I CHAPTER -IV

j
RADHAKRISHNAN :
HIS PHILOSOPHICAL STANDPOINT
Radhakrishnan surveyed Indian Philosophy and placed Indian
philosophy on the philosophical map of the world. He has given a touch of
reorientation and reconstruction to the traditional Indian thought. He
clearly and comparatively expounds all the Indian Philosophical schools.

We find an almost perfect reconciliation of the oriental and

occidental traditions of thought in,, his philosophy C.E.M Joad, says ,
................... the function, the unique function which Radhakrishnan
fulfills today is that of a liasion officer. He seeks to build a bridge between
the traditional wisdom of the east and the new knowledge and energy of the
west. 1 The philosophical standpoint of Radhakrishnan may be discussed
under the following heads :

IV. 1. Epistemology :

Radharksihnan gives a modem interpretation of epistemology. The

epistemology of Radhakrishnans philosophy enquires the nature, sources,
validity, test and extension of knowledge.

According to Radhakrishnan, knowledge is a movement brought

about by the activity of the self, which results in producing consciousness
of objective things. An act of knowledge has four elements in it - (1)
Knower ( Jnata); (2) the object of knowledge ( Jneya); (3) the instrument of
knowledge ( Jnanakarana) ; and (4) the results of knowledge, or the
cognisedness o f the object ( Jnatata). Radhakrishnan holds that all
cognitions are self luminous ( Svaprakasa). He admits that the relation

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between the self and the not-self involved in knowledge is an object of
internal perception.

According to Radhakrishnan, knowledge is inseparable from self

existence. It is knowledge which transcends the differentiation of subject
and object. For him knowledge pre-supposes unity or oneness of thought
and being. Radhakrishnan says, knowledge is concealed in ignorance and
when the latter is removed the former manifests itself.2. Radhakrishnan
divided knowledge into two kinds - direct knowledge and indirect
knowledge. For him intuitive knowledge is direct knowledge and sensual
knowledge and intellectual knowledge are indirect knowledge.

Radhakrishnans epistemological study is an exploration into the

possible sources of knowledge. According to him there are three possible
sources of knowledge. These are - (1) Sense experience (2) Intellectual
cognition and (3) Intuitive Apprehension. Radhakrishnan says, There
are three ways of knowing reality : Sense experience, discursive
reasoning and intuitive apprehension.3. Through sense experience we
know the sensible qualities of the object. Through it we know the external
features of the object. The function of sense experience is that it gathers
impressions of the physical objects - both outer and inner. It provides
material for every kind of study and thought. Intellectual knowledge is
obtained by a process of analysis and synthesis. The data supplied by the
senses are analyzed by the intellect and a new synthesis is perceived. This
knowledge is indirect and symbolic. It is representative in its nature. From
the senses it receives only the representations of the objects. Intellectual
knowledge rests on the duality of the subject and object- knower and
known. Both sensual knowledge and intellectual cognition are inherently
limited.

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 Radhakrishnan develops intuition as the third source of knowledge.
Intuition is the direct realization of its object. It is the source of the insight
of reality. Intuition is absolutely immediate knowledge. Here the knower
i

and the known are one: to know reality is here to be reality. Radhakrishnan
says, It is not fancy or make believe but a bonafied discovery of reality. 4
According to Radhakrishnan spiritual apprehension or the kind of
awareness of real values which are neither objects in space and time nor
universals of thought is called intuition.5 Intuition is also called
samyakjnana. For him, intuition is the inner most realization of the soul. He
says, Intuition is the ultimate vision of the profoundest being 6 From this
it is clear that intuition is the ultimate criterion of truth. Radhakrishnan
conceives the Absolute as indeterminate, pure consciousness, freedom and
possibility. According to him the Absolute can be known only by intuitive
knowledge not by discursive logical knowledge . He says, Intuition is self
established ( Svafhsiddha), self evidencing ( Svatahsamvedya), self
luminous (svayamprakash) , 7 It has the character of revelation. It is
spontaneous and immediate. It comes to us a vision. It is above reason.
According to Radhakrishnan, intuitive knowledge is the highest knowledge.
The innermost realization of the soul can be possible by perfect living,
leading a moral life. To realize reality one must be himself fully real.
Radhakrishnan says, Intuition is not only perfect knowledge, but also
perfect living. The consecration of the self and the knowledge of the reality
grow together. The fully real can be known only by one who himself fully
real. 8 In the epistemology of Radhakrishnan intellect has been
subordinated to intuition. Intellect is preserved here as a function of
intuition. Intuition is not antagonistic to intellect. The two are not only
incompatible but vitally united.9 Radhakrishnan regarded intuition as the
integral whole. In the integral whole all the aspects of mind properly

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cultivated will develop and will also be merged. Intellect, emotion and will
are the fragmentary manifestation of the spiritual energy of man. Intuition
makes man one with the spirit. Intuition is the basis of every great religion.
Religious life consists in the culture of intuition through the harmonious
perfection of emotion, intellect and will. According to Radhakrishnan,
intuition is the root of all creative works. The root of all creative work is
not due to mechanical activity of reason. By this Radhakrishnan
emphasizes spirituality as the true basis of all our activities in life.
Radhakrishnan says, creative work is not blind imitation or mechanical
repitition. It is synthetic insight, which advances by leaps, A new truth
*

altogether unknown starting in its strangeness, comes into being suddenly

and spontaneously owing to the intense and concentrated interest in the
problem. 10 Accordingto Radhakrishnan, certainty and non
communicability is the truest test of [Link] experience has
this sense of certainty. There is no need for logical test. Radhakrishnan
accepted self knowledge as valid knowledge. Self knowledge is valid in
itself. All intuitions are involved in self knowledge. We can not deny the
possibility of self knowledge. In his philosophy self evident knowledge of
reality is sought for the purpose of attaining spiritual wisdom.

He accepts the view of satahpramanya. For him cognitions by

themselves are valid. He accepts the view of self validity of knowledge. He
recognizes the intrinsic validity of knowledge. The doctrine of self
evidence ( Svatahpramanya) holds that cognitions by themselves are valid,
and their validity can set aside only by the contrary nature of their objects
or by the recognition of discrepancies in their causes.11 The validity of
knowledge arises from the essential nature of its causes untainted by defect,
and its known by the knowledge itself, and it is not validated by any other

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knowledge is valid in itself, and is not validated by any other knowledge.
According to Radhakrishnan validity is a property of knowledge. The self
evident character of knowledge merely restates the character of
apprehension and it is of its nature valid. All knowledge bears immediate
witness to its own validity. The reality of a thing depends on the thing
itself, not on human notions. According to Radhakrishnan the invalidity of
a conception is never inherent. For him the invalidity of conception is due
to extraneous means. Cognitions are externally invalidated either by the
discovery through other means of the real character of the object, or by the
discovery of the defects in the instruments of cognition. Every cognition
*

due to one of the recognized modes of knowledge is to be regarded as valid

so long as there are not any special reason for doubt. According to
Radhakrishnan all cognitions are self luminous. Cognitions are said to be
self luminous in the sense that they are object of their own apprehension.
For him all knowledge is true knowledge. Knowledge is known to be valid
directly i.e. by the same instrument by which it is known as knowledge.

Logical knowledge is a mixture of truth and error. Error according to

Radhakrishnan is non-thought. For him we can not think what is not true.
If we can, then truth will be unatainable, for any standard of truth we can
adopt will be unable to supply the intrinsic deficiency of thought itself,
since the apprehension of the standard will itself be an act of thought. Thus
it will suffers from the natural uncertainty of thought. Radhakrishnan says,
.... We must grant that there is no thought which is not a true thought,
and error is only privation due to the passions and interest of men which
cloud the intellect. For Radhakrishnan, even sruti does not compromise
the individual and the intrinsic character of truth. Sruti refers only to a kind
of experience ( anubhava) and this may be accepted as provisionally true.

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 To emphasize the self evident character of knowledge,
Radhakrishnan says that all knowledge bears immediate witness to its own
validity. For him the self evident character is hidden by our psychological
prejudices. According to Radhakrishnan, true knowledge is that which is
not contradicted to other knowledge. Knowledge which is not
contradicted is truth. 14 For Radhakrishnan, insight into reality is the
highest knowledge since there is no other knowledge that can contradict it.
Hence the knower and the known are ultimately one real. It is the
immediate witness of reality to itself. In the empirical level this knowledge
is obscured by avidya, according to Radhakrishnan. Logical proofs enable
us to break down the obstructing veils. It helps us to reveal the self evident
character of truth. Logical rules are working tools . They serve as negative
checks by which we break down our prejudices.

VI.2. Metaphysics :

Radhakrishnan is a philosopher of life. His central interest is the

problem of human life. For him metaphysics is only a rational preparation
for the solution of lifes problem. 15 For him the foundation of metaphysics
lies on basic awareness of what is implied in experience. 16 Radhakrishnan
holds that metaphysics is a penetration behind the limited knowledge and it
is an interpretation of the nature of the world by the means of general ideas.
He raises some problems of metaphysics. These are - Does the world
reveal another beyond itself ? If it does, what is its relation to the process
itself ? Is this process purposeful ? 17 Radhakrishnans metaphysical quest
searches an articulations of ultimate presuppositions about the world. The
metaphysics of Radhakrishn is confined to the interpretation of the ultimate
reality,i.e Brahman, Jlva, World, Maya.

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 A c c o r d in g to R a d h a k r is h n a n , m e ta p h y s ic s c o n s tru c t a th e o ry o f

R e a lity . I t h a s lo g ic a l c o n s is te n c y a n d e m p iric a l a d e q u a c y . R a d h a k r is h n a n

c o n c e iv e s th a t R e a lity is w h a t is id e a lly in te llig ib le . 18 T h is r e m in d s u s

B ra d le y . B r a d le y s a y s th a t w h a t m a y b e , i f it m u s t b e , it is . T h e

m e ta p h y s ic a l v ie w o f R a d h a k r is h n a n is m o n is tic . F o r h im r e a lity is o n e .

T h e A b s o lu te is th e o n ly re a lity . T h e m e ta p h y s ic s o f R a d h a k r is h n a n

c o n ta in s in it th e e le m e n ts o f b o th th e A d v a ita V e d a n ta a n d th e H e g e lia n

tra d itio n . I t is a ls o b a s e d o n th e U p a n is h a d s . S p irit is th e r o o t c o n c e p t o f

,m e t a p h y s i c s o f R a d h a k r is h n a n . R a d h a k r is h n a n c o n c e iv e s s p ir it a s life . H e

s a y s , S p ir it is th e life , n o t th in g , e n e rg y , n o t im m o b ility , s o m e th in g re a l in
*

its e lf a n d b y its e lf a n d c a n n o t b e c o m p a r e d to a n y s u b s ta n c e , s u b je c tiv e o r

o b je c tiv e . 19 T h e s e lf, G o d , a n d A b s o lu te a re a ll n a m e s o f th e u n iv e rs a l

s p irit in h u m a n c e n tr e , th r o u g h th e b o d y a n d m in d o f m a n . G o d is th e s p irit

c o n c e iv e d a s th e r e a lity m a n if e s te d in th e w o rld a t la rg e . A b s o lu te is th e

s p irit c o n c e iv e d a s th e in f in ite p o s s ib ility o f w h ic h th e p r e s e n t w o rld is o n ly

o n e a c tu a l m a n ife s ta tio n . E v e r y th in g o f th e u n iv e r s e is th e e x p r e s s io n o f th e

A b s o lu te . H e s a y s th a t th e U ltim a te R e a lity s le e p s in th e s to n e , b re a th e s in

p la n ts , fe e ls in th e a n im a ls a n d a w a k e s to s e lf c o n c io u s n e s s in m a n .

F o r R a d h a k r is h n a n th e A b s o lu te is P u re c o n s c io u s n e s s , P u re

fre e d o m , a n d in f in ite p o s s ib ilitie s A c c o rd in g to h im th e A b s o lu te is

r e a lity , c o n s c io u s n e s s a n d f re e d o m - S a t, c it a n d a n a n d a . H e v ie w e d

th a t th e re a re f o u r p o is e s o f R e a lity ; th e A b s o lu te B ra h m a n , th e c re a tiv e

s p irit, Is v a r a , th e w o r ld s p ir it H ir a n y a g a r b h a a n d th e w o rld , th e V ira t-

S v a ru p a . T h e s e a r e th e f o u r s id e s o f o n e w h o le .

T h e R e a lity is a p p r e h e n d e d in tw o w a y s - p e r s o n a l a n d im p e rs o n a l.

G o d is p e r s o n a l w h ile A b s o lu te is im p e rs o n a l. G o d is p e r c e iv e d re a lity

p r e s e n t in e a c h m a n . H e is th e g u id e a n d s a v io u r o f m a n k in d . G o d is

1 6 5
immanent in the world and He is transcendent to it. According to
Radhakrishnan, God is truth, love and justice. God is the perfect and the
highest moral being free from all evils. God helps us to resist the force of
evil and error and uplift human life by discarding sin and malicious
feelings. God pours fourth. Radhakrishnan writes, the whole wealth of
his love to actualize his intensions for us. He takes us the burden of
helping us to resist the forces of evil, error and ugliness and transmute
them into truth, beauty and goodness. 21 He says. God loves us, creates
us and rules us. Creation, redemption and judgment are different names for
the fact of God. God satisfies the religious sentiments of man.

Radhakrishnan believes in the emergent theory of evolution.

According to him, there is one underlying dynamic and creative reality out
of which gradually body, life, consciousness and self consciousness
emerge. The world has passed through different phases of evolution
namely, matter, Life and mind. The emergence of life in matter, mind in
life and self consciousness in the human mind is the process of cosmic
evolution by which God attempts to manifest himself in the world, tries to
realize the potential ideal of the universe, tries that is to say, to attain values
like truth, goodness and beauty which are potentially contained in the
Absolute. Man is a rational being. Man can rise to the God through
spiritual experience. The rational man has to grow to the spiritual man, to
the God man. 24 In the metaphysics of Radhakrishnan we find a concept of
Brahma-loka, Brahma-loka according to Radhakrishnan is not another
world than samsara, it is the world of safnsara redeemed. 25
Radhakrishnan develops the concept o f the world as a process. He
says, the world we know, which science studies is a process. 26 It is a
process in the sense that it is not complete in its present situation. It derives

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from the past and moves into the future. It is not a never ending repition of
a limited number of situation. Radhakrishnan says, The present adds
significance to the character of the past and may pave the way for the
realization of unexpected possibilities of the future. 27

Radhakrishnan conceives that the world is dynamic. Coninuity and

change are the two features of the world. He says that nature is always
active, never satisfied with the levels it has reached, it always aspires to
others levels. 28 According to him the world process is purposeful. He
offers a teleological explanation of the universe. He asserts that the world
process is steadily trying to realize some purpose. It is progressing towards
some goal. The continuous change of the world is gradually proceeding
towards an end. In spite of little ups and downs of change there seems to
be a compelling drift towards better things. Again he says, the
meaning of the history is to make all men prophets, to establish a kingdom
in

of free spirit ..... Ananda spirit .... is the goal of evoluation.

Radhakrishnan explains that the process of evoluation has been at work
from the inorganic to the organic, from the organic to the sentient, from the
sentient to the rational. 31 The human self is the latest and highest product
of evolution according to Radhakrishnan. But he does not say that man is
the last and supreme utterance of life.

Radhakrishnan interpreted the world in terms of the activity of being.

He says that there seems to be a continuing identity which endures through
all changes of process. This identity finds expression in the world process.
It expresses in the variations and changes of the process, in the potentiality
of energy, in the direction of biological growth, in social change.
According to Radhakrishnan, the human being is an image of the larger
identity of the whole to which he is related. 32 Man participates in the

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 world process. The very effort of man is to know the secrets of nature. Man
is also capable of participating in the longer spirit. Mans participation in
the longer spirit is to be discovered in the whole process with its ordered
, and progressive character. This reminds us Samkara. Samkara tells us that
there is a fundamental principle behind and beyond the world process. He
inspires and informs the world process. He is manifesting new values.

Mva is an important content of the metaphysics of Radhakrishnan.

Radharkishnan accept the Vedantic view of jlva. According to him jiva is
to be in essence one with the Atman. 33 JTva is never merely a static unity.
It is constantly in a process of self realization. The individual self is
directed towards the universal self as a being that can say I ( I am
Brahman). 34 According to Radhakrishnan the self as a subject is the
problem for metaphysics. He says that the self is the persistent substratum.
It makes all knowledge, recognition and retention possible. Metaphysics
tells us of it as a principle of explanation. For him the nature of the self is
constituted by the acts of remembering, thinking and willing. He
distinguishes atman from jlvatman. Atman is the universal self which
includes all. Jlvatman is the empirical self which is always correlated with
a not s e lf . Atman is the true subject. It is different from all objects, the
body, the senses, the empirical self itself. 35 It is the basis of all relations.
Without the universal self, there can be no empirical self. Due to this
universal self operating in all the individuals are able to have common
experience. They are able to know a real world as identical for all.
According to Radhakrishnan the true subject is the simple, self subsistent,
universal spirit. It can not be directly presented as the object. Here we can
remember Plato, Aristotle and Kant Plato says that the mind in man is the
offspring of the eternal world mind. Aristotle speaks of an active reason, at

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the apex of the soul, which is divine and creative. Kant distinguishes the
synthetic principle from the merely empirical self. All their views refer to
the self as subject. The empirical self is finite, limited. According to
Radhakrishnan when the empirical self realizes himself as limited then he
has direct consciousness of something unlimited. Radhakrishnan says, the
consciousness of limit involves the action of the greater unlimited self in
us. 36 He says, ..... empirical self is the expression or focusing of
something beyond itself. Similar line of thought is found in Professor
IS . Haldane. He writes, Personality is not something confined and
completed in itself separately from an environment in space and time, but
extended over that environment. 38 Radharkishnan explains that the
empirical self belongs to the human world. It interacts with individuals. He
shares knowledge of one another. He has a social relation with one another.
There is an integral relationship between the organism and its environment
in the empirical self. Radhakrishnan says, Human individuals are not
unchanging substrata of change with accidental qualities and are related to
one another externally, but are elements in an interrelated system. 39
According to him human being is not absolutely individual. His world is
equally real with himself. His interaction with the world influence the
growth of his individuality. Radhakrishnan describes that the individual and
the world co-exist and subsist together.

Radhakrishnan holds that uniqueness ( each -ness) and universality (

all ness) are the two elements of selfhood. They grow together until at last
the most unique becomes the most universal.40 Man strives for perfection.
Man attempts to transform all occurrences into harmony. He attempts to
make the external express the inward. All these expressions regarding man
shows that he is one in line with the genius of reality. According to

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Radhakrishnan, the thought of the self, the will of the self are themselves
the expression of a deeper whole which includes the self and its object.

The status of the world leads to the concept of M aya.

Radhakrishnan accepts the Mayavada of Samkara with some new
interpretation. He accepts the Upanisadic view of the world. In the
Upanisad creation has been described as the Lila of the Absolute. Like the
Upanisad, according to Radhakrishnan, creation is Lila. But he adds that
this Lila is real.
Radhakrishnan advocates Maya as the power of devatma . He says,
The whole world proceeds from the imperishable Brahman. The actual
creator is Isvara, the personal God, who is acting through his power of
Maya, devatmasakti 41 For him the all embracing power that creates is
called maya. Maya is the creative power of God. Radhakrishnan tires to
explain the nature of the world in the light of the basic metaphysical
standpoint of maya.

Radhakrishnan places maya in between Absolute Being and Non-

Being when he says. While the world is dependent on Brahman, the latter
is not dependent on the world. This one sided dependence and the logical
inconceivability of the relation between the ultimate reality and the world
show are brought out by the word, Maya. The world is not essential being
like Brahman, nor is it non-being. It can be defined as neither being nor
non-being. 42 It is clear that what is called Avidya from the subjective
standpoint is called maya from the objective standpoint. When the world is
called Maya people gets the idea that the world is an illusion. But
Radhakrishnan writes, The ecstasy of divine union, the bliss of realization
tempts one to disregard the world with its imperfections and look upon it as
a troubled and unhappy dream. The actual fabric of the world, with its

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loves and hates, with its wars and battles, with its jealousies and
competitions as well as its masked helpfulness, sustained intellectual effort,
intense moral struggle seems to be no more than an unsubstantive dreams, a
phantasmagoria dancing on the fabric of pure being. 43 Vivekananda adopts
a similar line of thought when he says, when the Hindu says the world is
Maya, at once people get the idea that the world is an illusion. This
interpretation has some basis - But the maya of the Vedanta, in its last
developed form, is neither Idealism nor realism, nor is it a theory. It is a
simple statement of facts - what we are and what we see around us. 44
Radhakrishnan finds out many difficulties of logical positivists
denial of metaphysics.45 He shows that metaphysical theory can be verified
indirectly. It can be verified by its adequacy to account for the observed
fact. Speculative metaphysics is a tenable enquiry with a field of its own.46

In Radharkishnans thought religion and metaphysics are not

divorced from each other. He says that metaphysical efforts gives to
religious thought, dignity and strength.47 Man has infinite longings. He has
potential infinity. So he becomes aware of his finitude and dissatisfied with
it. He wants to maintain absolute standard as he participate in the nature of
the Absolute. He becomes aware of the power of Being. Man lives in the
world with the perspective of the eternal. According to Radhakrishnan, the
transition from Becoming to Being is an attempt at the restoration of
metaphysics. He says, Religious life is the life lived in the power of
Being. It fosters and develops the metaphysical urge and ministers to the
in

need in man for adoration. The Religious man submits his will to the
transcendent. By his submission his soul becomes both acting and acted.
His activities have religious significance. His whole activities is directed
towards an end. The end is the union of all human beings. According to

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Radhakrishnan metaphysics is not the enemy of faith. It alone can restore to
man the spiritual wholeness. Radhakrishnan says, No culture can last
unless it supports this effort and encourage the confidence that man is
capable of insight into the nature of the process in which he participates.49

VI.3. Ethics
Radhakrishnan revives the ethical principles and moral values in the
present context and he reestablished the foundation of enduring human
civilization. He pointed out that ethical principles are the rules for the
guidance of human conduct. Radhakrishnan says that there is a necessity of
deep synthetic unity for giving man proper meaning of life. This unity can
be attained by the realization of the moral and spiritual values.
Radhakrishnan states that moral life is the precondition for the attainment
of the spiritual goal. He says, moral life is essential condition for the
pursuit of wisdom. 50 Ethics disciplines human nature and leads him
towards perfection. Radhakrishnan lays emphasis on ethical values. Ethical
values enrich mans life. For him, human beings strives for truth, beauty
and goodness as human mind is value seeking. He interprets the ethical
discipline which are the means to attain the spiritual goal.

Ethics is the art of living good life. Radhakrishnan explains the

essence of good life. According to him truth is the supreme virtue. Truth
can be known by controlling narrow feeling, selfish motive, by
transcending ego centricity. Radhakrishnan gives a modem interpretation
of the ethical doctrines the law of Karma, freedom of will, Dharma and
liberation. He develops the Indian, Doctrine of Karma. The doctrine of
karma follows from the concept of l^ta. Rta means the course of things, an
order in the objects of the universe. The external world is the manifestation

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of Rta. It is antecedent to all objects. Rta in the cosmos corresponds to that
of Karma in human life. The theory of Rta is applied to moral system. Then
the Rta is regarded as the law of Karma. The world follows the course of
Rta. Hence Radhakrishnan says that whole universe depends on Rta and
moves with it. He also says It is law which pervades the whole world,
which all gods and men must obey. 51 According to Radhakrishnan, human
growth is an ordered one and its orderedness is governed by the law of
Karma. What ever you sow that you will also reap . 52 All acts produce
their effects and their moral effects are worked into the character of the
self. Good produces good, evil produces evil. The law of karma says that
is

each individual will get the return according to the energy he puts forth.
Brhadaranyaka Upanishad also states that As is his desires, such is his
purpose, such is the action he performs, what action he performs that he
4*-5

procures for himself. According to Radhakrishnan the principle of

karma has two aspects a retrospective and a prospective, continuity with
the past and creative freedom of the self. Radhakrishnan supports Niskama
Karma of Bhagavadglta. He says, Action done devotedly and whole
heartedly without attachment to the results makes for perfection .54

Radhakrishnan explains the doctrine of Rebirth. Rebirth means

survival, it is continuing to exist by assuming different bodies after death.
Radhakrishnan says that the selves carry on past threads weave out
something in the present and prepare for the future. 55 Radhakrishnan
accepts the concept of freedom of spirit from the Bhagavadgita. He
accepted the view of the Gita that Yatite icchsi tatha kuru. 56 He
considers the problem of freedom in relation to moral decisions. Nobody
denies mans capacity of distinguishing the right from the wrong. But the
problem is, how is man able to do that? Radhakrishnans answers is that it

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is possible for man to do that. Because man is not a mere animal. Man has
the power and freedom to take decisions, this power to make a choice
makes him a man and distinguishes him from the animal and lends
sacredness to human life. 57 Morality is inherent in all beings.
Radhakrishnans concept of freedom is spiritual. It distinguishes man from
lower animals. It is the test of higher beings. Man has an aspiration for
freedom or mukti as he is a spiritual being. He has an ever longing for the
attainment of the state of liberation which transcends morality, suffering
and attachment to worldly objects. Radhakrishnan says that mans
existence includes the power, the determination to stand out of existence
*

and the truth of beingrffuman life is based on certain idealSvHPhe ideals are
invariably the ideals of Truth,^Goodness and Beauty.-Radhakrishnans
concept of freedom is depicted in his line of thought, when he says, the
very effort of man to know the secrets of nature, to sit in judgment on it,
indicates his participation in the creative process. 58 Here the view of
Vivekananda is worth mentioning. Vivekananda also holds that the goal of
human being is to reach freedom. He says, one conscious fact present in
the midst of all our joys and sorrows, difficulties and struggles is that we
are surely journeying towards freedom. 59 Vivekanandas replies of some
metaphysical question is also relevant here. The metaphysical questions are
- what is this universe? From what does it arise? Into what does it go?
Vevekananda replied, In freedom it rises, in freedom it rests and into
freedom it melts away. 60

Regarding the concept of liberation Radhakrishnan has accepted the

Upanisadic as well as Samkaras view. He believed in Sarvamukti-
liberatiori of all souls. The ultimate human destiny is not individual

174
redemption, but universl redemption - Sarvamukti as Radhakrishnans calls
it.

Radhakrishnans concept of dharma is a combination of ethics and

religion. Dharma is the rule of life and the law of right living.
Radhakrishnan clearly states, It is the complete rule of life, the harmony
of the whole man who find a right and just law of living. 61 .One of the
function of ethics, according to Radhakrishnan is to effect right relationship
between the individual and the society. It helps man to live in harmony
with his fellow beings. The ethics of Radhakrishnan has reflected a new
interpretation of the caste system of Hindu Society.

[Link] :

According to Radhakrishnan religion is a way of life. He says,

religion, as way of life, is the seeking of the eternal. 62 He treated religion
for metaphysical investigation. He also treated religion from ethical
perspective. For him religion is more behaviour than belief. The two
features of religion are Abhaya and Ahimsa - that is freedom and love. 63
According to Radhakrishnan God or the Ultimate reality is the object of
mans religious experience. The Absolute reality is the essence of religion.
Radhakrishnan says, Religion is not a creed or code but an insight into
reality. 64 Religion implies a faith in the ultimacy of absolute spiritual
values and a way of life to realise them. It helps man to manifest divinity of
the spirit within himself. Radhakrishnan says that religion is that discipline
or the way of life which enables man to make a change in his own nature
to let the Divine in him manifest himself. 65 Radhakrishnan advocates a
spiritual renewal, a true religious revival to save humanity . His ideal of
religion is a harmonious development of the spirit in man. For him religion

175
gives a purpose to life. Religion speaks to the profound realities of our
nature and satisfy the whole of our being.

Radhakrishnan is one of the chief exponent of Hinduism. The basic

faith in spiritual realization is the element of Hinduism. Hinduism has an
appeal of the direct vision of God. The vision actually produced some
godlike personalities. As he puts it, The essential interpretation of God
and the world, ideals and facts is the cardinal principle of Hinduism and it
required us to bring salvation to the world. 66 Radhakrishnan was
impressed by the rationalist attitude of Hinduism in the matter of religion.
He shows that the Hindu dharma inculcates not only respect for all men but
67
also respect for life and tenderness towards al forms of animal creation.
Religion as conceived by Radhakrishnan is combative. It is a revolt
against spiritual chaos, moral aimlessness and intellectual inconsistency. It
is an active preparation for a new life by transforming the feelings and
passions of man, by a discipline of our whole being. In Radhakrishnans
thinking religion starts with the individual but ends in fellowship.

The discussion of the philosophical standpoints of Radhakrishnan

reflects him as a man of rare qualities who grapples pilosophical issues of
the East and the West. All the fundamental philosophical standpoints of
Radhakrishnan are rooted in ancient Indian philosophyparticularly the
Vedic tradition. But he has novelized the ancient Indian philosophy with
new approaches of life and has assimilated to the present world and its
needs. His basic philosophical position is of a kind of synthesis of tradition
and modernity.

A monistic character of Vedantic reality is depicted in

Radhakrishnans Metaphysics. His concept of spirit is the old theme of the

176
Upanishads and it is the root concept of humanism also. But the speciality
of Radhakrishnan is that he conceives the spirit as life.68 In explaining
intution Radhakrishnan supports the different views propounded by the
Western thinkers like Plato, Descartes, Spinoza, Bradley, Bergson and
ancient Indian thinker like Samkara. But Radhakrishnan adds something
more by conceiving that intution is not antagonistic to the intellect. The
brief schetch of Radhakrishnan ethical standpoint would be sufficient to
show how ethics plays significant role in human life to attain spiritual
freedom. With an ardent appreciation of eternal values, Radhakrishnan
considers that the Hindu ideal is sufficiently ethical and it requires us to
is
integrate oureslves, to maintain a constant fight with the passions which
impede the growth of soul.

The religious standpoint of Radhakrishnan is free from secular

interests, racial prejudices and political movies. A reconciliation of the
ideal and real aspects of religion to speak the profound realities of human
nature is essential and it is the foundation of Radhakrishnans philosophy
of religion. Like Buddha and Samkara,Radhakrishnan returned from the
contemplation of ultimate reality to the care of practical life and he shared
in his philosophy the social and civilizing function of religion. Harmony of
the social order is an essential aim of the spiritual man.69

177
 \

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