB is 2a. Use a combina- tion of section and joint analysis to find the force in bar AB. AB = 2400 Ib T Ans. 47.17. The structure shown in Fig. P-4-4.17 consists of two simple trusses joined by bars BE, CF, and DC. Find the force in bar FG. 1200 6 900 1 Figure P-4-4.17 44.18. Compute the force in bars AB, AC, DF, and DE of the scissors truss shown in Fig, P-4-4.18,4-4 Method of Sections PLatwlwtul 2 Figure P-4-4.18 44.19. Compute the force in bars GI, GH, EH, and HI for the scissors truss shown in Fig. P-4-4.18, GI = 56.6 kips C; GH EH = 38.4 kips T; HI 6kips T; 75kipsC Ans. 44.20. For the transmission tower shown in Fig. P-4-4.20, determine the force in member Cl. Hint: First use section ava to find the force in BC. Cy) = 2501bC Ans, 44.21. Find the force acting in members EH, FH, Fl, and Gl of the K-type bridge truss shown in Fig. P-4-4.21. Refer to the hint of the previous problem. WK eK eK eg |-—6 panels 30° = 180 Figure P-4-4.21 44.22. Find the foundation reactions of the Wichert truss shown in Fig. P-4-4.22 (p. 134) ‘Suggestion: When the methods of joints or sections are not directly applicable although the structure as a whole is statically determinate, a134 ANALYSIS OF STRUCTURES Figure P-4-4.22 method devised by Henneberg? may be used. Briefly, this method consists of removing a bar or reaction from the original truss and substituting for it a bar that produces a solvable replacement truss. The specified load- ing is then applied to the replacement truss and the force in the substitute bar computed. Next, the replacement truss is loaded by a force X in place of the removed bar or reaction, and again the force in the substitute bar is computed due to this force A. The value of X is determined by equating to zero the sum of the forces in the substitute bar under these two loadings of the replacement truss. A superposition of the two force distributions in the replacement truss then gives the forces in the bars of the original truss since the force in the substitute bar becomes zero and this bar may be removed to give the original truss and loading In the present problem, apply Henneberg’s method by removing the support at D and replacing it by the substitute bar BD. Solve for the force in this bar under the two loadings shown in Fig. P-4-4.22A and equate their sum to zero to obtain the value of R which you should find to be 3P. @ Figure P-4-4.224 *4-5 REDUNDANT MEMBERS; COUNTER DIAGONALS In trusses subjected to moving loads, such as railroad bridges, the diagonal members may undergo a reversal of stress; that is, a diagonal normally in tension may become subject to a compressive load. If the diagonal is composed of eyebars or is otherwise so slender com- pared with its length that it will buckle under compressive loads, 3 For a complete discussion of Henneberg’s method, see Timoshenko and Young, Theory of Structures, McGraw-Hill, p. 82.4-5 Redundant Members: Counter Diagonals an additional diagonal sloping in the opposite direction must be provided in the truss panel to prevent collapse of the structure. Additional diagonals of this type might be called redundant, ie., unnecessary; but as only one of these diagonals acts at a time, the term redundant does not apply in this case, although it is frequently used. These additional diagonals are usually known as counter diago- nals, or more briefly, as counters. They are often represented by dashed lines on a truss. In considering the action of counters, it is convenient to regard them as wires which can support tension but will buckle instantly if subjected to compression. Ry = 60010 Ry = 1200 Figure 45.1 Counter diagonals. ‘As an example, consider the truss shown in Fig, 45.1. It is required to determine which of the tension diagonals AD or BC in the third panel is acting under the given loading. This is accom- plished by passing the section a-a through the truss. Although four members are cut, the horizontal forces in AB and CD are eliminated by applying a vertical force summation. Considering the part of the truss to the left of section a-a, we see that the upward effect of R, must be balanced by a downward component exerted by the diago- nals, In order to have a downward component, the forces in the diagonals must act as shown. If BC were acting, the arrow toward pin C indicates that the member would be in compression and hence buckle out of action since we assume counters to behave like wires. On the other hand, the arrow away from the pin at A indicates AD to be under tension and AD is the tension member acting. From the dimensions of the truss and by equating a vertical summation of forces to zero, we find the force in member AD to be [2Y=0] 600 — AD(15/25)=0 = AD=1000IbT — Ans. It is sometimes asked why both of the counters cannot act as tension diagonals, If this were so, the force in AD would be increased and this would violate the axiom of conservation of energy; ie., forces are always distributed in the most efficient manner possible. ‘As an exercise, determine by inspection which of the other diagonals are acting in the other panels of the truss, 135 Ry = 60015 AB136 ANALYSIS OF STRUCTURES PROBLEMS 45.1. In Fig, P-4-4.3, on page 129, assume that counter diagonals act from B to E and from E to F in addition to the counter diagonals CD and DG shown in the figure. Assuming these counter diagonals can support only tension, determine which diagonals are acting and the force in each, 45.2, The center panel of the truss in Fig, P-4-5.2 contains two flexible cables. What load P will cause a compressive force of 2000 Ib in BD? Then determine which tension diagonal BE or CD is acting and the force in it CD = 14141 Ans, Figure P-45.2 45.3. The center diagonals of the truss in Fig. P-4-5.3 can support only tension. Compute the force in each center diagonal and the force in bars BC, DE, and FG. BE = 1050 lb T; DG = 1751bT Ans, 600 1» (600 4-6 METHOD OF MEMBERS. FRAMES If some or all of the members of a pin-connected structure are subjected to bending action because of loads applied along their length in addition to loads at their ends, the structure is called a frame. As we shall see, itis not feasible to analyze a frame by passing a section through the members of such structures as we did for trusses. Instead, we consider the separate free-body diagram of each4-6 Method of Members. Frames 137 member subjected to bending; the procedure is called the method of members. It is important to note that in trusses, the various members are assumed to be loaded only at their ends so that the end forces in such two-force members are directed along their axes. However, in multiloaded members, the end forces will be shown not to act along the axis of the member; in fact, the direction of the end forces on these members is often unknown. Consequently, a section passed through such a member will disclose that the member is subjected not only to an unknown axial tension or compression, but also to an unknown transverse force and an unknown bending action whose effect varies with the location of the section. We next examine in detail the difference in analysis between trusses and frames. Consider first the simple truss loaded and supported as shown in part (a) of Fig. 4-6.1. The dimensions of the truss and the load are assumed to be known. The three reaction components are readily found by applying the three equations of equilibrium. If the bar AC is removed to give the structure shown in part (b), it is clear that the structure will collapse since the roller at A is free to move horizontally. However, rigidity will be restored as shown in part (c) if the roller at A is replaced by a hinge. Obviously each hinge reaction in (c) may be replaced by two components as shown, thus giving a structure with apparently four unknown reaction compo- nents for which only three equations of equilibrium are available. Since we must have as many equations of equilibrium as there are unknowns, it seems as though part (c) is indeterminate, but the fact, that bars AB and BC are loaded only at their end points means that the force transmitted by these bars must act along their length and hence the reaction components at A and at C are related by the Pp 2 4 c G Ae a @ CO) © Figure 46.1 Removal of bar AC from (a) requires hinge at A in (c) to maintain stability.138 ANALYSIS OF STRUCTURES slopes of the members AB and BC. In fact, a solution is readily completed by applying the method of joints around B, thus finding the forces in AB and BC which lead directly to the reaction compo- nents. Observe that in both parts (a) and (c), the equation of stability 2j = m + R is satisfied. In (a), we have 3 members and 3 reactions for 3 joints, whereas in (c) there are 2 members and 4 reactions for 3 joints. Consider next the structure shown in Fig, 4-6.2 where known loads P and F are applied to the members at specified positions along their lengths. The result is that members AB and BC are subjected to bending action instead of simple axial loading as was the case in Fig. 4-6.1. Obviously each hinge supplies two reaction compo- nents, but this time the direction of the total hinge reaction is not directed along the member as the free-body diagrams of AB and BC in parts (b) and (c) clearly show. Moment balance about B in each part requires the total hinge reactions to act as shown at unknown angles 0, and 6,, There are therefore four unknown elements of the hinge reactions consisting of the unknown hinge reactions A and C plus their unknown angles 6, and 6y or the four unknown magnitudes of their components, ive., Ay, Ay, Cy, and C,. The three equations of equilibrium are not sufficient to solve for all four of these unknowns. However, member AB as a free body is held in equilibrium by two of these unknowns plus two additional unknown hinge components at B exerted through this hinge by member BC upon AB. Since three equations of equilibrium are available for the FBD of member AB, we have a total of 6 equations of equilibrium (3 for the original FBD of the given structure and 3 for member AB) to solve for the 6 unknown components acting upon these two free bodies. As a general guide to applying the equations of equilibrium most efficiently, it is best to start with @ & o Figure 46.2 In members subjected to bending, the end forces are not directed along the member.4-6 Method of Members. Frames 139 moment summations which will solve for the unknown quantities common to both free-body diagrams, in this case for A, amd A,. Thus in part (a) of Fig. 4-6.2, a moment summation about C deter- mines A,. When we use this result in part (b), a moment summation about B then determines A, after which two force summations (SH = 0 and SV = 0) are available for each free body to determine the remaining unknown components at C and B. If desired, we could just as well have solved for the unknown hinge components by considering a combination of the free-body diagrams of the original structure and of member BC. For this combi- nation, the common unknowns are C, and C, which are readily determined by first applying 2M, = 0 in part (a) to find C, and then using this result in [My = 0 in part (c) to find C, after which two force summations applied to each free body determine the rest of the unknowns. Finally, i is possible to solve for the unknown hinge components by considering the combination of the free-body diagrams of mem- bers AB and BC. Here the two common unknowns would be B, and B, whose values would now be obtained by applying 2M, = 0 to the FBD of AB and 3M, = 0 to the FBD of BC. Then, as before, two force summations may be applied to each FBD to determine the remaining unknowns. This time, however, we would have the disadvantage of solving a pair of simultaneous equations for B, and B, rather than finding each unknown directly. On the other hand, the moment arms involved in setting up these equations will be smaller than before. It is a matter of opinion which combination of free-body diagrams to use; they all yield the same result The essential principle involved in applying the method of members is to isolate and draw a separate FBD for each member subjected to bending action. When the members for analysis are isolated, Newton’s law of action and reaction requires that the forces (usually represented by their components) exerted by the connecting hinges or pins must be consistently represented as acting in opposite directions on the separated members. Even if either component of a force is incorrectly assumed in direction, the solution will still give its correct magnitude but with a negative sign. This would mean that the component of the force on both separated members acts - in the opposite direction to that originally assumed. Further discus- sion of the method of members is given in the following illustrative problem, ILLUSTRATIVE 46.1. A billboard BC weighing 1000 Ib is subjected to a wind load of 300 Ib per linear foot as shown in Fig. 4-6.3, Neglecting the PROBLEM weights of the supporting members, determine the hinge forces at A and F. .140 ANALYSIS OF STRUCTURES c Wind toad = 300 Ib per ft Fy (= Figure 4.6.3 Solution Since the directions of the hinge forces at A and F are unspecified, we replace the hinge forces by components assumed to be acting as shown. Hence, Fig, 4-6.3 shows four unknowns acting on a system for which only three equations of equilibrium are available, Con- sidering this system, none of these unknowns can be found and the system seems to be indeterminate. Additional equations are needed and can be obtained by considering a free-body diagram of each of the members as is shown in Fig. 4-6.4. Then an analysis consisting of a progressive comparison of the number of unknowns on each free body with the available number of equations of equilibrium will disclose whether a solution is possible. ‘To make this analysis, we list the unknowns acting on each free body considered and for each successive free body we insert the additional unknowns not previously listed. If the sum of the listed ‘unknowns just equals the total of available equations, a solution will be possible. Observe that in Fig. 4-64, we have drawn a FBD of each member subjected to a bending action. At each hinge we represent the unknown hinge force by two components. It is unimportant whether we correctly assume the direction of a hinge force com- ponent. If we are correct, we shall obtain a positive answer; an incorrect direction is denoted by a negative result. The components of the hinge forces at C and D exerted by member CD are related4-6 Method of Members. Frames @ © Figure 4.6.4 by the slope of CD in the original diagram since CD is loaded only at its ends and hence transmits an axial force between C and D. Note carefully that the action of the components of the hinge force at B upon BC in part (a) is equal but opposite to the action of these components upon AE in part (b); also that the components of the hinge force at E upon AE in part (b) are equal but opposite to these components acting upon DF in part (c). This is due to Newton's third law that action and reaction forces are equal but oppositely directed. Apply this principle carefully when setting up the free-body diagrams. We are now ready to set up the following table: Free Equations Body | Unknowns available BC By, By CD 3 Solve for By, By, and CD a Ey By By Be 3 __| Solve first for common AE eas - unknowns E, and £, Totals 9 [eo For the 9 unknowns listed, we now have 9 equations available, and solution is possible. As a general rule, if a body has only 3 unknowns Ex(= 3000) M1 cD\= 1500) A re ©142 ANALYSIS OF STRUCTURES (as does BC), we solve first for these unknowns. Next we solve for the unknowns common to the other free bodies, taking moment summations about centers which eliminate the other unknowns. Applying this analysis, we start first with body BC. The equa- tions of equilibrium and the slope relations for CD give [+)2, = 0] 10(CD,) — 3000(5) = 0 CD, = 1500 Ib whence CD, = 500 Ib (2H = 0) 3000 — 1500 — B, = 0 B, [=v =0] B, + 500 — 1000 = 0 B, 1500 Ib 500 Ib ‘These results are now inserted in parentheses in parts (b) and (c) as is shown to clarify subsequent computations, We next solve for the unknowns E, and E, which are common to the free bodies of DF and AE. We consider first DF (Fig. 4-6.4c) since a moment summation about F eliminates all unknowns except E,. We obtain [+52Mp = 0] 4E, — 8(1500) = 0 E, = 3000 Ib Inserting this value of E, on the FBD of AE (Fig. 4-6.4b), a moment summation about A eliminates all unknowns except E, and yields [+)2M, = 0] 12E, — 8(3000) — 6(500) — 4(1500) = 0 E, = 2750 1b For each of the members of AE and DE, there remain two equations of equilibrium which may now be applied to determine the remaining unknowns. Thus, for AE, we have (2H =0) 3000 + 1500 — A, = 0 Ay = 4500 1b Vv =0] A, — 500 + 2750 = 0 A, = —22501b To the FBD of DF we apply [2H =0) 1500 — 3000 — F, = 0 F, = —15001b [2v=0] F, — 2750 — 500 =0 k, 3250 Ib The negative results for A, and F, indicate that their assumed directions must be reversed. Therefore, combining the components of the hinge forces at A and F, we obtain [A = VA +A A = V(4500) + (2250 A = 5030 Ib 27; 6, = 266° Ans. [F = VF? + F?] F = v(1500) + (3250) F = 3590 lb 2; 0, = 65.3° Ans,46 Method of Members. Frames PROBLEMS 46.2, The structure shown in Fig. P-4-6.2 is hinged at A and C. Find the horizontal and vertical components of the hinge force at A, B, and C. B, = 1001b; B, = 1751b Ans. 46.3. The pin-connected frame in Fig, P-4-6.3 supports a load W = 120 Ib. Find the horizontal and vertical components of the pin force at C as it acts upon member CE, Neglect the weights of the members G, = 90 lb right; C, = 60 Ib up Ans. 464, Resolve Prob. 46.3 if, in addition to the load W = 1201b, members AC and CE weigh 10 Ib per linear foot. 46.5. In the system shown in Fig, P-4-6.5, find the reaction at D caused by the 1200-Ib load. Neglect the weight of the members. D = 3501b Ans. 46.6. For the structure loaded as shown in Fig, P-4-6.6, find the horizontal and vertical components of the pin force at B as they act upon member CD. B, = 1801b left; B, = 210 1b down Ans. 4.6.7. The A-frame shown in Fig. P-4-6.7 is supported by a hinge at A and a roller at E. Compute the horizontal and vertical components of, the hinge forces at B and C as they act upon member AC. 601% i Figure P-4-6.6 Figure P-4-6.7 468. The frame shown in Fig. P-46.8 is supported by a hinge at E and a roller at D. Determine the horizontal and vertical components of the hinge force at C as it acts upon member BD. 280 Ib right; C, = 701b up Ans, 46.9. The frame shown in Fig. P-4-6.9 (p. 144) is hinged to rigid ae supports at A and E. Find the components of the hinge forces at A and Figure P-4.6.8144 P= 6001 Figure P-4-6.13 ANALYSIS OF STRUCTURES E and the forces in members BC and BD. If member AB had a different length but still supported P at its midpoint, state qualitatively how the answers would change 4 300 Ib; Ay BC = 500 Ib T; BD ‘Ans. 46.10. For the rhomboidal frame shown in Fig. P-4-6,10, find the forces acting in AC and AD. AC = 1580 Ib T; AD = 9751bC Ans. = 1200 16 300 1b Figure P-4-6.10 46.11, Resolve Prob. 46.10 if the magnitudes of the forces P and Q are interchanged. 46.12. A three-hinged arch is composed of two trusses hinged together at B as shown in Fig, P-4-6.12. Determine the type and magnitude of force in bars BD and BE, Hint: First isolate each truss as a free body. 46.13. As shown in Fig. P-46.13, two trusses ABC and DEF are supported respectively by hinges at A and F and joined by bars BE and CD. Determine the force in bar BE. BE = 24101bC Ans. 8800 3600 Ib 2 Figure P-4-6.144-6 Method of Members. Frames 46.14, Two trusses are hinged together at F to form the three-hinged arch shown in Fig. P-4-6.14, Find the force acting in bars AC, BE, and CE. \C = 1200 Ib C; CE = 5340 1b T; BE = 48101bC Ans. 46,15, The bridge shown in Fig, P-4-6.15 consists of two end sections, each weighing 200 tons with center of gravity at G, hinged to @ uniform center span weighing 120 tons. Compute the reactions at A, B, E, and F 60;0ns jo —f—20'-}-207 0! ~20'+} . s0— Figure P-4-6.15, 46.16. The frame shown in Fig, P-4-6.16 is hinged at E and roller supported at A. Determine the horizontal and vertical components of the hinge forces at B, C, and D. Neglect the weights of the members. igure P-4.6.16 46.17. The frame shown in Fig, P-4-6.17 is hinged to rigid supports at D and E and roller supported at A. Find the components of the hinge forces at D and E caused by the given loads. D, = 2001b; D, = 201b: E, = 2001b; E,=1751b Ans. 4.6.18. For the frame shown in Fig. P-4-6.18, determine the horizontal and vertical components of the hinge force at B as it acts upon member AG. * 145 ‘ eA Jee Figure P-46.18Figure P-4-6.19 46.19. The frame shown in Fig. P-46.19 is supported by smooth surfaces at A, B, D, and E. The radius of the pulley supporting the load W is 2ft. Find the reactions and the total force transmitted by the axle at C to member BE. c=iw Ans. 46.20. Determine the components of the force exerted by the axle of the pulley in Fig. P-4-6.20 upon the member AC and upon member cr ‘On AC: 0.9W down; on CF: 0.7W down and 0.8W right Ans. 4621, For the compound snips shown in Fig, P-4-6.21, find the dimen- sion b so that @ gripping force P will produce a cutting force of 9P at 1.5in. along the blade from pin A. b= 2in, Ans. Figure P-4.6,21 781; 4-6 Method of Members. Frames 147 46.22. Find the gripping force developed in the vise grip pliers by two 75:Ib forces applied as shown in Fig. P-4-6.22. 1329 1b Ans. 46.23. The scoop of a bulldozer is loaded with 2 tons of dirt with center of gravity at G. Duplicate linkages exist on each side of the machine, (cont, on p. 148.)c Figure 4-7.1 Basic tetrahedron, Zz 148 ANALYSIS OF STRUCTURES For the particular position in Fig. P-4-6.93 (p. 147), find the force P acting in the hydraulic cylinder AB and the force on the bolts at C and D. Neglect the weights of the linkage 5140 Ib; C = 6860 Ib; D = 5550 Ib Ans. 46.24. An clevating dump truck body is activated by duplicate link- ages on each side of the truck. At the position in Fig. P-46.24 (p. 147), find the force P in the hydraulic cylinder BC and in the links CD and FG if the total load is W = 10,520 Ib. Neglect the weights of the linkage and note that each set of linkages supports half the total load. P = 7300 Ib; CD = 3000 Ib; FG = 2160 Ib Ans. *4-7 SPACE TRUSSES In the construction of space trusses, the basic element consists of six bars joined at their ends to form a tetrahedron as in Fig. 4-7.1. Obviously A, B, C, and D are fixed spatially with respect to one another. As in the case of plane trusses, we ignore small elastic deformations and assume that compression members are stiff enough to prevent buckling. Each additional joint is located by joining three more non- coplanar bars emanating from previously fixed joints. Thus, to the base tetrahedron ABCD in Fig. 4-7.2, joint E is determined by adding the three noncoplanar bars emanating from B, C, and D. In a similar manner, joints F and G have been formed. Usually the joints are denoted in the alphabetical order in which they are located since this makes it easier to visualize the construction of the truss and aids in analyzing the truss. Space trusses constructed in this manner are called simple trusses. Two simple trusses connected by six noncoplanar bars form a compound truss, Also, as in plane trusses, the loads are assumed to be applied at the joints, and the various joints are assumed to Figure 4-7.2 Space truss formed on base tetrahedron ABCD.4-7 Space Trusses be ball-and-socket connections so that the force transmitted by each bar is axial. To justify these assumptions in the case of riveted or welded connections, due care must be taken in assembling the truss to ensure that the centerlines of the joined bars intersect at a common int. Poin To anchor a space truss tothe ground, six support reactions are needed to satisfy the six scalar equations of equilibrium. The supports may consist of a combination of six noncoplanar bars attaching the truss to at least three points not in the same straight line, or may be a ball-and-socket support and three other noncoplanar bars. The criterion for stability of the space truss is obtained by noting that for the concurrent force system at each joint, there are three scalar equations of equilibrium. Hence, at joints, there are a total of 3j equations that can be solved simultaneously for the forces in ‘m members plus six external reactions; i, 3j =m +6 (47.1) As in planar trusses, two methods are available for determining the forces in the members of a space truss: the method of joints and the method of sections. We shall apply each in the illustrative prob- lem at the end of this discussion. ‘Analogous to the discussion concerning zero load members for planar trusses on p. 117 is the rule for determining zero load members ina space truss: At any joint where the load and all members except one lie in the same plane, that one is a zero load member. Also at a joint subjected to the action of three noncoplanar members but no other load, the force in each member must be zero. 49 4-7.1. The space truss in Fig, 4-7.3 (p. 150) is supported in such a way that the reaction components at A, B, and C act as shown, ‘The loads at F and G are vertical. Determine the force in bar EC by the method of joints and check this result independently by the method of sections. Solution: (a) Method of Joints The assumption that all members transmit axial loads means that the free-body diagram of any joint is a spatial concurrent force system for which three independent equations of equilibrium are available. Hence, we start the analysis at a joint having only three ‘unmarked members. Frequently this can be done without first finding the reactions since such a joint is usually the last one formed on the base tetrahedron. In this case, its G. Once the forces at a starting ILLUSTRATIVE PROBLEM150 ANALYSIS OF STRUCTURES Figure 47.3 joint have been found, their effects on adjacent joints are known. Continue by considering the next joint at which only three unknown forces act, and so on successively until the unknown force in each member has been found. Usually, each joint is analyzed in the inverse order in which it is located. ‘We start with joint G which has only three unknown bar forces acting on it. We need not draw a FBD of the joint if we assume each bar acting on the joint to be in tension and hence to pull away from it as shown in the line drawing of the truss in Fig. 4-7.4. Thus, at G, each bar will act from G toward its other end and will be designated as GE, GD, and GF. The components of these forces will be proportional to the corresponding coordinate dimensions of each bar and its length. Taking force summations as positive along the positive directions of the coordinate axes, we have 6 X= —-—=GE-GD=0 cz } ‘aL 5 [ZY = 0] —=GE - 300 =0 aie Var [22 =0) GF=0 Solving, we obtain GE = 100 V6I Ib; GD = —600 lb; and GF = 0.= 47 Space Trusses 300 Figure 47.4 Joints analyzed in the order G, F, and E. The positive result for GE confirms our assumption of tension whereas the negative result for GD means it is in compression. Do not neglect the negative sign of a bar force in subsequent computa- tions since we are assuming that all bar forces pull away from their end joints, Hereafter, the plus and minus sign are sufficient to indicate tension or compression respectively. it is joint F. Since FG = GF = 0, we observe that all loads except FC lie in the same plane DFE; hence, we conclude that FC = 0. This conclusion will be confirmed by formally applying the force summations of equilibrium to joint F. We obtain 6 6 Bx = 0 =r +80 ' : Vez VT 5 BY =0 —S rE = 300 : : vir 2z=0) =p = re 10 or ee at Solving, we obtain FE = 60-V77 Ib; FD = —60-V52 Ib; FC = 0. If you have marked each end of a bar on the truss diagram after the force in it has been found, you will see that the next joint to 151152 ANALYSIS OF STRUCTURES consider is joint E. Here we need only a Z summation to find the required force in EC, but we include the other summations also to give a complete analysis of joint E, Thus, we have [2x = 0] 6 6 6 F (EG = 100 V6l) + —S—(EF = 60-V77) — EC — EB=0 var + Ai" RF BY =0] 5 5 5 - (EG = 100 V61) — (EF = 60,77) — EC — ED = var acd aa [=z =0) 4_(EF = 60V77) + EC=0 From the last equation, we obtain EC = —EF = —60V77 = —527 Ib as our required answer. In each of the above equations, we have inserted in parentheses the equivalent value of previously computed bar forces to make it simpler for you to follow the proce- dure. Although not required here, the values of EB and ED are 1320 Ib and —500 Ib, respectively. (b) Method of Sections To apply the method of sections, we isolate a rigid segment of the truss by passing a cutting surface through not more than six bars. ‘The isolated segment is a free body in equilibrium under the action of the applied loads acting upon the isolated segment and supported by the forces acting in each of the cut bars. If you assume these forces to be tensile and hence to pull away from their end joints in the isolated segment, a separate free-body diagram usually need not be drawn, although we do so here to ensure a clearer explanation. To find the force in CE by the method of sections, isolate the truss segment DEFG as shown in Fig. 4-7.5 by imagining a cutting surface passing through EC, EB, DA, DC, DB, and FC, We apply the concept of taking a moment summation about a center that will eliminate as many unknowns as possible. Since three of the cut bars (ie., DB, DA, and DC) intersect at D, we apply [Mp = 0. Of the remaining bars, EB and FC are parallel to the X axis and hence will be eliminated from a moment summation about the X axis through D which therefore solves directly for EC, Assuming the components of EC to act at E, we obtain4-7 Space Trusses 153 300% Figure 47.5 Free-body diagram of truss segment DEFG. (2M, = 0] 5(EC,) + (4300) = 0 EC, = —240 Ib whence EC, = (4/ V7) EC yields EC = —527 Ib as before with the method of joints. It may be observed that My, = 0 eliminates all forces on the isolated body except FC and confirms that the force in FC is zero as we found from the method of joints. A final observation is in order. Here we were able to eliminate three unknowns which had a common moment center. In general, a moment summation can always be taken about the intersection of two unknowns, but then the components of such a moment sum- mation would involve the unknown forces in the other four bars. To complete the solution, an additional equation must then be ob- tained from one of the force summations, or a moment summation about another center. PROBLEMS 47.2. The space truss in Fig. P-4-7.2 (p. 153) is supported in such a way that the reaction components at A, B, and C act as shown. It carries the loads —Pj at F and Pi at E. Find force in bars CD, BC, and BE. CD = P; V6 C; BC = P, T; BE = P,V5C Ans.Figure P-47.3 154 ANALYSIS OF STRUCTURES 47.3. Each side of the cubic frame in Fig. P-4-7.3 is of length a. A force P'V3 is applied at G directed toward B and an equal force is applied at B directed toward G, Find the force in bars DF, CD, CF, and BE Each equals P/ V2 Ans, 47.4, The reaction components of the space truss in Fig. P--7.4 act 1s shown. The applied loads in hips are P = 21 and F = 3}, Determine the force in each bar. In kips: AC .83T; CD = 4.487; BG = 3.46T Ans. 47.5. Find the force in bars BE, CE, and CF of the space truss shown in Fig. P4-7.5. Hint: Isolate the truss portion DEFG as a free body and apply Mp =0. CF = 8 kips C; CE = 5kipsC Ans, 47.6, Find the force in bars BD and BE of Fig. P-4-7.5 by isolating the truss portion CDEFG as a free body. 42.7, In Fig, P-4-7.7 is shown @ space truss having the shape of a cube. It consists of two simple trusses ABCD and EFGH joined by six bars. The truss is loaded by two equal, opposite, collinear forces P'V3 acting4-7 Space Trusses Figure P-4-7.5 along the diagonal as shown. Use the method of sections to find the forces in bars DF and DE. DE = DF = 0.5PC Ans. 478, In Fig, P-4-78 is shown a compound space truss consisting of two tetrahedrons ABCD and EFGH joined by six bars. The truss is sup- ported by reactions at A, B, and C acting as shown. Use the method of sections to find the force in bars DF and CF. Hint: Isolate the tetrahedron carrying the simpler loads DF = —3071b; CF = +3841b Ans. SUMMARY Structures are composed of members which are commonly divided into two groups: those subjected to axial tensile or compressive loads only and those subjected to bending. A member of the first type is Figure P-4-7.7156 ANALYSIS OF STRUCTURES called a two-force member; a member of the second type is called a beam. In two-force members, the forces are usually applied at the ends of the member and tend either to lengthen or to shorten it, thereby producing respectively tensile or compressive forces in the member. ‘The action of a tensile member on its end pins is to pull away from them; the effect of a member subjected to compression is to push back toward its end pins. The forces distributed throughout pin-connected trusses are determined on the assumption that the truss members are two-force members. Hence, the forces acting on any joint form a concurrent system. The conditions of equilibrium for concurrent force systems form the basis of the method of joints (Section 4-3). Once the forces are found at a starting joint where only two members act, their effects on adjacent joints are known. Continue by considering the next joint at which only two unknown forces act and so on successively until the force in each member has been found. The method of sections (Section 4-4) is used to determine the force directly in any member. The method consists of isolating a portion of the truss by passing an imaginary cutting plane through that member and usually not more than two other members, Assum- ing that external reactions have been found, this establishes a non- concurrent system in which appear the three unknown forces in the cut members. Each of these forces can then be found from the conditions of equilibrium for nonconcurrent force systems. Structures containing beams must be analyzed differently. The end forces on beams do not act along the beam, but usually act along unknown directions. The method of joints or of sections therefore cannot be used. In fact, the internal forces over a section through a beam consist of unknown axial and transverse shear forces plus an unknown bending action whose effect varies with the location of the section. At this stage in the study of mechanics, all that can be done is to determine the forces acting at the pins joining the beams. The procedure is to isolate each beam and represent the pin forces on each free-body diagram by rectangular components. When drawing the free-body diagrams of beams which act mutually upon each other by connecting pins, these components should be shown as equal but oppositely directed on each free-body diagram. Al- though an individual beam will usually be statically indeterminate, the simultaneous application of the conditions of equilibrium to the nonconcurrent forces on each free-body diagram will determine the unknown components of the forces at the connecting pins (refer to Section 4-6). For space trusses consisting of two-force members, two methods are available for determining the forces in the members: the methodSummary of joints and the method of sections as in planar trusses. To apply the method of joints, start with a free-body diagram of a joint where only three members act and apply the conditions of equilibrium for concurrent spatial force systems. Then proceed to the next joint at which only three unknown forces act, and so on. Usually the order in which each joint is analyzed is the inverse order by which it was located. To apply the method of sections, isolate a portion of the truss by using an imaginary cutting surface passing through not more than six members and apply the equilibrium conditions for non- concurrent spatial force systems. Generally, the method of joints is preferable for the analysis of space trusses. 187