INTRODUCTION TO

DIGITAL
HUMANITIES

Concepts, Methods, and Tutorials for

Students and Instructors

JOHANNA DRUCKER
WITH

DAVID KIM
IMAN SALEHIAN
& ANTHONY BUSHONG
DH
101
INTRODUCTION TO
DIGITAL
HUMANITIES
CO U R S E B O O K
Concepts, Methods, and Tutorials for
Students and Instructors

JOHANNA DRUCKER
DAVID KIM
IMAN SALEHIAN
ANTHONY BUSHONG
 authored by

Johanna Drucker, Professor, Information

Studies and Design & Media Arts (UCLA)

David Kim, Ph.D. Candidate, Information

Studies (UCLA)

Iman Salehian, Undergraduate, English &

Digital Humanities (UCLA)

Anthony Bushong, Undergraduate, Political

Science & Digital Humanities (UCLA)

Adapted from the course site:

dh101.humanities.ucla.edu
layout & design by:
Iman Salehian

FIRST EDITION
Composed 2013

CC
2014
INTRODUCTION
Based on the Introduction to Digital Humanities (DH101) course at UCLA, taught by Johanna
Drucker (with David Kim) in 2011 and 2012, this online coursebook (and related collection of
resources) is meant to provide introductory materials to digital approaches relevant to a wide
range of disciplines. The lessons and tutorials assume no prior knowledge or experience and
are meant to introduce fundamental skills and critical issues in digital humanities.

Concepts & Readings section resembles a DH101 syllabus, each topic is presented as a
lesson plan. Concepts are discussed broadly in order to make connections between critical
ideas, hands-on activities, readings and relevant examples. These lesson plans contain lots of
individual exercises to be done in class that allow the students to become familiar with the
most basic aspects of digital production (html + css, design mockup, metadata schema, etc.).
These in-class assignments are geared towards fostering the understanding of the concepts
introduced in the lessons: seeing how structured data works in digital environments; working
with classification and descriptive standards; learning to read websites; thinking about the
epistemological implications of data-driven analysis and spatio-temporal representations;
and, most broadly, recognizing both the hidden labor and the intellectual, subjective process
of representing knowledge in digital forms. Assignments often only require text editors,
commonly available (or free) software, writing and critical engagement and collaboration.

The Tutorial section focuses on tools used in the course. These tutorials are meant to serve
as basic introductions with commentaries that relate their usage to the concepts covered in
the lectures. The exhibits, text analysis, data visualization, maps & timelines, wireframing and
html are required individual components of the final project. Students become familiar with
all of these digital approaches throughout the course in the weekly lab/studio sessions, but
they are also asked to delve further into a few areas in consultation with the lab instructor
to choose the right tools for the types of analysis and presentation they have in mind. The
goal is not only the successful implementation of the tools, but also the recognition of their
possibilities and limitations during the process.

In compiling these ideas and resources from DH101, we emphasize the flexibility of these
concepts and methods for instruction for any course with varying levels of engagement with
digital tools. We hope to also continue to add other approaches as they emerge. We invite
suggestions and submissions from instructors and students, including syllabi, tutorials, and
case studies.

These materials are authored. If you use them, please cite them as you would any other
publication. They are freely available for use, but if you cut, paste, and incorporate them into
your own lessons, be sure to include a link and citation of this resource. If you would like to
change, correct, or add to anything in this coursebook, please contact us. We would like to
keep this current and useful.

Johanna Drucker
 TABLE OF
CONTENTS
Credits ........................................................................................... i
Introduction ................................................................................. ii
CONCEPTS AND READING
1A. Introduction to Digital Humanities ............................................. 9
1B. Analysis of DH Projects, Platforms, and Tools .......................... 11
2A. HTML: Structured Data, Content Modelling,
Interpretation, and Display ..................................................... 15
2B. Classification Systems and Theories ........................................ 20
3A. Ontologies and Metadata Standards ....................................... 24
3B. Data and Data Bases: Critical and Practical Issues ................... 28
4A. Database and Narrative ........................................................... 34
4B. Information and Visualization Concepts ................................... 37
5A. Critical and Practical Issues In Information Visualization ......... 41
5B. Data Mining and Text Analysis .................................................. 43
6A. Text Encoding, Mark-Up, and TEI ............................................. 46
6B. Distant Reading and Cultural Analytics .................................... 49
7A. Network Analysis ...................................................................... 53
7B. GIS Mapping Conventions
8A. GIS Mapping Conventions (continued) .................................... 56
8B. Interface Basics ......................................................................... 61
9A. Interface, Narrative, Navigation, and Other
Considerations ........................................................................ 65
9B. Virtual Space and Modelling 3-D Representations ................... 69
10A. Critical Issues, Other Topics, and Digital Humanities
Under Development................................................................ 72
10B. Summary and the State of Debates, Interogation,
Federation, Etc. ...................................................................... 75
TUTORIALS
Exhibits
Omeka ........................................................................................ 79
Managing Data
Google Fusion Tables ................................................................. 82
Data Visualization
Tableau ....................................................................................... 89
Cytoscape................................................................................... 96
Gephi .......................................................................................... 98
Text Analysis
Many Eyes ................................................................................. 102
Voyant........................................................................................ 104
Wordsmith ................................................................................. 106
Maps & Timelines
GeoCommons ........................................................................... 108
Neatline ..................................................................................... 110
Wireframing
Balsamiq .................................................................................... 113
HTML .............................................................................................................115
CONCEPTS & READINGS
1A. Introduction to Digital Humanities
1B. Analysis of DH Projects, Platforms, and Tools
2A. HTML: Structured Data, Content Modelling,
Interpretation, and Display
2B. Classification Systems and Theories
3A. Ontologies and Metadata Standards
3B. Data and Data Bases: Critical and Practical Issues
4A. Database and Narrative
4B. Information and Visualization Concepts
5A. Critical and Practical Issues In Information Visualization
5B. Data Mining and Text Analysis
6A. Text Encoding, Mark-Up, and TEI
6B. Distant Reading and Cultural Analytics
7A. Network Analysis
7B. GIS Mapping Conventions
8A. GIS Mapping Conventions (continued)
8B. Interface Basics
9A. Interface, Narrative, Navigation, and Other
Considerations
9B. Virtual Space and Modelling 3-D Representations
10A. Critical Issues, Other Topics, and Digital Humanities
Under Development
10B. Summary and the State of Debates, Interogation,
Federation, Etc.
1A. INTRODUCTION TO DIGITAL HUMANITIES

Digital humanities is work at the intersection of digital technology and humanities disciplines.
The term humanities was first used in the Renaissance by Italian scholars involved in the study
(and recovery) of works of classical antiquity. The term emphasizes the shift from a medieval
theo-centric world-view, to one in which "man [sic] is the measure of all things." The
humanities are the disciplines that focus on the arts, literature, music, dance, theater,
architecture, philosophy, and other expressions of human culture. But what does the adjective
"digital" refer to? And what are the implications of the term for work being done under this
rubric?

Since all acts of digitization are acts of remediation, understanding the identity of binary code,
digital file formats, the migration of analogue materials, and the character of born-digital
materials is essential to understanding digital environments. Networked conditions of
exchange play another role in the development of digital humanities (and other digital)
projects. Standards and practices established by communities form another crucial component
of the technical infrastructure embodies cultural values.

Common myths about the digital environment are that it is stable, even archival (e.g.
permanent) and that it is immaterial (e.g. not instantiated in analogue reality). Every actual
engagement with digital technology demonstrates the opposite.
While binary code underpins all digital activity at the level of electrical circuits, the operation of
digital environments depends on the ability of that code encode other symbolic systems. In
other words, not code in-itself as 1s and 0s, but code in its capacity to encode instructions
and information, is what makes computation so powerful. Computation is infinitely more
powerful that calculation, which is simple mathematics (no matter how complex or
sophisticate). Computation involves the manipulation of symbols through their representation
in binary code. The possibilities are infinite. The benefits of being able to encode information,
knowledge, artifacts, an other materials in digital format is always in tension with the
liabilitiesthe loss of information from an analogue object, or, in the case of a born-digital
artifact, its fragility to migration and upgrade.

Activities
a. Assessment instrument -- please fill out terms you know and indicate those unfamiliar to you.
You do NOT have to sign these. You'll see the same sheet at the end of the quarter.

b. Class structure, assignments, goals, outcomes . Topics: syllabus . Brief history/overview,

counting, sorting, encoding, classifying, structuring, repository building, analysis, mining,
display, remediation, modelling

c. Here is a list of digital humanities projects of various kinds which we will use as common

9
points of reference throughout the course:
1) Brain Pickings: http://www.brainpickings.org/index.php/2011/08/12/digital-
humanities-7-important-digitization-projects/
Projects: Republic of Letters, London, Darwins Library, Newton, Salem, NYPL,
Quixote
2) Walt Whitman Archive: http://www.whitmanarchive.org/
3) Roman Forum Project: http://dlib.etc.ucla.edu/projects/Forum
4) Women Writers Project: http://www.wwp.brown.edu/
5) Encyclopedia of Chicago: http://www.encyclopedia.chicagohistory.org/

See also: http://commons.gc.cuny.edu/wiki/index.php/Sample_Projects

http://digitalhumanitiesnow.org/category/featured/page/10/

d. Some concepts/site with which to be familiar:

Turing machines: http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/turing-machine/
Turning machine simulator: http://morphett.info/turing/turing.html
Binary code: http://www.theproblemsite.com/codes/binary.asp
History of computing: http://www.computerhistory.org/timeline/

Takeaway
What is digital and what is humanities?
Every act of moving humanistic material into digital formats is a mediation and/or a
remediation into code with benefits and liabilities that arise from making information
tractable in digital media.

Readings for 1B:

Dave Berry, The Computational Turn, Introduction
www.culturemachine.net/index.php/cm/article/.../440/470
Michael Kramer, What Does Digital Humanities bring to the Table?
http://www.michaeljkramer.net/issuesindigitalhistory/blog/?p=862
Alan Liu, The State of the Digital Humanities
o http://liu.english.ucsb.edu/the-state-of-the-digital-humanities-a-report-and-a-
critique/
o http://liu.english.ucsb.edu/the-meaning-of-the-digital-humanities/

Study questions for 1B, answer ONE in one paragraph or page:

1. Relate Michael Kramers discussion of evidence and argument to a specific digital
humanities project.
2. How is the computational turn described by Dave Berry evident in specific digital
humanities projects?

10
1B. ANALYSIS OF DH PROJECTS, PLATFORMS, AND TOOLS

All digital projects have certain structural features in common. Some are built on platforms
using software that has either been designed specifically from within the digital humanities
community (such as Omeka, the platform which you will use for your projects), or has been
repurposed to serve (WordPress, Drupal), or has been custom-built. We talk about the back
end and front end of digital projects, the workings under the hood (files on servers, in
browsers, databases, search engines, processing programs, and networks) and the user
experience. Because all display of digital information on screen is specified in HTML, hyper-text
markup language, all digital projects have to produced HTML as their final format.

But what creates the user experience on the back end? How are digital projects structured to
enable various kinds of functions and activities on the part of the user?
All digital humanities projects are built of the same basic structural components, even though
the degree of complexity that can be added into these components and their relations to each
other and the user can expand exponentially.

The basic elements: a repository of files or digital assets, some kind of information architecture
or structure, a suite of services, and a display for user experience. While this is deceptively
simple and reductive, it is also useful as a way to think about the building of digital humanities
projects. At their simplest, digital projects can consist of a set files (assets) stored in an
information architecture such as a database or file system (structure) where they can be
accessed (services) and called by a browser (use/display).

All of the complexity in digital humanities projects comes from the ways we can create
structure (in the sense of introducing information into the basic data) in the assets, organize
the information architecture or structure, in order to support complex services accessed
through the display. All of this should be more clear as we move ahead into the analysis of
examples. Although this diagram is quite simple (even simplistic) it shows the basic structure of
all DH projects. Keep in mind that the server, network, and other systems requirements are not
present here.

11
Exercise: What are the basic elements of a DH project?
1) Pelagios is a site that aggregates digital humanities projects into a single portal. The projects
are each autonomous, to some degree, but they have a disciplinary connection. Look through
the site and see how each of these is structured. http://pelagios-project.blogspot.com/
What is on this site? Go through the links/resources.
Go Through the Tabs .
Skim the essays and technical discussion/very specific and focused, useful .

2) What is the difference between a website and a digital humanities project? What
dimensions does Pelagios have that distinguishes it?

3) Look these examples and describe the ways they work and make create a description of how
you think they are structured using the basic description of components outlined above. As you
go through this elaborate project, consider issues of community, scholarship, digital
infrastructure, values embodied in the languages, practices, and organization of the
component parts.
Arachne: How does Arachne work? What is behind it? Records, digital images,
dbases, linked records/objects, look at partners, items, records.
British Museum: Follow the links? How is the navigation and does it work
effectively for all tasks?
CLAROS: What is this? How does it work as an online collections/museums?
Note the interface and search here.
Digital Memory Engineering: read the description and determine what do they
do as an organization? How are they related to Pelagios?
FASTI: This is a portal for archaeological sites and data. Look at the records.
Who creates these? Who is responsible for this information? How large a
community is involved?
Google Ancient Places: They have built a map interface. Read through the
technical discussion. What are the humanities questions raised by the
project? How do they relate to the development of the technical infrastructure?
Inscriptions of Israel/Palestine: Search the site and analyze the interface. Where
does site organization belong in the basic description of digital humanities
projects and their component parts?
ISAW papers : What is here? Who is the meant for? What is the community
within which this project functions and how does it call a community into being?
JISC geo: who are they? What role do they play?
LUCERO: What is it? How does it relate to Pelagios? Other activity?
Meketre: Analyze the interface and figure out what the project is and how it is
related to the others?
Nomisma: Why are coins so significant to the study of classical culture and how
does this site present the information? What arguments are made by the
presentation?
OCRE: Contains more numismatic information, can it be correlated to the
12
 Nomisma information?
Open Context: Why is this information on data publishing present?
ORACC: What is the significance of the fact that this project is located at the
University of Pennsylvania? Is it related at all to the Cuneiform Digital Library
housed at UCLA?
Papyri.Info: Examine links, locate partners, and describe challenges as well as
changes you might make.
Perseus Digital Library : Follow the links within any single classical text, such as
the popular ones suggested and analyze the steps that would have been
involved in creating this resource.
PLEIADES: What are the vocabularies at the bottom What is Section 508 and
why is it there?
Ports Antiques: Go to the bottom and look at the tags . Why are these here and
where do they fit in the basic structure of the digital project?
Ptolemy machine: What terms dont you understand here?
Regnum Francorum: How would you use this resource and how would you
change it for a broader public?
SPQR: What is it? What is the European Aggregator?
SquinchPix: Use it and say what it is in the structure of basic components of a
digital project.
Totenbuch: Where is it located institutionally?
URe museum: Can you find an object in this collection through CLAROS? What
are the issues of interconnection among existing resources?
Tasks:
Sort these partners according to the type of site they are and make a list of different
kinds of digital humanities projects by type (e.g. service, repository, publication etc.)

Why are these sites not included on Pelagios:

http://isaw.nyu.edu//ancient-world-image-bank
http://www.inscriptifact.com/ http://isaw.nyu.edu/ancient-world-image-bank
Takeaway:
The basic structure of any digital humanities project is a combination of digital assets, a
set of services (query, search, processing, analysis), and a display that supports the user
experience. The purpose of this class is to move from the front-end experience to
knowledge of the back end and to get under the hood and make a digital project start
to finish.

Readings for 2A:

Foreword: Perspectives on Digital Humanities, Companion to Digital Humanities (online)
http://www.digitalhumanities.org/companion/
John Unsworth, Knowledge Representation in Humanities Computing
http://www.iath.virginia.edu/~jmu2m/KR/. (If this link does not work, use the link on the
Companion site.)

13
 Look at this and other sites on digital humanities project development and management:
http://www.nitle.org/live/events/174-developing-digital-humanities-projects

Study Questions for 2A:

1. How does John Unsworths description of Knowledge Representation add to the
description of the basic elements of a digital humanities project?
2. Recommend and describe documentation about digital project development that you
found online that felt helpful to you at this stage of your thinking.
3. Compare the DiRT site and the CUNY site as resources for someone new to DH.
https://digitalresearchtools.pbworks.com/w/page/17801672/FrontPage
http://commons.gc.cuny.edu/wiki/index.php/The_CUNY_Digital_Humanities_Re
source_Guide

14
2A. HTML: STRUCTURED DATA, CONTENT MODELLING,
INTERPRETATION, AND DISPLAY

All content in digital formats can be characterized as structured or unstructured data. In

actuality, all data is structuredeven typing on a keyboard structures a text as an alphabetic
file and links it to an ASCII keyboard and strokes. The distinction of one letter from another or
from a number structures the data at the primary level. But the concept of structured data is
used to refer to another, second, level of organization that allows data to be managed or
manipulated through that extra structure. Common ways to structure data are to introduce
mark-up using tags, to use comma separated values, or other data structures.

The distinction between structured/unstructured data has ramifications for the ways information
can be used, analyzed, and displayed. Structured data is given explicit formal properties by
means of the secondary levels of organization, or encoding, referred to above. These use extra
elements (such as tags, to be discussed below), data structures (tables, spread sheets, data
bases), or other means to add an extra level of interpretation or value to the data. The term
unstructured data is generally used to refer to texts, images, sound files, or other digitally
encoded information that has not had a secondary structure imposed upon it.

Sidebar Example: Think about the text of Romeo and Juliet. Every line in the play is structured
by virtue of being alphabetic. But the text is also divided into lines spoken by characters, stage
directions, and information about the act, scene and so on. If we want to find any instance of
Juliet a simple string search will locate the name. That is a search operation on unstructured
data. But if we want to be able to pull all of the lines by Juliet, we would have to introduce a
tag, such as <proper_name> into the text. The degree of granularity introduced by the
structure will determine how much control we have over the manipulation and/or analysis.
Every line could be marked for attributes such as class, race, gender, but if we then wanted to
sort analyze all of the lines with obscene language, this set of tags, or structures, would be of
no use. Every act of structuring introduces another level of interpretation, and is itself an act of
interpretation, with powerful implications.

The most ubiquitous and familiar form of mark-up is HTML (hypertext markup language), which
was created to standardize display of files carried over the internet, read by browsers, and
displayed on screens. Many scholarly projects make use of other forms of markup language,
and the principles that are fundamental to HTML transfer to their use, even if each markup
language is different. The original mark-up language, SGML (standardized general markup
language) was the first standard designed for the Web, and, technically, should be considered
a metalanguagea language used to describe other languages. Mark-up languages were
designed to standardize communication on the Web, and, in essence, to make files display in
the same way across different browsers and platforms. Good resources for understanding

15
mark-up can be found at http://www.w3.org/MarkUp/SGML/ and http://www-
sul.stanford.edu/tools/tutorials/html2.0/gentle.html

Sidebar: Markup languages come in many flavors. Geospatial information uses KML, many text-
based projects use a standard called TEI, Text Encoding Initiative, and so on. The use of these
standards helps projects communicate with each other and share data. A good exercise is to
study a tag set for a domain in your area of interest or expertise and/or make one of your own.
For instance, the creation of a specialized tag set allows people working in a shared knowledge
domain to create consistency across collections of documents created by different users (e.g.
Golf Markup Language, Music Markup Language, Chemical Markup Language etc.). But a
mark-up language is also a naming system, a way to formalize the elements of a domain of
knowledge or expressions (e.g. texts, scores, performances, documents). In spite of the
growing power of natural language processing (referred to as NLP), structured data remains
the most common way of creating standards, formal systems, and data analysis. Structured
data is particularly crucial as collections of documents grow in scale, complexity, or are
integrated from a variety of users or repositories. Standards in data formats make it possible for
data in files to be searched and analysed consistently. (If one day you mark up Romeo and
Juliet using the <girl> and <boy> tags and the next day someone else uses <man> and
<woman> for the same characters, that creates inconsistency. In reality, the implementation of
standards is difficult, inconsistency is a fact of life, and data crosswalks (matching values in one
set of terms with those in another) only go partway towards fixing this problem. Nonetheless,
structuring data is a crucial aspect of Digital Humanities work.

The standards for tags in markup languages, and their definition, rules for use, and other
guidelines are maintained by the W3C (World Wide Web Consortium). The page also contains
a list of existing markup languages, which are fascinating to read.
See: http://www.w3.org/MarkUp/SGML/

HTML
If you understand the basic principles of any markup language, you will be able to extend this
knowledge to any other. Because HTML is so common, it is a good starting place. Simply
stated, all files displayed on the Web use HTML in order to be read by a browser. Other file
formats (jpg, mp3, png, etc.) may be embedded in HTML frameworks (as a picture, television,
speaker, or aquarium might be held in a physical frame), but HTML is the basic language of the
web. Again, it is called a mark-up language because it uses tags to instruct a browser on how
to display information in a file. HTML can be considered crude and reductive, and when it was
first created, it angered graphic designers because it used a very simple set of instructions to
render text simply in order of size and importance (boldness). Early HTML made no allowance
for the use of specific typefaces, for instance.

HTML elements name the elements of a file (e.g. header, paragraph, linebreak) for the
purposes of standardizing the display. Essentially, it serves as encoded instructions fo the
browser. All markup languages and structured data are subject to the rules of well-formed-

16
ness. This means the files must be made so that they conform to the rules of markup to display
properly, or parse in the browser. A file that does not parse is like a play made in a sport to
which it does not belong (a home run does not parse in football) or a structure that is not
correct (a circle that does not close) because it does not conform to the rules. HTML is a
metalanguage governed by its own rules and those of all markup languages.

Because mark up languages structure data, they can be used for analysis. HMTL tags mark up
physical features of documents, they do not analyze content. HTML does not have tags for
<proper_name_female_girl> for instance. But in a textual markup system a more elaborate
means of structuring allows attributes to modify terms and tags to produce a very high degree
of analysis of semantic (meaning) value in a text. When markup languages are interpretative
and analytic, they are able to be processed before the information in them in displayed (e.g.
give me all the instances of a male speaker using obscene language). The processes of data
selection, transformation, and display are each governed by instructions. Display can be
managed by style sheets so that global instructions can be given to entire sets of documents,
rather than having each document styled independently. (e.g. All chapter titles will be blue, 24
point Garamond, with three lines of space following, indented 3 picas.) Style sheets can be
maintained independently, and documents reference them, or call on them for instructions.
A single style sheet can be used for an infinite number of web pages. Suppose you decide to
change all of your chapter titles from bold to italicdo you want to change the <b> tag
surrounding each chapter title to <i>? Or do you want to change a style sheet that instructs all
text marked <chapter title> to be displayed differently? More powerful style sheets, called
Cascading Style Sheets (CSS), are the common way to control display to a very fine degree of
design specification.

Exercise
Style a page, then create a style sheet to govern all style features globally across a
collection of pages.

Exercise
What does HTML identify? Describe the formal / format elements of documents.
What doesnt it do? What would be necessary to model content? How is TEI
different from HTML?
Look at Whitman http://www.whitmanarchive.org/)
Rosetti: http://www.rossettiarchive.org/index.html
Exercise find poems, translators, authors, prose, commentary, footnotes etc.
Can you extract, search, analyze, find, style?

Structured data is crucial for scholarly interpretation. In answering the question, How is digital
humanities different from web development? we immediately recognize the difference
between display of content and interpretative analysis of content in a project as an integral
relation between structure and argument.

17
 Exercise
Take John Unsworths seven scholarly primitives (discovering, annotating, comparing,
referring, sampling, illustration, representing) and see how they are embodied in a
digital humanities site vs. a commercial site (Amazon). To what extent are social media
sites engaged in digital humanities activities?
Sites:
Blake: http://www.blakearchive.org/blake/
Spatial history project: Republic of Letters
http://republicofletters.stanford.edu/case-study/voltaire-and-the-enlightenment/
VCDH: Valley of the Shadow http://valley.lib.virginia.edu/VoS/choosepart.html
Salem Witch Trial Project: http://etext.virginia.edu/salem/witchcraft/

Exercise
Discuss the ways in which Will Thomass discussion of the shit from quantitative
methods to digital humanities questions is present in any of these sites. What is meant
by the term cliometrics? How does it relate to traditional and digital humanities?

Exercise
Tools for Annotation:
DiRT: https://digitalresearchtools.pbworks.com/w/page/17801672/FrontPage

Exercise
Take time to look at the ways in which structure is present in every aspect of a digital
humanities project site, from display to repository, to ways of organizing information,
navigation, and use. Take apart and analyze: Perseus Digital Library
http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/
What are the elements of the site?
How do they embody and support functionality?
What does the term content model mean theoretically and practically?

Takeaways:
Structured data has a second level of organization.
Markup languages are a common means of structuring data.
Markup languages are metalanguages, languages that describe language.
Structured data expresses a model of content and interpretation. Structuring data
allows analysis, repurposing, and manipulation of data/texts/files in systematic ways. It
also disambiguates (between say, the place name Washington and the personal
name).
Consistency is crucial in any structured data set.
Structured data is interpreted, and can be used for analysis and manipulation in ways
that unstructured data cannot.

18
Recap:
Model of DH projects repository/metadata/dbase/service/display
Mark-up languages as a way to make structured data.

Readings for 2B:

C2DH: Chapter. 14, Sperberg-McQueen, Classification and its Structures
Michel Foucault, Introduction, The Order of Things, citing Borges
serendip.brynmawr.edu/sci_cult/evolit/.../prefaceOrderFoucault.pdf
Musical instrument classification,
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Musical_instrument_classification

Study questions for 2B:

1. What are the ways you can get at the worldview embodied in a classification system?

19
2B. CLASSIFICATION SYSTEMS AND THEORIES

Structuring data is crucial to machine processing, and digital files have an inherent structure by
virtue of being encoded. But the concept of structure can be extended to higher orders of
organization, it is not limited to the ways in which streams of data are segmented, identified, or
marked. One of the most powerful forms of organizing knowledge is through the use of
classification systems. In digital environments, classification systems are used in several ways
to organize the materials on a site, to organize files within a system, to identify and name
digital objects and/or the analogue materials to which they refer. Classification systems impose
a secondary order of organization into any field of objects (texts, physical objects, files, images,
recordings etc.). We use classification systems to identify and sort, but also, to create models of
knowledge. The relation between such models of knowledge and the processes of cognition,
particularly with regard to cultural differences and embodied experience, are complex, but
they are implied in every act of naming or organizing. No classification system is value neutral,
objective, or self-evident, and all classification systems bear within them the ideological imprint
of their production.

Exercise
Take this excerpt from Jorge Luis Borges and discuss its underlying order:
it is written that animals are divided into: (a) those that belong to the Emperor, (b)
embalmed ones, (c) those that are trained, (d) suckling pigs, (e) mermaids, (f) fabulous
ones, (g) stray dogs, (h) those that are included in this classification, (i) those that
tremble as if they were mad, (j) innumerable ones, (k) those drawn with a very fine
camel's-hair brush, (1) others, (m) those that have just broken a flower vase, (n) those
that resemble flies from a distance.

Exercise
The philosopher Michel Foucault used that passage to engage in a philosophical
reflection on the grounds on which knowledge is possible. He asked How do we think
equivalence, resemblance, and difference/distinction? The specificity and granularity
of distinctions, points of difference, determine the refinement of a classification system,
but also embed assumptions into its structure. Can you give an example?

Classification systems arise from many fields. Carolus Linneaus, the 18th century Swedish
botanist, created a system for classifying plants according to their reproductive organs. Many
of the relationships he identified and named have been contradicted by evidence of the
genetic relations among species, but his system is still used and is useful and its principles
provide a uniform system. Classification systems are used in every sphere of human activity,
and have been the object of philosophical reflection in every culture and era.

20
At the most basic level, we need classification systems to name and organize digital files. In
addition, we use elaborate systems of naming and classifying that encode information about
objects and/or knowledge domains. A collection of music recordings might be ordered by the
length of the individual soundtracks, but this would make finding works by a particular artist,
composer, or conductor impossible to locate. The creation of idiosyncratic or personal
schemes of organization may work for an individual, but if information and knowledge are to be
shared, then standard systems of classification are essential.

Exercise
What are standard systems of classification that you are familiar with? (e.g. Signs in
supermarket aisles, Netflix categories, Library call numbers, and so on).

Classification systems can be organized through a number of different structuring principles. In

the article you read for today, Michael Sperberg-McQueen suggests ways that something
(anything) can be assigned to a class (in a classification scheme) according to its properties.
While that seems straightforward enough, he goes on to make a number of other observations
about the nature of these schemes. What is meant by the distinction he makes between
nominal/one-dimensional and N-dimensional approaches? What are the advantages and/or
limitations of a hierarchical scheme with increasingly fine distinctions? What is the difference
(practically as well as theoretically) between enumerative (explicit) and faceted (system of
refinement/attributes) approaches to classification? Why are modular approaches more flexible
than straightforward naming systems in a hierarchy? What is the connection and/or distinction
between indexing and classifying that he makes?

While much of this might seem abstract, theoretical, and philosophical in its orientation, the
issues bear immediately and directly on the creation of any organization and classification
scheme you use in a project as well as on the information you encode in metadata (information
about your information and/or objects, see Lesson XX).

Exercise
Here are two well-known but very different approaches to understanding classification
and/or exemplifying its principles. Paraphrase, summarize, and discuss the principles
involved and make an example of one of these. For what kinds of materials are these
suited? For what are they ill-suited?

Shiyali Ranganathan, Indian mathematician and librarian

1 unity, God, world, first in evolution or time, one-dimension, line, solid state,
2 two dimensions, plane, cones, form, structure, anatomy, morphology, sources of knowledge,
physiography, constitution, physical anthropology,
3 three dimensions, space, cubics, analysis, function, physiology, syntax, method, social
anthropology,
4 heat, pathology, disease, transport, interlinking, synthesis, hybrid, salt,

21
 5 energy, light, radiation, organic, liquid, water, ocean, foreign land, alien, external, environment,
ecology, public controlled plan, emotion, foliage, aesthetics, woman, sex, crime,
6 dimensions, subtle, mysticism, money, finance, abnormal, phylogeny, evolution,
7 personality, ontogeny, integrated, holism, value, public finance,
8 travel, organization, fitness.

Brown and the Lancaster-Oslo/Bergen (LOB) corpora, used to describe/sort texts

A Press: reportage
B Press: editorial
C Press: reviews
D Religion
E Skills, trades, and hobbiesz
F Popular lore
G Belles lettres, biography, essays
H Miscellaneous (government documents, foundation reports, industry reports, college
catalogue, industry house organ)
J Learned and scientific writings
K General fiction
L Mystery and detective fiction
M Science fiction
N Adventure and western fiction
P Romance and love story
R Humor

Exercise
An archaeologist from an alien (off-world) civilization has arrived at UCLA and is studying
the students in order to make a museum exhibition on the home planet. So, each student
should take something that is part of his/her usual daily stuff/equipment/baggage and
put it on the table (one table for the class). Now, to help the poor alien, you need to
come up with a classification system (do this in groups of about 4-6). How will you classify
them? Color, size, order, materials, function, value, or other? Keep in mind that you are
helping communicate something about UCLA student life in your organization. Now,
compare classification systems and their principles.

Imagine everyone goes out of the room and that a huge explosion occurs once the doors
are closed. The police are called in and it turns out the explosives were concealed in one
of the objects on the table. The forensic team tries to figure out who the owner of a blue
knapsack was. Does your classification system help or not? If so, how, and if not, why not?
What does that tell you about classification schemes?

Takeaways
Classification systems are models of knowledge. They embody ideological and
epistemological assumptions in their organization and structure. Classification systems

22
 can be at odds with each other even when they describe the same phenomena (a
classification of animal species based on form (morphology) can organize fauna very
differently from one based on genetic information).

Required reading for 3A:

Ramesh Srinivasan and Jessica Wallack, Local-Global: Reconciling Mismatched
Ontologies, HICSS, 2009.
http://rameshsrinivasan.org/wordpress/wp-content/uploads/2013/07/18-
WallackSrinivasanHICSS.pdf

Study Question for 3A:

1. How do Srinivasan/WallacK demonstrate that a database enacts a politics of
knowledge?

23
3A. ONTOLOGIES AND METADATA STANDARDS
Classification systems are standardized in almost every field, but the politics of their
development and standardization are highly charged. An entire worldview is embodied in a
classification system, and this can mean that it serves the interests of one group and not
another, or that it replicates traditional patterns of exploitation or cultural domination. A
sensitivity to these issues is not only important, but enlightening in its own right, since the
cross-cultural or cross-constituency perspective demonstrates the power of classification
systems, but also, our blindspots.

Classification Systems: Review

Describing, naming, organizing
Attributes in a non-hierarchical system
Hierarchies of information

Classification Standards
Standardization is essential in classification systems. (If you call something a potato one day
and a tomato the next, how is someone to pick the ingredients for a recipe? And if you list all
your music by artists name and then one by title, how will you find the lost item?) Consistency
is everything. When we are dealing with large scale systems used by many institutional
repositories to identify and/or describe their objects, such as the Library of Congress subject
headings (LCSH) or the Gettys Art and Architectural Thesaurus (AAT), the Standards (see
Getty, for instance), then the necessity for standardization increases. If institutional repositories
are going to be able to share information, that information has to be structured in a consistent
and standardized manner, and it has to make use of standard vocabularies.

Standardization is related to the use to which the information will be put. Objects can be
organized, as you have seen, in an almost infinite number of ways. Organizing tools according
to function makes sense, but organizing books by subject and/or author makes sense, but
switch these around, and they would not work.

Classification systems are used to organize collections, identify characteristics of objects in a

system, and to name or identify those objects in a consistent way. They have a significant and
substantive overlap with taxonomies and ontologies. Taxonomies are, quite literally, naming
systems. They are comprised of selected and controlled vocabulary for naming items or
objects. Ontologies are models of knowledge. They may or may not classify things, but they
organize information and concepts into a structured system. There is no need to try to pin
these words classification, taxonomy, ontologyinto hard and fast definitions that are clearly
distinct. They are not always distinct, and often resemble each other and are interchangeable
with each other. In a general way, taxonomies are lists of terms/names, classification systems
describe attributes and relations of objects in a system, and ontologies model knowledge
systems. Confused?
24
Heres a bit more to confuse you further.

Metadata is the term applied to information that describes information, objects, content, or
documents. So, if I have a book on the shelf in the library, the catalogue record contains
metadata about that book that helps me figure out if it is relevant and also, where to find it.
Standard bibliographic metadata on library records includes title, author, publisher, place of
publication, date, and some description of the contents, the physical features, and other
attributes of the object. Metadata standards exist for many information fields in libraries,
museums, archives, and record-keeping environments.

One of the confusions in using metadata is to figure out whether you are describing the object
or its representation. So, if you have a photograph of a temple in Athens, taken in 1902 with a
glass plate and a box camera, but it is used to teach architecture, is the metadata in the
catalogue record describing the photographs qualities, the temples qualities, both?

Exercise
Take a look at the Getty AAT, and at the CCO (cataloguing culture objects) and figure
out what would be involved in describing such an item. Also, since we use Dublin Core
for DH projects in Lab, you might want to look at its fields and terms as well. These are
professional standards, and very replete.
http://www.getty.edu/research/tools/vocabularies/aat/
http://cco.vrafoundation.org/
http://dublincore.org/

Exercise: Characteristics of Ontologies

Take the following concepts and look at them in relation to a specific ontology (listed on
the wiki page link). Describe these elements or aspects of an ontology.
Structural organization of information
Concepts in a domain
Knowledge model
Link to purpose/use
See: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ontology_(information_science) and look at the many
examples listed there; search on several to see how they are structured.

Alternative Exercise: Analyzing standard metadata systems

Read organizational structure of a domain in Getty, create a scenario in which it works,
and one in which it would not. Look for an area in your project domain.
http://www.getty.edu/research/tools/vocabularies/aat/

Fluid Ontologies: The Politics of information vs. Ideology of information

The concept of fluid ontologies weaves through the essay by Wallach/Srinivasan. It makes clear
what is at stake in the use of classification and description systems, as well as the naming

25
conventions they use. They emphasize the costs (financial, cultural, human) of mismatches
between official and observed approaches to description of catastrophic events. The ways in
which objects and events are classified makes a difference in whether a situation involving bio-
waste can be resolved or notand whether it would have more effectively dealt with if the fact
that dead animals were involved had been clear. These are not just differences of
nomenclature, but of substance.

Wallach and Srinivasan stress that ontologies act as objects and negotiate boundaries
between groups. They also state that they function as mental maps of surroundings. The
mismatch, however, between official and experiential classification systems results in
inefficiencies and even insufficiencies that are the result, in part, of information loss in the
negotiation among different stakeholders and resource managers.

Exercise: Can you think of an example from your own experience in which these
tensions would be apparent?

Wallach and Srinivasan suggest the concept of fluid ontologies as a partial solution. This
would allow adaptive, flexible tags that reflected local knowledge and were inclusive to be
joined with the official meta-ontologies managed by the State, which are self-reinforcing and
exclusive. This raises a question about how folksomonies and taxonomies/ontologies can be
merged together.

The importance of this article is the way it shows what is at stake in creating any classification
system. Immediately, we see the politics of information and classification, particularly when we
think of politics as instrumental action towards an agenda or outcome. But what about the
ideology of information and classification? What is meant by that phrase? If we think of
ideology as a set of cultural values, often rendered invisible by passing as natural, then how are
classification systems enmeshed with ideological ones?

Exercise: Start creating a taxonomy and/or classification system for your project.
Scaling up your projects in imagination, what terms, references, resources would you
want to cross-reference repeatedly and have stable in a single entry/list, as a pick-list, so
you could use them consistently, and what fields would you want to be able to fill with
free text or use to generate tags? Why?

Review: So far we have gone through the exercise of analyzing the components of a Digital
Humanities project: user experience/display, repository/storage/information architecture, and
the suite of services/activities that are performed by the system. Where do the metadata and
classification systems belong in this model? How do they relate to the structure of a project as
a whole?

26
Takeaways
Metadata is information about data. It describes the data in a document or project or
file. Folksonomies and taxonomies can co-exist in a productive tension between crowd-
sourced and user-generated metadata and standards that emerge in communities of
practice.

Next: Databases, what is data, and how are database structures counter to narrative
conventions or not?

Required Readings for 3B:

C2DH Ch. 15 Stephen Ramsay, Databases
Kroenke, Database_1, Database_2
Michael Christie, Computer Databases and Aboriginal Knowledge

Study Question for 3B:

1. What does Michael Christie emphasize in contrasting aboriginal approaches to
knowing with western approaches to representing knowledge?

27
3B. DATA AND DATA BASES: CRITICAL AND PRACTICAL ISSUES
Basics
What is data? We take the term for granted because it is so ubiquitous. The phrase big data
is bandied about constantly, and it conjures images of nearly infinite amounts of information
codified in discrete units that make it available for analysis and research in realms of spying,
commerce, medicine, population research, epidemiology, and political opinion, to name just a
few. But all data starts with decisions about how it is made. Data does not exist in the world. It
is not a form of atomistic information waiting to be counted and sorted like cells in a swab or
cars on a highway. Instead, data is made by defining parameters for its creation. So before we
begin to deal with databases, and the ways their structure supports various kinds of activity, we
have to address the fundamental theoretical and practical issues involved in the concept and
production of data.

For instance, if we look around the room where we are and decide what to measure, what can
be quantified? Temperature and physical qualities of the room, demographic statistics on the
persons present, features of the university and so on. Basically, anything to which you can give
a metric can be transformed into data by observation and measure. Data is anything you can
paramaterize. But what is the scale that we use to capture this information about phenomena?
Do we use a temperature gauge that would work on the surface of the sun to tell the difference
between one persons body temperature and anothers? Between the heat at the edge of the
room by the window and the temperature by the door? What scale registers significant
differences? The creation of significant description from raw phenomena is the task of data
creationwhich is why the term capta makes more sense. Data derives from the greek word
datum, which means given. Capta suggests active capture and creation or construction.
Because all parameterized information depends on the point of view from which it was created,
capta explains the process of creating quantitative information which acknowledging the
madeness of the information.

Exercise
Data analysis in the present situation. If your only tool is a hammer, you see only nails. If
your only approach to phenomena is to transform them into things that are quantified,
you see everything as a measuring device. But what scale or unit or system of measure
is being used. The answers connect us back to questions of value across and within
cultures. A days walk or a womans work have no absolute value and no
transcendent parameters.

Example: Imagine an alien anthropologist from a nocturnal culture capturing data

about classroom use at UCLA finds most of the spaces under-utilized. The information
visualization made to show the occupation of the university suggests it can
accommodate many more students because of the data collected at one time of day
instead of another. In this example, the simple problem of when a data set is collected
will restructure the results.
28
Metric standards have their own strange histories. We know that inches and centimeters are
human-created standards for measure of space and dimension. But a year has a relation to a
natural cycle of motion around the sun, as the day is determined by the turning earth. But what
is the means by which a minute is determined or a day broken into hours? Are all hours the
same? Medieval monks had a system for dividing the day into twelve hours of daylight and
twelve of darkness throughout the year. In summer the daylight hours were longer than in
winter, and vice versa, but the division of units served their purposes. If we are transcribing the
record of activities from a monastery in this period, how do we reconcile these differences with
the standard measures of time we are accustomed to using?

Temperature data seems to be empirically derived, based on the thermal condition of

phenomena under investigation. But the Centigrade and Celsuis scales have very different
units. The Farhenheit scale is an idiosyncratic scale, rooted in the experience of the man who
designed it. He defined the low end as the coldest temperature taken in the town where he
lived and the midpoint as body temperature and the high point as that at which water boils.
This was later refined and made in a more precise system, but that a standard metric was
created with a human reference pointhe had a slight fever when defining the precise body
temperatureis remarkable. In an important sense, all metrics share this characteristicthey
are created in reference to human experiencebut they function as if they are value-neutral
and universal.

Exercise
Create a value scale that is relevant to your experience and to a domain of knowledge
that you can use to measure the differences among phenomena in that domain.

In the day to day creation of data sets and databases, these more theoretical questions are not
asked, and instead, we get on with the business of using standard metrics, categories,
classification systems, and spreadsheets to make databases. Databases come in many forms,
flat, relational, object-oriented, and so on. Databases can be described by their contents, their
function, their structure, or other characteristics. For our purposes, we will begin with a very
simple flat database that can be created in a spread sheet. Then well see its limitations, and
create a relational database. Our case study involves the fictional Pet Talent Agency, Star Paws.

Creating a data model is the first step of database construction. What are the kinds of
information that need to be stored and how will they be identified and used? How often will
they change? How do the components relate to or affect each other? Answers to these
questions are not really answered in the abstract, but in doing, making, defining the content
types and make a model of their relations. This can be done on paper, by hand, and/or using a
database design tool, but the technological elements are dependent on the conceptual ones.
A database is only as good as its content model.

29
The term content type refers to a type of content you want to distinguish, such as a name,
address, age in a personnel record, or, in the case of books or music, title, author, publisher
etc. What are the content types for materials in your domain? Data content types are actual
information. A spreadsheet is a simple way to make a data set. It is also powerful because data
from a spreadsheet can be exported for other purposes, manipulated in the spreadsheet, and
related to other data elements in more complex databases. The graphic format is simply rows
and columns.

Exercise: StarPaws Pet Talent Agency

Imagine that your rich, eccentric Hollywood uncle has left you an inheritance in the form
of a pet talent agency. He was very old school, and kept his client and talent lists on 3 x
5 cards in long boxes. These have elaborate records on them of the animals, owners,
talents, kennels, addresses etc. and also cards for the clients. If you simply type the
information into a text document, you cannot sort it by categories, but would have to
read through all the entries to find information. The value of a spreadsheet is that you
can organize any of the information in any column or row by various methods
(alphabetical order, numerical order, date, size etc.).

First, imagine the cards, create the information for ten of them. Be sure to include the owners,
pet names, roles played, talents, descriptions of pets, and other relevant information.

Then, figure out what the content types are and create a spreadsheet. What if three people are
all transferring information from the cards? Do they all enter the information in the same format
(e.g. names as last name, first name or not? Date of birth as dd/mm/yy or mm/dd/yyy). What are
the implications of such decisions? Are all the cards standardized? Do some have information
fields not in other cards? Will you organize the project by owner names or pet names? Or by
talent/skills?

Now create a scenario in which the information changes a pets owner changes, a new pet
with the same talent but a different name joins a kennel, a pet with the same name and different
skills, etc. What about the roles played by various different animals? Can you link the talent to
the roles? What if you are looking for a certain color dog with the ability to dance on hind legs
while juggling who is located in Marina del Rey and available for work next week?

You begin to see the difficulties and advantages of organizing information in a

structured way. Humanities domains bring their own challenges to the design of the
conceptual model of data.

A fairly simple form of data structure is a spreadsheet, but it is also a powerful instrument for
analysis, modeling, and work of various kinds. Spreadsheets were created in analogue
environments for the management of information, as well as for the presentation and analysis
of data. If you want to look at a budget, a spread sheet is a good way to do it, for instance, and
if you want to project forward what the changes in, for instance, a pay rate or an interest rate
will do to costs, it is exceptionally/ useful to be able to automate this process. This is what

30
made the automated spread sheet, VISICALC, created in the late 1970s, into what was known
as the first killer-app. The digital spread sheet is considered the application that made
computing an integral part of business life.

Some milestones in the history of database development include the following:

1969-70 LANPAR automatic natural order recalculation algorithm
Rene Pardo and Remy Landau
1970-72 Edgar Clogg, database concepts
1974-76 IBM QUEL (Query Langauge)
1970s RDBMS
1979-ish VISICALC Dan Bricklin and Bob Frankston = killer app Apple, IBM
1980s Lotus 1-2-3
1980s SQL (Sequel)

Exercise StarPaws (Continued)

A spreadsheet provides many advantages over a card catalogue or rolodex, and it is
considered a flat database. All of the information is stored in one table. A relational
database breaks information into multiple tables linked by keys. These permit data to
be grouped by relations. One crucial feature of relational databases is that they allow
data to vary dependently (when a dogs owner changes, so does the telephone number
for locating it) or independently (when several dogs play the same role in a film, the role
stays stable but the relation to the pets varies). If you take the information in your cards
and/or spread sheets and organize a set of tables, which pieces of information belong
together and which will be separate? Why? You can draw this on paper.

Whether you build a database in a software program like Access, Filemaker, MySQL, or any
other, the principles are essentially the same for all relational databases. However, other forms
of database structures exist that do not depends only an entity-relationship model, but also on
other principles. Look at object-oriented databases, and RDF formats, and linked open data
(LOD). If you build a database, you design the content model, create fields for data entry, and
design the relationships. Then you build a form-based entry for putting data into the database.
This might be organized very differently from the database in order to make it more useful or
coherent. Learning to manipulate the data through searches/queries, reports, and other
methods will show you the value of a database for the management of information as well as
metadata.

The basic principles of database management and design are modularity, content type
definition or data modelling, and relations, and then the combinatoric use of data through
selection and display. Since all data is capta, that is, a construct made through interpretation,
databases are powerful rhetorical instruments that often pass themselves of as value-neutral
observations or records of events, information, or things in the world.

31
 Exercise
Think about census data and categories that have been taken as givens or as
natural in some cultures and times in history that might now be questioned or
challenged. If medical data and census data are linked, can you see problems in the
ways these worldviews might differ?

Data structures, like classification systems, organize and express values. Michael Christies
article pays attention to the ways database structures limit what can be said and/or done with
cultural materials. Why does he argue for narrative and the need for multi-dimensional, non-
linear, forms? How are his issues related to the Wallack and Srinivasan essay read earlier?

Exercise
Discuss and paraphrase the following points from Christie:
Digital songlines relation to space/place
Kinship, language, humor relation to environment, embedded
Cartesian systems rational, object and representation distinct
Storyworld not storyline
Collaboration with a sentient landscape/multi-layered

Some Links
Computing History Organizations History of Database (a site with good conceptual
information) http://www.comphist.org/computing_history/new_page_9.htm

Another approach, focused on the history and development of Relational Databases

PRF Browns: http://www.mountainman.com.au/software/history/it1.html

Basic intro to Object Oriented Databases (note, paper is 20years old, but still useful)
http://www.fing.edu.uy/inco/grupos/csi/esp/Cursos/cursos_act/2000/DAP_DisAvDB/do
cumentacion/OO/Evol_DataModels.html

Takeaway
Flat databases create a structure in which content can be stored by type. Relational
databases allow information to be controlled and varied according to whether it is in a
dependent or independent relation. Databases allow for authority control, consistency,
and standardization across large bodies of information.

Required Readings for 4A

* Manovich, Database as Symbolic Form
* Ed Folsom, Database as genre, PMLA
* Responses to Folsom, PMLA

32
Study Questions for 4A:
1. What does Lev Manovich mean by database logic and do his distinctions between
narrative (sequential, linear, causal trajectory) and database (unordered and
unstructured) match your experience of using ORBIS, the Chicago Encyclopedia, or the
Whitman Archive (pick one).
2. What ways do Ed Folsom and Jerome McGanns descriptions of what constitutes a
database match or differ from Manovichs (and each others)? You may try to include
some discussion of whether their comments share an attitude about the liberatory
subtext of Manovichs approach, but this is not necessary.

33
4A. DATABASE AND NARRATIVE
Overview
A database, as we have seen, is an effective way to manage, access, use, and query
information. It can be used to store the metadata that describes files and materials in a
repository, or it can be the primary document (many databases are stand-alone documents,
they dont necessarily link to or manage other files or materials).

What does it mean, however, to assert that databases are the new, current, and future form of
knowledge and that they will replace narrative in the study of history, the creation of literature,
or the development of artistic expression? The theorist Lev Manovich suggests that database
and narrative are natural enemiesbut why and on what grounds? A special issue of the
PMLA, the Publication of the Modern Language Association generated much controversy when
it took up these and other arguments.

Among the assertions was that databases were non-linear while narratives were linear, that
processes of selection resulted in fixed narrative modes while processes of combination are at
the heart of database logic. The theme that runs through such arguments has a strong
technodeterminstic feel to it, suggesting that changes in ways of thinking are the direct result
of changes in the technology we design and use. Counter-arguments suggested that
combinatoric work and content models are integral elements of human expression and have
been since the beginnings of the written record, which can be dated to five or six thousand
years ago in Mesopotamia. The distinction between database structures and narrative forms is
real, but are they in opposition to each other or merely useful for different purposes and
circumstances? Why make such strong arguments on either side? At stake seems to be the
definition of what constitutes discourse, human expression, and the rules and conventions
according to which it can create the record of lived and imaginative experience. But also at
stake is an investment in the ways we value and assess new media and their impact,
understand digital media and its specificity but also its effects.

Discuss the points in this summary of some of the issues in these debates:
Lev Manovich, Database as Symbolic form (1999)
Database and narrative as natural enemieswhy?
HTML as database? (modularity)
Universal Media Machine means what?
Multiple interfaces to the same material
Paradigm (selection) vs. syntagm (combination)
What is meant by database logic in his text?
Do his distinctions between database and narrative hold?

Ed Folsom, Database as Genre: The epic transformation of the Archives (2007)

Cites Dimock (unordered/ordered = dbase/narrative)
34
 Network, circuits, rhizomes (Whitmans own practice)

Jerome McGann, Database, Interface, and Archival Fever (2007)

dbase and the initial critical analysis of content
The concept of the social text and constant makings and remakings

Ursula Heise: Database and extinction: http://www.stanford.edu/~uheise/

How can you connect the statements here with our discussion?
Look at the Red lists: http://www.iucnredlist.org/about/red-list-overview

Theoretical issues
Struggles over identity/description
Distinctions between literal format and virtual form
Continuities and ruptures: nothing new vs. totally new
Technodeterminism, teleology, liberatory utopianism

Recap
Keep in mind that we are working towards understanding the under the hood aspects of
Digital Humanities projects. We began with a very generalized sketch of what goes into a DH
project: back end repository/database/structured data/metadata/files, a suite of services or
functionalities that help do things with that repository, and various modes of display and/or
modelling user experience.

Digital Humanities Concepts and Vocabulary Recap

HTML, browsers, display, W3C and parsing depend on HTMLs function to display
directly through browser has limited functionality, flexibility, use. HTML structures
data for display, but not for content analysis.

Exercise
A. How is this NOT plain HTML? http://orbis.stanford.edu/#
B. Can you map the elements in Omeka and in your projects to the basic
features of digital humanities projects? What is still missing and/or unexplained
in the creation of these projects?

- Files
- Metadata records, descriptions, standards, Dublin Core, Getty AAt
- Classification/organization (into classes by characteristics)
- Ontologies (ontology=being) and Taxonomies (also classification systems)
- Database back-end (flat and relational databases: spread sheets, tables, relations)
- Services
- Display / Interface

35
Readings for 4B:
* Calvin Schmid, Statistical Graphics, excerpt
* Howard Wainer, Graphic Discovery, excerpt
ManyEyes, read the information on uses for each type
http://www.958.ibm.com/software/data/cognos/manyeyes/page/Visualization_O
ptions.html
Visual Complexity website, http://www.visualcomplexity.com/vc/

Study Questions:
1. What is visualization and how does it work? How is Schmids very practical approach to
graphics different from the work on the Visual Complexity website?

36
4B. INFORMATION VISUALIZATION CONCEPTS
Information visualizations are used to make quantitative data legible. They are particularly
useful for large amounts of information and for making patterns in the data legible in a
condensed form. Compare these two versions of the same information, in a table and in a
chart:

All information visualizations are metrics expressed as graphics.

The implications of this simple statement are far ranginganything that can be quantified,
given a numerical value, can be turned into a graph, chart, diagram, or other visualization
through computational means. All parts of the processfrom creating quantified information
to producing visualizationsare acts of interpretation. Understanding how graphic formats
impose meaning, or semantic value, is crucial to the production of information visualization. But
any sense that data has an inherent visual form is an illusion. We can take any data set and
put it into a pie chart, a continuous graph, a scatter plot, a tree map and so on. The challenge
is to understand how the information visualization creates an argument and then make use of
the graphical format whose features serve your purpose.

Many information visualizations are the reification of misinformation.

Data creation, as we noted in an earlier lesson on the topic, depends on parameterization. To

reiterate, the basic concept is that anything that can be measured, counted, or given a metric
or numerical value can be turned into data. This, of course, is the concept that all data is capta,
that it is not given but made in the act of being captured. The concept of parameterization
is crucial to visualization because the ways in which we assign value to the data will have a
direct impact on the ways it can be displayed. Visualizations have a strong rhetorical force by
37
virtue of their graphic qualities, and can easily distort the data/capta. All visualizations are
interpretations, but some are more suited to the structure of a given data set than others.

(For example, if you are showing the results of opinion polls in the United States, the choice of
whether you show the results by coloring the area inside the boundaries of the states or by a
scatter plot or other population size unit will be crucial. If you are getting information about the
outcome of an election, then the graphic effect should take the entire state into account; but if
you are looking at consumer preferences for a product, then the population count and even
location are significant; if you are trying to track an epidemic, then transportation networks as
well as population centers and points of contact are important.)

What is being counted? What values are assigned? What will be displayed?

In many cases, the graphic image is an artifact of the way the decisions about the design were
made, not about the data. (For example, if you are recording the height of students in a class,
making a continuous graph that connects the dots makes no sense at all. There is no continuity
of height between one student and another.)

Some basics
The distinction between discrete and continuous data is one of the most significant
decisions in choosing a design.
If you are showing change over time or any other variable, then a continuous graph is
the right choice.
If you are using a graph that shows quantities with area, use it for percentages of a
whole. If you increase the area of a circle based on a metric associated with the radius,
you are introducing a radical distortion into the relation of the elements.
The way in which you label and order your graphic elements will make some arguments
more immediately evident. If you want to compare quantities, be sure they are
displayed in proximity.
The use of labels is crucial and their design can either aid or hinder legibility.
Keep in mind that many visualizations, such as network diagrams, arrange the
information for maximum legibility on screen. They may not be using proximity or
distance in a semantically meaningful way.

For more information about basics see Many Eyes (http://www-

958.ibm.com/software/analytics/manyeyes/page/Visualization_Options.html) and also
Whitepaper from Tableau (on CCLE).

Exercise
The chapter from Calvin Schmid describes eight different kinds of bar charts:
Simple bar chart
Bar and symbol chart
Subdivided bar chart

38
 Subdivided 100 per cent bar chart
Grouped bar chart
Paired bar chart
Derivation bar chart
Sliding bar chart
What are their characteristics, for what kind of data are they useful, and can you draw an
example of each?

Which one would you use to keep track of 1) classroom use, 2) attention span, 3) food
supplies, 4) age comparisons/demographics in a group?

Exercise
For what kind of data gathered in the classroom would you use a column chart? Tools
that are part of your conceptual, critical, and design set:
Elements, scale, order/sequence, values/coordinates, graphic variables

Exercise: http://www.datavis.ca/gallery/lie-factor.php
Which of these issues is contributing to the lie-factor in each case: legibility, accuracy,
or the argument made by the form. What is meant by a graphic argument?

Exercise
Take one of the these data sets through a series of Many Eyes Visualizations.
http://www-958.ibm.com/software/data/cognos/manyeyes/
Which make the data more legible? Less?
United States AKC Registrations
Sugar Content in Popular Halloween Treats

Takeaway
Information visualizations are metrics expressed as graphics. Information visualizations
allow large amounts of (often complex) data to be depicted visually in ways that reveal
patterns, anomalies, and other features of the data in a very efficient way. Information
visualizations contain much historical and cultural information in their extra or
superfluous elementsi.e. the form of visualizations is also information.

Required reading 5A
* Plaisant, Rose, et. al. Exploring Erotics in Emily Dickinsons Correspondence
with Text Mining and Visual Interfaces

Study questions for 5A

1. Calvin Schmid and Many Eyes offer useful advice on what form of data visualization to
use for different kinds of data. Referring to their work, describe a data visualization that
will work for your group project. How would you make it useful if you were to scale up
to hundreds of objects? 39
2. If you were to pick a visualization from Michael Friendlys timeline to use for your
project, which would it be and why? http://www.datavis.ca/gallery/timelines.php

40
5A. CRITICAL AND PRACTICAL ISSUES IN INFORMATION VISUALIZATION
In this lesson we will work through various presentations of data and compare them to see if
the rhetorical force of each visual format becomes clear, as well as examples of where a
particular chart, graph, or diagram simply does not work. The effective use of different
graphical forms is an art, and though it has no easy rules, it is governed by basic principles (as
per the previous session). The chance to look at best and worst examples is also built into
the exercises below, and this provides an opportunity to create a critical vocabulary for
discussing why something is a poor visualization. From such descriptions, basic principles
should arise and become clear, though one basic principle is that there are cases in which no
standard treatment applies and the solution must be tailored to the problem and/or purpose
for which the visualization is being design.

1) Hands-on
Take a simple data set (ages of everyone you know, put into a simple spread sheet) and
display it in at least five different ManyEyes visualizations. Or, use one of their data sets
and do the same thing. Which make sense? Which do not? Why? What does the
exercise teach you about the rhetoric of information graphics?

2) Critical
Charles Minards Chart: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Minard.png
Exercise: List the elements in the chart, how are they correlated?
Pioneer Plaque: 1972
http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Pioneer_plaque.svg&page=1
Exercise: What is the information being communicated? Suggest changes.
Best and Worst: http://flowingdata.com/
Exercise: Name your own best/worst: when do the graphics overwhelm
content?

3) Project related
Using some aspect of your project, design an information visualization. Then think
about how to use the different graphic variables (color, shape, size, orientation, value,
texture, position) to designate a different feature of your data and/or your graphic.
Jacques Bertin: Seven Graphic Principles http://www.infovis-
wiki.net/index.php?title=Visual_Variables
Exercise: Designate a role for each of these in your own visualization.

4) Complexity:
Look at half a dozen examples on this site: http://www.visualcomplexity.com/vc/
What are the dimensions added here? What is the correlation between graphic
expression and information?

41
 Are the aesthetics in these projects overwhelming the information? Or are they
simply integrated into it? http://flowingdata.com/2010/12/14/10-best-data-
visualization-projects-of-the-year-%E2%80%93-2010/

5) Critical analysis
Stanford Spatial History:
http://www.stanford.edu/group/spatialhistory/cgi-bin/site/index.php
Exercise: Analyze and critique http://www.stanford.edu/group/toolingup/rplviz/
Exercise: Suggest changes/alternatives:
Animal City, A Decade of Fire, Chinese Canadian Immigrant Flows

6) Advanced study
Look at Edward Tuftes first chapter in the Visual Display of Quantitative Information,
and ask whether or not form follows data.

Takeaways
No data has an inherent visual form. Any data set can be expressed in any number of
standard formats, but only some of these are appropriate for the features of the data.
Certain common errors include mis-use of area, continuity, and other graphical
qualities. The rhetorical force of visualization is often misleading. All visualizations are
interpretations, not presentations of fact.
Many graphic features of visualizations are artifacts of the display, not of the data.
A visualization is an efficient way to show lots of information/data in succinct and legible
manner. But it can also be The reification of mis-information.

Required readings for 5B

William Turkel, Data Mining with Criminal Intent
http://criminalintent.org/getting-started/
Commentary on it by Andrew Smith:
http://andrewdsmith.wordpress.com/2011/08/21/the-promise-of-digital-
humanities/

Study questions for 5B

1. What is data mining?
2. How does the interface to the Old Bailey change from the first to second versions?

42
5B. DATA MINING AND TEXT ANALYSIS
The term data mining refers to any process of analysis performed on a dataset to extract
information from it. That definition is so general that it could mean something as simple as
doing a string search (typing into a search box) in a library catalogue or in a Google window.
Mining quantitative data or statistical information is standard practice in the social sciences
where software packages for doing this work have a long history and vary in sophistication and
complexity. For a good succinct introduction to SPSS, one of the standards, read this:
http://www.dummies.com/how-to/content/how-spss-statistical-package-for-the-social-
scienc.html

But data mining in the digital humanities usually involves performing some kind of extraction of
information from a body of texts and/or their metadata in order to ask research questions that
may or may not be quantitative. Supposing you want to compare the frequency of the word
she and he in newspaper accounts of political speeches in the early 20th century before
and after the 19th Amendment guaranteed women the right to vote in August 1920. Suppose
you wanted to collocate these words with the phrases in which they were written and sort the
results based on various factorsfrequency, affective value, attribution and so on. This kind of
text analysis is a subset of data mining. Quite a few tools have been developed to do analyses
of unstructured texts, that is, texts in conventional formats. Text analysis programs use word
counts, keyword density, frequency, and other methods to extract meaningful information. The
question of what constitutes meaningful information is always up for discussion, and
completely silly or meaningless results can be generated as readily from text analysis tools as
they can from any other.

Exercise
Even a very simple tool, like Textanalyser, http://textalyser.net/, can generate results
that are usefulbut for what? Make use of the tool and then define a context or
problem for which it would be useful. Think about the various categories of analysis.
What are stop words? What are other features can you control and how do they
affect the results?
Now look at a more complicated tool and compare the language that describes its
features with that of Textanalyser.
http://www.textanalysis.com/Products/VisualText/visualtext.html
What is a conceptual grammar for instance, and what are the applications
that the developers describe in their promotional materials?
While text analysis is considered qualitative research, the algorithms that are run by the
tools are using quantitative methods as well as search/match procedures to identify the
elements and features in any text.
Is the apparent paradox between quantitative and qualitative approaches in text
analysis real?

43
In 2009, the National Endowment for the Humanities ran a digging into data challenge as
part of its funding of digital scholarship. The goal was to take digital projects with large data
sets and create useful ways to engage with them. Take a look at the project and look at the
kinds of proposals that were funded:
http://www.diggingintodata.org/Home/AwardRecipientsRound12009/tabid/175/Default.aspx

One of these used two tools, Zotero (developed at George Mason in the Center for History
and New Media) and TAPoR (an earlier version of what is now Voyeur, developed by a group of
Canadian researchers) to create a new front end for a project, the transcripts of trials at the Old
Bailey in London. The Old Baily records provide one of the single longest continuous
chronological account of trials and criminal proceedings in existence, and are therefore a
fascinating document of changes in attitudes, values, punishments, and the social history of
crime.

Exercise: For critical analysis and discussion

Case 1: Old Bailey Online
API (application programming interface) for Old Bailey for search/query
Zotero manage, save records, integrate
Voyant/Voyeur -- visualization

First look at the site: http://www.oldbaileyonline.org

Then look at the CLIR paper report on the project:
http://www.clir.org/pubs/reports/pub151/case-studies/dmci
or the final research summary:
http://criminalintent.org/wp-content/uploads/2011/09/Data-Mining-with-
Criminal-Intent-Final1.pdf

Figure 1: How is the API structured and what does it enable? Compare with the
original Old Bailey Online search. If the Old Bailey becomes a collection of
texts to be searched, what does this mean in specific terms?
Figure 2: Zotero: saves search results, not just points within corpus
Figure 3, export of results)
Figure 5: Voyeur correlate information in this image. Compare with Figure 6.
Other features: TF / IDF = Term Frequency, Inverse Document Frequency

Case 2: Erotics in Emily Dickinson

http://hcil2.cs.umd.edu/trs/2006-01/2006-01.pdf
Look at Page 4 and Page 6 analyze the visualization
What are the means by which the visualizations were produced?
How does this kind of data analysis differ from that of the Old Bailey project?

Case 3: Compus
Letters from 1531-1532, 100 letters, transcribed (clemency)

44
 Look at Figure 1, then p. 2, examine the encoding/tagging.
How is the process of generating the visualization different from in Old Bailey or
the Emily Dickinson project?

Exercise: Text analysis with Voyeur/Voyant and Many Eyes.

One of the challenges with any kind of data mining is to translate the results into a
legible format. Information visualization, as we know, compresses large amounts of
information into an image that shows patterns across a range of variables. Using
visualization tools for reading and analyzing the results of text mining has various
advantages and liabilities. In this set of exercises, try to identify the ways the rhetorical
force of the tools works within the results.

Summary
Methods of doing text analysis are a subset of data mining. They depend upon statistical
analysis and algorithms that can actually understand (that is, process in a meaningful way)
features of natural language. Visualization tools are used to display many of the results of text
analysis and introduce their own arguments in the process. While this lesson has focused on
unstructured texts, the next will look at the basic principles of structured texts that make
use of mark-up to introduce a layer of interpretation or analysis into the process.

Takeaway
Text analysis is a way to perform data mining on digitally encoded text files. One of the
earliest forms of humanities computing, at its simplest it is a combination string search,
match, count, and sort functions that show word frequency, context, and lexical
preferences. It can be performed on unstructured data. Topic modelling is an
advanced form of text analysis that analyzes relations (such as proximity) among textual
elements as well as their frequency.

Required readings for 6A:

Alan Renear, Text Encoding
#17 C2DH
Lou Bernard, A gentle introduction to SGML
http://www.tei-c.org/Support/Learn/mueller-index.htm
A gentle introduction to XML, TEI
http://www.tei-c.org/Support/Learn/mueller-index.htm

Study questions for 6A:

1. How does text encoding work?
2. Talk about XML in terms of structured data?

45
6A. TEXT ENCODING, MARK-UP, AND TEI
Mark-up languages are among the common forms of structured data. The term mark-up
refers to the use of tags that bracket words or phrases in a document. They are always applied
within a hierarchical structure and always embedded within the text stream itself. Experimental
approaches to address some of the conceptual and logistical problems that arise from the
hierarchical structure of mark-up have not succeeded in making an effective alternative. Mark-
up remains a standard practice in editing, processing, and publishing texts in electronic forms.
The use of HTML tags, introduced in an earlier section, is a very basic form of mark-up. But
where HTML is used to create instructions for browsers to display texts (specifying format, font,
size etc.), mark-up languages are designed to call attention to the content of texts. This can
involve anything from noting the distinctions among parts of a text such as title, author, stanza,
or interpreting mood, atmosphere, place, or any other element of a text. As discussed in lesson
2A, every act of introducing mark-up into a text is an act of interpretation. Mark-up is a way of
making explicit intervention in a text so that it can be analyzed, searched, and put into relation
with other texts in a repository or corpus. Mark-up is an essential element of digital humanities
work since it is the primary way of structuring texts as they are transcribed, digitized, or born
digital.

Mark-up is slow, demanding work, but it is also intellectually engaging. Mark-up languages can
be selected from among the many domain specific standards (again, see Lesson 2A), or custom
built for a specific project or task. These two approaches can also be combined, but then the
task of processing the marked-up text will have to be custom built as well, which means that
the transformations, selections, and display instructions will need to be written in XSL and XSLT
in a way that matches the mark-up.

TEI, the Text Encoding Initiative, is the prevailing standard mark-up scheme for text and should
be used if you are working with literary texts. The scheme includes basic bibliographical tags
(publication information, edition information and so on), tags for the basic structure of a work
(chapters, titles, subtitles, etc.) and tags for basic elements of literary content. The TEI is a
complex scheme, and the documentation on it is excellent. In addition, the most commonly
used editor, Oxygen, contains the TEI built into its system. See http://www.tei-c.org/index.xml
for information on TEI from the community that builds and maintains it.

For customized mark-up, the first phase of working with mark-up is to decide on a scheme or
content model for the texts. The content model is not inherent in the text, but instead
embodies the intellectual tasks to which the work is being put. Is a novel being analyzed for its
gender politics? Its ecological themes? Its depictions of place? All of these? The tag set that is
devised for analysis should fit the theme and/or content of the text but also of the work that
you want to do with it. Creating a content model for a project is an intellectual exercise as
critical as creating a classification scheme. It shapes the interpretative framework within which
the work will proceed.

46
Because XML is always hierarchical in structure, one of the challenges in making a content
model is to make decisions about the parent-child structures this involves. The fundamental
conflict that became clear in early in discussions of XML and TEI was that of overlapping
hierarchies. One such conflict exists in the decision to mark up a physical object or its contents,
because it is virtually impossible to do both. A poem may straddle two pages, and XML does
not have a way to accommodate the mark up of both the physical autonomy of each page and
the unity of the poem at the same time. In general, TEI concentrates on the intellectual content
of a work, not the physical features of its original instantiation.
Exercise
The classic exercise is to take a recipe and try to determine what the tag set should be
for its elements and how they should be introduced into the text. In this exercise,
contrast the semantic elements of a recipe, a poem, and an advertisement.
Isolate the different content types in each instance simply by bracketing them.
Come up with a set of descriptive tags for the recipe
Look at TEI and locate the appropriate tags for the poem
Now try to create a tag set for the advertisement
Look at the three different tag sets independent of the content to which they are
going to be applied. What do the tag sets tell you?
Try applying the tag sets to the content of each of the textual objects. What
differences do you find in the process? What does this tell you about tagging?
Compare your tag sets with those of your neighbor. Are they the same?

The documentation of the creation of a tag set for a project is very important. Creating clear
definitions of what tags describe and how they are to be used is essential if you are making
your own XML custom scheme. If you are using TEI, be sure to follow the tag descriptions
accurately. This is particularly important if the texts you are marking up are to be incorporated
into a larger project (like an online encyclopedia, repository, collection, etc.) where they have
to match the format of other files. Even the same individual working on different days can use
tags differently. The range of interpretation is difficult to restrict, and individual acts of tagging
are rarely consistent.

To get a good idea of a custom-built tag set for a project, go to

http://www.artistsbooksonline.org and look at the DTD and tag definitions. What do you think
the tag set for the Old Bailey project was? How do tags and search processes relate to each
other? Data mining? What is the fundamental difference between marked-up text and non-
marked-up text and when is it useful to go to the work of marking up a file?

Takeaway
Mark-up schemes are integral to digital humanities projects and allow large collections
of digital files to be searched and analyzed in a coherent and coordinated way. But
mark-up schemes are formalized expressions of interpretation, they are models of
content, and they are limited by the hierarchical structure required by the technical

47
 constraints of the system. Almost all digital scholarship and publication requires mark-
up and familiarity with its operations and effects is a crucial part of doing digital
humanities work.

Required readings for 6B:

Franco Moretti, Conjectures on World Literature, New Left Review 1, January
/ February 2000, http://newleftreview.org/A2094
*Lev Manovich, Douglass, et al., How to Compare One Million Pictures

Study questions for 6B:

1. What is the concept of distant reading and how does it relate to and differ from other
forms of data mining we have looked at to date?
2. What are the challenges faced in trying to analyze large numbers of images by contrast
to those we encounter in analyzing texts?

48
6B. DISTANT READING AND CULTURAL ANALYTICS
Many concepts and terms in digital humanities have come into being through a community of
userssuch as mark-up, data mining, and so on. But in the case of distant reading and cultural
analytics, the terms are associated with individual authors, Franco Moretti and Lev Manovich,
each of whom has been involved in their use and the application of their principles to research
projects.

Distant reading is the idea of processing content in (subjects, themes, persons, places etc.) or
information about (publication date, place, author, title) a large number of textual items
without engaging in the reading of the actual text. The reading is a form of data mining that
allows information in the text or about the text to be processed and analyzed. Debates about
distant reading range from the suggestion that it is a misnomer to call it reading, since it is
really statistical processing and/or data mining, to arguments that the reading of the corpus of
literary or historical (or other) works has a role to play in the humanities. Proponents of the
method argue for the ability of text processing to expose aspects of texts at a scale that is not
possible for human readers and which provide new points of departure for research. Patterns in
changes in vocabulary, nomenclature, terminology, moods, themes, and a nearly inexhaustible
number of other topics can be detected using distant reading techniques, and larger social and
cultural questions can be asked about what has been included in and left out of traditional
studies of literary and historical materials.

Cultural analytics is a phrase coined by Lev Manovich to describe work he is embarked on that
uses large screen displays and digital capacities to analyze, organize, sort, and computationally
process large numbers of images. Images have different properties in digital form than texts,
and the act of remediating an image into a digital file is more radical than the act of typing or
transcribing a text into an alphanumeric stream (we could quibble over this, but essentially, text
is produced in alphanumeric code, but no equivalent or analogous code exists for images).
Finding ways to process the remediated digital files based on values, color, degrees of
difference from a median or norm, and so on, has constituted one of the core research areas of
cultural analytics.

In distant reading and cultural analytics the fundamental issues of digital humanities are
present: the basic decisions about what can be measured (parameterized), counted, sorted,
and displayed are interpretative acts that shape the outcomes of the research projects. The
research results should be read in relation to those decisions, not as statements of self-evident
fact about the corpus under investigation. (For example, if the publication date of books is
used as an element of the data being processed, then are all of these the date of first
publication, of subsequent publications, of editions that have been modified or changed, and
how do publication dates and composition dates match. War and Peace is still in print, but how
should we assess the publication date of such a work?

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Case Studies
Distant Reading
A) Franco Moretti, Stanford Literary Lab http://litlab.stanford.edu/?page_id=13
Exercise: What kinds of patterns are being analyzed (geography, networks,
stylistics) and how are parameters set?
Hamlet
http://www.nytimes.com/2011/06/26/books/review/the-mechanic-muse-what-is-distant-
reading.html?pagewanted=all&_r=0
Pamphlet on quantitative formalism
http://litlab.stanford.edu/LiteraryLabPamphlet1.pdf
Exercise: Why is this a misleading graph?
http://www.rogerwhitson.net/britnovel2012/wp-
content/uploads/2012/10/graph-11.png

B) Matt Jockers (worked extensively with Moretti to design the software/algorithms used in
distant reading)
Read reviews of his book and summarize the issues, compare them with the responses
to Morettis work:
http://lareviewofbooks.org/review/an-impossible-number-of-books/
http://www.insidehighered.com/views/2013/05/01/review-matthew-l-jockers-
macroanalysis-digital-methods-literary-history
Moretti: http://www.nytimes.com/2011/06/26/books/review/the-mechanic-
muse-what-is-distant-reading.html?pagewanted=all&_r=0

C) Conjecture-based analysis
See: Patrick Juolas Conjecturator https://twitter.com/conjecturator

D) Dan Cohen and Fred Gibbs, 1,681,161 titles in Victorian literature

http://www.nytimes.com/2010/12/04/books/04victorian.html?pagewanted=all
Exercise: Analyze the graphic and compare with the network diagram of Hamlet

Cultural Analytics
A) Lev Manovich, http://lab.softwarestudies.com/2008/09/cultural-analytics.html
Read How to Compare One Million Images
http://softwarestudies.com/cultural_analytics/2011.How_To_Compare_One_Milli
on_Images.pdf
Discuss some details of the project:
1,074,790 manga pages
supercomputers
visual features
feature = numerical value of an image property

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Exercise
Analyze the analysis (p.5)
argument: tiny sample method vs. large cultural data sets
claims: full spectrum of graphical possibilities revealed
benefits/disadvantages
controlled vocabulary / crowd sourcing
digital image processing / image plots
Exercise
Google cultural analytics, look at image results, analyze

Exercise
Design a project for which cultural analytics would be useful. Think in terms of the large
volume of visual information which can be processed. In what circumstances might this
be of value?

Exercise
What are the differences and similarities between distant reading and cultural analytics?

Takeaways
Cultural analytics is a phrase used to describe the analysis of very large data sets.
Computational tools to analyze big data have to balance the production of patterns,
summaries at a large scale, with the capacity to drill down into the data at a small scale.
A number of digging into data projects have made large repositories of cultural
materials more useful through faceted search and customizable browsing interface.

Distant reading is a combination of text analysis and other data mining performed on
metadata or other available information. Natural language processing applications can
summarize the contents of a large corpus of texts. Data mining techniques can show
other patterns at a scale that is beyond the capacity of human processing (e.g. How
many times does the word prejudice appear in 200,000 hours of newscasts?). The
term distant reading is created in opposition to the notion of close reading that is at
the heart of humanistic interpretation through careful attention to the composition and
meaning of texts (or images or musical works).

Required readings for 7A:

Wesley Beal, Theorizing Connectivity: Modernism and the Network Narrative, Spring
2011: v5 n2, [co-authored]
Phil Gochenour, Nodalism DHQ, 2011.5.3
http://digitalhumanities.org/dhq/vol/5/3/000105/000105.html
Pinheiro, Carlos A.R. (2011). Social Network Analysis in Telecommunications. John
Wiley & Sons. Read Chapter 1 , p. 3-26.
http://books.google.com/books?id=jP8zfL6yNGkC&pg=PA4.
Wiki on basics: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_network_analysis

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Study questions for 7A:
1. What are the basic components of a network? How are they defined? How do they
translate into a data structure?
2. What is meant by connectivity and what are the limits of the ways network definitions
represent actual situations?

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7A. NETWORK ANALYSIS
The concept of a network has become ubiquitous in current culture. Almost any connection to
anything else can be called a network, but properly speaking, a network has to be a system of
elements or entities that are connected by explicit relations. Unlike other data structures we
have looked at data bases, mark-up systems, classification systems, and so onnetworks are
defined by the specific relations among elements in the system rather than by the content
types or components. The term network is frequently used to describe the infrastructure that
connects computers to each other and to peripherals, devices, or systems in a linked
environment. But the networks we are concerned with in digital humanities are created by
relationships among different elements in a model of content.

Good examples of networks are social networks, traffic networks, communication networks, and
networks of markets and/or influence. Many of the same diagrams are used to show or map
these networks, and yet, the content of the relations and of the entities might be very different
in each case. Standardization of graphic methods can create a problem when the same
techniques are used across disciplines and/or knowledge domains, so a critical approach to
network diagrams is useful.

Exercise
You can sketch a network on paper quite easily. Put yourself at the center and then
arrange everyone you know in your immediate circles (family, friends, clubs, groups)
around you. Think about degrees of proximity and also connections among the
individuals in different parts of your network. How many of them are linked to each
other as well as to you. If you can code the lines that connect your various persons to
indicate something about the relationship, how does that change the drawing? What
attributes of a relationship are readily indicated? Which are not?

Social networks are familiar and the use of social media has intensified our awareness of the
ways social structures emerge from interconnections among individuals. Actor-network theory,
or ANT, is a contemporary formulation by Bruno Latour that extends developments in
sociology from early in the 20th century work of Georg Simmel and others. A network may or
may not have emergent properties, may or may not be dynamic, and may have varying levels
of complexity. Simple networks, like the connection of your computer to various peripheral
devices through a wireless router in your home environment, may exhibit very little change
over time, at least little observable change. But a network of traffic flow is more like a living
organism than it is like a set of static connections. Though nodes may stay in place, as in airline
hubs and transfer points, the properties of the network have capacity to vary considerably.
Networks exhibit varying degrees of closed-ness and open-ness as well, and researchers
interested in complex or emergent systems are attentive to the ways boundary conditions are
maintained under different circumstances, helping to define the limits of a system. Social
networks are almost never closed, and like kinship relations or communications, they can
53
quickly escalate to a very high scale. Epidemiologists trying to track the spread of a disease are
aware of how rapidly the connections among individuals grows exponentially in a very short
period of time. Network analysis is an essential feature of textual analysis, social analysis, and
plays a large role in policy and resources allocation as well as in other kinds of research work.

The basic elements of any network are nodes and edges. The degree of agency or activity
assigned to any node and the different attributes that can be assigned to any relation or edge
will be structured into the data model. The simplest data models for networks consist of
triples three part structures that allow entities to be linked by relations. This is very different
in character from the tuple or two-part structure that links records and entities, for instance,
in the use of metadata to describe an object.

Exercise: Kindred Britain

http://kindred.stanford.edu/#
This is a site that looks at the connections about 30,000 British individuals. The project
is meant to show the many ways in which connections form through social networks,
family ties, business and political circumstances. Play with it for awhile and then discuss:
selection of individuals
character and quality of relations
explicit assumptions and implicit ones
the diagrams and their rhetorical power

Exercise: Republic of Letters

http://republicofletters.stanford.edu/
Another project produced at Stanford that is focused on understanding the ways in
which letters created a virtual community in the 18th century. Look through the various
topics within this project and compare one with another. How is the information in the
correspondence being used? How are the maps created? How are relationships
defined?
Look at this particular visualization: https://stanford.app.box.com/voltaire2
Be sure to look at http://www.e-enlightenment.com/ and see how the data in
this repository was used by the Stanford Project.

Exercise: Google mapping social networks

Pick any three images and compare them, think about what they do and do not show
and how they make use of screen space, maps, and diagrammatic conventions. Then
look at the BioPortal at Arizona University and see how the researchers are using
network analysis in their work: http://ai.arizona.edu/research/bioportal/

Advanced network theory pays attention to emergent properties of systems. The

capacity of networks to self-organize using very simple procedures that produce
increasingly complex results makes them useful models for looking at many kinds of
behaviors in human and non-human systems. Networks do not have to be dynamic,

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 systems almost always are. The study of systems theory and of networks is relatively
recent, and only emerged as a distinct field of research in the last few decades. We
might argue, however, that novelists and playwrights have been observing social
networks for much much longer, as have observers of animal behavior, weather and
climate, and the movements of heavenly bodies held in relation to each other by
magnetism, gravity, and other forces.

Takeaways
Networks consist of nodes (entities) and edges (relations). The data model for a network
is a simple three-part formula of entity-relation-entity. This can be structured in a
spreadsheet and exported to create a network visualization. Networks emphasize
relations and connections of exchange and influence. Refining the relations among
nodes beyond the concept of a single relation is important, so is the change of relations
over time. Social networks change constantly, as do communication networks, and the
relations among the technology that supports a network and the psychological, social,
or affective bonds can alter independently.

Required readings for 7B

* Stuart Dunn, Space as Artefact,
* Michael Goodchild, What Does Google Earth Mean for the Social Sciences?

Study Questions for 7B

1. Stuart Dunn poses a challenge digital geography by asking how it can be used to
understand better the construction of the spatial artefact, rather than simply to
represent it. What does he mean and how does he demonstrate a way to meet this
challenge?
2. What benefits and concerns does Michael Goodchild describe in his discussion of
Google Earth as a tool for scholarship. Does he share Dunns assumptions about space
as artefact or not?

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7B & 8A. GIS AND MAPPING CONVENTIONS
Many activities and visual formats that are integral to digital humanities have been imported
without question or reflection. This is true of timelines, diagrams, tables and charts, and not
least of all, maps. Maps are highly conventionalized representations, distortions, but they do
not come with instruction books or warnings about how to read their encoding. In learning
how to use GIS (Geo-Spatial Information Systems) built in digital environments, we can also
learn to expose the assumptions encoded in maps of all kinds, and to ask how the digitization
process reinforces certain kinds of attitudes towards knowledge in its own formats.

From the earliest times, human beings have looked outward to the heavens, mapping the
motion of planets and stars, trying to figure out the shape of the universe and our place in it.
Observations of the sky, originally conceived as a great dome or set of spheres inside of
sphere, all moving and turning, provide a view of a complex whole. But trying to get a sense of
the earth, of the shape of masses of land, edges of continents, bodies of water, and some idea
of the entire globe presents other challenges than that of reconciling observed motion with
mathematical models, as is the case for astronomy. Geography was experienced from within
observation, by walking, riding, or moving across and through the landscape. Marking
pathways and recording landmarks for navigation is one matter, but figuring out the shape of
physical features from even the highest points of observation on the surface of the earth is still
barely adequate as a way to map it. Nonetheless, the geographers of antiquity, in particular
the Greek mathematician Ptolemy (building on observations of others) created a map of the
world that remained a standard reference for more than a millennium. See history of
cartography, with the Wiki as the usual useful starting point:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_cartography
See also this excellent scholarly reference:
http://www.press.uchicago.edu/books/HOC/index.html (The early volumes of this standard
reference are available in PDF on this site.)

All flat maps of the earth are projections, attempts to represent a globe on a single surface.
Every projection is a distortion, but the nature of the distortions varies depending on the ways
the images are constructed and the purpose they are meant to serve. Maps for navigation are
very different than those used to show geologic features, for instance. In our current digital
environment, the ubiquitous Google maps, including Google Earth with its views from satellite
photographs, offers a view of the world that appears to be undistorted. The photographic
realism of its technique, combined with the ability to zoom in and out of the images it presents,
convinces us we are looking at the world rather than a representation of it. But is this true?
What are the ways in which digital presentations, Google Earth in particular, are distortions?
Why are such issues important to the work of humanists?

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 Exercise
The history of mapping and cartography is a history of distortions, and this includes
Google earth. What does it mean for a platform to be photographic and also be a
misrepresentation? Explore this apparent paradox from the point of view of these
features:
spatial viewpoint (above)
temporal (out of date)
conceptual (experiential vs. literal)

To a great extent, mapping is a record of experience, not of things. Maps record modes of
encounter and the making of space rather than its simple observation. Like all human artifacts,
maps contain assumptions that embody cultural values at particular historical moments. When
we take a map of 17th century London or 5th century Rome or an aboriginal map drawing and
try to reconcile it to a digital map using standards that are part of our contemporary
geographical coordinate system we are making a profound, even violent, intervention in the
worldview of the original. So whether we are working with materials in the present, and forcing
them into a single geographical representation system, or using materials from the inventory of
past presentations in map formats, we are always in the situation of taking one already
interpreted version of the world and pushing it into yet another interpretative framework. We
do this every day. As scholars, researchers, and students of human culture, we also have the
opportunity to reflect critically on these processes and ask how we might expand the
conventions of map-making to include the kinds of experiential aspects of human culture that
are absent from many conventions.

In environmental studies, a distinction between is made between concepts of space as a

physical environment and place as an experiential one. In addition, in the work of Edward
Soja and others, the concept of space as an artefact or construction has arisen out of what is
called non-representational geography. In this approach, space is a construct, not a given,
and comes into being through the activities of experience. These are not concepts that have
found their way into digital projects to any large degree, and they pose challenges for the
visual tools of mapping that we have at our disposal at present. However, the notion of space
as an artefact versus that of space as a given that can be represented is profoundly
important for humanistic work, even if the mapping platforms that come from more empirical
sciences do not accommodate its principles.

Exercise
Here is a series of exercises linked to the readings for these lessons that pose particular
questions in relation to issues presented by the authors.

A) Goodchild: Google maps (omniscient, high view, out of date, literal)

Google a map of LA. As you change scale, what distortions are introduced?
What point of view do you have?

57
 B) Stuart Dunn: Geospatial semantics, re-humanization, representation, resource
discovery

http://www.kcl.ac.uk/innovation/groups/cerch/research/projects/completed/mipp.aspx
Discuss the approach to understanding the interior space of the huts.

C) Ian Gregory: Absolute space vs. lived experience

http://www.tom-carden.co.uk/p5/tube_map_travel_times/applet/
How does this map support Gregorys argument?

D) Sarah McLafferty, situatedness, the detached observer vs. the lived experience
http://www.stanford.edu/group/spatialhistory/cgi-bin/site/viz.php?id=397
Look at Animal City. What would re-humanize this site and its maps?

KML, or cartographic mark-up language, is based on Cartesian coordinates; it is highly rational

and makes it possible to locate points consistently on map projects. The idea that space is
inflected by use, mood, or atmosphere becomes clear when we examine the minimal physical
distinctions that can make an area sacred rather than secular. The use of enclosures,
boundaries, structures, the setting aside of space to serve and also symbolize a particular
purpose or activity can be dramatic. The connections between official history and personal
memory can change a site in many ways, not all of them visual. But communicating these
significances is not easy. The use of a legend and symbols helps, but cartographers, artists, and
designers have also introduced spatial distortions and warps that are unusual and imaginative.
Strange maps: http://bigthink.com/blogs/strange-maps OR
http://www.guardian.co.uk/commentisfree/interactive/2012/sep/07/weird-maps-to-rival-apple-
in-pictures

Exercise
What are the different ways in which spatial data and displays are linked in the following
projects:

Pleiades : http://pleiades.stoa.org/home
Examine this as the creation of a model of a resource with respect to use. How is
it organized? How does it work?

Texas Slavery Project : by Andrew Torget

Another approach. What are the limitations of this project with respect to its use
of maps and spatial information?

Mapping the Republic of Letters: http://republicofletters.stanford.edu/case-study/

How is space conceived, represented, shown? Compare Franklin with one other
figure and/or subset of the project.

58
 Minoan Peak Sanctuaries
http://archaeology.about.com/gi/o.htm?zi=1/XJ&zTi=1&sdn=archaeology&cdn
=education&tm=13&f=00&su=p284.13.342.ip_&tt=13&bt=0&bts=0&zu=http%
3A//www.ims.forth.gr/peak_sanctuaries/peak_sanctuaries.html
How were sites constructed and what technology was used?

Stuart Dunns mapping project uses experiential data in a radically innovative way:
http://www.kcl.ac.uk/innovation/groups/cerch/research/projects/completed/mip
p.aspx
How is space understood in this project with respect to experience?

Medieval Warfare on the Grid

http://www.arts-humanities.net/projects/medieval_warfare_grid_case_manzikert
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xnZK1qlX6UI
Look at methods used and figure out if there are any you dont understand. How
are historical conditions remodeled?

Orbis
http://arstechnica.com/business/2012/05/how-across-the-roman-empire-in-real-
time-with-orbis/
Set journey parameters, watch results, ask questions about what the platform
does and does not do. The cool factor here is engaging, but what does it
conceal?

Lookback Maps
http://www.lookbackmaps.net/
What does this project add to the ways we can think about space and history?

Takeaway
Geospatial information can be readily codified and displayed in a variety of
geographical platforms. All mapping systems are representations and contain
distortions. Google earth is not a picture of the world as it is but an image of the
world-according-to-Googles technical capacities in the early 21st century. Modelling the
experience of space, rather than its physical dimensions and features, is the task of non-
representational geography, a useful tool for the humanist. All projects are
representations and therefore distortions. While that is inevitable, it is not necessarily a
problem as long as the assumptions built into the representations can be made evident
within the arguments for which they are used. But not only are maps not self-evident
representations of space, space itself is not a given, but a construct.

Readings for 8B:

Johanna Drucker, Reading Interface, PMLA and/or Performative Materiality and
Theoretical Approaches to Interface, DHP, 2013;

59
 http://digitalhumanities.org/dhq/vol/7/1/000143/000143.html
Matthew Kirschenbaum, So the Colors Cover the Wires
C2DH # 34
Jesse James Garrett, Elements of User Experience,
www.jjg.net/elements/.../elements.pdf
http://www.slideshare.net/openjournalism/elements-of-user-experience-by-
jesse-james-garrett
Ben Shneiderman, Eight Golden Rules,
http://faculty.washington.edu/jtenenbg/courses/360/f04/sessions/schneiderman
GoldenRules.html
Shneiderman and Plaisant (click on link, download Chapter 14)
http://interarchdesign.wordpress.com/2007/12/13/schneiderman-plaisant-
designing-the-user-interface-chapt-14/
Aaron Marcus, et.al Globalization of User Interface Design
http://zing.ncsl.nist.gov/hfweb/proceedings/marcus/index.html
* Russo Boor, How Fluent is your Interface?

Study Questions for 8B:

1. What are the basic metaphors encoded in interface design?
2. How do these organize your project and/or work?
3. How are software platforms designed for domain specific tasks different or distinct in
their interface design from the basic desktop and/or browser?

60
8B. INTERFACE BASICS
Introduction to Interface:
An interface is a set of cognitive cues, it is not a set of pictures of things inside the computer or
access to computation in a direct way. Interface, by definition, is an in-between space, a space
of communication and exchange, a place where two worlds, entities, systems meet. Because
interface is so familiar to us, we forget that the way it functions is built on metaphors. Take the
basic metaphors of windows and desktop and think about their implications. One suggests
transparency, a looking through the screen to the contents of the computer. The other
suggests a workspace, an environment that replicates the analogue world of tasks. But of
course, interfaces have many other functions as well that fit neither metaphor, such as
entertainment, viewing, painting and designing, playing games, exploring virtual worlds, and
editing film and/or music.

Interface conventions have solidified very quickly. As with all conventions, these hide
assumptions within their format and structure and make it hard to defamiliarize the ways our
thinking is constrained by the interfaces we use. When Doug Engelbart was first working on the
design of the mouse, he was also considering foot pedals, helmets, and other embodied
aspects of experience as potential elements of the interface design. Why didnt these catch
on? Or will they? Google Glass is a new innovation in interface, as are various augmented
reality applications for handheld devices. What happens to interface when it moves off the
screen and becomes a layer of perceived reality? How will digital interfaces differ from those of
the analogue world, such as dashboards and control panels?

Exercise
What are the major milestones in the development of interface design? Examine the
flight simulators, the switch panels on mainframe computers, the punchcards and early
keyboards. What features are preserved and extended and which have become
obsolete? These are merely the physical/tactile features of the interface.
Compare the approach here:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_graphical_user_interface
with the approach here:
http://www.catb.org/esr/writings/taouu/html/ch02.html
In the second case, the division of one period of interface from another has to do with
machine functions as well as user experience. How else do interfaces get organized and
distinguished from each other?

Exercise
What are the basic features of a browser interface? How do these relate to those of a
desktop environment? What essential connections and continuities exist to link these
spaces?

61
To reiterate, an interface is NOT a picture of what is inside the computer. Nor is it an image
of the way the computer works or processes information or data. In fact, it is a screen and
surface that often makes such processing invisible, difficult to find or understand. It is an
obfuscating environment as much as it is a facilitating one. Can you think of examples of the
way this assertion holds true? As the GUI developed, the challenge of making icons to provide
cognitive cues on which to perform actions that create responses within the information
architecture became clear. If you were posed the challenge of creating a set of icons for a
software project in a specialized domain, what would these be and what would they embody?
The idea that images of objects allow us to perform activities in the digital environment that
mimic those in the analogue environment requires engineering and imagination. Onscreen, we
empty a trashcan by clicking on it, an action that would have no effect in the analogue world,
though we follow this logic without difficulty by extending what we have been trained to do in
the computer. Dragging and dropping are standard moves in an interface, but not really in an
analogue world. If we pursue this line of reasoning, we find that in fact the relation between the
interface and the physical world is not one of alignment, but of shifted expectations that train
us to behave according to protocols that are relatively efficient, cognitively as well as
computationally.

Exercise
The infamous failure of Bob the Windows character, and the living-room interface,
provides a useful study in how too literal an imitation of physical world actions and
environments does not work in certain digital environmentswhile first person games
are arguments on the other side of this observation. Why?

Exercise
Matthew Kirschenbaum makes the point that the interface is not a computational
engine BUT a space of representation. Stephen Johnson, the science writer, was
quoted in the following paragraph. Use his observations and discuss NY Times front
page and Google Search engine:
By "information-space," Johnson means the abrupt transformation of the
screen from a simple and subordinate output device to a bounded
representational system possessed of its own ontological integrity and
legitimacy, a transformation that depends partly on the heightened visual acuity
a graphical interface demands, but ultimately on the combined concepts of
interactivity and direct manipulation.

From the point of view of digital humanities projects, one of the challenges is neatly
summarized in the graphic put together by Jesse James Garrett titled Elements of the User
Experience. Garretts argument is that one may use an interface to show the design of
knowledge/information in a project or site, or to organize the user experience around a set of
actions to be taken with or on the site, but not both. So when you start thinking about your
own projects, and the elaborate organization that is involved in their structure and design from
the point of view of modeling intellectual content, you know that the investment you have

62
made in that structure is something you want to show in the interface (e.g. The information and
files in your history of African Americans in baseball project is organized by players, teams,
periods, legal landmarks.) But when you want to offer a user a way into the materials, you have
decide if you are giving them a list and an index, or a way to search, browse, view, read, listen
etc. The first approach shows the knowledge model. The second models user experience. We
tend to combine the two, mixing information and activities.
https://wiki.bath.ac.uk/display/webservices/Shearing+layers

Exercise
Analyze Garretts diagram, then relate to examples across a number of digital
humanities projects such as Perseus, Whitman, Orbis, Old Bailey, Mapping the Republic
of Letters, Animal City, Codex Sinaiticus, Digital Karnak, the Roman Forum Project, Civil
War Washington, and the Encyclopedia of Chicago.

Exercise
Ben Shneiderman is one of the major figures in the history of interface and information
design. He has Eight Golden Rules of interface design.
What are the rules? What assumptions do they embody?
For what kind of information does work or not work?
Takeaways
An interface can be a model of intellectual contents or a set of instructions for use.
Interface is always an argument, and combines presentation (form/format),
representation (contents), navigation (wayfinding), orientation (location/breadcrumbs),
and connections to the network (links and social media).
Interfaces are often built on metaphors of windows or desktops, but they also contain
assumptions about users. The difference between a consumer and a participant is
modeled in the interface design.

Required reading for 9A

V. Evers, Cross-Cultural Understanding of Metaphors in Interface Design
Sheryl Burgstahler, Designing Software that is accessible to Persons with Disabilities
http://www.washington.edu/doit/Brochures/Technology/design_software.html
Designing for accessibility
https://developer.gnome.org/accessibility-devel-guide/stable/gad-ui-
guidelines.html.en
HFI UX Design Newsletter: Cross Cultural Considerations for User Interface Design
http://www.humanfactors.com/downloads/apr13.asp
Patricia Russo and Stephen Boor, How Fluent is Your Interface?
http://dl.acm.org/citation.cfm?id=164943

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Study questions for 9A
1. How is Omeka and/or Wordpress set up to address issues of Accessibility? What
modifications to your project design would you make based on the recommendations
in Burghstahler or Gnomes presentations of fundamental considerations?
2. How are cross-cultural issues accounted for in your designs?
3. What is the narrative aspect of an interface? Where is it embedded in the design?

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9A. INTERFACE, NARRATIVE, NAVIGATION, AND OTHER
CONSIDERATIONS
An interface constructs a narrative. This is particularly true in the controlled environment of a
project where every screen is part of the design. We imagine the users experience according
to the organization we give to the interface. Of course, a user may or may not follow the
structure we have established, but thinking about what the narrative is and how it creates a
point of view and a story is useful as part of the project development. In amny cases, narrative
is as much an effect as it is an engine of the experience. Odd juxtapositions or sequencing can
disrupt the narrative. We are familiar with the ways in which frame-to-frame relationships create
narrative in a film environment, or in graphic novels, or comic books. One of the distinctive
features of digital and networked environments is that the number and types of frames is
radically different from in print or film, and the kinds of materials that appear in those frames is
also varied in terms of the kind of temporal and spatial experience these materials provide.
Animations, videos, pop-up windows, scrolling text, expandable images, sound, and so on are
often competing in a single environment. The ways we construct meaning across these many
stimuli can vary, and the cognitive load on human processing can be very high.

Interface is the space of engagement and exchange, as we have noted, between the computer
and the user. Besides the graphical organization, format features, metaphors and iconography,
and the frames and their relation to each other, interface is also the site of basic navigation for
a site/project and orientation. These are related but distinct concepts. Navigation is the term to
describe our movement through a site or project. We rely on breadcrumbs that show us where
we are in the various file structures or levels of a site, but we also use navigation bars, menus,
and other cues to find our way into and out of a pathway. Orientation refers to the cues
provided to show us our location, where we are within the site/project as a whole. Think of
navigation as a set of directional signs and orientation as a plan or map of the whole of a
project. Wayfinding is important, but knowing what part of a site/project we have accessed and
what the whole consists of is equally important from both a knowledge design and a user
experience point of view.

Exercise
Look at the Van Gogh Correspondence project. How do you know where you are inside
the overall structure of the project? How do you know how to move through it?
Contrast this with the ways in which Civil War Washington and Valley of the Shadow
organized their navigation.
http://www.vangoghletters.org/vg/
http://valley.lib.virginia.edu/
http://civilwardc.org/

65
 Exercise
Scalar is an experimental publishing platform meant to provide multiple points of entry
to a project and various pathways through it. It is an extension of work that was done in
Vectors where every interface was custom designed to suit the projects. Look through
the Vectors archive and think about the relations among narration, navigation, and
orientation conventions in these projects.
http://scalar.usc.edu/
http://vectors.usc.edu/issues/index.php?issue=6

Interface designs often depend upon cultural practices or conventions that may not be legible
to users from another background. The most obvious point of difference is linguistic, and
language use restricts and defines user communities. But color carries dramatically different
meanings across cultures, as do icons, images, and even the basic organization and structure of
formats. Concepts of hierarchy, of symmetry, and of direct and indirect address are elements
that carry a fair amount of cultural value. Creating designs that will work effectively in globally
networked environments requires identifying those specific features of a project or site that
might need modification or translation in order to communicate to audiences outside of those
in which it was created.

Exercise
Early efforts were made by Aaron Marcus to work on this issue from a design
standpoint, engaging with the studies of Dutch anthropologist and sociologist Geert
Hofstede. While many criticisms of this work exist, the principles and issues it was
concerned with remain compelling and valuable. Look through the parameters in this
article. How do they compare with the factors that Evers suggests be taken into
consideration? What, beyond some basic concerns with differences in calendars,
cultural preferences, and so on, would you identify as crucial for thinking about global
vs. local design principles?
http://www.amanda.com/cms/uploads/media/AMA_CulturalDimensionsGlobalW
ebDesign.pdf

Exercise
To take these observations further, go to http://www.politicsresources.net/official.htm
and compare Iceland and India across the five criteria listed by Marcus. Can you see
differences? Can you extrapolate these to principles on which cultural preferences can
be codified? Pick two other countries to test your principles.

Exercise
Patricia Russo and Stephen Boor identify a number of basic elements in their concept of
fluent interface and what it means cross-culturally. What are these? How do they
conceive of the problems of translation, why do they isolate elements in an interface,
and what do they mean by infusing these with local values. What kinds of problems
and errors are common? They put emphasis on color values, for instance, so using their

66
 color value chart, return to the government sites you looked at and see if their
assessment holds.

Exercise
Evers suggests that localization is a moral obligation What kinds of sites would pose a
challenge if you were to apply this principle? What issues would come up in your own
site?

Finally, we often ignore the reality that many users of online materials are disadvantaged or
limited in one sense or other, including sight. The guidelines and principles of design
accessible websites are not difficult to follow, and can extend the usefulness of your projects to
other communities.

Exercise
Extract the principles for accessible design from HFI UX and Burgstahler and make a list
of changes you would need to make to your project in order to make it more
compatible with these principles.

Because interface is so integral to our access and use of networked and digital materials, the
complexity with which it operates is largely obscured by its familiarity. Taking apart the literal
structure of interface, identifying the functions and knowledge design of each piece, and
articulating the conventions within a discussion of narration, navigation, and orientation is
useful. So are the exercises of trying to think across cultures and communities. The fluency and
flexibility of interface design is an advantage and a challenge, and the rapidly changing
concepts of what constitutes a good or bad design, a workable or functional model, and a
stylish or contemporary one shifts daily. A final exercise that provides useful insight into
design principles is to look through the Best and Worst, to look at a site like Websites that
Suck, http://www.webpagesthatsuck.com/worst-websites-of-2010-navigation.html and analyze
the disasters that are collected there. Someone designed each of those thinking they worked.

Takeaway
Narratives are structured into the user interface and also into the relation of information
in a digital project. The narrative of an exhibit, archive, or online repository may or
may not correspond to the narrative of the information it contains. The tools for
analyzing the argument of a digital project are visual and graphical analysis and
description as well as textual and navigational.

Required reading for 9B

*Nezzar AlSayyad, Virtual Cairo: An Urban Historians View of Computer
Simulation
*Sheila Bonde et al, The Virtual Monastery
* Geeske Bakker, et al Truth and Credibility,
* Chris Johanson, Modelling the Eternal City

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Study Questions for 9B
1. What issues did Nezzar AlSayyad introduce that were unexpected?
2. How are issues of gender central to the modelling of space in Bondes work and why
are three-dimensional representations useful for presenting it?
3. Do Bakkers concerns with credibility shed any light on the work being done by
Johanson?

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9B. VIRTUAL SPACE AND MODELLING 3-D REPRESENTATIONS
The use of three-dimensional modelling, fly-through user experience, other forms of navigation
and wayfinding in the virtual world, has increased as bandwidth has become less of an issue
than it was in the first days of the Web. The illusion that is provided by three-dimensional
displays is almost always the result of extrapolation and averaging of information, or the
creation of purely digital simulations, images that are not based in observed reality or past
remains, but created to provide an idea of what these might have been. The very capacity for
an image to be complete, or even replete, makes it seductive in ways that can border on
deception, inaccuracy, or promote entertainment values over scholarly ones. Many specific
properties of visual images in a three-dimensional rendering work against a reality effect by
creating too finished and too homogenous a surface. The rendered world is also often created
from a single point of view, extending perspective and its conventions to a depiction of three-
dimensional space. Our visual experience of the world is not created this way, but integrates
peripheral vision and central focus, as well as the multiple pathways of information from our full
sensorium. The artifices of the virtual serve a purpose, but as with any representations, should
be examined critically for the values and assumptions they encode. The force of interpretative
rhetoric increases with the consumability of images and/or simulated experience.

Exercise
Al Sayyads Experiential model of Virtual Cairo
What was the research question Al Sayyad had? (Why is the date 1243 crucial to
that question?) How did he balance the decisions between fragmentary
evidence and the seductive power of completeness that virtual modelling
provides?

Exercise
Bondes article contains a number of crucial points about the problematized relation
between model and referent that comes into three-dimensional formats (these are
present in language, images, and data models as well, but have less rhetorical force).
Nonetheless, fully aware of the possible traps and pitfalls, she and her team were
interested in the ways three-dimensional reconstructions of monastic life in Saint Jean-
des-Vignes Soissons could shed light on aspects of daily experience there that could
not be modeled using other means. In order to keep issues like the problems of
incomplete data or uncertainty in the foreground she worked using non-realistic
photographic methods and kept charts. Why? And what did this do for the project.
Look at this: http://www.wesleyan.edu/monarch/index.htm
Compare with Amiens: http://www.learn.columbia.edu/Mcahweb/index-
frame.html

69
 Exercise
Johansons research question was rooted in the distinction between the kinds of
evidence available for studying Rome during the Republic (mainly textual) and Imperial
Rome (archaeological) and how the understanding of the scale and shape of spaces for
public spectacles in the former period might be reconciled with textual evidence using
models. Using Johansons project, apply Bakkers criteria of refutability and truth-
testing. Why do different kinds of historical evidence require different criteria for
assessmentor do they? http://www.romereborn.virginia.edu/

Exercise
Design an experiment in which you use concepts of refutability and truth-testing within
the Rome Reborn environment. How can you build refutability into the visualization or
virtual format? Why does Johanson suggest that potential reality is an alternative to
ontological reality of what a monument might have done?

Platforms for modelling three-dimensional space create simulations of space based on

wireframes and surface renderings that incorporate point-of-view systems based on classical
perspective. The cultural specificity of space and spatial relations is neutralized in these
platforms, which treat alls pace as if it were simply an effect of physical measure. Virtual spaces
are immediately replete, pristine, do not show or acquire marks of use, wear, or human
habitation, and are stripped of the dimensions that engage the sensorium in analog space, but
they are extremely useful for testing and modelling hypotheses about how movement,
eyelines, use, and occupation occur.

Takeaway
All narratives contain ideological, cultural, and historical aspects. Most are based on an
assumed or ideal user/reader whose identity is also specific. No information structure,
narrative, or organization is value neutral. The embodiment of cultural values is often
invisible, as is the embodiment of assumptions about user capacity and ability. To
expose cultural assumptions and values, ask what can be said or not said within the
structure of the project, what it conceals as well as what it reveals, and in whose
interests it does so.

Required reading for 10A

Alan Liu, Where is the cultural criticism in the digital humanities?
http://liu.english.ucsb.edu/where-is-cultural-criticism-in-the-digital-humanities/
Introduction to Topic Modelling
http://www.cs.princeton.edu/~blei/topicmodeling.html
Lev Manovich, New Media Users Guide

70
Study Questions for 10A
1. What is topic modelling and how does it relate to other topics we have looked at in
this class?
2. How could any of the principles outlined by Marcus, Boor/Russo, or Evers be used to
rework the Rome Reborn model? How would this fulfill the idea of the moral
obligation to localize representations of knowledge?
3. What are the cultural values in digital humanities projects that could be used to open
up discussion about hegemony or blindspots in their design? How important is this?

71
10A. CRITICAL ISSUES, OTHER TOPICS, AND DIGITAL HUMANITIES
UNDER DEVELOPMENT
The field of digital humanities is growing rapidly. Many new platforms and tools are under
development at any time that are relevant to work in digital humanities. Timelines and
mapping, visualization and virtual rendering, game engines and ways of doing data mining and
image processing. All are areas where research has a history and a cutting edge, a future as
well as a past. All are relevant to the work that addresses cultural materials from a wide range
of domains, communities, disciplines, and perspectives. But no matter what the tools are some
basic issues remain central to our work and activities. These can be divided roughly into those
that deal with techniques and the assumptions shaping the processing of knowledge and/or
information in digital format, and those that add a critical or cultural dimension to our
engagement with those materials. No tools are value neutral. No projects are without
interpretative aspects that inflect and structure the ways they are carried out. The very
foundations of knowledge design are inflected with assumptions about how we work and what
the values are at the center of our activities. Efficiency, legibility, transparency, ease of use or
accessibility are terms freighted with assumptions and judgments.

One of the ways to get a sense of what the new topics or areas of research is is to engage with
the primary journal publications in this field. Digital Humanities Quarterly has been in existence
since about 2007 and provides a very rich and lively forum for presentation of new research,
reviews, and debate. It has the advantage of focusing on digital humanities rather than on
linguistic computing, which was the field that had the most extensive development in the
decades before DH was more defined that still has some connection to its ongoing activities.
Now almost every field of humanities and social sciences has digital activity integrated into its
research, and though natural language processing remains important, it does not have an
exclusive claim on either methods or subjects being pursued.

Exercise
Go to DHQ and look through the index. Summarize the trends and ideas in the index
that might be relevant to your own work, project and/or academic discipline. What are
the lacunae? What dont you see here that seems important to you?
http://www.digitalhumanities.org/dhq/

New media criticism has an entirely other life beyond DH, and though the cross-over of critical
theorists and hands-on project designers is frequent, this is not always reflected in the design
of projects or their implementation. A pragmatic explanation for this phenomenon is that the
tools and platforms still require that researchers conform to the formal, more logical, and
explicit terms of computational activity, leaving interpretative and ambiguous approaches to
the side, even if they are fundamental to humanistic method. Is this really the case? Similarly,
the highly developed discussions of cultural values and their impact on design, knowledge,

72
communication, and media formats that come out of the fields of new media studies, cultural
studies, critical race studies, feminist and queer studies, are all relevant to DH. They are
relevant not only at the level of thematic content and objects of investigation, but within the
formulation of methods and approaches to the design of tools, projects, and platforms.

Exercise
Take an issue from critical studies with which you are familiar the critique of value-
neutral approaches to technology, for instanceand address your own project. What
changes in the design would you need to make to incorporate some of the ideas in
Alan Lius piece into its implementation? What is the difference between designing
methods that encorporate critical issues and representing content from such a point of
view?

Because new tools are being developed within the digital humanities community, as well as
being appropriated for its purposes, it is sometimes hard to keep up with what is available. To
have an idea of what the new tools and platforms are for doing digital work, go to the
Bamboo/DiRT (Digital Research Tools) site.

Exercise
Look at one of the versions of the DiRT Site:
https://digitalresearchtools.pbworks.com/w/page/17801672/FrontPage or
http://dirt.projectbamboo.org/
Take some time to look at the tools and think about what they can do and how they
would enhance your project. What would be involved in using them? How do they work
together? Where does your knowledge break down?

Exercise
Lev Manovich and Alan Liu offer very different insights into the ways we could think
about digital humanities and new media. But other debates in the field continue to
expand the discussion as well. What are the basic issues in each of Manovich and Lius
pieces and how do they relate to the work you have been doing on the projects? What
are the kinds of concerns they raise?

While the lessons in this sequence have covered many basic topics, and tried to bring critical
perspectives into the discussion of technical and practical matters, some areas have not been
touched on to any great extent. The course provides an overview of fundamentals, each of
which requires real investment of time and energy if it is to be understood in any depth.
Learning how to structure data, use metadata, engage in the design of databases and
structures, do any kind of serious mark-up, GIS, or visualization work is a career path, not just a
small skill that is part of a set of easily packaged approaches. But the principles of structured
and unstructured data, of classification schemes as worldviews, and of parameterization as a
fundamental act of interpretation have implications for any and all engagements with digital
media and technology.

73
Takeaway
The field of digital humanities is far from stable. To some extent, it is a gamble whether
the field will continue to exist or whether its techniques and methods will be absorbed
into the day to day business of research, teaching, and resource management. But
whatever happens to the field, the need to integrate critical issues and insights into the
practical technical applications and platforms used to do digital humanities is
significant. Thinking through the design of projects in such a way that some recognition
of critical issues is part of the structure as well as the content is a challenge that is hard
to meet in the current technical environment, but conceptualizing the foundations for
such work is one step towards their realization.

Required reading for 10B

Tom Elliott, Sean Gillies, Digital Geography and Classics
http://digitalhumanities.org/dhq/vol/3/1/000031/000031.html
On Linked Open Data
http://linkeddata.org/
Anne Gilliland and Sue McKemmish, Recordkeeping Metadata, the Archival
Multiverse, and Grand Challenges
http://dcpapers.dublincore.org/pubs/article/viewFile/3661/1884
Austrian Government Guide to Producing Indigenous Austrian Visual Arts
http://www.australiacouncil.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0004/32368/Visual_art
s_protocol_guide.pdf

Study questions for 10B

1. What are the obstacles for creating communities of practice that allow projects to be
federated with each other?
2. How do issues of intellectual property change in a digital environment?
3. What support for and criticism of open access are necessary in thinking about cultural
materials while respecting the values of individual communities and their differences?

74
10B. SUMMARY AND THE STATE OF DEBATES, INTEGRATION,
FEDERATION ETC.
As the field of digital humanities expands, and as more and more materials come online in
cultural institutions, through research projects, and other repositories or platforms, the
challenges combine technical and cultural issues at a level and scale that is unprecedented.
Figuring out how repositories can talk to each other or be integrated at the level of search is
one challenge. Another is to address the fundamental problems of intellectual property. What
are the modes of citation and linking that respect conventions of copyright while serving to
support public access, education, and scholarship? What are the ways in which data and digital
materials can be made sustainable? What practices of preservation are cost-effective and
practical and how can we anticipate these going forward?

Technological innovations change quickly, and cultural institutions are often under-resourced
so that thinking about how they can be supported to do the work they need to do without
being overwhelmed by corporate players is an ongoing concern. Integration of large
repositories of cultural materials into a national and international network cannot depend on
Google or other private companies. The creation of networked platforms for cultural heritage
depends on connecting information that is in various silos and behind firewalls. Issues of
access, fair use, intellectual property, and other policy matters affect the ways technology is
used for the production and preservation of cultural materials.

All of these are practical, pragmatic issues with underlying political and cultural tensions to
them. They are not likely to disappear in the near future. Early attempts at federating existing
projects around particular communities of scholarly interest were NINES, which grew in part
out of Romantic Circles, and 18thConnect, like Pelagios, the portal for study of the Ancient
Classical World, these were projects that linked existing digital work around a literary period
and group of scholars with shared interests.

Exercise
Look at NINES, http://www.nines.org/, 18th Connect, http://www.18thconnect.org/, and
compare them with Pelagios. http://pelagios-project.blogspot.com/p/about-
pelagios.html. How are these different from something like the Brown Women Writers
Project, http://www.wwp.brown.edu/, ubuweb, http://ubu.com/.

Large scale initiatives, like the Digital Public Library of America, or Europeana, or CWRC in
Canada, envision integration at a high level, but without the requirement of making standards
to which all participating projects must conform. Still, the goal of standards is to make data
more mobile and make connections among repositories easier.

75
 Exercise
Look at the Digital Public Library of America and get a sense of how it works.
http://dp.la/ Compare it with the National Library of Australia http://www.nla.gov.au/
Compare these with Europeana http://www.europeana.eu/ and the Australia Network
http://australianetwork.com/nexus/stories/s2160521.htm and CWRC
http://www.cwrc.ca/en/. How can you get a sense of the scale of these different
projects? Of their background, motivations, funding, and business models?

Not everyone believes that open access is a universal good. Many cultural communities have
highly nuanced degrees of access to knowledge even within their close social groups. Some
forms of knowledge are shared only by individuals of a certain age, gender, or kinship relation.
The migration of knowledge and information onto the web may violate the very principles on
which a specific cultural group operates. The assumption that open access is a universal value
also has to be questioned. Likewise, sensitive material of various kindspersonal information
about behaviors and activities, sexual orientation or personal transgressionsmight put
individuals at risk if archives or collections are made public. How are limits on use, exposure,
and access to be set without introducing censorship rules that are extreme?

Exercise
Using Gilliland and McKemmishs discussion, create a scenario in which materials from a
national archive would need to be controlled or restricted in order to respect or protect
individuals or communities. Do the terms of intellectual property that are part of the
standards of copyright and print apply to the online environment? If so, what are they,
and if not, how should they be changed to deal with digital materials?

Meanwhile, questions of what other skills and topics belong in the digital humanities continue
to be posed. What amount of programming skill should a digital humanist have? Enough to
control their own data? To create scripts that can customize an existing platform? Or merely
enough to be literate? What is digital literacy and should it be an area of pedagogical concern?
How much systems knowledge, server administration expertise, and other networking skills
should a digital humanist have? Area areas of research that border on applications for
surveillance to be avoided, like biometrics and face recognition software? Is knowledge of the
laws of property and privacy essential or are the cultures of digital publishing changing these in
ways unforeseen in print environments?

Finally, the intersection of digital humanities and pedagogy has much potential for
development ahead. The passive, consumerist use of repositories will likely give way to
participatory projects with many active constituencies in what we call networked environments
for learning, which are different in design from either collections/projects or online courses
with pre-packaged content. For all of this activity to develop effectively, better documentation
of design decisions that shape projects should be encouraged so that as they become legacy
materials, their structure and infrastructure are apparent and accessible along with their
materials.

76
Takeaway
Becoming acquainted with the basics of digital humanitiesknowledge of all of the
many components of the design process that were part of our initial sketch of digital
projects as comprised of STUFF + SERVICES + USE provides a foundation that is
independent of specific programs or platforms. Having an understanding of what goes
on in the black boxes or under the hood of digital projects allows much greater
appreciation of what is involved in the production of cultural materials, their
preservation, access, and use.

77
TUTORIALS
Exhibits
Omeka
Managing Data
Google Fusion Tables
Data Visualization
Tableau
Cytoscape
Gephi
Text Analysis
Many Eyes
Voyant
Wordsmith
Maps & Timelines
GeoCommons
Neatline
Wireframing
Balsamiq
HTML
OMEKA: Exhibit Builder
by Anthony Bushong and David Kim

What is Omeka?
Omeka is a web publishing platform and a content management system
(CMS), developed by the Center for History and New Media (CHNM) at
George Mason University. Omeka was developed specifically for scholarly
content, with particular emphasis on digital collections and exhibits. While Omeka
may not be as readily customizable as other platforms designed for general use,
such as WordPress, Omeka has been used by many academic and cultural
institutions for its built-in features for cataloging and presenting digital
collections. Developing content in Omeka is complemented by an extensive list of
descriptive metadata fields that conforms to Dublin Core, a standard used by
libraries, museums and archives (for more on metadata and creating a data
repository, click through to the creating a repository section). This additional layer
helps to establish proper source attribution, standards for description and
organization of digital resourcesall important aspects of scholarly work in
classroom settings but often overlooked in general blogging platforms.

Omeka.net or Omeka.org?
Omeka.net is a lite-version that does not require its own server. The Omeka
full-version is downloaded via Omeka.org and installed in your server. The lite-
version has a limited number of plug-ins and is not customizable to the extent of
the full-version.
(For Instructors: If the students are using Omeka to build small collections and
exhibits (less than 600 MB total), Omeka.net version can suffice. However, plug-ins
for maps and timelines are currently only available for the installed
version. See here for more information on Omeka.net options and pricing,
and here for a comprehensive comparison.)
For this course, we will be using the installed version (2.0) of Omeka. Your
Omeka site will be the main hub for your project. Collections, exhibits, maps and
timelines will be all generated using the Omeka features. Data visualizations,
network analysis and other parts of the project will be developed using other
applications, but they all should be embedded in, or linked from, your Omeka
site. Basic html is all that is required to make minor design changes for the site, but
those more advanced in programming and web design may be granted access to
the php file in the server. The following plug-ins are already installed for your
project: Exhibit Builder, Neatline, CSV Import, and Simple Pages. See the list of
the plug-ins currently available for Omeka 2.0. You may request installation of
more plug-ins for your project.

)
79
Building a Repository in Omeka
1) Add Items
You can add almost all popular file formats in Omeka for images, video, sound
and documents. When adding an item, you will start with at your Dashboard.

a. Select Add a New Item to Your Archive under the Items heading.

2) Descriptive Metadata
When you add items in Omeka, you are required to use Dublin Core Metadata
Element Set. Click here to learn about the vocabulary used in Dublin Core.

a. Use this taxonomy to describe the item that you are adding.
b. Make sure you group decides on standards to describe various aspects
of the items: (date: by year, century, span?), (subject: Library of
Congress Subject Heading?) (location: City and State, Country,
region?) You dont have the use all Dublin Core fields included with
Omeka, but the selection of the fields you choose to describe should be
consistent for all items.

c. Next, select Item Type Metadata. In this section, you can select amongst
12 different item categories under Item Type. These metadata fields are
specific to each of their respective types.

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3) Tags
You can use tags to help make your items
easily searchable based on the classification
that your group have decided are relevant
not only to the item but to the general
scheme of your overall project. Tags are also
often referred to as folksonomies.

4) Assign the item to a collection

The collection types should be based off of how you desire to organize your
items. If you want to add a new collection, go to Collections -> Add a New
Collection in the top right hand corner. These collections should reflect the
different types of items and should be useful for referencing items in your
exhibits.

5) Creating Exhibits
Exhibits make use of the items in the collection to create visual narratives.
The Exhibit Builder plug-in offers several template options for the individual
sections and pages within your exhibit. First, understand the hierarchy of the
exhibits: Exhibits Sections Pages. Then, take a moment to sketch out the
organization of the exhibit prior to creating them in Omeka.
Watch this video for step-by-step process.

6) Non-Exhibit Content

a. Omeka offers the Simple Pages plug-in to create pages within your
Omeka site that are not associated with any specific exhibits, such as the
home page and the about page.
b. Omeka provides many instructions for various activities.

* See its documentation page for a list of solutions for common

problems and suggestions for embedding Google maps, YouTube
videos, etc.

81
 [GOOGLE FUSION TABLES] NETWORK GRAPH
Tutorial by Im an Salehian (UCLA) & David Kim (UCLA)
Google Fusion Tables is a Google Drive-based application that allows for the creation and
management of spreadsheets, making data visualization the ultimate end of this collaborative workflow.
While it offers a bevy of visualization options, ranging from constructing basic pie charts to mapping
tables of coordinates, this tutorial focuses on its Network Graph capability, a feature that allows for
network visualization and analysis.

Why Google Spreadsheets and Fusion Tables?

As users of Microsoft Excel will notice, Google Fusion Tables is essentially a
spreadsheet with rows and columns to create or import data. It is a web-based application
that allows the users to collaboratively create/edit the spreadsheets remotely. Google Fusion
Tables also offers Network Graphing, a simple tool that familiarizes users with the rudiments
of network visualization. Depending on the complexity of their data and desired visualizations,
some may find Googles Network Graph capability to satisfy their needs, while others may
consider it a useful stepping-stone to more customizable visualization software such as Gephi
or Cytoscape.

Getting Started
While Network Graph works with any .csv file, as beginners, it behooves us to start
from scratch in order to familiarize ourselves with the back-end workings of this visualization
tool. The following assignment will walk you through the process of visualizing a network from
a data table you will construct, while posing a series of questions encouraging students to
consider overarching data visualization concepts.
NOTE: This tutorial is tailored for those users with access to Gmail and a Google Drive
account. If you dont have a Gmail account, you may use Excel or an alternative spreadsheet
creator to get started, but are encouraged to create an account so as to be able to easily save
and access your work.

Part One: Data

1. Collecting data
Naturally, data visualization needs data; it follows that network visualization needs
networks. What, then, is a network? At its most basic level, a network can be defined as a
group of objects or entitiesreferred to as nodeslinked by relationshipsreferred to as
edges. These visualizations are useful in representing a veritable slew of relationships,
capable of representing links between employees and companies, pets and owners, friends
and more friends, and so on.

For this assignment, feel free to use any network youd like, so long as you can identify
consistent relationship and object types within that group. As you will be asked to compile a
list of 40-50 relationships within a group of objects/entities, aim to document an accordingly
rich network. For the purposes of this tutorial, we will examine the complex network
maintained by the characters of television drama, Lost.
82
 a. Take a moment to create a list of relevant objects/entities.
i. In our Lost example, we will consider the main characters of the show.
e.g. Jack Shepard, John Locke, Ben Linus...

b. Next, aim to categorize your objects or entities. Do any types come up?
i. The characters in Lost, for instance, are often defined by their membership to
parent groups. We will use the labels: Others, Tailies and Core Group,
established in seasons one and two.

Does your network consist of heroes and villains? Family members?

Friends? Considering the small size of the data sample you are creating,
ideally create two (2) and no more than four (4) categories.
When filling in your spreadsheet, include the labels you decide upon in
parenthesis next to the object/entity they describe.
e.g. Person A (Villain) or Jack Shepard (Core Group)

c. Take a moment to identify consistently emerging relationship types and

decide on the best description to use for these relationships: friends, enemies, married,
etc. Aim to document 3-5 consistently appearing relationship types.
i. For our Lost example, we will use the generic relations listed below.
e.g. Friends with, Foes with, Family with, and Romance with
ii. Youll notice that these relationships are all mutual. This is characteristic of
an undirected graph, a network graph in which the relationships--as its title
suggests-- have no specific direction. Relationships that are unreciprocated (e.g.
Parent to child, Teacher to student, Murderer to victim, etc.) are featured in
directed graphs, graphs that use arrows to describe the direction in which a
relationship moves.
For now, limit yourself to describing reciprocal relationships.

Developing these consistent labels and relationship types will allow you to take full
advantage of the search and filter features available on Google Fusion Tables. For instance, if
you only want to see who is Friends with who or members of Losts Core Group, the
search query can be used to filter for these specific qualities.

2. Creating a Spreadsheet
Proceed to populate your data table with the information youve collected, aiming
to define 40-50 relationships between objects/entities. In this simple network visualization,
your data table will consist of three columns: the first column featuring Object/Entity A, the
third, Object/Entity B, and the second, the relationship the two maintain. Each row
excepting the first, which should list your column nameswill, in essence, describe a
relationship maintained within your network.

83
 Here, the types we developed in 1.b will come in handy. List the category an
object/entity pertains to in parenthesis besides his/its title, as is pictured below.

Character A Relation Character B

Jack Shepard Foes with Tom Friendly
(Core Group) (Other)
Jack Shepard Family with Claire Littleton
(Core Group) (Core Group)
Bernard Family with Rose Nadler
Nadler (Tailies) (Core Group)

a. Try to connect each object/entity with at least two other objects/entities. The
more connections you draw, the tighter your network will appear.
i. For the purpose of this undirected graph, you do not have to repeat
relationships that have been already established previously in the
spreadsheet.

Part Two: Visualization

Once you have completed your spreadsheet, you are ready to plug it into Fusion.

1. Importing Data
a. To begin, click Create under Googles Fusion
Tables app, found here.
b. If you did NOT use Google Drives Spreadsheet
creator to create your table, go ahead and import your file
in the From this computer tab. If you DID use Google to
create your spreadsheet, click the Google Spreadsheets
tab, and select the spreadsheet you created for
Step 1.b
visualization.
c. Review your spreadsheet to ensure it has imported properly and click Next.

Step 1.c

d. Give your table a title and description. Check the Export box if you wish to
make your data public and downloadable for future users.

84
 Note: On occasion, the app may glitch and alert you that there were issues
loading. Simply clicking Finish a second time usually resolves this issue.

2. Visualizing Data
For step-by-step directions on Visualizing Data, follow Googles Tutorial on Network Graph,
here, or follow its summary listed below.
a. A window will open featuring
your data table. Beside the top row
of tabs, you will find a small red
square with a [+] sign. Click this and
select, Add Chart.
Choose the Network
graph option (visible
at the bottom of the
left side panel) if
Google Fusion Tables

has not done so Step 2.a

already.

b. By default, the first two text columns will be selected as the source of nodes.
Change these to whatever titles you have listed for your first and third columns. For
the Lost example, they are Character A and Character B.

c. Considering the basic nature of our network graph, Network Graphs

Appearance and Weight features are not of much use to us. Provided below are
short descriptions of their hypothetical uses.
For a run-down of what Link is directional implies, see this tutorials
description of the distinction between directed and undirected
relations in 1.c.ii..
Color by Column simply refers to coloring the nodes displayed
according to the columns
they pertain to. TROU B LES H OOTI N G
Weighting refers to assigning If at an y po in t yo ur graph i s no t
a value to your described appe arin g:
relationships. At the most Mak e su re yo u ar e di splay in g
basic level, this would mean th e f u ll nu mber o f n ode s
av ail able in th e [ ___ o f #
including a separate column
N ode s] te xtbox . (INS ERT
in your spreadsheet that links
PIC T URE)
numbers to relationships.
You r fil ter optio ns may be too
The theoretical implications re fi ne d f or yo ur s mall datase t.
of such a task, however, tend Re mo vi ng a s pe ci fi cati on or
to be a lot more two sh oul d sol ve th e i ssu e.

85
 complicated, as they involve disambiguating subjective qualifiers such as
relationship intensity or value.

d. Your basic visualization should be

complete and ready for searching
and filtering!
Click and drag to navigate
within the network graph
window. You may also click
and drag specific nodes to
rearrange your network
graph. Step 2.d

3. Search/Filter
So, youve completed your first network visualization. Now what? An added
benefit of having visualization online lies in our ability to interact with and filter it.

a. In the top left

corner of your window,
you should see a blue
Filter button. Click
Filter and choose a
character list (i.e. column
of your original
spreadsheet) you wish to
filter. You may wish to
select all three, as all will
remain as menus on the
left hand panel.
b. Check the boxes of
specific relations or
objects/entities you wish
to filter for, or use the
search boxes to specify
Step 2.a , 2.b
object/entity types.
e.g. For our Lost example, we may input the search term (Core Group) to see
only those relationships maintained by the Core Group.
Remember! You must input this search term in BOTH your first and third
column/character list/etc. to filter out all excess object/entity types.

You have successfully graphed and filtered your very own network graph!

86
Part Three: Challenges in Visualization

Comparing your final Network Graph to the information rich spreadsheet you created
in Part One, you may understandably find yourself frustrated with the limited information
being represented. This may mean it is time to move on to a more sophisticated visualization
tool, such as Gephi or Cytoscape.
Dont, however, let appearances fool you. While ostensibly simple, Network Graph
envelops its own set of theoretical challenges.

The Frenemy Complex: The Limits of Labeling

In almost any visualization project, one is invariably forced to ask oneself, is it really this
simple? Am I misrepresenting anything? This monster of complexity probably reared its head
the moment we set out to define something as volatile as a relationship between
individuals.
Within our Lost example, we aimed to limit the complexity of the network by using a
smaller set of data (i.e. Seasons One and Two), but as fans of the show will note, even these
episodes are rich with challenges. Protagonists, Jack and Kate, for example, maintain a
relationship that shifts between Romance with and Friends with from episode to episode.
Within your dataset, ask yourself: Are relationships always reciprocated? (directional?)
Could a connection between two entities be more than one?
e.g. A and B can be friends, but secretly B might also consider A to be an
enemy, aka frenemy.
How would you visualize these more complex, ambiguous, and one-directional type of
relationships?

Furthermore, what happens when objects/entities defy a single label? Within Lost, for
example, many of the parent groups we identified our characters with either unite or further
divide, complicating the superficial labels we applied to the characters that comprise these
groups. A Tailie, for instance, can be said to be absorbed by the Core group. Within your
data set, are there entities that belong in more than one types? Would you assign more than
one type (tags) to an entity? And, ultimately, what challenges do you perceive in
disambiguating an entitys types and relationships, when their real life counterparts prove
more complex than a single line of description could ever hope to convey?

Part Four: Advanced Topics

Relationship Index
As the battery of questions above may lead you to realize, specificity is oftentimes a
must when working with ambiguous or subjective data. If you are planning on making Network
Visualization central to your study of a particular topic, consider creating an index for
relationships that defines the terms your are employing within your spreadsheet and, by
extension, your graph. Define what conditions/qualities are invoked by the term friend,

87
enemy, and so on.

Spatial/Temporal Dimensions
While beyond the scope of Network Graphs, keep in mind that work is being done in
the field of adding spatial and/or temporal dimensions to network graphing. While these
functions remain beyond the scope of Fusion at this point in time, consider the implications of
creating a column for GIS data and layering a visualization over Google maps. How would a
network graph be enhanced by adding a time stamp or period?
Users will find that these hypotheticals become a reality with a more advanced
graphing counterpart, Gephi.

88
 Tableau Public
by Iman Salehian (UCLA)
with additional materials taken from Tableau Public

Tableau Public is a streamlined visualization software that allows one to transform data
into a wide range of customizable graphics. Its three step work flowfollowing the three steps,
Open, Create and Shareallows users to import data and layer multiple levels of detail and
information into the resulting visualizations. Ideal for web based publication, it ultimately allows
users to merge multiple visualizations onto a single page and export their work as embeddable
graphics.
Unlike web-based visualization tools such as Google Fusion Tables or IBMs Many Eyes,
Tableau is a desktop software with a unique interface and vernacular, factors that contribute to
a slightly steeper learning curve; however, if you are looking for increased control over the
visual features of your graphics, automated geographic coordinates and metrics or simply to
familiarize yourself with a professional software on the rise, learning the ins and outs of Tableau
is well worth the effort.
This tutorial will walk you through the steps of generating a basic Tableau visualization
from a sample data set. Excerpts and links to specific portions of Tableaus online help
resource will be linked throughout the following tutorial. We highly encourage you to explore
this help site further with any questions/concerns you have while creating your own
visualizations.

Before Getting Started

As with any data visualization, we must begin with the unspoken Step 0 of finding raw
data and massaging it into a usable form. While data exists in limitless forms and will vary
depending upon your topic of study, the data will generally have to be formatted as some form
of table or spreadsheet. Whether you are inputting data into a new spreadsheet or re-
formatting an existing one, for use on Tableau Public, it should conform to the checklist below:

Tableau will read the first row of your spreadsheet to determine the different data fields
present in your dataset; Dedicate the first row of your spreadsheet to column
headers.
Start your data in cell A1. Some spreadsheets include titles or alternate column
headers in their first few rows. Edit out any extraneous information to make your data
legible for Tableaus software.
Every subsequent row should describe one piece of data.

*For further help, visit Tableaus How To Format Your Data help page

89
 For the purpose of this tutorial, we will use data from the LA Department of Cultural
Affairs Cultural Exchange International Program, a program that funds artist residency projects
at home and abroad.
Take a look at a sample data piece in its original form (Fig.1). While this data is not
usable in its current format, thinking of its consistent labelssuch as Grantee,
Discipline, Countryas column headers reveals this data to be perfect for a table
format (Fig. 2).

Fig. 1 Fig . 2

In many cases, the process of converting documents into spreadsheets may prove
tedious, requiring you to re-type the data into a spreadsheet; however, it is important that you
be meticulously consistent in your work.
Consider, for instance, our spreadsheet pictured above. Were we to vary our
capitalizations of Los Angeles, accidentally typing los angeles or LOs angeles,
Tableau would treat these as three separate objects in our City,Country column,
rather than recognizing the frequencies and patterns that make visualizations interesting
in the first place.
* If you are working in a group, consider using a Google Drive spreadsheet to populate your
data table as a team and to check for consistency remotely.

Once you have plugged your data into a spreadsheet, save your file.
If you used Microsoft Excel, save your document as an .xls file
(Note: This is the 97-2003 compatible format).
If you used Google Drive, save the data to your computer as an Excel document
(File>Download as...>Your_Spreadsheet_Title.xls)
Your data is prepped and ready to Open in Tableau Public.

90
Open Data

A. Click the Tableau Public icon on your desktop. A

window will open featuring an orange button
prompting you to Open data. Click through to the
Connect to Data window.

B. If you saved your document as an .xls file, click

Microsoft Excel under the In a File header and
locate your spreadsheet.

C. Select the Single Table option under Step Two and

confirm that the data includes field names in the first Fig . 3
row. (Fig. 3)

Create

Welcome to the Tableau Workspace! Unlike other visualization applications that skip
directly to presenting you with a visualization, Tableau Public allows us to see precisely how it
is using the data you have plugged into it.

Let us begin by locating the data we have just uploaded. Youll notice your
spreadsheets column headers split into Dimensions and Measures on the left-hand
Data panel.
By default, Tableau treats any field containing Additional Resources
qualitative, categorical information as a Click through for further information
dimension and any field containing numeric and assistance concerning
(quantitative) information as a measure. This the Tableau workspace,
modular treatment of information--that is to a visual glossary of buttons and their
say, the treatment of individual data fields as uses,
independent components instead of an and the differences between
interdependent table-- enables us to pick and workbooks, sheets and dashboards.
choose what specific pieces of data we want to
visualize against one another.

I. For our first visualization using the Cultural Exchange International Program data, we will
create a simple horizontal bar graph measuring City, Country against the Total Award Amounts
granted to the artists from said locales.

A. First, we must drag and drop these data sets into a sheet.
To the right of your data table, you will find Sheet One, our initial workspace .
To construct our desired data visualization, drag and drop the measure Total

91
 Award Amount and the dimension City, Country into your main shelves,
labeled Column and Rows.
Considering the length of each City,Country listing, a horizontal bar graph
may be more legible than a vertical one. This entails dropping your measure
into your Columns area (horizontal) and your dimension into your Rows
(vertical).
The convenient Show Me, pop-up window located on the right hand side of
your window will also tell you what visualizations are possible with the data you
have shelved.
You may also simply drag any data piece into the largest Drop field
here box for an automated Show Me response.
For increased legibility, arrange your graph in ascending or descending order,
by clicking the icon to the right of your Columns label, in this case Total Award
Amount

Fig. 4 At this point, you will have what looks like a very simple horizontal bar graph.

Considering the wealth of information we have at hand, however, we may want to

incorporate more detail into our graph. This is where the Marks tool box (located between
Data and your current visualization) will come into play.

II. Imagine we wanted to see what individual grant amounts compose the Total Award Amount
for each Country/Region. To achieve this, we would want to differentiate between Grantees.

B. Click and drag your Grantee dimension into Marks. Your visualization should now
feature individual segments, which you can click for details about all the dimensions and
measures you have worked into your visualization.
If we wanted to go further and differentiate between Disciplines, we could
click and drag this information into Marks as well. Rather than incorporate this

92
 as just-another-detail in our interactive visualization, let us aim to make it more
legible.
C. Click and drag your Discipline dimension into the box labeled Color
The individual grants you had previously marked are now color coded according to
their discipline.
Note the new Discipline legend in the bottom left-hand corner of your workspace.
By clicking the drop down arrow in the top right corner of this window, you can
customize the color palette, adjusting to the distribution of information present
in your visualization. (Fig.5)
Returning to the drop down menu, you may also click Sort. This allows you to
rearrange your legend according to Total Award Amount so that it matches your
visualization.

Fig . 5 Before and After

D. Finally, we will use Tableaus filter feature. By filtering our data according to our Year
measure, we will make the visualization specific to a year.

Drag Year into the filter box. A pop-up window

will prompt you to confirm a filter on #All Values.
Click next. Confirm your range of values (in our
case, the years 2009-2013) and click OK. Check
all the boxes for now, so that your visualization will
represent a sum of all the years.

III. With this visualization information packed and ready to

go, next we will grapple with the geographic dimensions
included our data.
A. Open a new Sheet by clicking the tab to the right of Sheet 1. This essentially
creates a new workspace, while allowing you access to the same data.

93
 Turn your attention to the measures labeled Latitude and Longitude. These
are geographic coordinates Tableau automatically generates for countries and
states it recognizes in data sets.
NOTE: If specifying cities in any mapping aspect of your visualization is
essential, you must input the Zip Codes and/or coordinates manually.
You may have noticed in our initial spreadsheet that there were two geographic
columns, one labeled City,Country that included city titles, and another that
solely names the country. We use the more generalized data based on
Country for our mapping function, to both take advantage of Tableaus
automated coordinates, and to avoid false specificity in our mapping.

B. To generate a basic map of the countries present in your data, drag and drop your
Country data field into the largest Drop data field here box, an action that will take
advantage of Tableaus automated Show Me function.
The automated map Tableau uses is a Symbols Map. We will opt to use a Filled
Map instead.

C. Click the Filled Map option to the right of the Symbols Map on the Show Me window.
This will show us a global distribution of participating artists. Keeping with our goal of
representing the distribution in total award amounts, lets drag Total Award Amounts
into our marks and label it according to a color gradient.
This allows for a legible reading of what countries are associated with the
highest most award amounts (i.e. those countries that are the darkest shades of
green). For further legibility, you may drag your Country mark onto the box
titled Label, thus adding country labels to your map (fonts are customizable by
simply right-click through to the format tab)
Feel free to apply the Year filter to this visualization as well (see: Part 1,
Section D)

94
IV. We are now ready to combine our visualizations on a dashboard.

A. Click the right-most tab on the bottom of

your window (the square containing four smaller
squares within it). This leads you to Dashboard 1.
B. The left-hand panel will include the two
sheets upon which we built our visualizations.
Click and drag them onto your workspace. Using
the arrows, adjust the sizes, fonts and layouts of
your visualization. Under the dashboard menu,
select Add a Title, to finish off your
visualizations.
C. Congratulations! Your visualization is
complete. Read on to learn how to spam your
friends with your new creation.

For more introductory materials, navigate to

Tableaus Online Help section titled Getting
Started

Share

Arguably the most simple of the three steps, sharing your visualization is as simply a matter of
saving it to a Tableau account.
A. Navigate to the File menu and click Save to web as...
B. Next, follow the pop-up windows prompt to create a free account at Tableau Public
C. Once you have logged in, assign your visualization a title.
You decide whether or not you would like to show your sheets (your
individual visualizations) as tabs or not.
C. Momentarily, a window will appear offering you links for emailing or embedding your
visualization into a website.
D. Feel free to compare your visualization results to our own.

For more info on sharing views, visit the Tableau support site.

95
CYTOSCAPE: Network Visualization
by Anthony Bushong

What is Cytoscape?
Cytoscape is a network visualization open source software that allows for analysis of
large datasets, specializing in displaying relational databases.

Uploading a Dataset
Cytoscape works with many file types,
such as .sif, .xlsx, etc. For the purpose
of this tutorial, use a dataset in an
excel workbook.

a. Open Cytoscape.
b. To upload your dataset, go to:
a. File -> Import -> Network
from Table (Text/MS Excel)
*See figure to the right

c. From here, select your file, and then select your Source, your Interaction, and
your Target fields. Your source interaction should be the first subject, while the
interaction type defines the relationship between the source interaction and the
target interaction. Each field should be labeled accordingly. Once you have
defined the three fields, select Import.

96
Customizing Node and Edge Appearance

With Cytoscapes tool Vizmapper, you can customize exactly how each aspect of
your dataset appears.

a. Click on the visualization under Defaults to reach the window where you can
edit each aspect of the Nodes and Edges of your data visualization.
b. Visit Cytoscapes User Manual to see the complete list of customizations that
you can apply to your dataset.

Uploading Attribution
See: The NCIBIs tutorial regarding how to upload attribution data. Now that you
have uploaded your Network Data, you will need to upload your attribution data to
give each relationship, or edge, value.

a. Begin by going to File -> Import -> Attribute from Table. Select your file here.
Make sure the radio button Node is selected when importing your table.
b. Then make sure the screen
looks as follows:
c. Once this is selected, click
import. Your data should
now be accessible in the
Data Panel.
d. With data accessible in the
Data Panel, you are officially
ready to begin
experimenting with
visualization.

97
GEPHI: Network Analysis
(Original tutorial by Zoe Borovsky, with additional material taken from Gephi Quickstart Tutorial)

Before You Get Started

1. Download Gephi, a software that combines analysis and visualization
(Mac/Windows compatible)
2. Acquire or generate a dataset. Choose between:
a. Icelandic manuscript network (download here)
b. A Facebook Network (download here)
OR
c. Your Personal Facebook Network (instructions below)
1. Sign in to a Facebook account
2. Go to Netvizz. This application allows you to extract data from
the Facebook platform for research purposes.
3. Scroll to your personal network
4. Without checking the box below Step 1, follow Step 2 to
create a .gdf file from your personal network
*Note: this may take a few minutes
5. Save the .gdf file
Using Gephi
1. Open Gephi.
In the Gephi menu bar go to File and Open your .gdf file
2. When your file is opened, the report sums up data found and issues. Select Undirected
(for this graph) and click OK
3. You should see something like a hairball.

Step 2, left, Step 3, right

98
 4. Apply a Layout NAVIGATION TIPS
a. Locate the layout module on the left panel.
b. Choose: Force Atlas
Use mouse scroll to zoom
i. This makes the connected nodes and Command + click to
attracted to each other and pushes navigate your graph
unconnected nodes apart, creating If you lose your graph,
clusters of connections. click the magnifying glass
c. You can see the layout properties below. Click on the bottom left corner
on Run, and Stop once movement has of the Graph window
slowed If you have trouble finding
a module, click Window
5. Control the Layout
at the top of the screen
a. The layout tab will display layout properties.
and a drop-down menu
i. These let you control the algorithm in featuring all the modules
order to make a readable representation. will appear
b. Set repulsion strength (i.e. how strongly the
nodes reject one another) at 10,000 to expand
the graph
i. Click Enter to validate the value and Stop when clusters have appeared
6. Ranking Nodes (Degree)
a. Ranking module lets you configure nodes color and size.
b. Choose the ranking tab in the top left module and choose Degree (i.e. the
number of connections) from the menu.
c. Click on Apply

Step 6 left, Step 7 right

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7. Ranking Nodes (Color)
a. Hover your mouse over the gradient bar, then double click on each triangle to
choose your visualizations colors.
i. Try to use a bright color for the highest degree so its easy to see whose
the most connected.
b. Click Apply
8. Labels
a. To display node labels, click the black T at the
bottom of the Graph window
b. Use the slider to adjust overall label size and click
the first A to the left to set label size proportional
to node size
9. Ranking Nodes (Result Table)
a. You can see rank values by enabling the result table.
b. Click the table icon in the bottom left of the ranking
tab; It is OK if it is empty
c. Click Apply Step 9
10. Statistics
a. Click the statistics tab in the top right module.
b. Click run next to average path length.
c. Select undirected and click ok
i. When finished the metric displays its results in a report like this
(betweenness, closeness and eccentricity)

11. Ranking (Betweeness)

a. Return to ranking in the top left module and choose the
rank parameter betweenness centrality from the
dropdown menu
b. Click on the icon for size, a red diamond (see right)
i. Set minimum at 10 and max at 50
*You can alter these numbers depending upon
the size of your network

12. Layout (Betweeness)

a. To keep the large nodes for overlapping smaller ones, go back to the layout
panel.
b. Check the Adjust by sizes option and run again the algorithm for just a
moment. The nodes will spread out accordingly.
13. Community detection
a. Go back to the statistics panel and click Run near the Modularity. Check
randomize and click OK
14. Partition
a. The community detection algorithm created a Modularity class for each node,

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 which well use to color the communities.
b. Locate the partition module on the left panel and click on the refresh button to
populate list.

Step 14.B Refresh

c. Choose Modularity Class from the menu. You can right-click anywhere in the
Partition window to select randomize colors if you dont like the colors. Click
Apply
15. Filters
a. Go to the filters in the top right module and open the topology folder. Drag
the degree range filter in to the Queries and drop it to drag filter here.
(Hint: you can use the reset button in the top left corner)
b. Click on the degree range to activate the filter. It shows a range slider and
the chart that represents the data, the
degree distribution, here.
c. Move the slider to set its lower bound to 2
(or highlight 0 and type in 2) and click
Filter. Nodes with a degree less than 2 are
now hidden on your visualization.
16. Preview
a. At the top left click on the preview tab.

b. Make any changes if desired and click Refresh.

17. Export
a. At the bottom of the Preview window, you will find an Export button

b. Choose your file format of in either SVG, PNG or PDF.

c. Now you have visualized your Facebook network community clusters!

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MANYEYES: Preparing & Visualizing Original Data
(Based on Many Eyes Data Upload Tutorials)

Data visualization refers to the visual re-presentation of information/data in a succinct and

legible manner. ManyEyes, a free, web-based visualization tool, allows you to upload data sets
and generate various types of visualizations from that data with ease. Though this tutorial
spotlights the use of a digital tool, keep in mind that visualizations are fundamentally human
constructstools for visual communication with as much potential to mis-inform as to inform.
As you explore the ManyEyes library and go on to create your own visualizations, pay
attention to data legibility and appropriateness.

If you are only looking to experiment with the sites visualization features
1. Explore the sites existing library of data sets, a link to which is available on the sites
navigation menu.
2. Skip to step 3, labeled Visualizing Data, in the list of instructions below.

If you want to create a visualization using your own data, follow the steps below.
Before Getting Started
Create a ManyEyes account.
1. Navigate to www-958.ibm.com/ using your web browser OR simply
Google Many Eyes and click-thru.
2. Click login in the top right corner of the ManyEyes site and follow the
instructions to create an account.

1. Preparing Data
Data visualization is a tool for furthering or representing research. It follows that
the first step in visualizing data is collecting it.
o The United States Census Bureau is a good source for quantitative data
around a wide variety of topics.
o If youre looking to use visualization as a tool for text analysis, Project
Gutenberg provides free digital files of classic literature.
Once you have your data, you have to massage it, i.e. convert it to a form that
ManyEyes can understand.
a. Data Tables
If your data is a list of values, format it into a simple table with
informative column headers in a program such as Excel. Make sure to
label units of measure, if applicable.
b. Free Text
If your data is comprised of free text (such as an essay or a speech), open
the data in a word processor or web browser.

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2. Uploading Data
Under the section titled Participate in
ManyEyes navigation menu, click Upload a
Step 2, Navigation Menu
dataset

1. Highlight and copy your formatted data onto your clipboard by typing
control-C (Windows) or command-C (Macintosh).
*This will be the same process for both a text files and Excel tables
2. Past your data into the provided space, typing control-V (Windows) or
command-V (Macintosh).
*For files of a megabyte or more, there may be a delay
3. You will be provided with a preview of your data. Check that the table or
text is represented correctly or adjust as needed.
4. Fill in the given fields to describe your data. This makes it searchable to
the ManyEyes community.

3. Visualizing Data
After clicking Create, you will see a reformatted version of your dataset.
Below it, click the blue Visualize button,
You will be offered Visualization Types, conveniently organized by their various
functions.
o These include:
text analysis
comparing value sets
finding relationships among data points
seeing parts of a whole
mapping
tracking rises and falls over time

Read through the various options provided and choose which visualization
option best suits your data.
o Explore the various subsets and consider the different arguments varying
visualization styles enable.
Next, you will be provided with a preview. Customize it as desired.
Once you are satisfied with your visualization, hit Publish.

Congratulations. You have completed a data visualization!

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VOYANT: Text Analysis
A companion tutorial by Iman Salehian

If you are looking to do in-depth textual analysis, Voyant Tools offers a great web-
based text reading and analysis environment. Though the site appears simple,
uploading a text reveals a much more complex interface that can be difficult to parse
at first glance. Companion site Voyant Tools Documentation offers a fantastic, step-by-
step exploration of the Voyant tools potential uses.

Fig 1 & 2. Voyant home screen, Voyant interior.

After reading through their Getting Started introduction, you may want to explore
what we consider to be the most useful instructions for beginners. These can be found
under the Interface drop-down menu, titled Loading Texts into Voyant and
Stopword Lists.

a. Loading Texts into Voyant: This page provides a detailed explanation of the
acceptable forms of data that can be uploaded into Voyant Tools, ranging from
explanations of how to upload files from your computer to how to use existing
online links. These instructions represent a step one of massaging your data
for interpretation/visualization.
b. Stopword Lists: A second necessary step in preparing your data is editting out
stop words, i.e. words superflous to your analysis. Here you will find both

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 instructions for accessing Voyant Tools existing stopword list in varying
languages, as well as instructions for customizing your own list.
c. With your data set for use, youre ready to explore Voyants various tools.
1. Click Tools Index (ignoring its drop down menu, for now) for a general
overview of the tools available. This will allow you to pull out what might
be relevant to your research.
i. For instance, if you are seeking to visualize a specific words
frequency, you might want to use Voyants Term Frequency
Chart.
ii. For more distanced readings of a text, use Lava or Corpus
Summary.

Once you have located a tool that seems relevant to your research, either click
through to the sites text-based instructions, or go to its Screencast Tutorials, a
collection of videos that more explicitly direct you in your use of Voyants tools.

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WORDSMITH: Text Analysis
By Anthony Bushong
This tutorial will review how to make a batch text file and how to search for keywords within
the text files up for analysis. It is based on Linguistechs Wordsmith Tutorial. See this for
more detailed tutorials on specific types of queries.

W hat is W ordsm ith?

Wordsmith is an advanced software that documents word frequency and patterns with
the ability to sift through a large corpus of documents. This is advantageous in parsing
through one persons collection of work or speeches to document common themes or
relevant topics.

Getting Started

a. When opening WordSmith, go to

settings. In the Settings window,
make certain that the radio button
for advanced is selected in the
bottom right hand corner. Then
click OK.

b. Select the WordList tab, and

then go to File -> New. Select
Choose Texts Now Move over
all the .txt files you will be using.
Then select OK. (pictured right)

c. Next, select Make a batch now.

Make sure you note the location
of where the .zip folder is being
saved, then click OK. You have
now made a wordlist
documenting the frequency of
words in each .txt file. (pictured
right)
d. Repeat the following steps but
this time instead of selecting
Make a batch now, select
Make a wordlist now. Now you
have a wordlist documenting the
frequency of words in the
complete corpus of the .txt files.

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Keywords
When documenting differences between the speeches or works of a specific author,
keywords will be especially useful for comparing and juxtaposing what made a
specific work different from the rest.

a. To find keywords, go back to

the original window. Select the
tab for Keywords at the center
of the top menu.
b. Then go to File -> New. For
the reference corpus wordlist,
use the master wordlist that
you made.
c. For the keyword list, select any
of the individual .txt files. Once
you have each selected, click
Make a keyword list now.
(pictured right)

Once you have done this, you will receive the keywords from the specific individual .txt
file that were specific to that file when compared against the corpus of files.
Congratulations!

You can now use WordSmith.

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GEOCOMMONS: Mapping
By Anthony Bushong

W hat is Geocommons?
Geocommons is a data repository and visualization tool that utilizes maps to provide
location focused visualizations, providing analysis that standard data visualization
software would otherwise not be able to produce. With its convenient system of
importing spreadsheets, its user friendly interface, and its access to a crowd-sourced
database of existing datasets, Geocommons is a useful tool for data visualization and
analysis.

Getting Started
1. In the top right corner of the home page, select Sign Up. Follow the prompt
and create an account.
2. After creating an account, go to the home page. You should find a set of three
buttons in the top right corner. Select Upload Data.
3. Remember that your dataset will require two fields for longitude and latitude;
these coordinates allow for Geocommons to plot your data. Label these fields
lat and lon.

Uploading your Dataset

1. After selecting Upload Data, you will have the option to either Search or
Upload.
a. If you have a dataset in mind already, then use the search function to get
started.
b. However, if you are attempting to upload an excel spreadsheet, select
Upload Files from your Computer, and then add the dataset you want to
use. Make sure that you save your Excel Spreadsheet as a .csv file.
2. If you are attempting to use a Google Spreadsheet, make sure the spreadsheet
is published as a .csv file and is completely up to date. Get the URL under the
Get a link to published data from the Google Spreadsheet and paste that in a
URL Link from the web.
3. Once you have uploaded
your dataset, it will then
take you to the step of
geolocating your data.
The webpage should look
as shown to right.

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 4. Assuming you set aside two columns for latitude and longitude, select Locate
using the latitude and longitude columns.
5. Select Continue when you reach Review Your Dataset and enter the metadata
fields when you reach Describe and Share your Dataset. You can control the
privacy of your dataset here. Click save once you have finished entering the
fields.
6. Finally, review your data as it is plotted, and click Map Data
7. Your dataset should be uploaded and you should now see it in the
Geocommons map interface.

Styling your Dataset

Geocommons provides several tools for effective means of analyzing your data.
Shape: Choose what will represent your datapoints. To be a little more
creative, you can create a custom .gif image to use as your data points
and upload it to a third party site such as www.photobucket.com, and
paste the URL for the image.
Color Them e: You can select a color gradient for your data points that
will approach the darker end of the color scheme based on the value of
any field within your dataset. Select the field under the section Attribute.
You can vary the groupings of the data points by manipulating how
many Classes your dataset is divided into.
Icon Sizes: If you did not use the graduated color scheme to change the
data set, you can manipulate the icon sizes to be graduated according to
a certain attribute, from small to
large.
Line Thickness, Transparency and Infowindows: In the next three
tabs, you can manipulate the thickness and transparency of your icons
(unless you used a custom .gif), as well as the style of the info window of
each data point.
Layers

1. Once you have created a map, you can add other datasets or divide your
dataset into separate layers and add them to the map as a new dataset in order
to easily turn the display for these layers on and off. You can drag them in order
what layers will be in front of other layer
2. You can also scour the Internet or Geocommons for different mapping displays.
Basemaps will provide you with different mapping interfaces to better suit what
data you are trying to display. You can also supplement your data with
.shapefiles such as a map of an urban citys districts by searching for them in
Find Data or uploading your own inCreate.

Congratulations! You have created your map. Feel free to play around to customize
your display in order to create new ways to visualize your data.

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OMEKA PLUGIN | Neatline
This tutorial is formatted as an extension of Neatline.orgs existing tutorial on how to use Neatline.

Neatline is an exhibit-buiding framework that makes it possible to create beautiful,

complex maps and connect them with timelines. Neatline is built as a suite of plugins
for the Omeka, a digital archive-building framework that supplies a powerful platform
for content management and web publication.

As described in the above snippet from Neatline.org, Neatline is an incredibly versatile

plugin that facilitates the communication of any space and/or time-based narratives. Unlike the
Exhibit feature of Omekawhich is effective in static, gallery-style sequencing of images
and textNeatline presents a more interactive environment that embeds items and narratives
within their geographical spaces and times. Furthermore, the plugin features extensive
customization options, allowing exhibit creators to design a wide variety of user experiences.
From free form, user-directed interaction (Fig. 1) to quasi-cinematic, heavily mediated
narratives (Fig. 2), the possibilities are endless.

Fig. 1 Technology Companies in Silicon Valley and San Francisco

Fig. 2. Jedediah Hotchkiss and The Battle of Chancellorsville

Seeing as Neatlines website provides a detailed tutorial on how to use the plugin, this
tutorial will take the form of a series of questions-and-answers. Referencing the two example
exhibits pictured above (credit: David McClure), this series will aim to encourage you against
falling into the trap of adding features for adding features sake, and to instead consider what
features are most apt for your project and argument.

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MAPS
What base map should I use?

When choosing a base map, you can either choose a base map of
your own creation/choosing, or one of the provided base layer
options to the left.
If you are making an argument (or constructing a narrative) that is
steeped in historical analysis and artifacts, using historical maps
you find on your own may be your best option (as is done in
Figure 2). If none are available, consider using Stamen Watercolor or one of
the Terrain options. Avoid using maps whose modern political borders could
distract from your analysis.

If your narrative is one based on a current analysis of space (e.g. Figure 1), using
the modern maps available is appropriate.

If Im not using one of Neatlines pre-sets, should I geo-reference my maps?

The decision of whether or not you need geo-reference your map is largely
dependent upon how general or localized your analysis will be. If you are
making an argument about a specific street, for instance, providing a map of
the street independent from one of Google or Neatlines world maps will
constructively narrow your scope. Geo-reference your map if you feel a more
distanced perspective befits your narrative.

PLOTTING
Should I use points or polygons to locate records?
Though many mapping sites use points, these indicators risk conveying a sense
of false specificitysomething that becomes especially problematic when using
maps with satellite imagery. If you were plotting the birth city of a famous
author, for instance, plotting a specific point would falsely imply the author was
born on a specific street or in a specific building. If such specific information is
available to you, points are a fantastic option. Otherwise, it may be best to use
Neatlines polygon option to trace the outline of a city or country. You can
further communicate ambiguity by stylizing your polygone.g. reducing the
opacity, removing its outline, etc.

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Can I create custom points?
Yes. As seen in Figure 1s use of company
logos, you can use .jpg files to replace
points on your map, a useful function
when communicating an image-based narrative.

What is the purpose of date ambiguity?

Neatline offers the date ambiguity widget to
allow you visually communicate uncertainty
within your timeline. This is a great way to
avoid misleading users with false specificity.

NARRATIVE
How much should I direct my audiences movement through the exhibit?
It is important to consider that any visual graphic is conveying a narrativean
argument about a spaceno matter how simple. The question thus becomes
how heavily you, as an exhibit creator, want to direct users through your exhibit.
Figure 1s story of technological companies spatial location in Silicon Valley is
a simple one that doesnt require much direction. The author accordingly let
much of the map speak for itself. When conveying a more complicated narrative
(Such as Figure 2s Battle of Chancellorsville), however, more explicit direction
may be required.

How can I direct my audiences movement through the exhibit?

There are a few ways in which you can control how users will move through your
exhibit, the first being to set your Map Focus. This directs readers to specific
view settings on your map, ensuring that the spatial representation they are
seeing matches the item or record you have paired it with.
If linearity or ordering is important to your narrative, consider numbering the
titles of your records. You may also re-order the Items list.

***

Though it may seem superfluous or excessive at first, the miscellany of features

Neatline offers stands as a testament to the fact that maps and timelines are not
objective images, but ultimately visual translations of time and space. In creating a
Neatline exhibit, you assume the role of translator.

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WIREFRAMING & BALSAMIQ
By David Kim

What is a wireframe?
A wireframe refers to a basic blueprint
for any website or screen interface.
Mocking up a sites appearance and flow
before building helps you anticipate any
issues that may arise and forces you to
consider qualities such as user experience
and navigability.

Fig. 1: An example wireframe.

Exercise
Once your group has gathered enough materials for your project and have better
understanding of the scope of your content, you can begin to organize and map out
your final project site with wireframing. Many applications are available for mocking up
the design of your site, but web-based applications with access to free trial versions are
preferred, such asbalsamiq, which offers set of graphics tailored for website mockups.
Of course, you can use any applications or even more general tools such as InDesign if
you have access to them.

Things to Keep in Mind:

1. The organization of your content should reflect the scholarly priorities of
the project.
2. Since youre not designing a website from scratch, anticipate what design
features are currently available in WordPress or Omeka themes.
3. Navigation and usability are important.

Using Balsamiq
Click on the Web-Demo Version, which will open in a new browser window.
Start by clearing all the preexisting graphics by clicking on the Clear Mockup
under Mockup.
1. Double click on any box to edit the text component.
2. Familiarize yourself with the Grouping feature. It makes all of the selected
elements into an unit, so that they can be moved around within the mockup as
a group.
3. Lock option fixes the position of the selected elements on the entire
layout. Once its locked, it cant be moved around with mouse drag. A couple
of helpful short cuts include: [control + 2] for lock; [control + 3] for unlock.

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4. Layering: As you add more graphics to the mockup, sometimes certain
elements will disappear from view. This is most likely the result of the previous
graphics hiding behind the new ones. Use the layering option to place various
graphics in the front or in the background. Group the graphics after
establishing proper layers to prevent unintended edits as you move along.
5. Copy and Paste, as well as Duplicate options are available to make the
process easier.
6. Use the note or text box to add comments in the areas that need further
explanation.
7. IMPORTANT: Save unfinished mockups as XML file, which can be imported
later in balsamic for further editing. Save the final version as both XML and PDF.

You will submit the PDF version along with other documents for the mid-term
design meeting.

114
HTML & CSS
By Anthony Bushong, based on Basic HTML Tutorial by Dave Raggert

W hat is HTM L?
HTML, short for Hypertext Markup Language, refers to the language that dictates
the appearance and structure of webpages on the Internet. It essentially creates a
language in which you can speak to your computer, instructing it (through HTML code)
to embed links and images where needed and to structure and position text where you
want it, ultimately allowing you to build the basic components of website. For the
purpose of this exercise, you will be required to build an HTML page on a local
computer.
W hat is HM TL built in?
Most Mac and PC computers have generic text edit programs that can be used to
write, create and edit HTML documents. For a PC, this program is Notepad, while Mac
computers have TextEdit. However, there are more effective software programs out
there to edit HTML documents.
If you have a PC, please download Notepad++.
If you have a Mac, please download Komodo Edit

HTML: Getting Started

The best way to learn HTML is by producing a document in order to learn how
HTML works and garnering a grasp on just how each instruction influences the front
end of your HTML document.
In order to write basic HTML, it is important to know how to use the language.
Instructions are dictated by inclosing the content of your webpage within start and end
tags. HTML is used as follows:
<*HTML Instruction Goes Here*> Text That I Want on my
Webpage </*HTML Instruction Goes Here*>
Begin creating your HTML document with these start and end tags:

1. <html> </html>
a. This should be the very first and the very last tags in your html document, as
it contains the entire code.
2. <head> </head>
a. This will contain the header of your entire HTML page. These tags should
begin and end before the <body> tag.
3. <body> </body>
a. This start and end tag will contain the majority of the content in your
webpage. It should follow the end tag of </head>.

Here are a series of basic instructions to begin writing your HTML Webpage:

1. Title: <title> DH 101 Webpage </title>

115
 a. (This title text will give your webpage a name. It should be inside the
<head> start and end tag.)
2. Header: <h1> Header 1 </h1>
3. Paragraph: <p> Text </p>
4. Header (2): <h2> Header 2 </h2>
5. Emphasize/Bold: <em> Text </em>

Open Notepad++ or Komodo Edit and create a basic HTML Document using all of
these start and end tags. Make the HTML Document a personal page documenting
who you are much like a Facebook profile.

HTML: Hyperlinks and Images

1. Using HTML, you can place images within your webpage as follows:
a. <img src=filelocation.jpg width=200 height=150
alt=picturedescription>
* Img Src is short for Image Source. If you are working locally, you may
place a location somewhere on your C: drive. If you are connected to the
internet, you can place the url of the image you would like to use. Width
and Height dictate the pixel size of the actual image. Alt is a caption for
the image.
2. You can also create a hyperlink, which allows you to turn text or an image as a
reference to another location by using these tags:
a. <a href=google.com> Google </a>
3. If you would like to hyperlink an image, you would follow the same general format:
a. <a href=google.com><img src= filelocation.gif></a>

HTML: Lists
Use the following tags to create lists. Remember that within these lists, you can input
hyperlinks and images to liven up and make your HTML document useful.

1. Unordered List (This is just a bullet list):

<ul>
<li>the first list item</li>
<li>the second list item</li>
<li>the third list item</li>
</ul>
2. Ordered List (This is an enumerated list):
<ol>
<li>the first list item</li>
<li>the second list item</li>
<li>the third list item</li>
</ol>
3. Definition List (This is a list in which you can enhance each item with a definition):
<dl>
<dt>the first term</dt>
<dd>its definition</dd>
<dt>the second term</dt>

116
 <dd>its definition</dd>
<dt>the third term</dt>
<dd>its definition</dd>
</dl>

HTML: The Assignment

Use all of the tools provided in this basic tutorial to create a profile in which you
describe yourself and your interests. Create links out to websites that you visit often and
videos/images of music and movies that you enjoy. You can test your code and see its
output on this link:

http://www.w3schools.com/html/tryit.asp?filename=tryhtml_bo dybgcol

Enjoyed the tutorial? Consider editing your HTML document by adding on a Cascading
Style Sheet, or a .css file. Visit W3schools.com for an introduction and how to.

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