Element

INTRODUCTION TO RADIATION
Mass Number =

X
A
Proton + Neutron 1. ISOTOPE
e
Atomic Number = Proton Z Electron Shell / Atoms with same number of protons
e Orbital electrons Negative charge 2. ISTONE
EXAMPLES: Atoms with same number of neutrons
e Nucleus
2
H 12
C 16
O 3. ISOBAR
1 6 8 Consist of: Atoms with same mass number
1. Neutron Neutral No charge
Hydrogen Carbon Oxygen e 4. ISOMER
2. Proton Positive Charge Atoms with same number of proton &
1n, 1p 6n, 6p 8n, 8p ATOM neutron but difference Energy level

Photon / Man made

an ATOM
Particulate Electromagnetic Wave Natural
e Electron shell Electron X-ray
Radiations that are emitted
e from nucleus of an atom
RADIATION Neutron because of instability of
e Nucleus
is coming from Proton Gamma Ray neutron : proton ratio.
Alpha This unstable nuclide is also
e
Beta known as Radionuclide while
the decay activity is referred as
Radioactivity.

RADIOACTIVE

Unstable atoms that emit radiation Alpha , Beta ,

Gamma from their nucleus (Radioactivity Process).

Time taken for all radioactive atoms to decay depends

on its initial amount of atoms and Decay constant
 Beta Positive

Alpha particle
6 C 11 = 5 B 11 + +1 e
O +
2 Protons Excess energy during
2 Neutron Beta Negative decays of alpha and beta
is emitted in the form of
92 U 235 = 90 Th 231 + 2 He 4 + 53 I 131 = 54 Xe 131 + -1 e
O + gamma

ALPHA DECAY BETA DECAY GAMMA

NATURAL DECAYS

RADIOACTIVE DECAY
HALF LIFE
RADIOACTIVITY
Half-life is the time taken for a radionuclide to
Unstable reduce by half of its initial activity.
t = 0.693 /
Ao
Ao / 2 = Ao e -t 1/2 Nuclides Physical life
Activity

Ao / 2
A = Ao / 2n Rn-220 55 seconds
Ao / 4
n = no. of half life I-131 8.04 days
Ir-192 73.83 days
Ao / 8 Co-60 5.27 years
Cs-137 30.23 years
Ao / 16 Stable
U-238 4.47 x 9 years
Th-232 1.40 x 10 years
t 1/2 2 t 1/2 3 t 1/2 4 t 1/2
No. of half life
RADIATION UNIT
Pegionan di
Interaksi pelbagai jenis
udara
radiasi dengan bahan PHYSICAL SI UNIT OLD UNIT RELATIONSHIP
Dedahan (X)
terserap yang berbeza QUANTITY
Exposure
Dos Terkesan (H)
Effective Dose Activity Bequerel (Bq) Curie (Ci) 1 Ci = 3.7 x 1010 Bq
1 Bq = 2.7 x 10-11 Ci

Interaksi pelbagai jenis Exposure Coulomb per Roentgen 1 R = 2.58x10-4 C/kg

radiasi dengan bahan kilogram (C/kg) (R) 1 C/kg = 3876 R
PUNCA Dos Setara (E),
Aktiviti (A) Absorbed Gray (Gy) rad 1 rad = 0.01 Gy
Equivalent Dose
Dose 1 Gy = 100 rad
Equivalent Sievert (Sv) rem 1 rem = 0.01 Sv
Tenaga diserap oleh bahan
Dose / 1 Sv = 100 rem
Dos Terserap (D)
Effective
Absorbed Dose
Dose

KUALITI FAKTOR (WR)

Nilai spesifik kebolehan sinaran pengionan yang

berbeza untuk menyebabkan darjah kerosakan
biologi ke atas manusia.

Sinar X, Gamma, Beta WR = 1

Proton tenaga tinggi WR = 10
Neutron terma (tenaga rendah) WR = 2.3
Alpha WR = 20
Neutron (tenaga tinggi) WR = 20
 Interacts with cells

Cells with HIGH degree of radio sensitivity: Depends on Tissue weighing factors (Wt)
- High metabolic rate (erythroblast) RADIOSENSITIVITY
- High level of Oxygen (red blood cells) (RS) Gonad : 0.2 Bladder :
- High division rate (spermatogenium) of cells Breast :
Direct Bone Marrow : Liver : 0.05
Intestine : 0.12 Esophagus :
Lung : Thyroid :

Radiation Bone Surface :

Free Indirect Injury Skin : 0.01
radicals Mechanism
Interacts with water
molecules
BIOLOGICAL Factors
EFFECTS OF IONIZING modified the 1. Part of body irradiated (RS)
Genetic Effects
(DNA chain damaged that RADIATION effects
lead to genetic effects)
2. Types of radiation
Somatic
(Effects to people who directly exposed to 3. Dose rate
radiation)
4. Biological
Deterministic / Non-Stochastic Stochastic
- Age
Severity Dose Received Probability Dose Received - Sex
Threshold X Threshold
Long term Cancer

1. Prodromal Syndrome (Early symptoms) 3. Gastro-intestinal Syndrome (GI)

- Vomiting, Diarrhea, Dizziness, Fatigue, etc. - Regarding digestive system
- 4 Sv (Death 1 week)
2. Bone Marrow Syndrome - Eg : Failure to replace Mucosa, Bacterial infection
- Regarding blood
- 1 Sv 2 Sv 4. Central Nervous System Syndrome (CNS)
- Eg: Blood clothing failure, Anemia, Hypoxia, - Dose > 50 Sv (Death 2-3 days)
- Eg: Motor incoordinator, Hyperexcitation, Coma
 mass attenuation coefficient
Initial intensity Io Incident intensity, I X material thickness , - High Z @ High Density materials
- eg : Concrete, Lead, Barium
x
- Low Z
Half Value Layer of thickness (HVL) - eg : 10 mm Perspex
X 1/2 = ln 2 Activity Energy
n - High Hydrogen content
I1d12 = I2d22 Radiation Intensity - Water, Wax, Parafin
I = Io e -x Depends on Types of
Inverse Square Law
Shielding radiation
Distance
Reduce quantity of
PRINCIPLES Internal Exposure
External Exposure RN used
Time
PPE (Gloves, respirator,
D = Dose Rate x Time apron, etc.)
RADIATION Decontamination
PROTECTION
Hand and body monitoring

SYSTEMS Annual Limit Intake

INTERNAL
(ALI)

Justification Optimization Dose Limit EXTERNAL

1. Occupational
Necessity ALARA i. Follows BSS 2010
YES Exposure
NO (As Low As Reasonably ii. Not include:
- Limit : 20 mSv/y
Achievable) - Background radiation
No exposure - Medical exposure
Dose given must be at the
lowest with most effective result

2. Student 3. Public 5. Area

- 16 18 years old Limit : 1 mSv/y - Controlled area
3/10 AL of radiation workers
 Counter:
1. Whole Body Counter
2. Lung Counter
3. Thyroid Counter Bio assay

Instruments
SOURCE :
1. Inhalation
2. Digestion INTERNAL
3. Absorption (Skin / wound)
4. Direct exposure
PERSONAL MONITORING

EXTERNAL

Pocket Dosimeter
Film Badge Thermo luminescence (Quartz Fiber Electrode QFE)
Dosimeter (TLD)

Photographic LiF
Film CaSO4

Cheap Expensive
Permanent Record Temporary Record
Fasithermal (n, , ) at high radiation
Not Reusable Reusable area
Additional record to No additional record Gas ionization
radiation Quality
Energy dependent Energy independent
Estimated Equivalent Tissue Equivalent
*More accurate & Sensitive
 Material / Object

Source
Detector
Max or Min
Level
Ii = Io e -((/) / x ) -Transmission (Cs-137)
Ii n-Backscatter
Source
Ii Io
Detector Density material
Transmission Ii = Io ( 1 - e -((/) / x) ) Density
, -Transmission
Io Co-60, Sr-90
Material / Object
Backscatter
Thick & coating
Thickness
,-Transmission
Reactive Gauge & -Backscatter
Reactive gauge
Am-241, Cs-137 thick
Pm-147, Kr-85 coat
Basic Principle
Soil, sand, concrete
Moisture
-Transmission
Applications n-Backscatter
Cf-252, Am-Be
NUCLEAR GAUGING HV
Pre-amp Mass flow in process
Weighing
Amp line
Discriminator/MCA Conveyor belt
Electronic Ratemeter -Transmission
Instrumentation
Lithology, density, porosity
Oil Logging
Convert in underground reservoir
Detector
Source Source Housing radiation signal ,n-Backscatter

Availability Characteristic
Shielding to attenuation Type
Cost Stability
Physical protection Scintillation
Half-life Efficiency
Adjust & limit beam Gas Filled- GM
Type of radiation Ruggedness
Safe handling Semiconductor
Energy Energy depend.
Neutron
In tensity Resolving power
 EDXRF
Basic Principle:
Identification of an Metal analysis
Scattered, Absorbed & Identify & Quantify
known / unknown element by its Energy line
Diffracted
element in material Jewelry industry
Measure thickness WDXRF
XRF Absorbed energy Identification of an Hazardous substance detection
element from its
wavelength properties
Oil Industry
Monochromatic x-ray
XRD
Scattered by lattices of
crystalline material Printed circuit board

BRAGGS LAW: Environment uses

Types of Analyzer sin = n
2d Identification of unknown
material

Applications
Cement Industry

X- RAY ANALYZER Mining industry

HV
Pre-amp Coating Thickness
Amp
Discriminator/MCA - Test silicon thickness on paper
Instrumentation Electronic Ratemeter -Test Phosphorus thickness on metal

Technique :
Convert x-ray -Absorption
Detector
signal ( I (1/thickness))
X-ray tube Tube Housing To measure single coated material
Characteristic Type -Excitation
Generate high speed Minimise leakage Stability Proportional counter ( I thickness)
x-ray As a physical protect Efficiency WDXRF & XRD To measure multi coated material
Applied voltage & Shields to provide Ruggedness Semiconductor
current protection Energy depend. EDXRF
Resolving power