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 OPERATIVE MECHANIC,
%
AND

BRITISH machinist;
BEING A

^practical i^jjlag

OF THE

MANUFACTORIES AND MECHANICAL ARTS

OF THE

UNITED KINGDOM.

By JOHN NICHOLSON, Esu.

CIVIL ENGINEER.

LONDON
PRINTED FOR KNIGHT AND LACEY,
PATERNOSTER-ROW ;

AND WESTLEY AND TYRRELL, DUBLIN.

Printed by D. Sidney, and Co,
Northumbei land-street, Strand.

THE GETTY Cv{TER

LIBRARY
 GEORGE BIRKBECK, Esq. M.D.

PRESTDBNT OF THE LONDON MECHANICS* INSTITUTION,

(*C.

Sir,

In an age like the present, when the rich and the

powerful identify their interests with the welfare of the

poor and uninformed, when the wise and the good com-

bine in furthering the diffusion of sound principles and

useful knowledge among those who constitute the most

important, though hitherto the most neglected, portion of

the community, there is not one who can view the future

in the past but must anticipate with such data before

him, a change as brilliant in its effects, as it is honour-

able to those who are engaged in promoting it.

The advanced state of science, and the comprehen-

sive views of a just and liberal philosophy, animate

those who for many years have compared theory with

practice to come forward in the hope of being able to

offer something in aid of the common cause.

iv DEDICATION.

Such feelings. Sir, have encouraged me to publish the

following pages, which, as an earnest of their future suc-

cess, I am permitted to dedicate to yourself.

A Work of this kind, combining in the most condensed

form the acknowledged principles and recent improve-

ments in Mechanical Science, and professing to be

adapted in every possible way to the use of the Me-

chanic and Machinist, could not well find a Patron more

congenial to its Spirit than one, who, during a long

series of years, has laboured with no common devotion

in promoting their benefit.

I am,

Sir,

Your most obedient, and

much obliged humble Servant,

JOHN NICHOLSON.
 PREFACE.

The discoveries of Watt and Arkwright, which

yielded atonce such immense national as well as individual
prosperity, must ever be regarded as forming a new era
in the arts of life and the domestic policy of nations.
The riches, extraordinary as unprecedented, inexhaus-
tible as unexpected, thus acquired by a skilful system of
mechanical arrangement for the reduction of labour,
gave the impetus which has led to the numerous dis-

coveries, inventions, and improvements, in every de-

partment of our manufactures, and raised them to their
present state of perfection.
With respect to our primary and most elaborate pieces
of mechanism, however intricate and incomprehensible
they may appear to the inexperienced, they are in the
eye of the practical man mere elegant modifications and
combinations of a few simple principles. These princi-

ples, after some necessary observations on the Forces

acting on Matter, on Friction, and the Centre of Gravity,
are fully elucidated in the account of The Mechani-
cal Powers.
These are followed by what is indispensably necessary
to the proper construction of Mill-work, viz, a descrip-

tion of Bevel and Spur Geer, the longitudinal connex-

tion of Shafts, termed Coupling, the most approved
VI PREFACE.

method of Disengaging and re-engaging machinery,

and of the Equalization of Motion, with some general
Practical Observations, given under the article Mill
Geering.
The reader who attentively peruses these articles will

be in possession of the primary points of Mill* work ;

we have, therefore, next introduced to his notice, under

Animal Strength, Water, Wind, and Steam, the
best modes of applying the Moving Powers and to ;

them is annexed a short, though concise, account of

Brown's Vacuum or Pneumatic Engine, which may,
with improvements, be made most effective for loco-

motion and other light purposes.

As the reduction of wheat into flour forms so essential

a part of domestic (economy, and as the force which
gives a rotatory motion to the upper mill-stone is almost
invariably imparted either by wind or water, we have
thought it no deviation from scientific arrangement, to
introduce at the end of these two articles a description
of a Flour-mill ;
as, by that means, the reader will

be enabled to form a tolerably correct notion of the man-

ner of imparting motion from the water-wheel, or leader,
to the other parts of machinery. And while upon this
subject we have, with a view to make the Work gene-
rally useful, described the hand and foot methods of
grinding corn, that those who live not in the vicinity of a
mill, or who do not choose to submit to the impositions
said to be practised by many millers, may, at a compa-
ratively trifling expense, have the work performed at
home.
A knowledge of the strength of materials being
 PREFACE. Vll

at all times important in the construction of Mill- work,

more particularly in those parts which have to sus-

tain the greatest force, or put the whole of the other parts
of the machinery in motion, we have, next to the Moving
Powers, inserted a letter from Mr. Rennie, jun. to Dr.
Young, describing a series of very satisfactory experi-
ments made on this subject.
A description of Hydraulic Engines next follows >

and these are succeeded by certain Simple Machines

acting as accessories to our manufactures. So that, by the
time the reader has advanced thus far, he will have be-
come so thoroughly intimate with machinery, as easily

to comprehend and appreciate the several excellencies

of our Staple Manufactures, which are next unfolded
to his view.

The whole was intended to be concluded with an ex-

amination of those arts termed Manual, in a Treatise
on the Art of Building; except, indeed, with the
addition of an Appendix, containing a short and concise
treatise on Practical Geometry and Mensuration,
with a Collection of approved Receipts, and a Glos-
sary ;
but the interest which has lately been excited re-
specting Railways and Locomotive Engines has led
to the extension of the Work, about thirty pages, witli an
article on those constructions.
Although there are several very excellent treatises on
Mechanics and Mill-work now extant, yet, presuming
on an arrangement widely different to that of others, by
which the least erudite and most inexperienced may ac-
quire something more than a mere Superficial Knowledge
of Machinery, the Author trusts that the following pages
will meet with a favourable reception.
Vlll PREFACE.

In the course of his labours he has derived mate-

rial assistance from many of his scientific friends, to

whom he thus publicly expresses his acknowledgments ;

and more particularly to that Gentleman to whom the

volume is dedicated.
In a Work of such a nature it is generally understood
that extracts are justified, as the description of many
things not new are requisite, and the language could not
in general be improved. In such cases, however, the
authority has, in general, been acknowledged, and in a
way calculated to advance the honour and interest of

every improver and discoverer.

The volume in its design and execution is offered as a

companion to the workshop, consequently abstract

and theoretical principles have been allowed to mingle
no further than has been indispensably necessary to the
perfect illustration of the use and application of the
object described. The Work has, therefore, no simi-

larity to the Mathematical Illustrations of Wood, Gre-

gory, or Emerson, each of which, and more particu-
larly that of Dr. Olinthus Gregory, deserves to be
spoken of with great respect.
A Book comprehensive and practical, embracing the
whole subject as living and contemporaneous, and as
connected with private profit and public glory, instruc-

tive to individuals and illustrative of the genius of the

age in its best direction, has been the object of the
Author, and he hopes he has not laboured in vain.
London,
March 1825.
,
 CONTENTS.

ON MATTER.
Page.
the Action of Forces
Of
Friction .... G
the Centre of Gravity. 15

MECHANICAL OWERS
The Lever 7
Wheel and Axle 10
Pulley . 11
Inclined Plane T2
Wedge . 13
Screw ih.

Simple Combinations of the Mechanical Powers. IG

MILL GEERING,
Definition of Terms 20
To describe the Cycloid and Epicycloid 21
On Teeth of Wheels, Spur Geer 23
Bevel Geer 28
Couplings. Square couplings with double bearings 30
Clutches or Glands 31
Boring IMill-Clutchcs . ib.

Self-easing Coupling . ib.

Bolton and Watt's Coupling Link 32

Hook's Universal Joint ib.
' Double Universal Joint ib.

Disengaging and Re-engaging Machinery 32

Sliding Pulley 33
Fast and Loose Pulley
Bayonet
I^ever
.... ib.

ib.

31
Tightening Roller ib.

Friction Clutch ib.

Friction Cone 35
Self-disengaging Coupling . ib.

On Equalizing the IMotion of Machinery ib.

Steam-Engine Governor 36
Water-Wheel Governor 37
Wind-Mill Governor 38
Tachometer, by Donkin 39
General Observations 13
X CONTENTS
ANIMAL STRENGTH.
Page.
Immediate Force of Men, without deducting fot Friction . . 52
Performance of Men by Machines 54
Force of Horses ih.

W ork of Mules 55
Extraordinary Feats of Strength . 56
How extraordinary Feats may be performed by Men of ordinary
Strength. 01

WATER.
Water-Mills 64
Undershot- Wheels 65
Smeatons Experiments on ib.

by Lambert 72
Overshot Wheels 75
by Burns
Smeatons Experiments on
by Burns, without a Shaft
.....84
. . .
76
79

Chain of Buckets 85
Breast-Wlieels . . 87
in which the water runs over the Shuttle . . 89
Lloyd and Ostells ih.

with two Shuttles 90

Barkers Mill 92
Tide-Mills 94
Wheel-race and Water-course 104
Mill-Courses 105
Water-courses and Dams 107
Penstock 109
Pentrough by Smeaton 110
Nouaille Ill
Method of laying on Water in Yorkshire 112
Sluice Governor 113
Rules for constructing Undershot Wheels, by Ferguson . . .114
Brewster . .119
Treatises on Mill-Work 120

WIND.
Vertical Windmills 122
Post Mill
Smock Mill
^

........
Smeatons Experiments on, .....
ib.

123
125
 CONTENTS. XI

Page.
Vertical Windmill. Modelling" of Sails . 128

Clothing- and unclothing- Sails while in motion 130

Bainess Sails ....
Equalizing the motion of Sails
.

.
.

.
132
133
Avith eight quadrangular Sails . . 135
Horizontal Windmill . 139

STEAM.
164
Steam-Engine
by Savary
Newcomen
.... 9 .

. 166
168
Watt
Hornblowcr
.... .

.
170
182
Woolf . . . -. . 191
Bell-Crank Engine . 205
Vibratory Engine . 206
Rotatory Engine . ib.

High-Pressure Engine . 207

Leans Reports . 209
General Observations . 212

Browns vacuum, or pnuematic engine. . 216

FLOUR-MILLS.
142
Flour-Mills
Mill-Stones
FenAvicks Tables
.... .

.
144
148
Family Mill . 158
Hand-Mill . 160
Foot-Mill . 161
Kneading-Mill *
. 162

Rennie on the strength of materials . 218

HYDRAULIC ENGINES.
The Tympanum . . ,
. . 228
De la Fayes Wheel . 229
The Noria . 230
The Persian Wheel . lb.

Paternoster Work . 231

Hiero's Fountain
Darwins Engine
Hungarian Machine
...... .

.
. lb.

232
233
BosAvells improvement of ditto. . 235
Xii CONTENTS.
Page.
The Spiral Pump at Zurich . . 237
Desagulief s Drawer and Bucket . . . 242
Sarjeants Machine . . 213
Dearborns Pump-Engine . . 244
Archimedes Screw
Pressure Engine ....
Treatises on Hydraulic Engines
.

.
.

.
246
ib.

249
Pumps. The Common Pump . . 250
Pump with little Friction . . . 255
Pumps. Sucking-Pump, by Taylor . . 256
Todds improvement of the Common Pump . ib.

Lifting-Pump . 257
Forcing-Pump . . 258
Ctesebes Pump . . . 259
Stevens Pump. . . ib.

Tyrors Pump . . 261

Franklins Pump . . 262
Bruntons Force Pump . . 253
Smeatons three Barrel ditto . . 265
Chain Pump .
9 . 267
by Coles . . ib.

Leslies method of working Ships Pumps . 269

Hand-Purnp by Martin . . . . ib.

Jekyl . . 270
Clarkes mode of applying manual force to pumps . 273
Pump-Pistons, by Bonnard . . . 274
Belidor . . 276
Fire-Engine, byNewsham . . 277
Rowntree . . 281
SIMPLE MACHINES ACTING AS iVCCESSORS TO MANU-
FACTURES.
Jacks for Lifting Weights
Cranes
....
. 283
Presses. Cider-Press , . . 291
Screw-Press, for paper-mill . . ib.
Peeks Press , , . 292
Bramahs Hydrostatic Press . ib.
Bank-note Press , , . 305
Printing-press, by Earl Stanhope . 294/
De Haine . 298
 CONTENTS xiii

Page.
Printing press by Ruthven 298
Presses.

Pile-Engines, by Vauloue
Bacon and Donkin
*

....
. . . .

301
309
Bunce 310
Boring Machine 311
File Cutting Machine 314
Ramsdens Dividing Machine 315
Lathes and Turning Apparatus by Maudesley
Smart
.... 323
263

MANUFACTURE OF METALS.
Iron 328
Steel
Wire
Lead
........... 340
344
356

MANUFACTURE OF FIBROUS MATERIALS.

Paper 365
Cotton 378
Wool 388
Silk 392
Flax 400
Weaving 410
Hemp and Rope - 4ig
SUNDRY MANUFACTURES.
Saw-Mills - 441
Bark-Mill - 445
Oil-Mill 447
Colour-Mill - 454
Indigo-Mill - 455
Pottery - -- -- 456
HOROLOGY.
Clocks - 486
with three Wheels and two Pinions, by Dr. Franklin - - 490
J. Ferguson - - ib.

for exhibiting the apparent daily motions of the Sun and

Moon, and state of the Tides, &c. - - - - 492
Striking part of an eight day Clock - - - . _ 496
description of curious Clocks 497
Watch 500
Table of Trains - . 504
XIV CONTENTS.
Pa 2;e.
Chronometer - 507
Escapements - *. - - 515
Recoiling-, or Crown-wheel 510
by (himining - - - - - - - -517
for Watch - -- -- -- - 518
by Prior - -- -- -- - 519
by Reid
by De -------
la Foils
- - - - - - - - 520
523
Pendulums -

Mercurial, by Graliam
Gridiron, by Harrison
------
------
524<

525
523
Lever, by Ellicott
------
---------
Tubular, by Troughton
by Reid
- - - - - - - ib.

527
27/.

by Ward --- -- -- -- 528

Sympathy of the Pendulums of Clocks. - ib.

RUILDING.
Prefatory Observations -- -- -- - - 529
IMortar -- -- -- --
- 530
Brick-making -- -- -- - - 532
Masonry - -- -- -- -- -- 536
Bricklaying - -- -- -- -- - 547
Carpentry - -- -- -- -- - 5 qq
Joinery - -- -- -- -- -- 581
Plastering - C 03
Slating 621
Plumbing - 628
Painting - -- -- -- -- - 639
-- -- -- -- --
Glazing -

Rail-Roads and Locomotive Engines. ------ 635

643
APPENDIX.
Geometry - -- -- -- -- - 673
Mensuration - -- -- -- -- - 688
Useful Receipts - 707
Glossary - -- -- -- -- - 772
 ( XV )

DESCRIPTION OF THE FRONTISPIECE.

This Plate represents a front view of a Steam-Engine con-

nected with a Sugar-Mill, as constructed by Messrs. Taylor
and Martineau, who liave kindly permitted our draftsman
to make a drawing of it.
This Engine, being only twelve times larger than the
drawing, is, from its compactness and simplicity of con-
struction, peculiarly applicable to most of the manufactures
round the metropolis, where power of a moderate amount
is in general required.
It works horizontally, at from 30 to 401bs. pressure per
square inch, without condenser, having metallic pistons
and slide-valves, and only requires eight screw-bolts to
fasten it to oak sleepers, or frame-work of moderate scant-
ling.
A is a crank connected with the piston-rod, which, as it works in the
cylinder horizontally, cannot be seen. B is the cylinder, into which
steam is admitted from the boiler, by means of the pipe C C C. The
amount of steam flowing- into the cylinder is regulated by the throttle
valve at D, which is opened and shut at proper intervals by the rod EE
E. F F is the governor, or regulator, consisting of two heavy balls,
with the sliding collar a, suspended from the top of a vertical spindle d b.
at the axis c. This spindle is connected with the main shaft, by a strap
passing over the sheeves or pullies, G G G, which cause it to revolve ; and
as its speed varies with that of the main shaft, the governors F F, ac-
cording as its speed increases or decreases, have a tendency either to fly
from, or approach to, the spindle. This rise or depression of the go-
vernor affects the rod E E E, to which it is connected, and regulates the
quantity of steam flowing from the boiler into the cylinder.
H is a piece to connect the top part of the piston-rod with the rod I,
so that by the motion of the crank the rod I is also moved, which rod
moves the slide valves in the cylinder K. By the action of these valves,
steam is alternately admitted on the opposite sides of the piston ; and as
the engine does not condense its steam, there are two pipes, placed
one at each end of the cylinder, to carry it off. One of these pipes is
seen at N. When the piston has been driven by the force of the
steam to the other extremity of the cylinder, the steam, by the action of
the slide valves, is shut off from this end, and allowed to flow into the
 (
XVI )

opposite end of the cylinder ; the orifice of the pipeN being- at the same
time opened, the steam at this end is, by the returning- action of tlic
piston, driven through the pipe N, and conveyed away under ground,
leaving this end of the cylinder ready for a fresh supply.
The power generated by this simple arrangement is made to effect the
required purpose by means of the shafting 00 0. On this shafting, at
a little distance from the engine, is an eccentric, L, to raise the rod ]M,
to pump water into the boiler when required : and at nearly the further
end of the shafting is another eccentric, W, which imparts motion to the
rod V, for the purpose which we shall hereafter describe.
The rotatory motion which the crank has received from the engine is
imparted to the shafting, to the eccentric L, the coupling-box d, the
fly-wheel P, the eccentric W, and the pinion Q, which plays in the large
cog-wheel, R, on the shaft S, and thence is imparted to the rollers of a
sugar-mill, which rollers are moved at equal speeds by the pinions U U.
In and most other Sugar-mills, there are three rollers,
this,
two bottom, and one lying between the other two at
at the
the top. Through these rollers sugar canes are passed, and
the compressed juice falls into a receiver, from whence it
is pumped, by the movement of the rod V, into a copper, or
other receiver. At that part of the shafting marked e c,
when the canes are
sufficient space is left to allow of play
passed through the rollers, otherwise the shafting would
be very apt to snap and be destroyed.
 THii

OPERATIVE
MECHANIC AND MACHINIST.

OF THE ACTION OF FORCES.

Aiu i.

which, acting upon i q y>

if
rest.
newly created force
maiiitain.it in a state of ,neh an
act upon a body . ^nder whose action that
the g
extent, as to overcome exists, the result
with ^r m
^tte
body, in common
all

will be motion the

created force exceeded
exact Pijortmn upon it in the
'
previously acting
amount ot forces ^ pound
^ ^
opposite^direction. motion
r,mnd, the amount of
|>ouno,
weight three feet fiom
created by that action *
thJ force of gravity or weight
,ewly ciTated
which acted on the ma^ ;
.
motion could not
the force of gravity, f gravity had not
existed,
and If the ^
have been created; ,,ould be
again manifest tha
it is
ynt of the whole of the force
exactly m FPvtion exactly equalled,
Again, it 1 '
he had applied. .
.ion motion could not
not exceed the force of
and did at rest.
ciry,=tlon (
ntot.iil4 b, the
'7hL .nt?re>..

the f<^vm equilibiimn -

h gravitation, main-
or more '^les are
by the of
rest: thus, if a bar
tamed in a state of q will balance,
?
centre C, it
iron, A B, tig.
1,
J u^tity of matter in C
A is
T'^'laUo that in C B
thafin and the amount of the gravitating
exactly ^^^tter that is in each
force proportional to
tl
q J ^ ^

equilibrious.
^

/
2 THE OPERATIVE MECHANIC
the common operations of mechanics, the former
In
state of equilibrium frequently occurs ; the latter rarely,
and never with any permanent duration; by the term
equilibrium, therefore, in general, is understood, the position
first cited.
Upon duly considering that matter, when between forces
acting in opposite directions, is in a state of equilibrious
quiescence, it will be manifest, that motion cannot be
obtained without destroying the equilibrium. It must
not therefore be supposed, that the forces of gravitation
or adhesive attraction can produce motion, as has been
erroneously urged by some, but rather that all the mo-
tion these powers are capable of producing was primarily
exerted to bring matter into that state of equilibrium in
which we find it. Wherever that equilibrium is disturbed
by extraneous causes, the resultant motion, attainable by
such disturbance of the general equilibrium, has long since
been known, and applied to useful purposes. We may with
propriety, therefore, deduce from these considerations, the
perfect fallacy of that most ruinous and speculative notion of
a perpetually moving force. Many who have wasted their
time in attempts to attain that object, have either supposed
that the force of gravitation could obtain motion, or that
motion once obtained could of itself increase its force ; which
was about as rational as to suppose that any substance could
of itself increase its own bulk. The powers with which
nature has supplied us, have, as far as we are aware of,
been already applied ; and should there be others existing of
which we are ignorant, or which we have not reduced to our
command, the search for, and developement of such objects,
are praiseworthy and valuable: but let us with confidence
hope, that the labours of ingenuity will no longer be drawn
aside from the paths of prolific study, by this destructive
phantasy.
Returning from this digression, when a body is operated
upon by a force, and acquires motion, that motion, taking
into account the amount of space through which the body
passes in a given time, is called the velocity of the body
and according as the extent of distance increases or decreases
in a greater or less period of time, the velocity is said to
increase or decrease.
If a force acting upon any body, and causing motion,
shall continue to act upon it in the same direction, so as
to continue to increase that motion, the body, under such
circumstances, is said to attain accelerated velocity. And
MiEC^[iA:^]i'r A'L 'P o\yy.'K]KS PL.l.

From 1 to L7.

y<Yir ^ '*Vnm<f
 AND MACHINIST. 3
if a body be put in motion by a certain force, and another
force operate upon it in a contrary direction, so as to tend
to bring it to a state of equilibrium^ such motion is called
retarded motion.*

* The simplest example of accelerated motion, is exhibited in the

action of the force of gravitation upon a falling body, where the force
continues to act during its descent, and regularly increases in velocity
so that if a body A, fig. 3, be allowed to fall from that position towards
the earth, it will pass through sixteen feet during the first second of
time, forty-eight feet during the next, and eighty feet during the third.
Had its motion been regular during these three seconds of time, it would
have passed through only three times sixteen, or forty-eight feet, whereas
it has passed through one hundred and forty-four feet, by reason of the
force which first caused its motion continuing to act upon it. Now as
its velocity increases regularly, we may conclude, that during the per-
formance of the first half of the sixteen feet, it was not proceeding at the
rate of sixteen feet per second; and if we suppose it was proceeding
only at half that velocity, then it must have travelled through the second
half at the rate of thirty-two feet per second ; or, if the first eight feet
took three quarters of the second, the second eight feet must have been
performed in the remaining quarter, therefore, when the body arrived at
B, it would be proceeding at the rate of thirty-two feet per second ; to which,
if we add the force that continues to urge it at the rate of sixteen
feet per second, it will exhibit, for the second space, a velocity of forty-
eight feet per second and if for the third space we double its increasing
;

velocity of thirty-two feet, and add that created by the continued force,
we shall have twice thirty-two, and sixteen, are eighty, which is the
result of experiment. . The velocity of bodies under the continuous action
of any given force, will, it appears, increase as the odd numbers 1, 3, 5,
7, 9, &c., that is, sixteen feet during the first second, thrice sixteen feet
during the next second, five times sixteen during the third second, and
so on; or, as the relative portions of the superficial space under equal
parts of the perpendicular in a right angled triangle, as represented
at fig. 3: where 0 to 1 represents the first second of time, 1 to 2 the second,
and 2 to 3 the third. It will be perceived, that under each of these por-
tions, the space contained in the triangle will be as 1, 3, 5 ; such is uniform
accelerated motion. But if the continuous force, which has been shown
to increase the velocity, vary in its action upon the body, it is plain the
increase will be no longer uniform.
From a clear comprehension of the acceleration of motion in bodies
the retardation of motion will be easily conceived: for example, if a
body be cast perpendicularly from the earth, as in the firing of a shot
from a cannon upwards, the force of the powder, overcoming the force
of gravitation, will cause the ball to rise with a certain velocity, whilst
that attraction continuing to operate in the opposite direction, checks
by regular gradations the created force, and eventually destroys it.
Tlius the distance which the shot would have accomplished during the
first second of time, is reduced by sixteen feet; that which it would
have accomplished during the next second, by forty-eight; and so on
until the created power is counterbalanced by the force of gravity, and
the ball arrives at a state of rest ; when the force of gravity acting upon
it solely, will cause it to move in the opposite direction, till it descends to the

earth
4 THE OPERATIVE MECHANIC
When a ball^ attached to a centre by a flexible cord^ is put
in motion by any one force, which, in common with all other
forces, acts in a right line, the motion will be circular. The
tendency which such body has to fly from the centre, is
called the centrifugal force j and that exerted by the cord to
draw it towards the centre, the centripetal force.
When a body is set in motion by any force, it is enabled,
to a certain extent, to act on other bodies, and create
motion in them ; and, as the velocity it obtained was as
the power expended to create that motion, so is the power
of transmitting that motion to its velocity. This power
of communicating motion, or, in other w^ords, this force
possessed by matter in motion, is termed momentum, or
the moving force; and the mode of transmitting it, impact:
as this force is proportional to the velocity possessed by
every particle of matter composing any body, the mo-
mentum must be represented by the quantity of matter
multiplied by its velocity. For instance, suppose one hun-
dred particles of matter were moving at the rate of one foot
per second, the power requisite to overcome their force
is exactly the same as that which would be necessary to arrest
the motion of one particle moving at the rate of one hundred
feet per second : for the velocity of the hundred particles
being one foot per second each, their total force would be
the force existing in one of them multiplied by one hundred
and again, as the force is in proportion to the velocity, one
particle moving at the rate of one foot per second, multipled
by one hundred in regard to velocity, will produce a similar
result. Also, if a body of one pound weight be moving at
the rate of one foot per second, it will possess a certain
momentum, and if either its weight or its velocity be doubled,
its momentum will be likewise doubled ; if both be doubled,

the momentum will be quadrupled.

Having now considered the action of one and two forces
acting together in opposite and similar directions, we will
proceed to examine the action of two forces upon a body,
acting neither in the same, nor in contrary directions. Thus,
if the line A B, fig. 4, represent a force sufficient to carry
the body A to the point B, and A C represent another
force sufficient to carry the body A to the point C, then
AC and A B being equal to CD and B D, and those two
forces actupon the body subsequently to each other, Ave
may conceive that the body would, by passing over the
lines A B and B D, or iV C and C D, be carried to the point
D. Now, if they act upon the body at the same instant,
 AND MACHINIST. 5

the result will be the same, and the total expenditure of the
forces will place the body, passing by the line A D, at the
point D. Likewise, if the forces A B and A C be not at right
angles, as in fig. 5, still as C D and B D are equal, and in
similar directions to AB and A C,
the motion received from
them by A will be represented in amount and direction by
the line AD. But supposing AB
shall be twice or thrice
the power of A C, then the effect will be the same as is shown
in fig. 6, \vhere the line AB
represents thrice the power of
A C. The separate actions of A B and A
C wall be repre-
sented as before by B D
and C D, which would place the
body A at the point ;
D
therefore their combined force will
cause it to pass by the diagonal line AD, as in the former
instance. This pioves that any number of forces acting
upon a body in however many lines, not directly opposite
to each other, will be compounded into one force for suppose :

three forces, A B, AC, and A

F, fig. 7? to operate in their
several directions at the same instant, on the body A, they
will be compounded into the force represented by A I ; for if
w'e describe a parallelogram as before by the lines A B and
A C, those two forces will be compounded into a force repre-
sented by AD ;
and again, if we do the same with the t^vo
forces A A
C and F, we shall have the force AH
composed of
them. We have therefore two forces A and D com- AH
pounded of the three original forces. If we proceed with
these two in the same manner, they will be compounded into
the force represented by Al; and DI HI
completing the
parallelogram of which A
I is the diagonal so that any num-
:

ber of forces acting in any number of directions, excepting

in opposite ones, may be compounded into one, wLich is
termed their composant, and which is always represented by
the diagonal of a parallelogram, like that already shown.
The resolution of forces is exhibited by reversing this
problem ; for as any number of forces may be combined
into one force, so may one force be resolved into any
number. If a single force be represented by a ball mov-
ing with a certain velocity in the direction of the line A B,
fig. 8, when it shall come in contact with and act upon the balls
C and D, these two balls will each of them move with one
half of the velocity with which B was impelled, and in the
direction of the lines C H D
and I, drawn from the centre of B
through each of their centres : so that if the force of B be
divided into two equal portions, each of those portions
may, by a similar process, be again divided, resolving the
original force to infinity.
6 THE OPERATIVE MECHANIC
The next effect of forces upon bodies producing motion,
is that in which a body receives motion from one force,
whilst it is under the continuous action of another force, not
acting upon it in an opposite direction. Suppose the ball A,
fig. 9, to be ejected from the mouth of a cannon, the in-
stant it has left it at A, it will be under the influence of the
force of gravitation, which will cause it to descend towards
the earth in the manner already shown when speaking of
accelerated motion, and ultimately will bring it to a state of
rest at the point :B for supposing that the ball, by the
force of the powder, leaves A, and travels in the first second
of time a given number of feet, expressed by the line AC,
the gravitating force during such action will cause it to
descend sixteen feet, expressed by the line C D ; and during
the next second, supposing the powder to have impelled it
the distance expressed by the line D E, the gravitating force
will cause it to fall forty-eight feet, as is shown by E F ; and
during the next portion of its horizontal motion, expressed
by F G, its descent by gravitation will amount to eighty
feet, represented by G B. The line, therefore, in which
the body would move when acted upon by these two forces
only, would be that of a parabolic curve ; but as the re-
sistance of the air is to be taken into account in all practical
cases, the line of motion changes very considerably, and assumes
one that involves a problem of exceeding complexity ; which,
together with many other results of the effects of combined
forces, is of such intricacy as to demand much more room for
their solution than the limits of this work will permit us to give.

OF FRICTION.
Thesurfaces of bodies, however smooth they may ap-
pear to be, will be found, upon a minute inspection, to possess
certain irregularities : so that if the body A
B, fig. 10, have
to move upon the surface of the body CD, and the lower
surface of A Bpossesses prominences which enter into
cavities in C D, is manifest that A B cannot be moved
it

along unless it either rises and falls the height of the several
prominences, or breaks them off in the first, it will have
:

to overcome the attraction of gravitation ; in the second, the

attraction of cohesion. Again, if the body A B, fig. 11, be
placed between C D
and E
F, which arc pressed against its
sides by any applied force, and their surfaces be similar to
those in the former instance, to effect the movement of A B,
the attraction of cohesion must be overcome, as before
shown, or the applied force must be conquered. Such is the
 AND MACHINIST. 7
almost universal nature of that resistance called friction ; for
although the irregularities upon the surfaces of bodies are by
no means so manifest as those here represented, still, upon
minute examination, we are enabled to discover that the
smoothest surfaces contain them ; and as the amount of resist--
ance increases in direct proportion as the irregularities present
themselves, we are warranted in concluding that all resistance
arising from friction owes its origin solely to this cause.

OP THB MECHANICAL POWERS.

The mechanical powers are six in number, the lever,
the wheel and axle, the pulley, the inclined plane, the
WEDGE, and the screw. A
perfect knowledge and thorough
appreciation of which should be clearly understood by those
who purpose to examine into the effects of mechanical com-
binations ; the whole of which, however intricate, originate
from, and are reducible to, one or more of the laws which
govern these simple machines.
In demonstrating the mechanical powers, that which is not
strictly true must be admitted the force of gravitation, the
:

retardation of friction, the resistance of the atmosphere,

and the irregularity arising from the partial elasticity of the
substances of which they are formed, must be excluded, and
supposed not to exist.
The first-mentioned power is the lever which is divided
into three classes. In fig. 12, A B is a lever, and C the
fulcrum, or immovable point on which it rests now, if
:

a force be applied at B, and the resistance, or the force or

weight to be overcome, is at A, then, with the fulcrum so
situate between the forces, it is called a lever of the first
class ; and the operation of the force at B to overcome the
resistance at A, will be in proportion as the distance A
C is
to the distance B C ; that is to say, if B C be four times the
distance of A C, the force applied at B will be exactly equal
to four times the same amount of force at A ; or one pound
weight at B will counterbalance four pounds weight at A ;
but to whatever height (suppose one foot) the weight at A
be raised, B must descend four times that space, and con-
sequently, to place B in its original position, the force applied
must be equal to the raising of four single pounds one foot
each, which is the same as the raising of four pounds one
foot, aswas effected at A.
An actual gain of power does not exist, but the gain in
convenience is great; for, by the operation of one pound,
four pounds is moved, which, but for the invention of the
8 THE OPERATIVE MECHANIC
lever, could not have been effected. A man whose utmost
strength could no more than one hundred and fifty-
lift

pounds is by this means rendered capable of giving motion

to four times that weight, although he is obliged to exert his
strength through four times the distance. A lever of the
second class may be represented by supposing A to be the
fulcrum, B the force applied, and C the weight, or resistance
to be overcome. The effect of this lever must be estimated
by comparing the distances C B to A B the power will in-
;

crease or diminish exactly in proportion as A B exceeds C B,

and the distance that B moves through will increase exactly
in the same proportion.
Suppose, in reference to the same figure, C to be the force
applied, A the fulcrum, and B the resistance, it will then
represent a lever of the third class. The effect of levers
of this class is to lose power for the purpose of gaining either
motion or distance. For if, in the last mode, the power ap-
plied at B increased as the length of A B became greater
than C B, it is plain that in the present case, the resistance
at B is placed in a position to gain by the same law : there-
fore, the nearer the force is placed to B the greater will be
the effect ; and when applied at B, the greatest ; but when
the force is at B, it is applied direct to the resistance, and
the lever is abandoned; consequently C, in every position
between A and B, loses power to a greater or less extent.
As the movement of C, in the last case, was one lialf that
of B, so in the present case will the movement of B be twice
that of C.
In particular operations, levers of each of these classes
have their particular uses. The simplest application of the
first sort may be seen in scissors, shears, forceps, &c. the
pin in the joint is the fulcrum, the hand is the force applied,
and the substance to be cut or pinched is the resistance to
l)e overcome ; the second sort of lever is presented to us in
the cutting knives used by last-makers, where the hand is
the power, the ring into which the other end of the knife
is hooked is the fulcrum, and the object to be cut is the
resistance. Common fire-tongs are levers of the third class,
as they possess a capability of being extended at the ex-
tremities : in using them the motion of the hand produces,
perhaps, six times its own motion in the extremities, and a
loss of power exists in a similar proportion ; but as they
have to be used only for a short period, the loss of power
is of less importance than the convenience gained. This
last class of lever is frequently introduced in machinery,
 AND MACHINIST. 9
for the purpose of obtaining a rapid motion ; and as the same

object has been aimed at in the construction of almost all

animals^ we find that nature has introduced it most fre-
quently.
We have considered the operations of the lever by the
different dispositions of the acting and resisting forces and
the fulcrum, under the supposition that the lines of the
direction of the forces were at right angles to the arms on
which they operated, or formed tangents to the arcs which
the movements of those arms described ; but if we alter the
form of a lever from that of a right line, and the two forces
still maintain their parallel direction, the action on their

respective arms will be no longer at right angles, and their

effects will in consequence be varied ; the mode of estimating
those effects must be also changed. Fig. 13, ABC repre-
sents a bent lever resting upon its fulcrum B, and having
appended to each of its arms the weights D and E, which
are equal to each other and in equilibrium, notwithstanding
the arm B A is longer than the arm B C. Draw the hori-
zontal line G H, passing through the fulcrum B, then the
weights D and E acting in perpendicular lines, we may
imagine that Dis suspended at the point 1, andE at the point
K, at which points they will operate similarly. Suppose I K
to be the lever, the arms I B and B K will then be equal,
and if their distances are multiplied into E and D, which
are equal forces, their effects will be equal. The action of
parallel forces upon levers, that do not receive the action at
right angles to their respective arms, should be estimated
by the force multiplied into a line drawn from the fulcrum,
perpendicular to the line of direction of each respective force
;
and vyhatever may be the form of the lever, it is apparent,
that, if the lines of direction vary from being tangents to
tne arcs described by its arms, their effects must be esti-
mated by the length of perpendiculars let fall upon the lines
of direction in a similar maimer. Recurring to fig. 13, it
will be seen, that if the arm B A rise to the position B L, the
perpendicular B I, if allowed to fall upon the line of direc-
tion, will be increased from B I to B M, and that the effect
of the force Dover E will be augmented. This peculiarity
is brought into operation in a balance that has a
graduated
scale on an arc, as A G, the divisions of which arc decreases
as it rises in such a manner as to exhibit, by the movement
of A, equal portions of force acting upon E. There is how-
ever a case of common occurrence, namely, that of drawing a
nail with the fang of a hammer, wherein the effects
of the
10 THE OPERATIVE MECHANIC
applied and resisting forces, being the hand and the nail,
although acting with a lever bent at right angles, still ope-
rate as though the lever were straight ; for the direction of
the forces being changed to the exact amount of the same
angle as that to which the lever is bent, they continue to act
at right angles to their respective arms, which arms will con-
sequently represent perpendiculars let fall from the fulcrum
on their respective lines of direction.
The principle of the bent lever is not unfrequently intro-
duced into machinery in order to gain a greater degree of
power. Suppose ABC, fig. 14, to represent a bent lever
moving on its fulcrum B, the operating force at A acting in
the direction of A D, and the resistance at C in the direc-
tion C E : now, as the line of direction of the force C falls
upon the fulcrum, it is evident, that no perpendicular can be
let fall from the fulcrum upon it, and consequently, the power
of C can be nothing in comparision to that of A, whose
perpendicular upon its line of direction is BA; for the in^
stant the lever begins to move, suppose to A 1, C 1, then the
perpendicular on the line of direction of the force C, as-
sumes a mensurable form, as B, B 1, whilst the power of A
has only decreased from BA to B F. From this it will be
seen that at the commencement of the action of A, its
power over C was indefinite, but instantly after the corn-
mencenient of that action by the movement of C out of the
perpendicular E B, resistance likewise commenced, as the
perpendicular from the fulcrum then assumed a mensurable
amount.
THE WHEEL AND AXLE.

Thenext simple machine classed as a mechanical power,

is termed the wheel and axle, and is represented at fig. 15.
A the wheel, B a circular bar called the axle, both turning
upon one centre, at C. In general, the force is applied by
fixing a rope to the outer rim of the wheel, as represented
by D, whilst the resistance, or the weight, or force to be
overcome, is represented by E, attached by a rope to the
axle. By a simple analysis, this machine will be found to
be merely a method of obtaining a continual action of
levers of the first class
;
for if we suppose the radius of the
wheel to be the longer arm of the lever, the radius of the
axle the shorter arm, and the centre on which they turn the
fulcrum, v/e have a lever of the first class ; but from these
two members being circular, their radii are an indefinite
number of levers, and, by the revolving of the wheel, a
 AND MACHINIST. 11

number of levers of this class are continually brought into

operation. The effective power of the wheel and axle must
therefore be calculated by the same mode as a lever of the
first class ; for as the radius of the wheel exceeds that of
the axle, so increases the power, and so increases the distance
that the operative force has to pass through.
The wheel and axle is applied in the apparatus for raising
water from wells, and is introduced in many machines, which
shallbe shown as we proceed.

THE PULLEY.
The pulley, represented at fig. 16, is the third mechanic
power. It is of a circular form, fixed upon a pin that runs
through its centre at C, and round which it revolves. The
mode of applying the pulley is by placing a rope over its
outer rim, to the extremities of which, at A and B, the force
to be applied, and the weight or resistance to be overcome,
are indiscriminately attached, the centre C being supported
by the strap D. The operations of this instrument are re-
ferable also to the action of a lever of the first class ; the
pin on which it revolves is the fulcrum, and the radii of the
circle E F the two arms, which, being equal, no augmenta-
tion or diminution of power can arise.
When used in this manner, the pulley is but a method
of aHering the direction of the applied force. But if in-
verted, as shown in fig. 17, where the end of the line A is
attached to a fixed point, the weight or resistance being
at C, and the applied force acting upwards, the line from
A being permanently fixed, it will become a fulcrum ; and
the horizontal radii of the circle assume the position of
that of a lever of the second class ; which gains in power as
the respective forces of application and resistance are distant
from the fulcrum ; as B, for instance, is twice as far from
A as C, the weight or force applied at B will raise twice its
weight at C.
The combined action of several pullies is called a tackle,
see fig. 18, where A and B are two pullies fixed in the position
represented, and C D two others, capable of being either
raised or lowered ; the rope E passes over A, under over
B, and under C, and is permanently fixed at F. It is there-
fore apparent that if the weight G be suspended from the
centres of C and D, (both of which are in the position de-
scribed at fig. 17,) that each of them will divide its force by
two, and that one quarter of the weight G, placed at E,
12 THE OPERATIVE MECHANIC
will counterbalance G. The pullies Aand B being used only
to change the direction of the action.
The construction of tackles, consisting of four pullies, or,
as they are sometimes called, sheeves, is very similar to that
represented by fig. 19.
For a rule to estimate the force which is necessary to
overcome any force acting at G, take half the force at G
and divide it by the number of lower pullies in the tackle,
and it will give the amount necessary to counterbalance it
at E.
THE INCLINED PLANE.
The inclined plane is the fourth mechanical power. It is
represented at fig. 20, where A B is supposed to be a plain
surface, supported at one end, so that it may lay obliquely
to the horizon. By this power a heavy weight can be raised
with much less force than would be required to elevate it
perpendicularly. The manner of using it for the raising of
weights, is, to cause the applied force to act in a direction
parallel to the plane AB, and in the direction from A to
B, as represented by the line A E acting on the body E
the power gained is in proportion to the length of the line
A C, which is the base, compared to the perpendicular C B :

now if A C be twenty feet, and C B five, then A C being

four times C B, the power gained will be as four to one,
that is, the force equal to the raising of one pound perpen-
dicularly, will raise four pounds along the inclined pla,ne A B,
which being four times the length of C B, the force will have
to move through four times the distance, asAvas shown to
be the case in the use of the lever. This mechanical con-
struction, then, offers but another mode of effecting, by the
application of a small force for a longer period of time, that
which would otherwise require a much more considerable
force to accomplish it. The power gained in an inclined
plane may be always estimated by dividing the length of
the base of the plane by the perpendicular height of its most
elevated end. The application of the simple inclined plane,
in mechanical combinations, is not very frequ^ent in respect
to its power ; but its introduction is by no means uncom-
mon for the purpose of obtaining a. regularly ascending motion.
The gradual ascent of roads and railways to gain the summits
of hills, and the slide-ladder used by brewers in loading and
unloading their carts, are well known applications of it
principle.
 (T!FLA.^Jl(r AIL iP WiE jRS IL^.

J'iff. If*
From 18 to JJ.
L.^<9

fi Sh\'klt^ Str'anJ
 and machinist x3

THD wedcp:.
The fifth mechanical poweris the wedge; one form of

which is shown at fig. 21. operates in a' similar manner

It
to the inclined |)lane ; but instead of the resistance or force
to be overcome being moved along its surface^ the plane
itself, which is now called the wedge, is forced beneath the
object to be raised. Thus, if the wedge ABmove upon a
level plane to the position A
1, the weight Dwill be raised
from its position to the height 1 ; D
and, consequently,
will pass over the whole upper plane of the wedge AB, and
ultimately attain the perpendicular height B C. If A B be

divided by B C, the quotient, as in the inclined plane, will

represent the power which the wedge is capable of exerting ;
or if A B is four times B C, the power forcing forward the
wedge to A1 is capable of raising the body D four times
its own amount to the position 1. D
The wedge represented
in fig. 22, is most generally applied to the purpose of di-
viding wood, where the resisting force to be overcome acts
on both sides of it. To estimate the amount of power gained
by this form of the instrument, we must consider it as two
inclined planes, ABCand C B D
conjoined ; and as the
forces operating at and F are equal, we shall have, as A C
E
is to C B, so is the resistance F to the force necessary to
overcome it ; and as the force E
and the other portion of the
wedge are similarly opposed, the total AD
is to C B, as
the total resistance F and E is to the power necessary to be
exerted to counterbalance that resistance ; or, as many times
as AD will go into C B, so many times may the resistance
contain the amount of the applied force.

THE SCREW.
The screw is the sixth and last of the mechanical
powders. In the manner of its construction it is in general
said to bear reference to an inclined plane wound about a
cylinder ; but as the -power of the inclined plane corres-
ponds with that of the wedge, and the mode of applying
the facilities they possess, alone forms their difference, and
as the screw is almost universally moved to effect the same
purposes as the wedge, it w^ould, with greater propriety,
as regards its action, bear reference to that instrument.
Fig. 23 represents a cylinder E E, upon which w^e will
suppose the wedge-shaped piece, ABC, is capable of being-
wound 5 when wrapped round such cylinder, it will, by its
14 THE OPERATIVE MECHANIC
upper edge B C, represent spiral lines, similar to BD
and F G. Now, as the piece ABC is in the shape of a
wedge or inclined plane, it should have its power esti-
mated by the line A C compared to the height AB
and if the line B C, wound in its spiral direction, shall
just circumscribe the cylinder, the point C will be found
directly beneath B, and the distance between C and B, when
thus lapped on the cylinder, will represent the line A
B, on
the perpendicular of the inclined plane or wedge ; which, when
compared with A C, now represented by the circumference
of the cylinder, will give the same data from which the
power of the screw, so formed, should be calculated. Con-
sequently the comparison of the circumference of the screw,
and the distance between one thread and another, measured
on a line parallel to the axis of the screw, is that from which
its power should be calculated, or as the distance between
the two threads is to the circumference, so the power to be
applied is to the resistance to be overcome ; or if the
circumference be three, and the power one, the force equal
to one shall overcome a force equal to three.
Fig. 24 represents a screw of more perfect formation ;
but the general construction of the screw is so familiar to
every one, that we conceive it to be almost needless to
enter upon a more minute description. A B represents the
acclivity of the plane from which such screw is formed, and
the distance between B and C represents what should be
compared to the circumference in order to discover the
power possesses.
it
The screw is applied to mechanical purposes chiefly to
obtain great pressures in small distances; and upon exa-
mination it will be seen, that they afford a method of using
a wedge of an extremely small inclination, and by con-
sequence of great power. The screw is sometimes used
for raising exceedingly heavy weights. The hollow screw,
or the counterpart in which a screw operates, when in the
form of a small movable piece, is called a nut, and the cavity
is termed a female screw, the properties of which are, as
respects power, exactly similar to the screw.
We have now duly considered the nature and properties
of the mechanical powers when in a state of uncombined
action ; and shall, in the next place, previously to repre-
senting them in some of the simplest forms in which they
are combined, examine into one more attribute of matter,
resulting from gravity.
 AND MACHINIST. 15

THE CENTRE OF GRAVITY.

The force of gravitation, as we have already shown, acts
upon matter in proportion to its quantity thus, if a line be
:

drawn through any body in such manner, that the quantity

of matter multiplied into its distance from the line on one
side shall equal the quantity of matter multiplied into its
distance on the opposite side, and if another line be drawn
passing through the body in another direction, dividing it
in a similar manner, the point where those two lines meet,
whether it be situated within or about the body, is the
centre of gravity ; and if that point or centre, supposing it
within the body, be supported, the body will remain in a
state of equilibrium. Suppose the body D, fig. 25, to be
suspended by a line from C, then the point H, which is
called the point of suspension, and at which the body is
suspended in a state of rest, will be directly above the
centre of gravity. For if the perpendicular line H I be drawn,
and the quantity of matter multiplied into the distance on
one side of the line be not equal to the quantity of matter
multiplied into the distance on the other side, the body will
not be at rest ; but as the body is at rest, the quantity of
matter multiplied into its distance on the one side, is exactly
equal to the quantity of matter multiplied into its distance
on the other. Again, suspend the body as at fig. 26, and let
a perpendicular fall similarly from K, the point of suspension,
to L, the body will be again divided in like manner, and
the point E, where the perpendicular K L intercepts the line
H I, will be the centre of gravity.
If any force acting in a direct line pass through the
centre of gravity of a body, it will produce uniform motion in
that body ; but if the force so impressed do not pass through
the centre of gravity, that motion will be unequally com-
municated. Thus, if at fig. 26, M I represent a force
striking the irregularly shaped body D, in a line of direction
passing through its centre of gravity E, the force so impressed
on that body will cause it to proceed with a uniform velocity,
as regards all its parts ; but should the force M I be impressed
at the point F, asM 1 , the line of direction not being through

the centre of gravity, an irregular motion will be communi-

cated, and the body will acquire a revolving motion round its
centre of gravity.
As the centre of gravity is the most advantageous point for
 IG THE OPERATIVE MECHANIC
giving to a l)ody uniform motion, so also it is the best to
apply resistance to arrest the progress of that motion.
Most writers on Mechanics speak of the common centre of
gravity as of more than one body, or as a system of bodies ;
but as they mean that those bodies should be conjoined, or
their relative position maintained by some force, they may
properly be considered as but one body, and the centre of
gravity of the whole assemblage may be estimated in a
similar manner to that of one. Thus, if the bodies A and B,
hg. 27, be conjoined by a line, their common centre of
gravity will be the point E ; for if a line be drawn through
that point in any direction, the masses of matter, multiplied
into their respective distances on each side, will equal each
other.
Whathas been said concerning the centre of gravity, is
also applicable to practical points;
as no body can be sup-
ported in a state of equilibrium, if the point of suspension
be not exactly above or beneath its centre of gravity

SIMPEE COMBINATIONS OF THE MECHANICAL POWERS.

Having considered the capacities of the mechanical powers,
and the modes used for calculating their effects, we will
now turn our attention to them in a state of combination
and as all of these instruments are in themselves gainers of
power, power must be considerably increased when they
become adjuncts to each other. Thus, in fig. 28, we have
a combination of three levers, each of them, by the dis-
proportion of their arms, gainers of power as three to one
G G G being their several fulcrums, the weight H
will
operate with thrice its power at B, by means of the lever
D
A B ; the effect will be again trebled by C ; and that
amount again trebled by the action of the lever E F. Con-
sequently, if we call Hone, by A B it will be raised to three,
by C D
to nine, and by E F to twenty-seven ; so that a
weight of one pound at A will support twenty-seven pounds
at F.
The combination of the action of levers may thus be ex-
tended to the gain of almost any amount of power and ;

when bent levers are introduced, their powers, which in

peculiar situations have been shown to be very great, may in
like manner be multiplied.
The wheel and axle is an implement not frequently used in
its simple state. In machinery, wheels are mostly turned
by means of prominences upon their peripheres, called
 AND MACHINIST. 17
cogs, or teeth, which being acted upon by any applied force,
cause the wheel to revolve ; and the axle being similarly fur-
nished with teeth, or cogs, is termed a pinion. The wheel
and pinion, therefore, bear a similar relationship to each other
as the wheel and axle, and their power must be calculated in
the same manner. Suppose A B, fig. 29, to be a shaft on
which the handle A C, of twelve inches radius, and the pinion
D, of one inch radius, are fixed 5 and the teeth of the wheel
E, of twelve inches radius, acting in those of the pinion D,
and upon the shaft of E is fixed the pinion F, of one inch
radius, communicating with the wheel G, of twelve inches
radius, upon the shaft of which the pulley H, of one inch
radius, is fastened ; we shall then have the handle A C repre-
senting the radius of a wheel, and the pinion D
in the situa-
tion of the axle ; so that there will be a gain of twelve to one :
and the wheel E, bearing the same proportion to the pinion F,
will also gain in a similar ratio, and G being to H, as* E to F,
the gain will again be augmented to the same extent ; so a force
equal to one at C will operate as twelve at ;
D
and twelve at
D will operate as a hundred and forty-four at F ; and at H
as
seventeen hundred and twenty-eight. Thus one pound at
C will raise seventeen hundred and twenty-eight pounds at
H, and the handle C will have to pass through seventeen
hundred and twenty-eight times the distance through which
the weight I will move. By this form and disposition of
wheels and pinions, an accession of power is obtained ; but if
velocity be required at the expense of power, this train
should be inverted. For, if we suppose the pulley Hto be
turned by a force so as to cause the weight I to pass through
one foot, the periphery of the wheel G will have passed
through twelve feet, and the periphery of the pinion will have
gone through the same distance ; but the wheel E being
twelve times the diameter of F, it will have passed through
twelve times that distance, or a hundred and forty-four feet
and the pinion D, in like manner, will cause C to pass through
twelve times that amount of space, or seventeen hundred
and twenty- eight feet ; whilst the force required at H
to
cause this motion, must be seventeen hundied and twenty-
eight times the resistance at C.
As the circumferences of wheels are proportionate to the
circumferences of the pinions they have to act upon, or be
acted upon by, so must the number of teeth in the one be
to those in the other, otherwise the size of the teeth would
not be similar ; thus, a wheel that is twelve inches diameter,
and a pinion one inch, the circumferences of circles being
in proportion to their diameters, the wheel should have
c
18 THE OPERATIVE MECHANIC
twelve times as many teeth as the pinion, therefore, in prac-
tice, thenumber of teeth may be taken as data to estimate
the power or velocity. Suppose a pinion has five teeth, and
a wheel sixty, their power will be as twelve to one, as five
will go twelve times in sixty; that is, the pinion will
have to turn twelve times to move the wheel once ; and if
turned by a handle A C, whose radius is equal to the wheel,
the power gained will be in the same ratio ; and if the
pinion is driven by the wheel, the velocity obtained will, in
like manner, increase ; consequently the velocities, or powers
of any combination of wheels, may be estimated by their dia-
meters, circumferences, or number of teeth.
Although this mode of communicating motion is used to
a very great extent in applying wheel-work to machinery,
yet, in peculiar cases, straps, chains, and cordage, of vari-
ous descriptions, are beneficially introduced to transfer the
action of wheels.
Combinations of the wedge are not very common but :

its properties are introduced under several modifications,

and afibrd methods of obtaining power of considerable pres-
sure in short distances. For instance, that common and
well-known part of mechanical construction, called the
camb, or eccentric, is a wedge applied by one of its faces to
a cylinder, which, by being turned by means of a lever, is
capable of producing a powerful action. Fig. 30 represents
a cylinder A, with a wedge B wound round it, but which, in
this position, is denominated a camb, or eccentric piece ; by
the motion of the lever C to the situation Cl, the cylinder
A, with the camb B, is brought into the position B 1 ; thereby
raising the obstacle to D
1. D
The power gained in this
operation may be ascertained thus ; as the length of the lever
C from the center of A exceeds the radius of A, so will the
force applied at C be increased, at the point E, where it may
be supposed to act, against the wedge or camb B ; and the
effort to raise D
may be known by considering the proportion
of E E
F to H, which is the portion of the circumference that
must be considered as its base. Thus, if we call the length
of the lever C three, and the radius of A
one, if the force
acting at C be one, its power at E
will be three; and should
the height E
F be one third of the base of the camb B,
this power will be again raised by three ; thus, 1 at C will
counterbalance 9 at D
This movement is extremely com-
mon in order to obtain power, or a regular direct motion.
It is quicker than a screw, and capable of considerable
accuracy.
Fig. 31 is another modification of the wedge, placed on
 AND MACHINIST. 19

the internal face of the circle E, acting with its face F,

and causing by its movement the obstacle I to approach
nearer to the centre G ;
this is called the snail movement^
and might with propriety be termed a concentric.
Another method of placing a wedge, so as to apply its
effects to a revolving motion, is represented in a side and
top view at fig. 32, where the w^edge A B is placed upon a
circular plate C D, turning upon the axis E, and conse-
quently creating motion in the obstacle upon which it acts
to the amount of the line G A.
Another movement of considerable accuracy is obtained
by the turning of a cone, the principle of whose action is
referable to the wedge. Fig. 33 represents a cone fixed
upon its axis ^ k. If an obstacle he presented at a, and the
cone be caused to pass forward in the direction ki, the
surface a c will operate as a wedge at a b c, raising the
obstacle to c ; but if during that direct motion the cone is
likewise caused to revolve on its axis, the obstacle, instead of
passing over ac, will pass over the spiral line aegd, to the
point d; by this means the operation of a wedge, whose line
of inclination is equal to the spiral line a e g d, and whose
height is equal to b c, is brought into action ; and if the
number of revolutions of the cone be increased during its
direct motion, it is plain that the effect of a wedge of
infinite elongation may be produced.
The screw is introduced both singly and in a state of combi-
nation in many parts of machinery. The combined action of two
screws, which avoid the necessity of using a screw of greater
fineness, in which the threads would be weakened, is repre-
sented at fig. 34, where they are applied to a press. Suppose
A A to be a screw fitted in a female screw in the rail B C;
and D, a screw that works in the inside of A, having its
lower end joined to the upper board of the press H, so that
it shall not turn round : A
now if the screw A, and the screw
D, contain exactly the same number of threads in the inch,
by turning A A one revolution, it will proceed downwards
exactly the same amount that the screw Dwill, by the same
action, proceed upwards, and the board H will not be moved.
But we will suppose that the screw A A contains four threads
in the inch, and the screw D six, then, by one revolution,
A A will move downwards one quarter of an inch, and Dwill
at the same time, and by the same action, be raised one-
sixth of an inch, therefore the board H will move downwards
the difference between one quarter and one-sixth, or one-
twelfth part of an inch,, by every single revolution : which
20 THE OPERATIVE MECHANIC
effect is similar to that which would be produced by using
a screw of twelve threads to the inch.
For further elucidation we shall refer the action of each
screw to that of a wedge from which the screw has been
shown to be derived Fig. 35 represents two wedges^ a b h
and ec each of which may be supposed to represent one
lap of a screw of the respective fineness which their heights
h h and e c denote. If the wedge ah h be caused to pass
to the situation a a and is supposed to operate upon the
level surface c/,the line ae will be compressedto the line Id c,
by that movement; but if^ whilst this action takes place, the
wedge e c c/ be moved to the position c, and the effect
takes place upon its upper surface e d, the line a e will only
be reduced to the line e, equal to h d, and will conse-
quently only be compressed to the amount a, which is in
effect equal to what a wedge of the fineness oi ah g would
have produced, whose height or line ^ 5 is just equal to the
difference between e c and h h, as was the case with the screws.
As a gain of power is attainable by two screws or
w'edges of unequal fineness, performing equal numbers of
revolutions, so is the same effect attainable by the unequal
revolutions of two screws or wedges of equal fineness.

MILL GEEPJNG.
Under head w^e purpose to treat of the best form-
this
ation of the teeth of wheels, of the coimection of shafts,
termed couplings, of the disengaging and reengaging of
the moving parts, and of the equalization of motion ; and to
them we shall annex some further observations upon the
general construction of Machinery. To avoid unnecessary
repetition, we shall, previously to entering upon the form-
ation of the teeth of wheels, give a general definition of the
terms most commonly in use.
Cog-wheel is the general name of any wheel which has a
number of teeth or cogs placed round its circumference.
Pinion is a small cog-wheel that has not in general more
than twelve teeth ; though, when two-toothed wheels act upon
one another, the smallest is not unfrequently distinguished by
this term ; as is also the trundle, lantern, or wallower, when
talking of the action of two wheels.
Trundle, lantern, or ivalloiver, is sometimes used in
lieu of a pinion. It is represented at fig. 36.
 AND MACHINIST. 21

When the teeth of a wheel are made of the same material,

and formed of one piece with the body of the wheel, they
are called teeth ; when of wood, or some other material, and
affixed to the outer rim of the wheel, cogs; in a pinion
they are called leaves ; in a trundle staves.
When speaking of the action of wheel-work in general,
the wheel which acts as a mover is called the leader, and
the one upon which it acts the follower.
If a wheel and pinion are to be so constructed that the
one shall give, and the other receive, impulse, so that the
pinion shall perform four revolutions in the time that the
wheel is performing one, they must be represented by two
circles, which are in proportion to each other as four is to
one. When these two circles are so placed that their outer
rims shall touch each other, a line drawn from the centre of
the one to the centre of the other is termed the line of
centres; and the radii of the two circles the proportional
radii. These circles are sometimes called proportional
circles, but by mill-wrights in general pitch lines.
The teeth which are to communicate motion must be
formed upon these two circles. The distance from the cen-
tres of two circles to the extremities of their respective teeth,
is called the real radii; and, in practice, the distance be-
tween the centres of two contiguous teeth, that is, the dis-
tance from the centres of two teeth measured upon their
pitch line, is called the pitch of the ivheel. The straight part
of a tooth which receives the impulse is called the flank, and
the curved part that imparts the impulse, the face.
Two wheels acting upon one another in the same plane,
having their axes parallel to each other, are called spur geer ;
when their axes are at right, or other angles, bevelled geer,
TO DESCRIBE THE CYCLOID AND EPICYCLOID.
Fig. 37 . If the circle 1, having a point a marked on its
circumference, moves along the straight line A C, and at the
same time revolves on its axis, the curved line which the point
a describes is called the cycloid. The point a in circle 1 is
at its starting place, at B it has reached its greatest height,
and at C its lowest depth ; and the curved line ABC described
by that point, is the cycloid.
Fig. 38. If the circle 1 rolls on another circle, as on the
circumference of circle 2, the point a describes, in a similar
manner to the preceding, the curve a g h d e, and the circle^
3, 4, 5, 6, exhibit the point a in the several positions of a\
a?, ca^ the portion of circle 3 being equal to c a, c*
22 THE OPERATIVE MECHANIC
to c a, c to c'^ a, and to c** a the line which is
thus described is called an exterior epicycloid. But if the
circle rolls within another circle, as the circle 1, fig. 39, rolls
in the inside of circle 2^ the line described by the point a
is then called an interior epicycloid.
In fig. 38, the circle am n is called the generating circle
of the epicycloid^ and that portion of the larger circle over
which the generating circle rolls in one revolution the base
of the epicycloid. In the interior epicycloid the generating
circle of the epicycloid rolls within the circle of its base.
An epicycloid, either internal or external, may be conceived
to be formed of numerous small portions of circles, whose
radii are lines drawn from the several points of contact, as
c, c, c^y c being the centre of one, c of another, and
the centre of another, so that these lines are, as respects those
several positions, radii of each circle, and perpendiculars to
the epicycloid j if, therefore, a line be drawn from any point
where the generating circle is in contact with the base to the
point which traces the epicycloid, it will fall perpendicular
to the epicycloid.
As the several lines drawn from the points of contact of the
generating circle are, in all cases, the varying radii for gene-
rating the epicycloid, it is plain that when the generating cir-
cle shall have passed over half of its base, and consequently
have performed half of a revolution, the diameter of the ge-
nerating circle shall be a line drawn from the point of con-
tact to the generating point, and which line shall, if prolonged,
pass through the centre of the circle of the base, so that the
tracing point in that part of the epicycloidal line shall be far-
ther from, and in all other points nearer to, the base, as the
perpendiculars that fall upon the epicycloid from the points of
contact shall in every other position be shorter. Suppose the
circle 1, fig. 40, to be a generating circle, and circle 2 to be
the circle of the base, if the diameter of circle 1 be equal to
the radius of circle 2, the point a shall trace the line a i6 c as
an interior epicycloid ; for if the diameter of circle 1 be equal
to half of the diameter of circle 2, so will the circumference
of circle 1 be equal to half of the circumference of circle 2,
and consequently, when the generating circle 1 shall have
performed one revolution upon the circle 2, as its base, the
point a shall be exactly opposite to the place from where it
started ; now the diameter of circle 1 is equal to the radius of
circle 2 when half way, and the tracing point is exactly in the
centre of circle 2, which proves, that the epicycloid traced
by the circle 1 is a straight line, and the diameter of circle 2,
 (&JEEIE.WO

From J6' to 40
 AND MACHINIST. 23

ON THE TEETH OF WHEELS.

If two cylinders be placed in close contact, motion cannot
be communicated to the one without that motion, by means
of the irregularities of their surfaces, (of which we have spoken
under the article Friction,) being communicated to the other,
and the smaller cylinder shall perform exactly as many revolu-
tions to one revolution of the larger cylinder, as the larger
cylinder contains upon its circumference so many measured
circumferences of the smaller cylinder.
Wheels, however, which act by their surfaces only, are ill-
calculated to transmit motion to any considerable extent, as
the motion which the follower has acquired is not of sufficient
power overcome the great resistance which would, in such
to
case, beopposed to it ; consequently it becomes necessary to
have projections or teeth, and that form of the teeth will be
the best which causes the wheel to act as though the motion
were communicated by contact of the pitch lines.
Spur geer, 39*. If the three circles 1, 2, 3, in contact
fig.

at the point a, be made to revolve about their centres, so that

they shall continually touch at the point , their motions will
be similar to what would have been generated by one com-
municating motion to the other two by contact ; and circle 3
will move as though rolling on the external surface of circle 1,
and internal surface of circle 2, and consequently become the
generating circle of the exterior epicycloid on circle 1, and the
generating circle of the interior epicycloid on circle 2. As the
diameter of circle 3 is equal to the radius of circle 2, the in-
terior epicycloid will be a straight line passing through B the
centre of circle 2 ; and, supposing the point a to have per-
formed that portion of a revolution which places it at K, a
portion of the exterior epicycloid will be represented by the
line E K, and a portion of the interior epicycloid by D K.
Therefore, as the epicycloids DK
and E K
are both generated
by one motion of the same point on the same circle, they will
continually touch at the generating point, and the total sur-
face of E Kwill pass over the total surface of DK ;
and if
the epicycloid E K
be affixed to the external surface of cir-
cle 1, and act upon the portion of the epicycloid .D K, it will
transmit motion to circle 2, as though that motion were com-
municated by contact of the pitch lines \ which proves that
E K presents us with the best form of tooth, and which tooth
would, when acting upon the radii of the wheel to be driven,
move it as though the motion wei'e communicated by contact.
24 THE OPERATIVE MECHANIC
Fig. 40=* represents a mode of forming the teeth of wheels
wlien they are to act upon a trundle. Circle ] represents the
pitch line of the wheel and circle 2 the pitch line of the trun-
;

dle ; which are supposed to act by contact at the point

When a arrives at a*, it will have traced that portion of an
epicycloid represented by a* and as a is the generating
point of the epicycloid^ the distance from a to from
a to will be equal and the epicycloid
: bein^ ge-
nerated by the proportional circle or pitch line of the trundle,
presents us with the properest form for the tooth of a wheel
that is to drive a trundle with circular staves posited in its
pitch line.
We shall now proceed to the practical mode of applying
these rules. Let circle 2 be the proportional circle or pitch
line of a trundle ; and circle 1 the pitch line of a wheel which
is to drive that trundle ; and by the revolutions of these two
circles let the portion of an epicycloid be generated,
so that when a line is drawn from to the centre of circle 1
it will intersect that circle at Z>, whose distance from is

such, that when the semi- diameter of a staff of the trundle

is subtracted from it, the remainder will be equal to half the
intended thickness of the tooth of the wheel. Set off per-
pendicularly to the epicycloid inwards, the semi-diameter of
one of the staves at so many points that you will be able to
trace through the points thus set off, a line parallel to the
epicycloid which line will be the face of the tooth of
the wheel, being less than the tooth formed by the epicy-
cloid by the semi-diameter of a staff of the trundle,
indeed the diminution must be rather more, as the width
g g must be made sufficient for the staves to clear them-
selves, as the whole of the epicycloidal line must act upon
their surface.
Fig. 41. To
describe the teeth of a wheel for a trundle,
by means of circular arcs, let us supposeA
B to be the line of
centres, C D
the pitch line of the wheel, E
F the pitch line ci
the trundle, and the centre of the staff G
to be in the line of
centres A B ; then by placing one foot of the compasses in
the centre of the staff G, we can describe the arc m n, which
is the form of the face of a tooth sufficiently near that of an
epicycloid for common purposes.
Fig. 42. To find the form for the teeth of a wheel and the
leaves of a pinion which are to act together, we must set off on
the pitch lines the points m
n a, and p q r, &c., according to
the proper thickness of and distance between the teeth and
leaver, and from these points draw radii, to serve as the
 AND MACHINIST. 25

flanks of the teeth. The spaces must be of sufhcient depth to

allow for the action of the curved part of the teeth and leaves.
Then with the generating circle 1, whose diameter is equal
to the proportional radius of the pinion, describe upon the
extremities of the sides of each tooth, and upon the circum-
ference of the proportional circle of the wheel as a base, the
epicycloids a Z>, 5 n; and with the generating circle 2, describe
upon the proportional circle of the pinion as a base, the epi-
cycloid q I), which will give the required form of the teeth
and leaves.
For if the projecting epicycloid a h push against the ra-
dius /r of the proportional pinion, the wheel and pinion will
move with equal velocity ; and a similar effect will be produced
by the epicycloid p D being pushed by the radius o m of the
wheel towards the line of centres.
Fig. 43. When one wheel is to conduct another, it is not
necessary that the wheel to be conducted should have teeth
of an epicycloidal form ; and were the teeth not- subject to
w'ear by friction, there would be no occasion to extend the
teeth of the conducted wheel beyond the pitch line ; but such
being the case, it becomes necessary to form the teeth of the
conducted wheel in the manner represented in the figure by
the dotted lines.
Mr. Buchanan, in his Essay on the Teeth of Wheels,
objects to this mode of forming the teeth of the conducted
wheel, and recommends that a trundle or wheel with cylin-
drical staves should be adopted, as it will be less acted upon
in approaching the line of centres, and consequently have less
friction than a pinion or wheel, the sides of whose teeth tend
to the centre.
This will appear, says he, by fig. 44, which repre-
sents a staff, a trundle, and a leaf, h, of a pinion,
, of
turning round on the same centre A, and a tooth adapted to
each, turning on a common centre B. The thickness of each
of the teeth, and the proportional circle of both wheels, are
the same, and the proportional circles of the pinions are also
equal, and teeth are each made of the greatest length which
the intersection of the curves will admit, which turns out con-
siderably greater in the tooth adapted to the staff. The shaded
parts represent the tooth adapted to, and acting upon, the
staff ; and the dotted lines represent the tooth adapted to,
and acting upon, the leaf. The teeth, in both cases, are re-
presented as just at the point where they would cease to
move the leaves or staves uniformly; and it appears the staff
26 THE OPERATIVE MECHANIC
is conducted considerably further beyond the line of centres
than the leaf ; hence the staff will be less acted upon in
approaching the line of centres.
As the trundle in common use is very weak and imperfect,
Mr. Buchanan conceived, that a wheel might be made, which
would combine the advantages of both the pinion and trun-
dle, and accordingly had some wheels made, which appeared
to answer every expectation.
These wheels, says he, were made of cast iron. They
were each cast of one solid mass. Fig. 46, No. 1, repre-
sents the edge view, and No. 2, a section of one of them;
whereby is shown the manner in which the teeth are sup-
ported, like the staves of a trundle at each end, and like the
leaves of a pinion at the roots, but so very thin there, as to
run no risk of having the common fault of pinions, just now
noticed. They were difficult to mould but were they to :

come more into use, I have no doubt ingenious workmen

would soon get over this obstacle. * I mentioned, he
continues, in cases Avhere the pinion had few teeth, that in
the conducted, whether wheel or pinion, staves should be pre-
ferred; but it is obvious, that the method just described,
of making a small trundle of cast iron, would not apply to a
wheel of a great number of staves. Nor is it in that case so
necessary, as the greater the number of teeth are, the longer
they will be in losing their proper figure. In such cases,
therefore, staves, strictly speaking, should not be used, but
teeth made so as to produce the same effect -that is, having
their acting parts of the figure of a staff. What is meant
will be better understood by inspecting fig. 46, where the
lines show the alteration necessary on the tooth A, in order
to make it produce the effect of a staff ; which staff is repre-
sented by the faint dots. The dotted lines on d represent
the alteration requisite to adapt it to the staff, it being neces-
sary, as formerly proved, to have it a different epicycloid from
what is required to adapt it to a tooth whose acting part is a
straight line, tending to the centre of its proportional circle.
Teeth, says Mr.Tredgold, in the second edition of Mr.

Buchanans work, seem to be very well adapted for va-

^ By casting separate plates with indents to fix the teeth, and bolting
them together, the pinion might be made sufficiently strong
such a method
:

indeed used frequently in crane-work, where it has the important advan-

is
tage of preventing the wheels getting out of geer.
N. B. This note is by Mr. Tredgold, editor of the second edition of Bu-
chanans Practical Essays on Mill- work.
f

MJGLIL (^EJElipi^G Pl.-t.

From 40 to JJ.
 AND MACHINIST. 27
rioiis purposes, when formed on the principle recommended
in the preceding article. I therefore will endeavour to show
a simple method of describing such teeth.

It must be observed, that the teeth to resemble staves are
to be always on the conducted wheel or pinion ; thus afford-
ing the peculiar advantage of the wheel and trundle in either
increasing or diminishing velocity.
Fig. 38=^. Let the teeth be divided as usual on the pitch
lines, EE, F F3
and on the conducted wheel C describe cir-
cles, asthough there were to be staves. Conceive the centre
of one of these staff teeth to be in the line of centres at A,
and draw the line A B joining the centres of the staff teeth.
Then the radius A Z>, from the centre A, will describe the
curved side h c oi the tooth of the conductor, and the curved
part ba oi the conducted wheel. And since this radius is
equal to the pitch diminished by half the diameter of the cir-
cle of the staff teeth, and the centres will always be in the
pitch lines of the wheels, all the other teeth may be easily
described."'
The editor then enters into some calculations, which the
limits of our work will not permit us to pursue, we therefore
refer our readers to the work itself, which embraces much
useful information.
Fig. 47. When a pinion is required to have but a slow
motion, an internal pinion, which has less friction than the
external one, may, in many cases, be adopted with advantage.
To illustrate this, let A, fig. 48, be the proportional circle
or pitch line of a wheel, B that of an external pinion, and C
that of an internal pinion, all at contact at the point a now,
if motion be communicated to the wheels, so that they
move uniformly, it will be seen, that when the point a has
arrived at bed, each of the wheels having travelled over an
equal distance from the line of centres D, the space from btoc
is much less than that from c to d, and consequently had the
wheels moved by means of teeth, the tooth of the internal
pinion C would have slid over a smaller part of a tooth of the
wheel A, than a tooth of the external pinion B, wdiich proves
it would have had le^s velocity and less friction.
Fig. 49 represents a rack and pinion, recommended by
Mr. Tredgold. A B the pitch line of the rack, B C the
pitch line of the pinion, and the form of the tooth C is D
the involute of a circle ; but when the rack impels the
pinion, the curved face of each of the teeth of the rack
should be a portion of a cycloid, (as A, a, fig. 37,) and the
leaves of the pinion straight lines radiating from the centre
38 THE OPERATIVE MECHANIC
of the pillion ; the diameter of the generating circle for
describing the cycloidal teeth should be half the proportional
diameter of the pinion. See Buchanan" s Practical Essays
on Mill-work, Tredgolds edition.
Bevel geer. We have already
stated^ that when the axes
of wheelsare angular to each other^ they are called
bevel geei% in order to distinguish them from spur geer,
whose axes are parallel it therefore now remains for us
,

to describe in what manner the teeth of bevel geer differ

from the teeth of spur geer.
Bevel geer is represented by the two cones at fig. 50,
where A B and B C are the axes, and D E and F their
proportional diameters or pitch lines.
If these two cones are placed in close contact, and motion
is communicated to the one, that motion will, as is already
stated, be communicated to the other, and the motion of
both, as w^e have shown, when speaking of spur geer,
will be equal.
The epicycloid for forming the teeth of bevel geer, is
generated by one cone rolling upon the surface of another,
while their summits coincide :for example, if a cone C,
fig. 51, having a point a, move upon the surface of the
cone D, the point a will, in its revolutions, describe the
line A E F, A being the place from where it starts, E its
greatest height, and F its lowest depth ; therefore a curved
line drawn from A to E, and continued from E to F,
gives what is called a sj^lierical epicycloid and the base
of the cone C is the generating circle of the spherical
epicycloid. The method of using the spherical epicycloid
for forming the teeth of bevel geer is, in every respect,
similar to the method of using the exterior and interior
epicycloid for forming the teeth of spur geer, consequently it
wall be needless to repeat it.
Fig. 52. To construct bevel geer we must calculate the
proportional diameters or pitch lines of the wheel and
pinion that are to act upon each other, and then draw
their axes AB and B C. Draw parallel to the axis AB
of the wheel the line D
E, and the line F D
parallel to
the axis of the pinion, and from the point D, where these
tw'o lines intersect, draw the line D
G perpendicular to
A B, and DH perpendicular to B C, and make 1 G equal to
D I, and K H
equal to D D
K 5 then G gives, what is called
the principal diameter, or diameter of the pitch line of the
%vheel, and D FI that of the pinion.
Froceed to draw the teeth of the w'heel, by fixing onq
 AND MACHINIST. 29
foot of the compasses in the point at A, and^ having ex-
tended the other foot to the distance sweep the small
arc G then set off the length of the tooth from G to /;,
draw the line h c, tending to a, and sweep the arc c e, con-
centric to h a. Set off from G to / part of the required
length of the toothy from the principal diameter to the root
and draw the line f g tending to A, which gives the root
of the tooth. Parallel to fg, draw ae, and cifge will
represent a section of the solid ring of the wheel.
In an excellent article on mill-work^ in Dr. Reess Cyclo-
pedia^ the author states^ that the manner of setting out
the teeth of cog-wheels, in such a form that they shall act in
the most equable manner upon each other, and with the
least friction, has been a subject of much investigation
among mathematicians and theoretic mechanics ; but the
practice and observation of the mill-wrights have produced a
method of forming cog-wheels, which answers nearly, if not
fully, as well in practice, as the geometrical curves which
theory has pointed out to be the most proper. This they
have effected by making the teeth of the modern wheels ex-
tremely small and numerous. In this case, the time of action
in each pair of teeth is so small, that the form of them be-
comes comparatively of slight importance ; and the practical
methods of the mill-wrights (using arcs of circles for the
curves) approximates so nearly to the truth, that the dif-
ference is of no consequence : and this method is the best,
because it so easily gives the means of forming all the cogs
exactly alike, and precisely the same distance asunder, which,
by the application of any other curve than the circle, is not
so easy. The method, which is extremely simple, is explained
in lig. 53. The wheel being made, and the cogs fixed in
much larger than they are intended to be, a circle, a , is
described round the face of the rough cogs upon its pitch
diameter, that is, the geometrical diameter, or acting line of
the cogs ; so that when the two wheels are at work together,
the pitch circles, a a, of the two are in contact. Another
circle, b b, is described within the pitch circle for the bottom
of the teeth, and a third, dd, without it, for the extremities.
After these preparations, the pitch circle is accurately di-
vided into the number which the wheel is intended to have ;
a pair of compasses are then opened out to the extent of one
and a quarter of these divisions, and with this radius arcs are
struck on each side of every division, from the pitch line a,
to the outer circle d d. Thus the point of the compasses
being set in the division e, the curve f g, on one side of the
30 THE OPERATIVE MECHANIC
cog, and no on one side of the other, are described ; then
the point of the compasses being set on the adjacent divi-
sion k, the curve I m is described. This completes the
curved portion of the cogs c, and this being done all round
completes every tooth ; the remaining portion of the cog
within the circle a, is bounded by two straight lines drawn
from the points g and m towards the centre ; this being
done to the cogs all round, the wheel is set out, and the cogs,
being dressed or cut down to the lines, will be formed ready
for work, every cog being of the same breadth ; and the space
between every one and its neighbour is exactly equal to the
breadth, provided the compasses are opened to the extent of
one division and a quarter as first described.^

COUPLINGS.
Coupling boxes are used to connect the shafts of wheels ;
they are either round or square, and with single or double
bearings. The square coupling with double bearings, is
represented in fig. 54, where B, between the bridges C D,
is a square shaft with the coupling box resting upon it, ready
to be thrust, when occasion requires it, upon the shaft A,
which is out of geer, and to which it can be fastened by means
of a pin, as shown at F, where the shafts are in geer. The
round coupling, represented in fig. 55, is, when fastened on the
shafts, engaged by two bolts A B, and C, which pass through
the box at right angles to each other, and one of them
through each of the shafts. As it is almost impracticable to
form the axes of two shafts with such accuracy that they shall
present one truly straight line ; and as the shafts will, though
made never so accurate, wear unequally, both these couplings
have been found to be somewhat disadvantageous in mill-
work. The square coupling with one bearing, is decidedly
superior to either of the above-mentioned, as it possesses, to
a certain degree, the property of being flexible in all directions.
In conveying motion through a great length of shafts, where
there is but little lateral pressure, it can be used to great advan-
tage ; but where there is much lateral pressure the sockets are
found to wear away and get loose, which occasions a hobbling
and inaccurate motion. A longitudinal section of this coupling
is represented in fig. 56, where A is the square of one shaft,
B the square of the other, C C the coupling box, and DD
two pins, one of which passes through each square of the
shafts, in order to support the square B in a line with the
square A. Sometimes the square B is held in a line with the
square A by means of a round projection F, from the centri
 IVCII.IL n.:>

I 'roiii / h' (>!>

Fiff.
Fi)j. .7./

^ .
-^1

Hi ^ -iij; flii
i-f y ^in
V 0

//V/.. 77 .
T Fiq.oH.
(

Z^I
rn
II' 1
l_L ^L[

E d
W kI
H

J'/q

c
r r F 1
!'
I
3
I
j ,

j ;
D
/

4
'

i
i _ .
I

j
i

1
'

'

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35*

Fitj.S4. Fig. 66 .

Fuf. 69 .

i\

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ti

\j

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'i/4
 AND MACHINIST. 31

of the square A, entering into a round hole in the centre of

the square B.
Clutches or glands may be used with much advantage as
a coupling for double bearings. Fig. 5J represents a coup-
ling of this kind ; it consists of two crosses, AA
and B B,
< one fixed to each shaft B B has its ends bended forward,
;

and lays hold of A A, which turns that shaft round.^

In boring-mills two kinds of clutches are used. The one
for the smaller kinds of work is represented in fig. 58.
A B is a round plate of cast iron fixed firmly on the shaft C
D E a lever fixed to the shaft Hby the bolt F, and capable
of being moved in the direction of the plate A B, so that it
can lay hold of the projections G G GG, which will admit the
boring shaft H to be thrown in and out of geer at pleasure.
The second kind of boring-mill clutch, or the one that is
used to bore the largest cylinders, is represented in fig. 59.
The only difference between this clutch and the one just
described, consists in having the lever D
E to turn on a bolt
at F in a cast iron plate IKE, instead of hanging from the
shaft H. Three spare sets of ears, which are cast on the
plate, to be used in case of those in action breaking, support
the lever near the point of pressure, and take the stress
entirely off the bolt F.
When an engine is started, it frequently happens that the
crank is on the wrong side of the axis of the fly-wheel, so that
both that and the shaft make one or two, and, if the attend-
ant is negligent, several, revolutions in the wrong direction.
To prevent the mischief that would accrue from such an oc-
currence, a coupling, as is represented in fig. 60, is intro-
duced. A and B are two vertical shafts, maintained in the
same line by a small circular pin, which passes from the shaft
B into a cavity on the shaft A, which cavity is large enough
to admit the pin to lay in it without communicating motion
to the shaft A. The shaft B, which is connected with the
moving power, has a coupling piece with prominences or
teeth, perpendicular on the one side, and inclined on the
other, fixed on its upper end. The coupling or catch box
C, which is capable, of sliding freely up and down the square
part of the shaft A, has a correspondent set of teeth ; by
which it is evident, that when the shaft B turns the right
way, the perpendicular sides of the teeth of the respective
coupling pieces will act together, and carry round the upper

* For a method of constructing glands we must refer our readers to

Buchanans Essays on Mill-work.
32 THE OPERATIVE MECHANIC
shaft A ; but when B turns in a contrary direction^ the in-
clined sides of the teeth of the catch-box will slide over the
inclined sides of the teeth of the piece on the shaft B. and
cause the catch-box C to move up and down without com-
municating o motion to the shaft A.
Fig. 61 represents the coupling link used by Messrs. Boul-
ton and Watt in their portable steam-engines. A, a strong
iron pin^ projecting from one of the arms of the fly-wheel B
D a crank connected with the shaft C ; and E a link to couple
the pin A and the crank Dtogether, so that motion may be
communicated to the shaft C.
Hooks universal joints are sometimes used to communi-
cate motion obliquely instead of conical wheels. Fig. 62
represents a single universal joint, which may be employed
where the angle does not exceed forty degrees, and when the
shafts are to move with equal velocity. The shafts A and B,
being both connected with a cross, move on the rounds at
the points C E and D F, and thus, if the shaft A is turned
round, the shaft B will likewise turn with a similar motion in
itsrespective position.
The double universal joint, fig. 63, conveys motion in
different directions when the angle is between 50 and 90
degrees. It is at liberty to move on the points G, H, I, K,
connected with the shaft B ; also on the points L, M, N, I,
connected with the shaft A thus the two shafts are so con-
:

nected, that the one cannot turn without causing the other to
turn likewise. These joints may be constructed by a cross
of iron, or with four pins fastened at right angles upon the
circumference of a hoop or of a solid ball they are of great
;

use in cotton mills, where the tumbling shafts are continued

to a great distance from the moving power j for by applying
a universal joint, the shafts maybe cut into convenient lengths,
and so be enabled to overcome a greater resistance.
OF DISENGAGING AND REENGAGING MACHINERY.
A KNOWLEDGE of the best methods of disengaging and re-
engaging machinery, or, as the workmen call it, throwing in
and out of geer, is found to be highly necessary in most manu
factories ; and yet it frequently happens that the workmen are
either very ignorant of, or very inattentive to, this important
subject.
Matter possesses a certain property termed inertia^ which
has a tendency to maintain it in the state in which it actually
is; that is to say, if a body is set in motion, this property has
a tendency to maintain it for ever in that state, and certainly
 AND MACHINIST. 33
would, were it not gradually overcome by friction, or suddenly
stopped by some stronger power ; the same may be said of a
body in a state of rest, as this property would ever maintain
it in that state, were not some stronger force applied to set it

in motion. Such being the case, it frequently occurs, when

powerful machinery is moving with some velocity, and another
part, which is out of geer, is suddenly connected with it, or
thrown in geer, that the shock proceeding from inertia
snaps the teeth of the wheels, or causes destruction to some
other part of the machinery. To obviate this as much as
possible, such means should be resorted to, as have been
found in practice to answer best. The risk of breaking
the teeth may be considerably lessened by first setting
the wheel, that is to be thrown in geer, in motion by the
hand.
The methods that have been adopted for throwing ma-
chinery in and out of geer are various ; some of the principal
of which we shall now proceed to notice.
Fig. 64 represents the sliding pulley. P a pulley, having
a hollow cylindrical bush made so that it can revolve easily
upon the axle and slide backward and forward upon it ; B a
part of the bush projecting on one side of the pulley, having
a groove sufficiently large to admit the lever L to lay in it
without impeding its motion ; C G a cross or gland fixed
firm to the axle; and I, one or more teeth, projecting from
the pulley on the side opposite to the bush. When the axle
AD is required to be put in motion, the lever L must be

moved towards the cross or gland C G, so that the teeth

upon the pulley may catch hold of and carry it round with it.
The fast and loose pulley is represented in fig. 65. B is a
pulley firmly fixed on the axle A, and C a pulley with a bush,
so that it can revolve upon the axle A without communicating
motion to it. This contrivance is remarkable for its beauti-
ful simplicity, as the axle A can be thrown in and out of
geer at pleasure, without the least shock, by simply passing
a strap from the one pulley to the other.
The bayonet, in its construction, somewhat resembles the
sliding pulley. It is shown in fig. 66. A is a pulley or
binder, connected with the moving machinery by means of a
strap, and revolving upon the horizontal shaft B C, which is
out of geer ; D E is a pulley or wheel, made of either metal
or wood, fixed firmly to the horizontal shaft, and having two
holes to allow the legs of the bayonet to pass through ; F G
is the bayonet, having a bush, and capable of being moved

D
 34 THE OPERATIVE MECHANIC
backward and forward upon the horizontal shaft by pushing
the handle HH
5
so that when the shaft B C is required
to be put in motion, the attendant has only to push the
bayonet into the pulley D
E, which will immediately carry it
round.
Fig. 67 represents one of the simplest ways of disengaging
and reengaging wheels. A
B, the bridge of the wheel,
No. 1, acts as a lever, having its fulcrum at A ; the other
j|

end of the bridge B is capable of being lifted by the key

K K. When the wheel. No. 2, is required to be thrown out

of geer, the key KK is pressed downwards, and the end of
the bridge B rests upon the extreme end of the key, as shown
by the dotted lines.
The tightening roller is represented in fig. 68 A and B .

are two pullies, the one to receive, and the other to transmit, 1

motion, by means of the strap C D

is the tightening roller,
: 1

fastened to a movable arm E, and connected with a lever

G F. When the moving pulley (suppose A) is required to '

give motion to the other pulley B, the lever G

F must be
pushed downwards, which will tighten the strap by placing
the tightening roller in the position represented by the dotted ^
lines, and cause the pulley A
to carry the pulley B round i

with it. -

The friction clutch, represented in fig. 69, is used to dis-

engage and reengage machinery, when the velocity of the
moving parts is very great. A is a pulley, having a bush,
and revolving freely on the shaft S S B is another pulley,
:

having a similar bush, and also capable of revolving on the

shaft C C is a dish-spring, secured in its place by the pin
:

p p, and forcing the pulley B against the collar D, which is

fixed permanently to the shaft. When motion is required
to be communicated to the shaft S S, the pulley is moved A
towards the pulley B, and the teeth projecting from the side
of the pulley A, clasps those of the pulley B, and carries it
round with it ; and the friction of the pulley B against the

collar D, gradually overcomes the inertia, and carries the

shaft and connecting machinery also round.
The friction clutch, represented in fig. 70, is a very excellent
contrivance, as it prevents all those injurious shocks which
the machinery is apt to receive upon being thrown into geer.
C C is a cross fixed firm on the moving shaft ;
A
and
E is a pulley or drum fixed firm on the shaft to be moved, B.
When the shaft B is required to be moved, the clutch or
bayonet K
is made to pass through the arms of the cross C C,
 AND MACHINIST. S5

and clasp the screw-hoop 1 1, which is by that means carried

round with the shaft A, and the friction caused by the screw-
hoop 1 1, turning upon the drum or pulley E, causes the drum
and the shaft B, to which it is attached, to turn likeadse.
The friction cone is very similar in its effects to the fric-
tion clutch. On the moving shaft A, fig. 71? is fixed a cone
C ; and on the shaft B is another cone D, made to fit in the
cone C. The cone D
is movable on a square part of the

shaft B, and may, by a lever, be moved in and out of geer.

When the cone I) is moved forward, the cone C receives
motion by its internal surface.
In fig. 72 represented the self-disengaging coupling.
is
Two shafts, A and B, have each of them a cast iron wheel, with
four oblique wrought iron teeth ; but the wheel on the shaft
B is movable, on A it is fixed. When the coupling is en-
gaged, the teeth of 'the wheel C lay hold of the teeth of the
wheel D, and carry it, and the shaft A, round with the shaft
B. E F G
is a bent lever, having its fidcrum at F, which,

during the ordinary stress on B, keeps forward the bayonet C,

by the weight of the part F G ; but when a more than usual
stress comes on the shaft B, the pressure on the oblique
teeth forces the bayonet back, and disengages the coupling,
and the lever is held by a catch until the coupling is re-
engaged by the hand of the workman.

ON EQUALIZING THE MOTION OF MACHINERY.

The regulation of the velocity of a mill is a matter of very
great importance to preserve an uniformity of motion, either
when the force of the first mover is fluctuating, or when the
resistance or work of the mill varies in its degree either or both
:

of these causes will occasion the mill to accelerate or diminish

its velocity; and in many instances it will have a very injurious
effect upon the operations of the mill. Thus, in a mill for
spinning cotton, wool, flax, &c., driven by a water-wheel, are
a multiplicity of movements, many of which are occasionally
disengaged, in different parts of the mill, for various purposes.
This tends to diminish the resistance to the first mover, and
the whole mill accelerates. Or, on the other hand, the head
of water, which drives the wheel, may be liable to rise and
fall suddenly, from many causes, which great and rapid rivers
are subject to, and cause similar irregularities in the speed of
the wheel. For such cases judicious mechanics have adopted
contrivances, or regulators, which counteract all these causes
of irregularity ; and a large mill, so regulated, will move like
a clock, with regard to its regularity of velocity. These
D 2
36 THE OPERATIVE MECHANIC
regulators are usually called called goveriiors, and are made
on different principles. Those most generally used are called
flying-balls^ operating by the centrifugal force of two heavy
balls, which are connected and revolve with a vertical axis.
Fig. 189^ steam-engine, is the simplest form of this ingenious
apparatus : AAis the vertical axis, which is constantly revolv-
ing by the machinery; at a a two arms or pendulums, ab, a b,
are jointed, and carry at their extremities a heavy metal ball
each, as b, b; from the pendulum two chains or iron rods,
d r/, proceed, and suspend a collar c, which slides freely up
and down the axis, and has a groove formed all round it, in
which the end of a forked lever, D, is received; and thus the
rising and the falling of the collar e, produces a corresponding
motion of the end of the lever D; but the collar is always at
liberty to turn round with the axis freely within the fork,
at the extremity of the lever. The operation of the governor
is this : when
the vertical axis is put in motion, the centri-
fugal force of the balls Z, Z>, causes them to recede from the
centre; and as this is done both together, they cause the
collar c, and the end of the lever, to rise up the balls fly out
;

to a certain height, and there they continue as long as the

axis preserves the same velocity ; as it is the property of a
pendulous ball, like Z, to make a greater effort to return to
the perpendicular, in proportion as it is removed farther from
it, in consequence of the suspending rod being more inclined,

and bearing less of its weight. The weight of the balls to

return to the axis may be considered as a constantly increasing
quantity; while the quantity of the centrifugal force, causing
them to recede from the axis, depends exactly upon the
velocity given them. But this velocity increases as they open
out, independently of any increased velocity of the axis, in
consequence of their describing a larger circle. The com-
bination of these oppositely acting forces causes the governor
to be a most sensible and delicate regulator. Thus suppose
:

the balls hanging perpendicular put the axis in motion with

a certain velocity, the centrifugal force will cause the balls
to fly out; and this increasing their velocity, (by putting
them farther from the centre, and causing them to revolve in
a larger circle,) gives them a greater centrifugal force, which
would carry them still farther from the centre, but for the
counteracting force, viz, the weight of the balls tending to
return. This is, as before stated, an increasing quantity,
and consequently these opposite forces come to a point where
they balance each other; that is, the balls fly out till their
weight to return balances the centrifugal force. But if the
 PI. 6.

From 70 to 78 71

^aU k .^toMiy si-se^ Strand.

 AND MACHINIST. 37
slightest alteration takes place in the velocity of the axis,
the equilibrium is destroyed by the increase or diminution cf
the centrifugal force, and the balls alter their distance from
the centre accordingly, and, by elevating or depressing the
end of the lever, operate upon some part of the mill to rectify
the cause of the irregularity. In a steam-engine, the lever
acts upon a vane or door situated in the passage of the steam
from the boiler to the cylinder ; and if the mill loses in velo-
city, from an increase of resistance, the balls fall together a
little, and the consequent fall of the lever opens the door or
throttle- valve a little wider, and gives a stronger supply of
steam to restore the mill to its original velocity. On the
other hand, if the mill accelerates, the balls open out and
then close the vane, so as to moderate the supply of steam.
A water-wheel is not so easily regulated by the governor,
because the shuttle of a large wheel requires a much greater
force to raise or lower it, when the water is pressing against
it, than the lever O, can at any time possess^ it therefore

becomes requisite to introduce some additional machinery,

which has sufficient power to move the shuttle, and this is
thrown in or out of action by the flying balls. The simplest
contrivance, and that which we believe was the regulator first
used for a water-wheel, was erected at a cotton-mill at
Belper, in Derbyshire, belonging to Mr. Strutt. A square
well, or large cistern, was situated close by the water-wheel
it had a pipe leading from the mill-dam into it, to admit

water; and another pipe from it to the mill-tail, to take the

water away: both were closed at pleasure by cocks or sluices.
Within the well was a large floating chest, very nearly filling
up the space it of course rose and fell with the water in the
:

cistern, and liad a communication by rack and wheel-work

with the machinery for drawing the shuttle, so that the rise
and fall of the floating chest elevated and depressed the
shuttle of the wheel. The lever of the governor was con-
nected with the cocks in the two pipes in such a manner,
that when the mill was going at its intended velocity, both of
the cocks were shut; but if the water-wheel went too slowly,
the falling of the bails and descent of their lever D, opened
the cock in the pipe of supply, and, by letting water into the
well, raised the float, and, with it, the shuttle, to let more
water upon the wheel, till it acquired such a velocity that the
balls began to open out again, and thus shut the cock on :

the other hand, if the mill went too fast, the balls opened the
pipe of exit from the well, and then the sinking of the float
closed the shuttle till the true velocity was restored.
38 THK OPERATIVE MECHANIC
Since this first application of the regulator to the water-
wheel, the manner of its operation has been greatly varied;
and as the same mechanism is applicable to any kind of
mill-work, we shall give a slight sketch of it. Suppose A,
fig. 74, an axis, receiving its motion from the mill by wheel-
work; it is provided with a pair of governors, ab, a b, con-
structed like those before described ; and at the lower part of
the spindle is a bevelled wheel, R, turning two others, B and
C, situated upon one spindle, D, which goes away, and
communicates motion to the racks of the shuttle; the wheels,
B and C, are neither of them fixed to the spindle D, but both
slip round freely upon it, turning in contrary directions, as
they receive motion from the opposite sides of the wheel R.
A locking clutch, c?, is fitted upon the spindle between these
two wheels, B, C, and can, by moving it one way or the
other, be made to lock either one of the wheels to the spindle
D, at the same time that it leaves the other disengaged.
The locking-box is moved by means of a lever, shown in
fig. 73, the arm m having a fork to embrace a groove in the
box ; the lever is fixed on a vertical axis w, which has at the
upper end two other levers, o, p; these lay one at each side
of the vertical axis A, but at different heights, as is evident
from the figure. The collar c, which is raised up when the
balls fly out, is fitted upon a square part of the spindle A,
and is formed like a snail or camm, which will act upon either
of the levers, o or according to the height at which it
hangs upon its spindle. Nowwhen the mill is going with
its true velocity, this camm e is atsuch a height that it is
beneath one lever, o, and above the other, p, so as to inter-
fere with neither; consequently the locking-box, c?, remains
detached but on any alteration
: in the velocity of the mill
and the axis A, the balls open or shut, as before explained,
and the camm, c, either rises or falls, and then it presses against
one of the levers, o or jo, and by pushing it away from the
axis, it moves the lever m, and the locking-box up to one
of the wheels, B or C, which it locks to the axis D, and turns
it round in the direction of that wheeFs motion, by which it
either raises or depresses the v/ater-wheeFs shuttle, as is
required. This apparatus may, it is plain, be applied to any
other kind of mill-work.
Governors or flying-balls are very frequently used in the
wind-mills employed for grinding flour the variable force of
:

this first mover renders some such regulator necessary, to

increase the resistance, by allowing a greater feed of corn,
when the mill moves too quickly, and thus in some degree
 AND MACHINIST. 39
counteracting the irregularity. If the mill moves too slowly,
the balls tend to diminish the feed, and at the same time
they raise the upper stone, to set them at a greater distance
asunder, that they may require less power to drive them, and
consequently suffer the mill, as nearly as it can, to retain its
full velocity, though the motive force is greatly diminished.
This application of the governor was, we believe, first made
by the ingenious captain Hooper of Margate, who invented
the horizontal wind-mill. It is a very great advantage, and
no wind-mill should be without them. Many wind-mills are
provided with flying-balls, which, by very ingenious me^
chanism, clothe and unclothe the sails just in proportion to
the strength of the wind.
In many mills it is of consequence to be able to detect
small variations in the velocity, and to ascertain the quantity
of them; for the governor only corrects the irregularities,
without showing any scale of them. In cases where this is
required, it may be done by a very ingenious instrument,
invented by Mr. Bryan Donkin, of Fort-place, Bermondsey,
He received a gold medal from the Society of Arts, Manu-
factures, and Commerce, in 1810, for this instrument, which
he calls a tachometer.
A front view of Mr, Donkin^ s tachometer^ or instru-
ment for indicating the velocity of Machinery^ is represented
in fig. 70, and a side view in fig. 77* XY Z, fig. 70, is the
vertical section of a wooden cup, made of box, which is
drawn in elevation at X, fig. 77 * The whiter parts of the
section, in fig. 76, represent what is solid, and the dark parts
what is hollow. This cup is filled with mercury up to the
level L L, fig. 76. Into the mercury is immersed the lower
part of the upright glass tube A B, which is filled with
coloured spirits of wine, and open at both ends, so that some
of the mercury in the cup enters at the lower orifice, and
when every thing is at rest, supports a long, column of spirits,
as represented in the figure. The bottom of the cup is
fastened by a screw to a short vertical spindle D, so that when
the spindle is whirled round, the cup (whose figure is a solid
of revolution) revolves at the same time round its axis, which
coincides with that of the spindle.
In consequence of this rotation, the mercury in the cup
acquires a centrifugal force, by which its particles are thrown
outwards, and that with the greater intensity, according as
they are more distant from the axis, and according as the
angular velocity is greater. Hence, on account of its fluidity,
the mercury rises higher and higher as it recedes from the
40 THE OPERATIVE MECHANIC
axis, and consequently sinks in the middle of the cup ; this
elevation at the sides and consequent depression in the
middle increasing always with the velocity of rotation. Now
the mercury in the tube, though it does not revolve with the
cup, cannot continue higher than the mercury immediately
surrounding it, nor indeed so high, on account of the super-
incumbent column of spirits. Thus the mercury in the tube
will sink, and consequently the spirits also but as that part
;

of the tul3e which is within the cup is much wider than the
part above it, the depression of the spirits will be much
greater than that of the mercury, being in the same propor-
tion in which the square of the larger diameter exceeds the
square of the smaller.
Let us now suppose, that by means of a cord passing round
a small pulley F, and the wheel G
or H, or in any other
convenient way, the spindle D is connected with the machine

whose velocity is to be ascertained. In forming this con-

nection, we must be careful to arrange matters so, that when
the machine is moving at its quickest rate, the angular
velocity of the cup shall not be so great as to depress the
spirits below C into the wider part of the tube. We are
also, as in the figure, to have a scale of inches and tenths
applied to A C, the upper and narrower part of the tube, the
numeration being carried downwards from zero, which is to
be placed at the point to which the column of spirits rises
when the cup is at rest.
Then the instrument will beadjusted, if we mark on the
which the column of spirits is depressed,
scale the point to
when the machine is moving with the velocity required.
But, as in many cases, and particularly in steam-engines,
there is a continued oscillation of velocity, in those cases we
have to note the two points between which the column
oscillates during the most advantageous movement of the
machine.
Here it is proper to observe, that the height of the column
of spirits will vary with the temperature, when other cir-
cumstances are the same. On this account the scale ought
to be movable, so that, by slipping it upwards or downwards,
the zero may be placed at the point to which the column
reaches when the cup is at rest ; and thus the instrument
may be adjusted to the particular temperature with the utmost
facility, and with sufficient precision. The essential parts of
the tachometer have now been mentioned, as well as the
method of adjustment 5 but certain circumstances remain tQ
be staled,
 AND MACHINIST. 41

The form of the cup

adapted to render a smaller quantity
is

of mercury sufficient, than what must have been employed

either with a cylindrical or hemispherical vessel. In every
case two precautions are necessary to be observed first, :
that when the cup is revolving with its greatest velocity, the
mercury in the middle shall not sink so low as to allow any
of the spirits in the tube to escape from the lower orifice,
and that the mercury, when most distant from the axis, shall
not be thrown out of the cup. Secondly, that when the cup
is at rest, the mercury shall rise so high above the lower end
of the tube, that it may support a column of spirits of the
proper length.
Now in order that the quantity of mercury, consistent
with these conditions, may be reduced to its minimum, it is
necessary first, that if M M,
fig. 7^, is the level of the
mercury at the axis, when
the cup is revolving with tlie
greatest velocity, the upper part MMX
Y of the cup should
be of such a form as to have the sides covered only with a
thin film of the fluid ; and, secondly, that for the purpose of
raising the small quantity of mercury to the level L L, which
may support a proper height of spirits when the cup is at
rest; the cavity of the cup should be in a great measure
occupied by the block K
K, having a cylindrical perforation
in the middle of it for the immersion of the tube, and
leaving sufficient room within and around it for the mercury
to move freely both along the sides of the tube and of the
vessel.
The block KK is preserved in its proper position in the
cup or vessel X Y Z,
by means of three narrow projecting
slips or ribs placed at equal distances round it, and is kept
from rising or floating upon the mercury by two or three
small iron or steel pins inserted into the under side of the
cover, near the aperture through which the tube passes.
It would be extremely difficult, however, nor is it by any
means important, to give to the cup the exact form which
would reduce the quantity of mercury to its minimum ; but
we shall have a sufficient approximation, which may be exe-
cuted with great precision, if the part of the cup above MM
is made
a parabolic nonoid, the vertex of the generating para-
bola being at that point of the axis to which the mercury
sinks at its lowest depression, and the dimensions of the
parabola being determined in the following manner. Let
V G, fig. 78, represent the axis of the cup, and V the point
to which Ihe mercury sinks at its lowest depression ; at any
point G above V, draw G H perpendicular to V G ; let n be
42 THE OPERATIVE MECHANIC
the number of revolutions which the cup is to perform in
quickest motion ; let v be the number of inches
at its
which a body would describe uniformly in 1", with the velo-
city acquired in falling from rest, through a height to =
V
G V, and make GH= . Then, the parabola to be
6 n
determined is that which has vfor its vertex, V G for its
axis, and G Hfor its ordinate at G. The cup has a lid to
prevent the mercury from being thrown out of it, an event
which would take place with a very moderate velocity of
rotation, unless the sides were raised to an inconvenient
height ; but the lid, by obstructing the elevation at the sides
of the cup, will diminish the depression in the middle, and
consequently the depression of spirits in the tube on this
;

account a cavity is formed in the block immediately above

the level L/L, where the mercury stands when the cup is at
rest ; and thus a receptacle is given to the fluid, which would
otherwise disturb the centrifugal force and impair the sensi-
bility of the instrument.
It will ])e observed, that the lower orifice of the tube is
turned upwards. By this means, after the tube has been
filled with spirits by suction, and its upper orifice stopped
with the finger, it may easily be conveyed to the cup and
immersed in the quicksilver without any danger of the spirits
escaping ; a circumstance which otherwise it would be ex-
tremely difficult to prevent, since no part of the tube can be
made capillary, consistently with that free passage to the
fluids, which is essentially necessary to the operation of the
instrument.
We have next to attend to the method of putting the
tachometer in motion whenever we wish to examine the velo-
city of the machine. The pulley F, which is continually
whirling during the motion of the machine, has no connec-
tion whatever with the cup, so long as the lever Q R is left
to itself. But when this lever is raised, the hollow cone T,
which is attached to the pulley and whirls along with it, is
also raised, and embracing a solid cone on the spindle of the
cup, communicates the rotation by friction. When our ob-
servation is made, we have only to allow the lever to drop by
its own weight, and the two cones will be disengaged, and
the cup remain at rest.
The lever Q R is connected by a vertical rod to another
lever S, having, at the extremity S a valve, which, when the
lever Q R is raised, and the tachometer is in motion, is
lifted up from the top of the tube, so as to admit the external
 AND MACHINIST. 43
air upon the depression of the spirits ; on the other hand,
when the lever Q R falls, and the cup is at rest, the valve
at S closes the tube, and prevents the spirits from being
wasted by evaporation.
It is lastly to be remarked, that both the sensibility and
the range of the instrument may be infinitely increased ; for,
on tlie one hand, by enlarging the proportion between the
diameters of the wide and narrow parts of the tube, we
enlarge in a much higher proportion the extent of scale cor-
responding to any given variation of velocity ; and on the
other hand, by deepening the cup so as to admit when it is
at rest a greater height of mercury above the lower end of
the tube, we lengthen the column of spirits which the mer-
cury can support, and consequently enlarge the velocity,
which, with any given sensibility of the instrument, is re-
quisite to depress the spirits to the bottom of the scale.
Hence the tachometer is capable of being employed in very
delicate philosophical experiments, more especially as a
scale might be applied to it, indicating equal increments of
velocity. But in the present account it is merely intended
to state how it may be adapted to detect in machinery every
deviation from the most advantageous movement.
General Observations .
In setting out the geering of a
mill, it should be the object of the engineer to place the
heaviest machinery nearest the moving power, as, in trans-
mitting motion to a great distance, not only the weight of
shafting is to be taken into consideration, but the friction
which exists in all the different bearings, and which is
greatly increased by a small obstacle placed beyond those
bearings.
Care likewise should be taken to make as few bearings as
possible, still keeping in view that the shafts must not be
allowed to swag. Rules might be given for the distances of
the bearings of the shafting, if the shafting had only to move
itself, but having to carry various sized pullies, both their
weight and the weight of the machinery they turn must be
taken into consideration, which compel us to forego the at-
tempt 3 it is, however, necessary to state, that it is better to
have a bearing too many than to allow a shaft to bend, as it
cannot then run true in its steps or journals.
In forming couplings, great care should be taken to make
them fit, so that the coupled shaft may move as though of
the same piece with the driving shaft : nor can simplicity be
too strongly recommended, that the coupled shaft may, in
.case of an accident, be instantaneously disengaged, for the
44 THE OPERATIVE MECHANIC
loss of time arising from any accident is of serious im-
portance to the manufacturer. Couplings should be placed
near the bearings, as there is there the least swag, and the
shaft is of course the weakest at the couplings. The same
observation is applicable to the disposing of wheels and
pullies.
Pullies have been sometimes formed in two halves for
putting upon the shaft without taking the shaft down, but
their adoption is by no means general, as there is some
difficulty in fixing them true whilst the shaft is in its place.
Straps to drive geering should be avoided whenever wheels
can be substituted, as they are very liable to stretch and
break, and do not transmit regular motion. In fixing the
wheels and pullies upon a shaft, which is mostly done b)^
driving wedges in the bush of the wheel or pulley, called
staking them on, great pains should be taken to have them
true, which can only be done by driving the wedges regu-
larly on each side to the same degree of tightness. It most
generally happens when one wedge is over-driven, the work-
men, rather than take the trouble to alter it, will let it re-
main ; but this is of more importance than is generally
imagined, for if a wheel is not true, it cannot work in the
pitch line, all round, and where it is out it will shake, or have,
what is called, hack-lash, which, happening always in the
same wear the ".vhecls irregularly. If a pulley is
place, will
not true, it communicate irregular motion by its strap,
will
and likewise cause an irregular stress upon the shaft on which
it works, much to the detriment of the bearing.
Chains have been beneficially introduced as substitutes
for straps in driving heavy geer.
Shafts should be circular, as they are less likely to catch
any thing, and have a much neater appearance. The same
may be said of couplings. The wheels of the geering
should be always enclosed in a casing of wood, called boxing
o//, to prevent any thing failing in between them, or accidents
occurring to the people who maybe working near them. The
wheels should be furnished with brushes resting upon their
faces, to distribute the'grease equally and to keep it between
the teeth :and on starting a new pair of wheels, a little
emery may be put on with the gi*ease, to bring them to a
smooth face.
The following general observations on the construction
of Machines, and on the regulating of their motions, appear
to be highly worthy of the Mill-wrighCs attention ; we
have, therefore, extracted them from jJr. Robisons article
 AND MACHINIST. 45

on Machinery^ inserted in the Supplement to the Encydo

pcjcdia Britannica.
When heavy stampers are to be raised, in order to
drop on the matters to be pounded, the wipers by which
they are lifted should be made of such a form, that the
stamper may be used by a uniform pressure, or with a
motion almost perfectly uniform. If this is not attended
to, and the wiper is only a pin sticking out from the axis,
the stamper is forced into motion at once. This occasions
violent jolts to the machines, and great strains on its moving
parts and their points of support ; whereas, when they are
gradually lifted, the inequality of desultory motion is never
felt at the impelled point of the machine. We
have seen
pistons moved by means of a double rack on the piston
rod. A half wheel takes hold of one rack, and raises it to
the required height. The moment the half wdieel has quit-
ted that side of the rack, it lays hold of the other side, and
forces the piston down again. This is proposed as a great
improvement ; connecting the unequable motion of the
piston moved in the common w^ay by a crank. But it is far

inferior to thecrank motion. It occasions such abrupt

changes of motion, that the machine is shaken by jolts.
Indeed, if the movement were actually executed, the machine
would be shaken to pieces, if the parts did not give w^ay by
bending and yielding. Accordingly, we have ahvays observed
that this motion soon failed, and was changed for one that
was more smooth. A judicious engineer will avoid all such
sudden changes of motion, especially in any ponderous part
of a machine.
When several stampers, pistons, or other reciprocal
movers, are to be raised and depressed, common sense teaches
us to distribute their times of action in a uniform manner, so
that the machine may always be equally loaded with work.
When tins is done, and the observations in the preceding
paragraph attended to, the machine may be made to move
almost as smoothly as if there ^vere no reciprocations in it.
Nothing shows the ingenuity more than the artful yet simple
and effectual contrivances for obviating those difficulties
that unavoidably arise from the very nature of the w^ork
that must be performed by the machine, and of the power
employed.
There is also great room for ingenuity and good choice
in the management of the moving power, when it is such as
cannot immediately produce the kind of motion required for
effecting the purpose. We mentioned the conversion of the
46 THE OPERATIVE MECHANIC
continued rotation of an axis into the reciprocating motion
of a piston^ and the improvement which was thought to have
been made on the common and obvious contrivance of a
crank, by substituting a double rack on the piston-rod, and
the inconvenience arising from the jolts occasioned by this
change. We
have seen a great forge, where the engineer,
in order to avoid the same inconvenience arising from the
abrupt motion given to the great sledge hammer of seven
hundred weight, resisting with a five-fold momentum, formed
the wipers into spirals, which communicated motion to the
hammer almost without any jolt whatever; but the result
was, that the hammer rose no higher than it had been raised
in contact with the wiper, and then fell on the iron bloom
with very little effect. The cause of its inefficiency was not
guessed at; but it was removed, and wipers of the common form
were put in place of the spirals. In this operation, the rapid
motion of the hammer is absolutely, necessary. It is not
enough to lift it up ; it must be tossed up, so as to fly higher
than the wiper lifts it, and to strike with great force the strong
oaken spring which is placed in its way. It compresses this
spring, and is reflected by it with a considerable velocity, so
as to hit the iron as if it had fallen from a great height.
Had it been allowed to fly to that height, it would have
fallen upon the iron with somewhat more force, (because no
oaken spring is perfectly elastic,) but this would have re-
quired more than twice the time.
In employing a power which of necessity reciprocates, td
drive machinery which requires a continuous motion (as in
applying the steam-engine to a cotton or grist mill,) there
also occur great difficulties. The necessity of reciprocation
in the first mover wastes much power ; because the instru-
ment which communicates such an enormous force must be
extremely strong, and be well supported. The impelling
power is wasted in imparting, and afterwards destroying, a
vast quantity of motion in the working beam. The skilful
engineer will attend to this, and do his utmost to procure the
necessary strength of this first mover, without making it a
vast load of inert matter. He will also remark, that all the
strains on it, supports, are changing their direc-
and on its
tions in every stroke. This requires particular attention to
the manner of supporting it. If we observe the steam-
engines which have been long erected, we see that they have
uniformly shaken the building to pieces. This has been
owing to the ignorance or inattention of the engineer in this
particular. They are much more judiciously erected now.
 AND MACHINIST. 47
experience having taught the most ignorant that no building
can withstand their desultory and opposite jolts, and that
the great movements must be supported by a frarne-w'ork
independent of the building of masonry wdiich contains it.*
The engineer will also remark, that when a single-stroke
steam-engine is made to turn a mill, all the communications
of motion change the direction of their pressure twice every
stroke. During the working stroke of the beam, one side of
the teeth of the intervening wheels is pressing the machinery
forward; but during the returning stroke, the machinery,
already in motion, is dragging the beam, and the wheels are
acting with the other side of the teeth. This occasions a
rattling at every change, and makes it proper to fashion
both sides of the teeth with the same care.
It will frequently conduce to the good performance of an
engine, to make the action of the resisting work unequable,
accommodated to the inequalities of the impelling powder.
This will produce a more uniform motion in machines in
which the momentum of inertia is inconsiderable. There
are some beautiful specimens of this kind of adjustment in
the mechanism of animal bodies.
It is very customary to add what is called a fly to ma-
chines. This is a heavy disk or hoop, or other mass of
matter balanced on its axis, and so connected with the
machinery as to turn briskly round wdth it. This may be
done with the view of rendering the motion of the whole
more regular, notwithstanding unavoidable inequalities of the
accelerating forces, or of the resistances occasioned by the
work. It becomes a regulator. Suppose the resistance ex-
tremely unequal, and the impelling power perfectly constant
as when a bucket-wheel is employed to one pump. When
the piston has ended its working stroke, and while it is going
down the barrel, the powder of the wheel being scarcelj^ op-
posed, it accelerates the wdiole machine, and the piston
arrives at the bottom of the barrel with a considerable velo-
city. But in the rising again, the wheel is opposed by the
column of water now pressing on the piston. This imme-
diately retards the wheel ; and when the piston has reached
* The gudgeons of a water-wheel should never rest on the wall of the
building. It shakes it; and if set up soon after the building has been
erected, it prevents the mortar from taking firm bond ; perhaps by shatter-
ing the calcareous crystals as they form. When the engineer is obliged to rest
the gudgeons in this way, they should be supported by a block of oak laid a
little hollow. This softens all tremors, like springs of a wheel carriage.
This practice would be very serviceable in many other parts of the con-
struction.
48 THE OPERATIVE MECHANIC
tiie top of the barrel, all the acceleration is undone, and is to
begin again. The motion of such a machine is very hob-
bling : but the superplus of accelerating force at the begin-
ning of a returning stroke will not make such a change in
the motion of the machine if we connect the fly with it. For
the accelerating momentum is a determinate quantity. There-
fore, if the radius of the fly be great, this momentum will be
attained by communicating a small angular motion to the ma-
chine.
The momentum of the fly is as the square of its radius ;
therefore it resistsacceleration in this proportion ; and
although the overplus of power generates the same momen-
tum of rotation in the whole machine as before, it makes but
a small addition to its velocity. If the diameter of the fly
be doubled, the augmentation of rotation wdll be reduced to
one-fourth. Thus, by giving rapid motion to a small quan-
tity of matter, the great acceleration during the returning
stroke of the piston is prevented. This acceleration conti-
nues, however, during the whole of the returning stroke, and
at the end of it the machine has acquired its greatest velo-
city. Now the working stroke begins, and the overplus of
power is at an end. The machine accelerates no more ; but
if the power is just in equilibrio with the resistance, it keeps

the velocity which it has acquired, and is still more accele-

rated during the next returning stroke. But now, at the be-
ginning of the subsequent working stroke, there is an over
plus of resistance, and a retardation begins, and continues
during the whole rise of the piston ; but it is inconsiderable
in comparison of what it would have been without the fly
for the fly, retaining its acquired momentum, drags forward
the rest of the machine, aiding the impelling power of the
wheel. It does this by all the commumcations taking into each
other in the opposite direction. The teeth of the interven-
ing wheels are heard to drop from their former contact on
one side, to a contact on the other. By considering this pro-
cess with attention, we easily perceive that, in a few strokes,
the overplus of power during the returning stroke comes to
be so adjusted to the deficiency during the working stroke,
that the accelerations and retardations exactly destroy each
other, and every succeeding stroke is made with the same
velocity, and an equal number of strokes is made in every
succeeding minute. Thus the machine acquires a general
uniformity with periodical inequalities. It is plain, that by suf-
ficiently enlarging either the diameter or the weight of the fly>
the irregularity of the motion may be rendered as small as we
 AND MACHINIST. 49
please. It is much better to enlarge the diameter. This
preserves the friction more moderate, and the pivot wears
less. For these reasons a fly is in general a considerable im-
provement in machinery, by equalizing many exertions that
are naturally very irregular. Thus, a man working at a com-
mon windlass exerts a very irregular pressure on the winch.
In one of his positions, in each turn he can exert a force of
near 70 lbs. without fatigue, but in another he cannot exert
above 25 lbs 3 nor must he be loaded with much above this
in general. But if a large fly be connected properly with
the windlass, he will act with equal ease and speed against
30 lbs.
This regulating power of the fly is without bounds, and
may be used to render uniform a motion produced by the
most desultory and irregular power. It is thus that the most
regular motion is given to mills that are driven by a single-
stroke steam-engine, wdiere, for two, or even three seconds,
there is no force pressing round the mill. The communica-
tion is made througha massive fly of very great diameter,
whirling with great rapidity. As soon as the impulse ceases,
the fly, continuing its motion, urges round the whole ma-
chinery with almost unabated speed. At this instant all the
teeth, and all the joints, between the fly and the first mover,
are heard to catch in the opposite direction.
If any permanent change should happen in the impelling
power, or in the resistance, the fly makes no obstacle to its
producing its full effect on the machine; and it will be observed
to accelerate or letard uniformly, till a new general speed is
acquired exactly corresponding with this new pouer and
resistance.
Many machines include, in their construction, movements
which are equivalent with this intentional regulator. A
flour mill, for example, cannot be better regulated than by
its mill-stone ; but in the Albion Mills, a heavy fly was added
with great propriety ; for if the mills had been regulated by
their mill-stones only, then, at every change of stroke in the
steam-engine, the whole train of communications between
the beam, which is the first mover, and the regulating mill-
stone, which is the very last mover, would take in the oppo-.
site direction. Although each drop in the teeth and joints
be but a trifle, the whole, added together, would make a con-
siderable jolt. This is avoided by a regulator immediately
adjoining the beam. This continually presses the working
machinery in one direction. So judiciously were the move-
ments of that noble machine contrived, and so nicely were
a
5Q THK OPERATIVE MECHANIC
they executed, that not the least noise was heard, nor the
slightest tremor felt in the building.
Mr. Valoues beautiful pile engiiie, employed at Westmin-
ster bridge, is another remarkable instance of the regulating
power of a fly. When the ram is dropped^ and its follower
disengaged immediately after it, the horses would instantly
tumble down, because the load, against which they had been
straining hard, is at once taken oft ; but the gin is connected
with a very large fly, wftiich checks any remarkable accelera-
tion, allowing the horses to lean on it during tiie descent of
the load after w^hich their draught recommences immedi-
;

ately. Thespindles, cards, and bobbins, of a cotton mill,

are also a sort of flies. Indeed^ all bulky machines of the
rotative kind tend to preserve their motion with some degree
of steadiness, and their great momentum of inertia is as use-
ful in this respect as it is prejudicial to the acceleration or
any reciprocation when w^anted. There is another kind of
regulating fly, consisting of wings whirled briskly round,
till the resistance of the air prevents any great acceleration,

"i bad one for a ivorking machine, for it produces

bis is a very
its by really wastmg a part of the moving powers.
effect
Frequently it employs a very great and unknow^n part of it,.
and robs tlie proprietor of much work. It should never be
introduced into any machine employed in manufactures.
Some rare cases occur where a very difterent regulator is
required where a certain determined velocity is found ne-
:

cessary. In this case the machine is furnished, at its ex-

treme mover, with a conical pendulum, consisting of two
heavy balls hanging by rods, which move in very nice and
steady joints at the top of a vertical axis. It is well known,,
that wdien this axis turns round, with an angular velocity
suited to the length of those pendulums, the time of a revolu-
tion is determined. Thus, if the length of each pendulum be
394- inches, the axis will make a revolution in two seconds
very nearly. If we attempt to force it more swdftly round, the
balls will recede a little from the axis, but it employs as long
time for a revolution as before ; and w^e cannot make it turn
swifter, unless the impelling power be increased beyond all
probability ; in which case the pendulum will fly out from the
centre till the rods are horizontal, after which every increase
of powder will accelerate the machine very sensibly. Watt
and Boulton have applied this contrivance with great inge-
nuity to their steam-engines, when they are employed for
driving machinery for manufactures which have a very change-
able resistance, and where a certain speed cannot be much
 and machinist. 51

departed from without great inconvenience. They have con-

nected this recess of the balls from the axis (which gives im-
mediate indication of an increase of power or a diminution
of resistance) with the cock which admits the steam to the
working cylinder. The balls, flying out, cause the cock to
close a little, and diminish the supply of steam. The impel-
ling power diminishes the next moment, and the balls again
approach the axis, and the rotation goes on as before,
although there may have occurred a very great excess or
deficiency of power.
A. fly is sometimes employed for a very different puqiose

from that of a regulator of motion it is employed as a col-
lector of poiuer. Suppose all resistance removed from the
working point of a machine furnished with a very large or
heavy fly immediately connected with the working point.
When a small force is applied to the impelled point of this
machine, motion will begin in the machine and the fly begin
to turn. Continue to press, uniformly, and the machine will
accelerate. This may be continued till the fly has acquired a
very rapid motion. If at this moment a resisting body be
applied to the working point, it will be acted on with very
great force ; for the fly has now accumulated in its circum-
ference a very great momentum. If a body were exposed
immediately to the action of this circumference, it would be
violently struck. Much more will it be so, if the body be
exposed to the action of the 'working point, which, perhaps,
makes one turn while tlie fly makes a hundred. It will exert
a hundred times more force there (very nearly) than at its
own circumference. All the motion which has been accu-
mulated on the fly during the whole progress of its accumu-
lation, is exerted in an instant at the working point, multiplied
by the momentum depending on the proportion of the parts
of the machine. It is thus that the coining press performs
its office; nay, it is thus that the blacksmith forges a bar of
iron. Swinging the great sledge hammer round his head,
and urging it with force the whole way, this accumulated
motion is at once extinguished by impact on the iron. It
is thus also we drive a nail, &c. This accumulating power
of a fly has occasioned many to imagine that a fly really
adds power or mechanical force to an engine; and, not under-
standing on what its efficacy depends, they often place the
fly in a situation where it only adds a useless burden to the
machine. It should always be made to move with rapidity.
If intended for a mere regulator, it should be near the first
mover ; and if it be intended to accumulate force in the
 52 TMK OPERATIVE MKCPIANIC
working point, should not !>e far separated from it. In a
it

may be said to add power to a machine,

certain sense, a fly
because by accumulating into the exertion of one moment the
exertions of many, we can sometimes overcome an obstacle
that we never could have balanced by the same machine,
unaided by the fly. And it is this accumulation of force
M^hich gives such an appearance of power to some of our
first movers.

ANIMAL STRENGTH.
Animal strength has been very differently estimated by
different authors but this is not to be wondered at when we
;

consider the many difficulties that ever must attend any

attempt to subject it to an estimate. Physical causes must
sensibly affect the extent and duration of animal exertion,
either in man or beast ; and the only way of coming to any
thing like an accurate result, is to compare the experiments
of the different philosophers who have attended to the sub-
ject. This has been already done by Dr. Young, in the
second volume of his Philosophi/, whose valuable tables we
here present to our readers.
Comparative table of mechanical forces.
In order to compare the different estimates of the force of
moving powers, it will be convenient to take a unit which
may be considered as the mean effect of the labour of an
active man, working and
to the greatest possible advantage,
v'ithout impediment. This will be found, on a moderate
estimation^ sufficient to raise lOpounds, 10 feet in a second,
for ten hours in a day; or to raise a 100 pounds, which is the
weight of twelve wine gallons of water, one foot in a second,
or 36,000 feet in a day ; or 3,600,000 pounds, or 432,000
gallons, one foot in a day. This we may call a force of one
continued 36,000''
Immediate force of men, without deduction for friction.
Conti- Days
Force.
nuance. work.
A mnn, weigliing 133 pounds, Fr. ascended 62 feet, Fr,
by steps, in 34", but was completely exhausted.
Aiuontons 00^ W'
A sawyer made 200 strokes of 18 inches, Fr. each, in
145", with a force of 25 pounds, Fr. He could not have

gune on above three minutes. Amontons. 6 145
A man can raise 60 pounds, Fr. one foot, Fr. in 1", for
eight hours a day. Bernouilii 69 ,552
A man of ordinary strength can turn a winch with a
force of 30 pounds, and with a velocity of 3$ feet in 1",
for 10 hours a day. Desaguliers 1,05 lOh 1,05
 AND MACHINIST. ^3
Cunti- Dajs
Force.
nuance. work.
, T\vo men working at a wimUass with handles at right
angles, can raise 70 pounds more easily than one can
raise 30.
Desaguliers 1,22 1,22
A man can exert a force of 40 pounds for a whole day,
with the assistance of a fly, when the motion is pretty quick,
at about four or five feet in 1".- -Desaguliers, Lect. iv.
But from the annotation it appears to be doubtful whether
the force is 40 pounds or 20 ,2 ,2
For a short time a man may exert a force of 80 pounds
wdth a fly, when the motion is pretty quick." Desa- 1"
guliers ,3
A man going i:p stairs ascends 14 metres in Cou-
I'.

lomb 1,1 8;2 1'

A man going up stairs for a day raises 205 chiliogrammes
to the height of a chilioinctre. Coulomb ,4i2
With a spade a man does
stairs.
Coulomb
^ as much as in ascending
.
'XV 1

With a winch a man does f as much as in ascending

stairs.
Coulomb ,258
A man carrying wmod up stairs raises, together with
his own weight, 109 chiliogrammes to one chiliometre.
Coulomb ,219
A man weighing 150 pounds, Fr. can ascend by stairs
three feet, Fr. in 1" for 15" or 20". Coulomb 5,22 20"
For half an hour, 100 pounds, Fr. may be raised one
foot, Fr. in 1". Coulomb 1,152 30'
According to Mr. Buchanans comparison, the force
exerted in turning a winch being made equal to the unit,
the force in pumping will be ,61
In ringing 1,36
In rowing 1,43
Allowing the accuracy of Eulers formula, confirmed by
Schulze, supposing a mans action to be a maximum when
he walks miles an hour, we have 7^ for his greatest
velocity, ,04f7f r)" for the force exerted with any other
velocity, and ,0160(7^
for the action in each case;
thus, when the velocity is one mile an hour, the action is ,676
When two miles ,964
When three ,972
When four ,784
And when five >5

And the force in a state of rest becomes 2^, or about

70 pounds ; with a velocity of two miles, 36 pounds ; with
three, 24 pounds; and with four, 15.
obvious that in the extreme cases this formula is in-
It is
accurate, but for moderate velocities it is probably a tolerable
approximation.
Coulomb makes the maximum of effect when a man,
weighing JO chiliogrammes, carries a weight of 53 up stairs,
but this appears to be too great a load ; he considers 145
chiliogrammes as the greatest ^^eight that can be raised.
He observes that in Martinique, where the thermometer is
seldom below 68, the labour of Europeans is reduced to one
 54 THE OPERATIVE MECHANIC
Harriot asserts tliat his pump, with a horizontal motion,
enables a man to do one-third more work than the common
pump with a vertical motion.
Porters carry from 200 to 300 pounds at the rate of three
miles an hour ; chairmen walk four miles an hour with a load
,of 150 pounds each; and it is said that in Turkey there are
porters who, by stooping forward, carry from 700 to 900
pounds placed very low on their backs.
The most advantageous weight for a man of common
strength to carry horizontally, is 1 1 1 pounds ; or if he returns
unladen, 135. With wheel-barrows, men will do half as
much more work as with hods. Coulomb.
Performance of men by machines.
Conti- Day 3
Force. 1

nuance. work.
A man raised by a rope and pulley 25 pounds, Fr. 220
feet, Fr. in 145''. Amontons ,436 145 "
A man can raise, by a good common pump, a hogshead
of water 10 feet high in a minute, for a whole day.
DesaguUers. ,875 ,875
By the mercurial pump, or any other good pump, a man
may raise a hogshead 18 or 20 feet in a minute, for om
or two minutes 1,61 J/
In a pile engine, 55^ pounds, Fr. were raised one'foot
Fr. in 1" for five hours a day, by a rope drawn horizon-
tally. Coulomb ,64 5^ ,82
Robison says, that a feeble old man raised seven cubic
feet of water, 11 feet in 1', for eight or ten hours a day,
by walking backwards and forwards on a lever. Eiic. Br. ,837 9 >*
,753
A young man weighing 135 pounds, and carrying 30,
raised 9^ cubic feet, 11^ feet high, for 10 hours a day,

without fatigue. Robison 1,106 lOh 1,106
Wynners machine enables a man to raise a hogshead 20
feet in a minute. Y 1,75 1'

Force of horses.
Two horses, attached to a plough on moderate ground,

exerted each a force of 150, Fr. Amontons. We may
suppose that they went a little more than two miles an
iiour, for eight hours 5,4 8^ 4,32
A horse draws with the greatest advantage when the line
of direction is level with his bteast ; and he can draw with
a force of 200 pounds, 2 miles an hour, for eight hours
in the day 7,33 8b 5,87
With a force of 240 only six hours. On a carriage, in-
deed, where friction alone is to be overcome, a middling

horse will draw 1000 pounds. DesaguUers 8,8 6b 5,28 '

The mean draught of four horses was 36 myriogrammes

each, or 794 pounds. Regnier. This must have been mo-
mentary. Supposing the velocity two feet in a second, the
action would have been 15,88 1"
By means of pumps a horse can raise 250 hogsheads of

water, 10 feet high, in an hour. Smeatons Reports .... 3,64 1"
 AND MACHINIST. 55
A horse can in general draw no more up a steep hill than
three men can carry ; that is, from 450 to 750 pounds j but
a strong horse can draw 2000 pounds up a steep hill, which is
but short. Tlie worst way of applying the force of a horse, is
to make him carry or draw up hill ; for if the hill be steep,
three men will do more than a horse, each man climbing up
faster with a hurdeii of 100 pounds weight, than a horse that
is loaded with 300 pounds : a difference which is owing to
the position of the parts of the human body being better
adapted to climb than those of a horse.
On the other hand, the best way of applying the force of
a horse, is an horizontal direction, wherein a man can exert
least force; thus a man, weighing 140 pounds, and drawing
a boat along, by means of a rope coming over his shoulders,
cannot draw above 2J pounds, or exert above one-seventh
part of the force of a horse employed to the same purpose.
The very best and most effectual posture in a man is tliat
of rowing ; wherein he not only acts with more muscles at
once for overcoming the resistance than in any other position,
but as he pulls backwards, the weight of his body assists by

way of lever. Desaguliers.
The diameter of a walk for a horse-mill ought to be at least

25 or 30 feet. Desaguliers.
Some horses have carried 650 or /OO pounds, seven or
eight miles, without resting, as their ordinary work ; and a
horse at Stourbridge carried eleven hundred weight of iron,

or 1232 pounds, for eight miles. Desaguliers, Experimental
Philosophy, vol. i.

Work of mules.
Cr>nti- Days
Force.
nuance, woik.
Cazancl s.ays, that a mule works in the West Indies two
hours out of about 18, with a force of about 150 pounds,

walking three feet in a second. Dr. Youngs Philosophy 4,5 40' 1,2

These examples exhibit the great advantages which may

be gained by directing the exertion of animals in a proper
course, their effects being plainly reducible to the operations
of mechanical powers. To describe the various modes of
applying animal strength, as a first mover of mechanical en-
gines, would greatly exceed our limits ; we shall therefore
merely state, that the most common machine for receiving
the force of animals is the horse-walk, w hich affords tiie means
of applying the action of that animal to create rotative motion.
The horse-walk is formed of an horizontal lever or arm,
attached to an upright spindle. The lever should not be less
66 THE OPERATIVE MECHANIC
than twelve feet^ as the labour of the animal is greatly in-
creased by a small curve^ which causes an unequal resistance
upon his two shoulders. The machine should be so regulated
that the horse may not be required to deviate from his usual
pace of two miles and a half, with a burthen, an hour. The
gives, in which the horse works, should not be immovably
fixed to the arms, but hung by a swivel joint, so that he
may place himself in the most comfortable position. The
work should be supplied to the machinery as regularly as
possible.
Having, in the preceding account, stated the mean results
of human exertion when applied to regular and uniform
labour, we shall in the next place proceed to notice some
extraordinary feats of strength, as well as some that had the
appearance of being such, but which were, in realit}', the
mere effects of contrivance and skill, and which might have
been performed by almost any men who were possessed
of that knowledge of their construction as would enable them
similarly to exert their strength to the best advantage.
M. de la Hire, in an Examination of the Force of Men
(vide Memoirs of the Academy of Sciences for 1699,) says.
There are men whose spirits flow so abundantly into their
muscles, that they exert three or four times more strengtli
than others do ; and this seems to be the natural reason of
the surprising strength that we see in some men who carry
and raise weights which two or three ordinary men can
hardly sustain, though these men be sometimes but of a
moderate stature, and rather appear weak than strong.
There was a man in this country a little while ago, who
would carry a very large anvil, and of whom was reported
several wonderful feats of strength. But I saw another at
Venice, who was but a lad, and did not seem able to carry
above forty or fifty pounds, with all possible advantages; yet
this young fellow, standing upon a table, raised from the
earth, and sustained off the ground, an ass, by means of a
broad girth, which, going under the creatures belly, w^as hung
upon two hooks that were fastened to a plat of small cords
coming down in tresses from the hair on each side of the
lads head, which were in no great quantity. And all this
great force depended only upon the muscles of the shoulders
and those of the loins: for he stooped at first whilst the
hooks w'ere fastened to the girth, and then raised himself, and
lifted up the ass from the ground, bearing with his hands
upon his knees. He raised also in the same manner other
weights that seemed heavier, and used to say he did with
 AND MACHINIST.
Diore ease, because the ass kicked and struggled when first
lifted from the gTound.
Dr, Desaguliers, in some annotations upon De la Hires
paper, says, What he attributes here to the muscles of the
loins, -were really performed by the extensors of the legs ; for
the young mans stooping with his hands upon his knees was
not with his body forwards and his knees stiff, but his body
upright and his knees bent, so as to bring the two cords with
which he lifted to be in the same plane with his ancles and
the heads of his thigh-bones ; by which means the line of
direction of the man and the whole weight came between the
strongest part of his two feet, which are the supports :then
as he extended his legs he raised himself, without changing
the line of direction. That this must have been the manner
I am pretty well assured of, by not only observing those that
perform such feats, but having often tried it myself. As for
the muscles of the loins, they are incapable of that strain,
being above six times weaker than the extensors of the legs
at least 1 found them so in myself.
About the year IJIG, having the honour of showing a
great many experiments to his late majesty King George I.,
his majesty was desirous to know wdiether there were any
fallacy in those feats of strength that had been shown half
a year before by a man, who seemed by his make to be no
stronger than other men upon this I had a frame of wood
:

made to stand in, (and to rest my hands upon,) and with a

girdle and chain lifted an iron cylinder, made use of to roll
the garden, sustaining it easily when once it was up. Some
noblemen and gentlemen who were present -tried the ex-
periment afterwards, and lifted the roller; some with more
ease, and some with more difficulty, than I had done. This
roller weighed 1,900 pounds, as the gardener told us.
Afterwards I tried to lift 300 pounds with my hands, (viz.,
two pails with 150 pounds of quicksilver in each,) which
I did indeed raise from the ground, but strained my back
so as to feel it three or four days ; which shows that, in the
ame person, the muscles of the loins (which exerted their
force in this last experiment) are more than six times
weaker than the extensors of the legs ; for I felt no incon-
veniency from raising the iron roller.
During the time that Dr. Desaguliers was occupied in
printing the second volume of his Philosophy, a man of great
natural strength exhibited himself in London, of whom the
doctor gives the following account.
58 THE OPERATIVE MECHANIC
Thomas Popham, born in London, and now about thirty-

one years of age, five feet ten inches high, Avith muscles very
hard and prominent, was brought up a carpenter, which trade
he practised till within these six or seven years that he has
showed feats of strength; but he is entirely ignorant of any
art to make his strength more surprising. Nay, sometimes
he does things which become more difficult by his disadvan-
tageous situation ; attempting, and often doing, what he hears
other strong men have done, without making use of the same
advantages.
About six years ago he pulled against a horse, sitting upon
the ground with his feet against Uvo stumps driven into the
ground, but without the advantages which might have been
attained by placing himself in a proper situation ; the horse,
however, was not able to move him, and he thought he was
in the right posture for drawing against a horse ; but when,
in the same posture, he attempted to draw' against two horses,
he was pulled out of his place by being lifted up, and had
one of his knees struck against the stumps, which shattered
it so, that, even to this day, the 'patella^ or knee-pan, is so
loose, that the ligaments of it seem either to be broken or
quite relaxed, which has taken aAvay most of the strength of
Slat leg.
Dr. Desaguliers then relates the exploits which he saw him
perform.
1. By the strength of his fingers, (only rubbed in coal
ashes to prevent them from slipping,) he rolled up a very
strong and large pewter dish.
2. He broke seven or eight short and strong pieces of
tobacco-pipe with the force of his middle finger, having laid
them on the first and third finger.
3. Having thrust in under his garter the bowl of a strong
tobacco-pipe, his legs being bent, he broke it to pieces by the
tendons of his hams, without altering the bending of his knee.
4. He broke such another bowl between his first and
second finger, by pressing his fingers together sideways.
5. He lifted a table six feet long, which had half a hundred
weight hanging at the end of it, with his teeth, and held it in
an horizontal position for a considerable time. It is true,
the feet of the table rested against his knees; but, as the
length of the table was much greater than its height, that
performance required a great strength to be exerted by the
muscles of his loins, those of his neck, the masseter and tem^
poraly (muscles of the jaws,) besides a good set of teeth.
 AND MACHINIST 59
6. He took an iron kitchen poker, about a yard long, and
three inches in circumference, and, holding it in his right
hand, he struck upon his bare left arm, between the elbow
and the wrist, till he bent the poker nearly to a right angle.
7* He took such another poker, and holding the ends of it
in his hands, and the middle against the back of his neck, he
brought both ends of it together before him ; and, what was
yet more difficult, he pulled it almost straight again because
:

the muscles which separate the arms horizontally from each

other are not so strong as those that bring them together.
8. He broke a rope of about two inches in circumference,
which was in part wound about a cylinder of four inches
diameter, having fastened the other end of it to straps that
went over his shoulders. But he exerted more force to do
this than any other of his feats, from his awkwardness in
going about it; for the rope yielded and stretched as he stood
upon the cylinder, so that when the extensors of the legs and
thighs had done their office in bringing his legs and thighs
straight, he was forced to raise his heels from their bearings,
and use other muscles that are weaker. But if the rope had
been so fixed that the rope to be broken had been short, it
would have been broken with four times less difficulty.
9. I have seen him lift a rolling stone of about 800
pounds with his hands only, standing in a frame above it,
and taking hold of a chain that was fastened to it. By this,
I reckon, he may be almost as strong again as those who
are generally reckoned the strongest men, they generally
lifting no more than 400 pounds in that manner. The
weakest men who are in health, and not too fat, lift about
125 pounds, having about half the strength of the strongest.
N. B. This sort of comparison is chiefly in relation to the
muscles of the loins; because in doing this, one must stoop
forwards a little. We must also add the w^eight of the body
to the weight lifted. So that if the weakest mans body
weighs 150 pounds, that, added to 125 pounds, makes the
whole weight lifted by him to be 275 pounds. Then, if the
strongest mans body weighs also 150 pounds, the whole
weight lifted by him will be about 550 pounds, that is 400
pounds and the 150 pounds which his body weighs. Top*
ham weighs about 200 pounds, which, added to the 800
pounds that he lifts, makes 1000 pounds. But he ought to
lift 900 pounds besides the weight of his body, to be as

strong again as a man of 150 pounds weight w'ho can lift

400 pounds.
About thirty years ago, one Joyce^ a Kentish man, famous
C') THE CTERATIVE MECHANIC
for his great strength, showed several feats in London and the
country, which so much surprised the spectators, that he was
])y most people called the second Sampson, But though
tiie postures which he had learnt to put his body into, and
found out by practice, without any mechanical theory, were
such as would make a man of common strength do such feats
as would appear surprising to every one who did not know
the advantage of those positions of the body, yet nobody
then attempted to draw against horses, or raise great weights,
or to do any thing in imitation of him ; because, as he was
very strong in the arms, and grasped those that tried his
strength tnat way so hard that they were obliged immediately
to desire him to desist, his other feats (wherein his manner of
acting was chiefly owing to the mechanical advantage gained
by the position of his body,) were entirely attributed to his
extraordinary strength.
But when he had been gone out of England, or had ceased
to show his performances, for eight or ten years, men of
ordinary strength had found out the way of making such
advantage of the same postures as Joyce had put himself into,
as to pass for men of more than common strength, by draw-
ing against horses, breaking ropes, lifting vast weights, &c.,
though they could in none of the postures really perform so
much as Joyce, yet they did enough to amaze and amuse,
and get a deal of money, so that every two or three years we
had a new second Sampson.
About fifteen years ago a German of middle size, and but
ordinary strength, showed himself at the lUue Posts, in the
Haymarket, and, by the contrivances above-mentioned, passed
for a man of uncommon strength, and gained considerable sums
of money by the daily concourse of spectators. After having
seen him once, I guessed at his manner of imposing upon the
multitude; and being resolved to be fully satisfied in th3
matter, I took four very curious persons with me to see him
again, viz., the Lord Marquis of Tullibardin, Dr. Alexander
Smart, Dr Pringle, and a mechanical workman who used to
assist me in my courses of experiments. We placed our-
selves in such manner round the operator, as to be able to
observe nicely all that he did; and found it so practicable,
that we performed several of his feats that evening by our-
selves, and afterwards I did the most of the rest, as 1 had a
frame to sit in to draw, and another to stand in and lift
weights, together with a proper girdle and hooks. I likewise
showed some of the experiments before the Royal Society;
and ever since, at my experimental lectures, I explain the
 AND MACHf^sfST. 6f

reason of such performances, and take any person of ordinary

strength that has a mind to try, who can easily do all that the
German above-mentioned used to do, without any danger or
extraordinary straining, by making use of my apparatus for
that purpose.
In order to explain how great feats may be performed by
men of no extraordinary strength, I have in fig. 79^ drawn
the lower part of a skeleton, containing so many of the bones
of the human body as are concerned in these operations,
making the figure pretty large, to show the better how the
girdle is to be applied.
The bones marked I Sx\PH I,* which compose the cavity
called the pelvis, contain a bony circle or double arch of such
strength, that it would require an immense force to break
them by an external pressure directed towards the centre of
the circle, or the middle of the pelvis. It is also to be
observed, that those parts of this bony circumference, which
receive the heads of the thigh-bone above, at, and below A,
called the ischium or coxendix, are the strongest of all, so
that a very great forcemay push the heads of the thigh-bones
upwards, or, which is the same thing, the upper parts of the
coxendix downwards, or towards each other in a lateral
direction from A to A, without doing any hurt to the human
body.
Now if the girdle above described be put round the body
in the manner represented in the figure, and be drawn dowui-
wards at G, by a great weight W, it wull press on the os
sacrum behind, and the ilium; then it will, by its pressure on
TT, the great trochanters of the thigh-bones, draw the round
heads the faster into their sockets, so as to make them less
liable to slip out and strain the ligament by a push directed
upwards. So that the semicircular part of the girdle, T C S C T,
presses together the bony arch denoted by the same letters,
which, according to the nature of arches, is the stronger for
that pressure. The abutments of the arch cannot come
nearer together by reason of the resistance of the strong
bones A P A, neither can they fly outwards, because the
girdle keeps them together. Then the thighs and legs T B D
are two strong columns, capable of sustaining 4000 or 5000

These bones are thns distinguished by anatomists : S, the os sacrum;

1 1, the ilium; A A, whose strongest part has on each sido

the os ischium;
an hemispherical concave, in which the round head of the thigh-bone is
received and turns round, being held by a strong ligament in its middle
those parts of the bone that join together before, betwixt A A and above P,
are called the os pubis, or ossa pubis.
62 THE OPERATIVE MECHANIC
pounds at least, provided they stand quite upright. The
muscles here are put to no strain, being no farther concerned
than to balance each other; that is, the antagonist muscles,
extensors, and flexors, only keep the bones in their place,
which makes them resist like one entire bone formed into an
arch.
This shows how easily the man, fig. 80, may sustain a
cannon of 2000 or 3000 pounds weight. The same solution
will also serve for the resistance of the man, fig. 81, whom
five men, nay ten men, or two horses, cannot puli out of his
situation when he sits so as to have his legs and thighs in
the horizontal line P F, or in a line inclining downwards
towards A, for then, though there is a difterence in the sitting-
posture from the standing posture before described, yet by
reason of the mobility of the heads of the thigh-bones in the
acetabula or cavities of the coxendix, the arch is the same
and as strong as before, its abutments being equally sup-
ported by the legs and thighs. It is only the bending of the
back-bone above the girdle to bring up the body which makes
the difference of position in the man, though not sensibly in
the resisting parts.
In breaking a rope the muscles must act in extending the
legs; and that we may the better explain that action, we must
consider a man breaking the rope, as represented in fig. 82.
Suppose a rope fastened to a post at P, or any other fixed
point, is brought through an iron eye L, to the hook of the
girdle H, of the man H
I, and so fixed to it by a loop, or
otherwise, as to be quite tight, whilst the mans knees are so
bended as to want about an inch of having his legs and
thighs quite upright. Then if the man on a sudden stretches
his legs and sets himself upright, he will with ease break the
very same rope which held two horses exerting their whole
strength when they drew against him ; such as a cart rope,
or a rope of near three quarters of an inch diameter, which
may be broken by a man of middling strength, by the action
of the ten muscles * that extend the legs, five belonging to
each leg.
* The four muscles tliat extend eacli leg are described by anatomists
thus : 1. The rectus, arising from the anterior inferior spine of the os ilium,
and inserted, through the medium of the patella, into the anterior tuberosity
of the tibia. 2. The oruralis, situated beneath the former, and arising from
the front surface of the os femoris for a considerable extent, and inserted
into the upper edge of the patella, and also, through the medium of that bone,
into the anterior tuberosity of the tibia. 3. The vastus externus, arising from
the root of the trochanter major, and outer side of the os femoris, and in-
serted into the outer edge of the patella, and again, through its medium, into
the anterior tuberosity of the tibia. 4. The vastus internus, which arises from
 AND MACHINIST. G3
In brcaldng the rope one thing is to be observed, which
will much facilitate the performance ; and that is, to place the
iron eye L, through which the rope goes, in such a situation,
that a plane going through its ring shall be parallel, or nearly
parallel to the two parts of the rope; because then the rope
will in a manner be jammed in it, and not slipping through
it, the whole force of the mans action will be exerted on

that part of the rope which is in the eye, M^hich will make it
break more easily than if more parts of the rope were acted
upon. So that the eye, though made round and smooth, may
be said in some measure to cut the rope. And it is after this
manner that one may break a whip-cord, nay, a small jack-
line, with ones hand, without hurting it; only by bringing
one part of the rope to cut the other ; that is, placing it so
round ones left hand, that, by a sudden jerk, the whole force
exerted shall act upon one point of the rope. See fig. 83,
where the cord to be broken at the point L in the left hand,
is marked according to its course, by the letters R T S L M
N O P Q, folding once about the right hand, then going under
the thumb into the middle of the left hand ; w^here crossing
under another part, it is brought back under the thumb again
to M, then round the back of the hand to N, so through the
loop at L to O, and three times round the little finger at P
and Q; which last is only that the loop NO
may not give
way. Before the hands are jerked from one another, the left
hand must be shut, but the thumb must be' held loose, lest
pressing against the fore finger it should hinder the part L T
of the rope from carrying the force fully to the point L ; but
the little finger and that next to it must be held hard, to
keep the loop N O firm in its place.
There are several cases, wherein it would be of singular
use to apply the force of one or more men, by means of the
girdle or hook and chain, in the manner above-mentioned ;
as for example, wdien the resistance is very great, but the
bodies that resist are to be removed but a little way: if we
lift very heavy goods a small height, to remove any thing from

under them ; if we would draw a bolt or staple, and find we

cannot do it even with an iron crow, the hand pulling it
upwards at the end ; then the hook of the girdle being applied
at the end of the crow, the force exerted by stretching the
legs would be tenfold of what the hands were able to do,
without more help at the same place.
There may also be many occasions on board a ship. I will
the root of the trochanter minor, and inner surface of the os femoris, and
inserted into the inner edge of tlie patella, and likewise, through its medium,
into the anterior tuberosity of tire tibia with the former rauscles.
04 THE OPERATIVE MECHANIC
instance but one. Let F G, fig. 84, be the tackle for raising
or lowering the main -top -mast, part of which is represented
by m 1, the block G is fixed below, and as the block F

comes down, it pulls along with it the top rope F B C, 7n 1

running over the block B, fixed at A, and round the block C
in the heel of the top-mast, so as to draw up the lower end
m 1 of the said main-top-mast, which, when hoisted up to its

due height, is made fast by the iron pin or fid I, which is

thrust through it, and then its own weight and the hole D of
the cap will keep it in its place. We will suppose that the
force required thus to raise the mast must be that of six men
pulling upon deck at the fall of the tackle, that is, at the
running rope F GK atK on the other side of the main-mast
L /. Now in order to let down this mast on the sudden, as
in case of hard weather, it is necessary the tackle and power
must be made use of, though it be but to lift it a very little
way, that a man may be able to get out the fid 1, before the
said mast can be let down and slip to N on the side of the
main-mast. I say, that if the hands are so employed other-
wise, that instead of six men there be only one man at the
rope K; if he has a strong girdle to which he fastens it, or
makes a bow in the rope itself, to fix it round the lower part
of his back, &c., he may exert much more force in the direc-
tion GK than the sLx men in the common way of pulling;
and if he draws to him, sitting on the ground, and pushing
his feet against the first firm obstacle that he finds, as against
O P, only two inches of the rope G K, he will raise up the
main-top-mast the third part of an inch, which will be sufii-
cient for the iron fid I to be drawui out.' Desaguliers
Philosophy, vol. i.

VVATER- MILLS.

Water-mill is the name by w hich all mills are designated

that receive their motion from the impulse of the water.
As each of these mills wdll come under their respective heads,
w'e shall, in the present article, confine ourselves to a minute
description of the difterent kinds of water-wheels, by whose
axis the force wdth wdiich they have been impressed may be
transmitted to move any species of machinery, however simple
or complex.
But, notwithstanding the extensive signification of the
term water-mill when applied to the different branches of
manufacture carried on therein, we have another, and still
more simple division, arising from the peculiar construction
of the w'ater-wLeel, termed the undershot-mill, the overshot-
 AND MACHINIST. 65

mill, and the breast-mill. There is also another called the mill
\vith horizontal wheels ; but as this i^ very disadvantageous
in point of practical utility, we shall forbear to describe it.
The undershot-w heel is used only in streams, and is acted
upon by the water striking the float-boards at the lower
circumference of the wheel. In the over shot-wheel the water
is poured over the top of the wheel, and is received in buckets
fonned all round the w'heel for that purpose. And in the
hreast-ivheel the water falls down upon the wheel at right
angles to the float-boards, or buckets placed round the
circumference of the wheel to receive it.

UNDERSHOT-WHEELS.
Mr. John Smeaton has made mimerous experiments upon
tlie different kinds of water- wheels, the results of which were
laid before the Royal Society. The time
that has elapsed
since the period when they w ere first given to the world, has
been sufficient to prove their fallacy, if any had existed ; and
the high estimation in which they still continue to be held by
mathematicians and mechanics, is certain evidence of their
value and importance.
Mr. Smeaton prefaces a minute description of the machines
and models used by him for his experiments, wdth an observ-
ation, that what he has to communicate on the subject was
originally deduced from experiments, wffiich he looks upon
as the best means of obtaining the outlines in mechanical
inquiry. But in such cases, says he, it is very necessary
to distinguish the circumstances in which a model differs
from a machine in large ; otherwise a model is more apt to
lead us from the truth than towards it : and, indeed, though
the utmost circumspection be used in this way, the best
structure of machines cannot be fully ascertained but by
making trials wnth them, when made of their proper size.
It was for this reason, though the models and experiments
referred to were made in the years 1752 and 1753, that I
have deferred offering them to the Society until I had an
opportunity of putting the deductions made therefrom in real
practice, in a variety of cases, and for various purposes, so as
to be able to assure the Society that I have found them to
answer.'"
Mr. Smeaton then remarks, that the v/oxd. powery as used in
practical mechanics, signifies the exertion of strength, gra-
vitation, impulse, or pressure, so as toproduce motion; and
by means of strength, gravitation, impulse, or pressure, com-
pounded w ith motion, to be capable of producing an eflect ,
66 THE OPERATIVE MECHANIC
and that no effect is properly mechanical, but what requires
such a kind of power to produce it.
Having described the models and machines used for making
his experiments, he observes that with regard to power, it is
most properly measured by the raising of a w^eight, the
relative height to which it can be raised in a given time
being the actual extent; or, in other words, if the weight
raised be multiplied by the height to which it can be raised
in a given time, the product is the measure of the power
raising it; and, consequently, all those powers are equal,
whose products, made by such multiplication, are the same ;
for if a power can raise twdce the weight to the same height,
or the same weight to twice the height, in the same time
that another power can, the first power is double the second
but if the power can only raise half the w'eight to double the
height, or double the weight to half the height, in the same
time that another can, those two powers are equal. This,
however, must be understood to be only in cases of slow and
equable motion, where there is no acceleration or retardation.
In comparing the effects produced by water-wheels with
the powers producing them, or, in other words, to know
what part of the original power is necessarily lost in the
application, we must previously know how much of the power
is spent in overcoming the friction of the machinery and the
resistance of the air; also, what is the real velocity of the
water at the instant that it strikes the wheel, and the real
quantity of water expended in a given time.
From the velocity of the water at the instant that it strikes
the wheel, the height of head productive of such velocity
can be deduced, from acknowledged and experimented prin-
ciples of hydrostatics: so that. by multiplying the quantity
or weight of water really expended in a given time, by the
height of a head so obtained, which must be considered as
the height from which that weight of water had descended
in such given time, we shall have a product equal to the
original power of the water, and clear of all uncertainty that
would arise from the friction of the water, in passing small
apertures, and from all doubts arising from the different
measure of spouting waters, assigned by different writers.
On the other hand, if the sum of the weights raised by the
action of this water, and of the weight required to overcome
the friction and resistance of the machine, be multiplied by the
height to which the weight can be raised in the time given,
the product will be equal to the effect of that power; and
the proportion of the two products will be in proportion of
 AND MACHINIST. 07
the poiver to the effect so that by loading the wheel with
different weights successively, we shall be able to determine
at what particular load, and velocity of the wheel, the effect
is a maximum.
The experiments made by Mr. Smeaton may thus be
reduced. The circumference of the wheel, 75 inches, mul-
tiplied by 86 turns, gives 6450 inches for the velocity of the
water in a minute; of which will be the velocity in a
second, equal to 107.5 inches, or 8.96 feet, which is due to a
head of 15 inches; and this w^e call the virtual or effective
head. The area of the head being 105.8 inches, this mul-
tiplied by the weight of water of the cubic inch, equal to
the decimal 579 of the ounce avoirdupois, gives 61 .26 ounces
for the weight of as much water as is contained in the head,
upon one inch in depth, xV of which is 3.83 pounds; this
multiplied by the depth 21 inches, gives 80.43 pounds for
the value of 12 strokes ; and by proportion, 39^ (the number
made in a minute) will give 264.7 pounds, the weight of water
expended in a minute.
Now as 264.7 pounds of water may be considered as having
descended through a space of 15 inches in a minute, the
product of these two numbers 3970 will express potver
of the water to produce mechanical effects; which were as
follows
The velocity of the wheel at the maximum, as appears
above, was 30 turns a minute ; which multiplied by nine
inches, the circumference of the cylinder, makes 270 inches
but as the scale was hung by a pulley and double line, the
weight was only raised half of this, viz. 135 inches.
oz.
The weight in the scale at the maximum . .
lb.

8
The weight of the scale and pulley 10
The counterweight, scale, and pulley .... 12

Sum of the resistance . . 9 6

Or pounds . . 9.375

Now as 9.375 pounds is raised 135 inches, these two numbers

being multiplied together, the product is 1266, which ex-
presses the effect produced at a maximum ; so that the pro-
portion of the power to the effect is as 3970 1266, or as :

10 3.18.
:

But though this is the greatest single effect producible

from the power mentioned, b^y the impulse of the water upon
f2
68 THE OPEttATIVE MECHANIC
an undershot- wheel ; yet, as the whole power of the water is
not exhausted by it, this will not be the true ratio between
the poiver of the water, and the sum of all the effects pro-
ducible therefrom ; for, as the water must necessarily leave
the wheel with a velocity equal to the wheeFs circumference,
it is plain some part of the power of the water must remain
after quitting the wheel.
The velocity of the wheel at the maximum is 30 turns a
minute; and consequently its circumference moves at the
rate of 3.123 feet a second, which answers to a head of 1.82
inches; this being multiplied by the expense of water in a
minute, viz. 264.7 pounds produces 481 for the power
remainmg in the water after it has passed the wheel this :

being therefore deducted from the original power 3.9J0,

leaves 3.489, which is that part of the power spent in pro-
ducing the effect 1266; and, consequently, the part of the
power spent in producing the effect, is to the greatest
effect that it produces as 3489 1266
: :lO 3.62, or as
: :

11 to 4.
The velocity of the water striking the wheel has been
determined to be equal to 86 circumferences of the wheel per
minute, and the velocity of the wheel at the maximum to be
30 ; the velocity of the water will therefore be to that of the
wheel as 86 to 30, or as 10 to 3.5, or as 20 to 7
The load at the maximum has been shwn to be equal to
nine pounds six ounces, and the wheel t;eased moving with
12 pounds in the scale to which if the weight of the scale
;

be added, viz. 10 ounces, the proportion will be nearly as

3 to 4 between the load at the maximum and that by
which the wheel is stopped.
It is somewhat remarkable, that though the velocity of the
wheel in relation to the water turns out greater than 4- of the
velocity of the water, yet the impulse of the water in the
case of a maximum is more than double of what is assigned
by theory ; that is, instead of 4 of the column, it is nearly
equal to the whole column.
It must be remembered, therefore, that, in the present
case, the wheel was not placed in an open river, where the
natural current, after it has communicated its impulse to the
float, has room on all sides to escape, as the theory supposes;
but in a conduit or race, to which the float is adapted,
the water cannot otherwise escape than by moving along
with the wheel. It is observable, that a wheel working in
this manner, so soon as the water meets the float, receives a
sudden check, and rises up against the float, like a wave against
 AND MACHINIST. 69

a fixed object; insomuch, that when a sheet of water is not

a quarter of an inch thick before it meets the float, yet this
sheet will act upon the whole surface of a float whose height
is three inches ; and, consequently, were the float no higher
than the thickness of the sheet of water, as the theory also
supposes, a great part of the force would have been lost by
the water dashing over the float.
Mr. Smeaton next proceeds to give tables of the velocities
of wheels with different heights of water ; and from the whole
deduces the following conclusions.
Maxim 1 That the virtual or effective head of water, and
.

consequently its effluent velocity, being the same, the me-

chanical effect produced by a wheel actuated by this water
will be nearly in proportion to the quantity of water expended.

Note The virtual or effective head of any water which is
,

moving with a certain velocity, is that height from which a

heavy body must fall, in order to acquire the same velocity.
The height of the virtual head, therefore, may be easily
determined from the velocity of the water; for the heights
are as the square of the velocities, and the velocities, conse-
quently, as the square roots of the heights. Mr. Smeaton
observed the velocity of the effluent water in all his experi-
ments, and thence calculated the virtual head he states, that
:

the virtual head bears no proportion to the real head or depth

of water; but that when either the aperture is greater, or
when the velocity of the water issuing therefrom less, they
approach nearer to a coincidence ; and consequently, in the
large openings of mills or sluices, where great quantities of
water are discharged from moderate heads, the actual head
of water, and the virtual head, as determined by theory from
the velocity, will nearly agree.
For example of the application of his first maxim. Suppose
a mill driven by a fall of water whose virtual head is five feet,
and which discharged 550 cubic feet of water per minute,
and that it is capable of grinding four bushels of wheat in
an hour. Now another mill, having the same virtual head,
but which discharges 1100 cubic feet of water per minute,
will grind eight bushels of corn in ail hour.
Maxim 2. That the expense of water being the same, the
effect produced by an undershot^wheel will be nearly in pro-
portion to the height of the virtual or effective head. This is
proved in the preceding example.
Maxim 3. That the quantity of water expended being the
same, the effect will be nearly as the square of the velocity of
the water; that is, if a mill driven by a certain quantity of
70 the operative mechanic
water^ moving with the velocity of 18 feet per second, is
capable of grinding four bushels of corn in an hour, another
mill, driven by the same quantity of water, but moving with
the velocity of 22 J feet per second, will grind nearly seven
bushels of corn in an hour; because the square of 18 is 324,
and the square of 22 J is 506 J. Now, say, as 324 is to 4
bushels, so is 506 J to 6^ bushels; that is as 4 to 6^.
Maxim 4. The aperture through which the water issues
being the same, the effect will be nearly as the cube of the
velocity of the water issuing; that is, if a mill driven by water
rushing through a certain aperture with the velocity of 18 feet
per second will grind four bushels of corn in an hour, another
mill, driven by water moving through the same aperture, but
with the velocity of 22^ feet per second, will grind 51 bushels
for the cube of 18 is 5832, and the cube of 22J is 11390|;
then as 5832 is to 4, so is 11390| to 7i-
Maxim 5. The proportions between the power of the
water expended, and the effect produced by the wheel, were
3 to 1. Upon comparing several experiments, Mr. Smea-
ton fixed the proportions between them for large works;
that is, it the weight of the water which is expended in any
given time be multiplied by the height of the fall, and if the
weight raised be also multiplied by the height through which
it is raised, the first of these two products will be three times
that of the second.
Maxim 6. The best general proportions of velocities be-
tween the water and the floats of the wheels will be that of
5 to 2; for instance, if the water when it strikes the
wheel moves with a velocity of 18 feet per second, the wheel
must be so loaded that its float-boards will move with a
velocity of 7-2 feet per second, and the wheel will then
derive the greatest power from the water, because as 5 to
18, so is 2 to 7*2.
Maxim 7. There is no certain ratio between the load that
the wheel will carry when producing its maximum of effect,
and the load that will totally stop it; but it approaches
nearest to the ratio of 4 to 3, whenever the power ex-
erted by the wheel is greatest, whether it arise from an
increase of the velocity, or from an increased quantity of
water; and this proportion seems to be the most applicable
to large works. But when we know the effect which a wheel
ought to produce, and the velocity it ought to move with
whilst producing that effect, the exact knowledge of the
greatest load it will bear is of very little consequence in
practice.
 AND MACHINIST.
Maxim The
load that the wheel ought to have, in order
8.
to work most advantage, can be always assigned thus
to the
ascertain the power of the whole body of water, by multiply-
ing the weight of the water expended in a minute by the
height of the fall take one-third of the product, and it gives
;

the effect of power which the wheel ought to produce to :

find the load, we must divide this product by the velocity

which the wheel should have, and that, as We have before
settled, should be two-fifths of the velocity with which the
water moves when it strikes the wheel.
In the application of these principles the first thing to
be done in a situation where an undershot-wheel is intended
to be fixed, is to consider whether the water can rim
off clear from the wheel, ^ so as to have no back-water to
impede its motion; and whether the fall which can be
obtained by constructing a proper dam to pen up the
water, and sluice for it to pass through, will cause it to
strike the float-boards of the wheel with sufficient velocity
to impel them forcibly forwards; and also, whether the
quantity of the supply will be sufficient to keep a wheel
at work for a certain number of hours each day.
When we have ascertained the height of the fall of water,
that is the height of the surface above the centre of the
opening of the sluice, we must find what will be the con-
tinual velocity of the water issuing from such opening.
In SQiue cases, we have the velocity of the water given
when it issues from the opening of the sluice, and we
then require to know what height of column will pro-
duce that velocity. These two things we may find by a
single rule, and an easy arithmetical operation, which is as
follows
1st. The perpendicular height of the fall of water being
given in feet and decimals of feet, the velocity that the water
will acquire per second, expressed in feet and decimals, may
be, found by the following rule
Multiply the constant number 64.2882 by the given
height, and the square root of the product is the velocity
required.
ILxample 1. If the height is two feet, the velocity will be
found 11.34 feet per second.
Example 2. If the height is 16.0913 feet, the velocity
will be 32.1826 feet per second.
Example 3. If the height is 60 feet, the velocity will be
56.68 feet per second.
Note .
The velocities thus obtained will be only the thco-
72 THE OPERATIVE MECHANIC
retie velocity ;
that is, the velocity any body would acquire
by falling through such height in vacuo; the velocity in
reality will be less, generally six or seven tenths.
The uniform velocity of a fluid being given, expressed in
feet and decimals of feet per second, the height of the column
or fall to produce such a velocity may be found by the
following rule
Multiply the given velocity into itself, and divide the
product by 64.2882 ; the quotient will be the height required,
expressed in feet and decimals.
J^xample I If the velocity given is three feet per second,
.

the height will be 0.139 of a foot.

Example 2. If the velocity given is 32.1826 feet per
second, the height will be found 16.0913 feet.
Example 3. Let the velocity be 100 feet per second,
the height will be 155.694 feet.
The knowledge of the foregoing particulars is absolutely
necessary for constructing an undershot water-wheel; but the
most advantageous method of setting it to work, and to find
out the utmost it could perform, would be very difficult, if
we were not furnished with the maximum which Mr. Smeaton
settled, by showing, that an undershot water-wheel will act
to the greatest advantage when the velocity of its float-boards
is equal to two-fifths of four-tenth parts of that of the water
which gives it motion.

Lamberts water-wheel.
In 1819, Mr. Lambert, of Princes-street, Leicester-square,
obtained a patent for an improvement in the water-wheel,
which he thus describes;
My improved water-wheel, as shown in figs. 85, 86, and
87, represents the paddles standing in a vertical position to
the surface of the water through which they are to pass, and
in whatever situation or direction the wheel either rests or
moves, the paddles preserve the same vertical position.
The great advantage derived from the paddles of a water-
wheel entering and quitting the water through which such
wheel revolves in a perpendicular direction, has long been
admitted to be a most important and desirable measure in
that class of water-wheels known and called by engineers
undershot- wheels, either for water-mills or for navigable pur
poses. The benefit of working the paddles of such wheels
in a vertical position is not only the superior hold and pressure
which the water takes on the paddles or floats of such wheels.
hiii the very little back-water which they create on leaving
 AND MACHINIST. 73
it. The principle of this improvement is to make the lower
paddles recede from the centre of the axle and to the arms
to which they are attached, while the upper paddies proceed
I to the centre of the axle in equal distances as the others
t recede; and in the rotation of the wheel, every paddle passes
1 through the various evolutions and positions to which every
h revolution of the wheel subjects each paddle. The lower
I
paddles describe a greater radius of a circle than the upper
L paddles, and thereby travel at an increased velocity, or rather
they pass at their extreme points through a greater space in
the same period of time ; this effect renders the lower half of
the wheel heavier than the upper, by the eccentric position
^

of the paddles, and the flat ring of iron to which they are
attached, and it also increases the speed of any navigable
I
body through the water to which such wheels are applied.
Figs. 85, 86, and SJ, are views of my improved wheel with
one paddle, as in fig. 85, at its greatest depth in the water;
I
B, B, B, B, is one of the iron arm frames to which one end of
the paddles C, C, C, C, C, C, are attached by the joint-pins
D, D, D, D, D, D, to the arm frames B, B, B, B. EE is the
flat iron ring or eccentric circle, to which the other ends of
the paddles are attached by similar joint-pins F,F, F, F, F, F.
G G, are the iron guard or guide-rollers, a section of one of
which is shown at fig. 88, which may either revolve on fixed
axles, or these rollers may be fixed on revolving axles, which-
ever is most convenient. The object of these rollers is, to
keep the iron circle EE in its proper situation, which is an
equal distant position from the centre of the wheel- shaft in a
longitudinal direction, and eccentric in a vertical position to the
shaft A. These rollers must be placed apart from each other,
a distance exactly equal to the diameter of the iron circle
EE, consequently the rollers GG must be placed in a line
through the centre of the circle EE and which will allow
this circle to rub and give motion to the rollers G G, at the
speed it revolves. The circle E E, forms an eccentric course,
while it rubs on every part of its periphery against the rollers
G G. This circle EE may be formed with teeth like the rim
of a cog-wheel, and in that case the rollers GG may either
one or both of them be formed into spur pinions to fit the
teeth of the circle E E, which would be a quick and simple
mode for my improved water-wheel to work machinery. I
sometimes use two flat, hardened steel springs, as shown in
fig. 89, instead of the rollers G G, to keep the circle E E in
its proper place ; and in certain situations they will be found
74 THE OPERATIVE MECHANIC
to answer very well. Great care must be taken to make the
joint pin-holes in the iron frames B, B, B, B, exactly an equal
distance apart from each other; and it must also be observed
in piercing or drilling the joint pin-holes in the circle EE^
that they correspond with the holes made in the arm frames
B, B^ B^ B. It will be always advisable to drill both the
E
arm frames, B, B, B, B, and the circle E, together, that the
joint pin-holes in all three may correspond exactly with each
other, and particularly from the centre of each. The joint
pin-holes, in the paddle-plates or floats, should also be made
to correspond with each other; and it is the distance of the
holes from D to F in the paddles C C, as shown at fig. 90,
which determine the eccentricity of the course of the iron
ring EE ;
and it is by connecting these paddles at D to the
arm frames E, B, B, B, and at F to the ring E E, which in
the rotation of the whole by the axle A, and by keeping the
circle EE in its proper situation as before described, either
by the rollers G G, or when the springs HH are substituted
for the rollers, that the paddles always preserve a vertical
position to the surface of the water, and which cause the
upper paddles to approach, whilst the lower paddles recede
from the centre of the axle A. Fig. 86 represents a view of
the wheel combined with all the paddles connected to both
frames of the wheel, with the iron ring or circle EE placed
in the middle of the frames and between the sides of the
paddles, with the joint-pins in their proper places, with the
two lower paddles at their most extended distance from the
centre of axle A, whilst the two upper paddles are brought
to their nearest situation to that axle; the joint-pins must
either have nuts and screws, or other proper fastenings, to
keep them in their several places, or split keys, the latter of
which I decidedly prefer. The axle A must be properly
placed and secured in the iron frames B, B, B, B, in any of
the ordinary modes which an experienced and skilful workman
w'ill adopt. The number of sets of'paddles or floats for any
one wheel must be determined according to the magnitude
and duty of such wheel; it is the general construction and
combination as described, which constitute my improved
wheel, and not the number of the paddles or floats, or their
magnitude. I should, however, never recommend less than
six sets of paddles or floats to be combined in any wheel
made on the plan of my improved wheel, although I am aware
it would act with a less number, but not so advantageously.

The same letters in figs. 85, 86, and 87? represent the same
 WATJEJR WMJEIEJLS
n.8
From 85 to 93
86
8.y

Fedt-iStockL^ se 35^SiranJ
 AND MACHINIST. 75

parts in either of these figures, and as far as any of the similar

parts are shown in figs. 88 , 89, and 90, the letters and
characters also distinguish them.

THE OVERSHOT-WHEEL,
This 'wheel consists of a frame of open buckets, placed
round the rim of a* vertical wheel, to receive the water
from a spout placed over it, so that the buckets on the
one side shall be always loaded, while those on the opposite
side are empty. The loaded side will of course descend,
and the wheel in its revolution will bring the empty buckets
under the spout, to be in their turn filled with water.
The principal thing to be attended to in the construction
of this wheel is to have the buckets of such a form as will
retain the water along the greatest circumference of the
wheel and as this is a thing not easily to be accomplished,
:

numerous contrivances have been resorted to by mill-wrights

to determine the best possible form.
Fig. 91 is the outline of a wheel having 40 buckets. The
ring of board contained between the concentric circles QD
S
and PA R, making the ends of the buckets, is called the
shrouding, and Q
P the depth of shrouding. The inner circle
P AR is called the sole of the wheel, and usually consists of
boards nailed to strong wooden rings of compass timber of
considerable scantling, firmly united with the arms or radii.
The partitions, which determine the form of the buckets,
consist of three different planes or boards, B, A B C, CD,
which are variously named by different artists. We have
heard them called the start or shoulder, the arm, and the
wrest (probably for wrist, on account of a resemblance of
:

the whole line to the human arm:) B is also called the

elbow.
Fig. 92 represents a small portion of the same bucketing
on a larger scale, that the proportion of the parts may be
more distinctly seen. AG
the sole of one bucket is made
about ^ more than the depth G H
of the shrouding. The
start A B is 4 of A I. The plane B C is so inclined to A B
^

that it would pass through 3

H
but it is made to terminate in
C, in^ such a manner that F C is l^ths of G
H or A I. Then
D
C is so placed that HD
is about ^th of I H.
By this construction it follows that the area FABC is
very nearly equal to D AB C;
so that the water which will
fill the space F A B C will all be contained in the bucket
when it shall come into such a position that A D
is a hori-
zontal line; and the line AB
will then make an angle of
70 THE OrERATlVE MECHANIC
35 with the vertical, or the bucket will be 35 from the
perpendicular, passing through the axis of motion. If the
bucket descend so much lower that one half of the water runs
out, the line A B will make an angle of 25 or 24 nearly
with the vertical. Therefore the wheel, filled to the degree
now mentioned, will begin to lose water at about -^th of the
diameter from the bottom, and half of the vjater will be
discharged from the lowest bucket, about -rVth of the diame-
ter further down. Had a greater proportion of the buckets
been filled with water when they were under the spout, the
discharge would have begun at a greater height from the
bottom, and we should lose a greater portion of the whole
fall of water. The loss by the present construction is less
than Tuth, (supposing the water to be delivered into the wheel
at the very top,) and may be estimated at about i^Tth; for the
loss is the versed sine of the angle which the radius of the
bucket make with the vertical. The versed sine of 35 is
nearly i^th of the radius, being 0.18085, or Thrth of the dia-
meter. It is evident, that if only ^ of this water were supplied
to each bucket as it passes the spout, it would have been
retained for 10 more of a revolution, and the loss of fall
Would have only been about -rTth.
These observations serve to show in general, that an
advantage is gained by having the buckets so capacious that
the quantity of water which each can receive as it passes the
spout may not nearly fill it. This may be accomplished by
making them of a sufficient length, that is, by making the
wheel sufficiently broad between the two shroudings.
Mr. Robert Burns, of Cartside, in Renfrewshire, has made
what appeared to be a very considerable improvement in the
construction of the bucket. The principle of this improve-
ment consisted in dividing the bucket by a partition of such
a height, that the inner and outer portions of the bucket on
each side were nearly of equal capacity. See fig. 93. The
bucket consisted of a start A B, an arm B C, and a wrest C D,
concentric with the rim, and was divided by the partition LM,
concentric with the sole and rim. If these buckets be filled
one-third, they will retain the whole of the water at 18, and
the half at 11, from the bottom. These advantages how-
ever were found to be counterbalanced by disadvantages ; and
Mr. Burns did never, we believe, put the construction in
practice.
The velocity of an overshot- wheel is a matter of very great
nicety; and authors, both speculative and practical, have
arrived at very different conclusions respecting it. M. Be^
 AND MACHINIST. //

lidol very strangely maintains, that there is a certain velocity

related to that obtainable by the whole fall, which will
procure to an overshot-wheel the greatest performance.
Desaguliers, Smeaton, Lambert, De Parcieux, and others,
maintain, that there is no such relation, and that the perform-
ance of an overshot-wheel will be the greater, as it moves
more slowly by an increase of its load of work. Belidor
again states, that the active power of water lying in a bucket-
w'heel of any diameter is equal to the impulse of the same
water on the floats of an undershot-wheel, when the water
issues from a sluice in the bottom of the dam. The other
writers whom we have named assert, that the energy of an
undershot- wheel is but one half of that of an overshot, actuated
by the same quantity of water falling from the same height.
The most generally received opinion is, that the overshot-
wheel does the more work, as it moves slower 3 and the
following is the reasoning adduced to prove it. Suppose
that a wheel has 30 buckets, and that six cubic feet of water
are delivered in a second on the top of the wheel, and dis-
charged, without any loss by the way, at a certain height
from the bottom of the wheel. Let this be the case, whatever
is the rate of the wheels motion, the buckets being of a
sufficient capacity to hold all the water which falls into them.
Suppose this wheel employed to raise a weight of any kind,
water for instance, in a chain of 30 buckets, to the same
altitude and with the same velocity. Suppose, further, that
when the load on the rising side of the machine is one half
of that on the wheel, the wheel makes four revolutions in a
minute, or one turn in 15 seconds. During this time 90
cubic feet of water will have flowed into the 30 buckets, and
each have received three cubic feet. In that case each of the
rising buckets contains IJ feet; and 45 cubic feet are deli-
vered into the upper cistern during one turn of the w^heel,
and 180 cubic feet in one minute.
Now, suppose the machine so loaded, by making the rising
buckets more capacious, that it makes only two turns in a
minute, or one turn in 30 seconds; then each descending
bucket must contain six cubic feet of water. If each bucket
on the rising side contained three cubic feet, the motion of the
machme would be the same as before. This is a point none
will controvert. When two pounds are suspended to one
end of a string which passes over a pulley, and one pound to
the other end, the velocity of descent of the two pounds will
be the same with that of a four pound weight, which is
employed in the same manner to draw up two pounds. Our
78 THE OPERATIVE MECHANIC
machine would therefore continue to make four turns in a
minute, and woidd deliver 90 cubic feet during each turn,
and 360 in a minute. But, by supposition, it is making only
two turns in a minute ; which must proceed from a greater
load than three cubic feet of rising water in each rising
bucket. The machine must, therefore, be raising more than
90 feet of water during one turn of the wheel, and more than
180 in a minute.
Thus it appears that if the machine is turning twice as
slow as before, there is more than twice the former quantity
in the rising buckets ; and more will be raised in a minute Dy
the same expenditure of power. In like manner, if the
machine go three times as slow, there must be more than
three times the former quantity in the rising buckets, and
more work will be done.
But further we may assert, that the more we retard the
machine to a certain practical extent, by loading it with more
work of a similar kind, the greater will be its performance
and the truth of the assertion may be thus demonstrated.
Let us call the first quantity of water in the rising bucket,
Q ;
the water raised by four turns in a minute will be 4 x 30
X Q= 120 Q. The quantity in this bucket, when the ma-
chine goes twice as slow, has been shown to be greater than
2Q; call it 2 Q
+ x; the water raised by two turns in a
minute will then be 2 x 30 x (2 + ^) Q =
120 + 60 x.
Suppose next, the machine to go four times as slow, making
but one turn in a minute ; the rising bucket must now
contain more than twice the quantity 2 Q
+ a, or more than
4 Q 4- 2 call it4Q + 2x + y. The work done by one
turn in a minute will now be 30 x (4Q -h 2x + y) =120
Q+ 60 ^ + By
such an induction of the work accom-
30 ?/.
plished, rates of motion we choose, it is evident
with any
that the performance of the machine increases with every
diminution of its velocity tliat is produced by the mere addi-
tion of a similar load of work, or that it does the more work
the slower it goes. This, however, is abstracting from the
effects of the friction upon the gudgeons of the wheel, a
cause of resistance which increases with the load, though
not in the same ratio.
We have also supposed the machine to be in its state of
])ermanent uniform motion. If we consider it only in the
beginning of its motion, the residt is still more in favour of
slow motion for, at the first action of the moving power, the
:

inertia of the machine itself consumes part of it, and it acquires

its permanent velocity by degrees, during which the resist-
 AND MACHINI.ST. 79
ances arising from the work^ friction^ &c., increase, till they
exactly balance the pressure of the water ; and after this the
machine no longer accelerates. Now, the greater the power
and the resistance arising from the work are, in proportion
to the inertia of the machine, the sooner, it is obvious, will it
arrive at its state of permanent velocity.
The preceding discussion only demonstrates in general the
advantage of slow motion j but does not point out in any
degree the relation between the rate of motion and the work
performed, nor even the principles on which it depends. But
this is not necessary for the improvement of practical me-
chanics. It is, however, manifest, that there is not, in the
nature of things, a maximum of performance attached to any
particular rate of motion which should, on that account, be
preferred. All, therefore, that we have to do, is to load the
machine, and thus to diminish its speed, unless other pli3^sical
circumstances throw obstacles in the way for there are such
:

obstacles, as in all machines there are certain inequalities of

action that are unavoidable. In the action of a Avheel and
pinion, though made with the utmost judgment and care,
there are such inequalities. These increase by the changes
of form occasioned by the wearing of the machine ; and much
greater irregularities arise from the subsultory motions of
cranks, stampers, and other parts which move unequally or
reciprocally. A machine may be so loaded as just to be in
equilibrio with its work, in the favourable position of its
parts : and when this changes into one less favourable, the
machine may stop, or, at all events, hobble and work un-
equally. The rubbing parts thus bear long on each other,
with enormous pressures, cut deep into each other, and
increase friction : therefore such slow motions should be
avoided. A little more velocity enables the machine to over-
come those increased resistances by its inertia, or the great
quantity of motion inherent in it. Great machines possess
this advantage in a superior degree, and, consequently, will
work steadily with a smaller velocity.
Mr. Smeaton, in his Experimental Inquiry, previous to
examining into the power and application of water, when
acting by its gravity on over shot-wheels, says, In reasoning
without experiment, one might be led to imagine, that how-
ever different the mode of application is, yet that whenever
the same quantity of water descends through the same per-
pendicular space, that the natural effective power would be
equal, supposing the machinery free from friction, equally
calculated to receive the full effect of the power, and to make
80 THE OPERATIVE MECHANIC
the most of it: for if we suppose the height of a column of
water to be 30 inches, and resting upon a base or aperture
one inch square, every cubic inch of water that departs there--
from will acquire the same velocity or momentum, from the
uniform pressure of 30 inches above it, that one cubic inch
let fallfrom the top will acquire in falling down to the level
of the aperture one would therefore suppose, that a cubic
:

inch of water, let fall through a space of 30 inches, and there

impinging upon another body, would be capable of producing
an equal effect by collision, as if the same cubic inch had
descended through the same space with a slower motion, and
produced its effects gradually. But however conclusive this
reasoning may seem, it will appear, in the course of the
following deductions, that the effect of the gravity of descend-
ing bodies is very different from the effect of stroke of such
as are non-elastic, though generated by an equal mechanical
power.^
When Mr. Smeaton had finished his experiments on under-
shot mills, he reduced the number
of floats on the wheel,
which were originally 24, to 12; which caused a diminution in
the effect, on account of a greater quantity of water escaping
between the floats and the floor : but a circular sweep being
adapted thereto, of such a length, that one float entered the
curve before the preceding one quitted it, the effect came so
near that of the former, as not to give any hopes of advanc-
ing it by increasing the number of floats beyond 24 in this^
particular wheel.
In these experiments the head was six inches, and the
lieight of the wheel 24 inches, so that the whole descent was
30 inches the quantity of water expended in a minute was
:

96^ pounds, which, multiplied by 30 inches, gives the power

= 2900. After making the proper calculations, the effect was
computed at 1914; the ratio therefore of Xhe power and effect
will be as 2900 1914, or as 10 6.6, or as 3 to 2 nearly^
: :

But if we compute the power from the height of the wheel

only, we shall have 96f pounds, multiplied by 24 inches
= 2320 for the power, and this will be to the effect as
2320 1914, or as 10 : 82, or as 5 to 4 nearly.
:

From another set of experiments the following conclusions

were deduced:
1. The effective power of the water must be reckoned

upon the whole descent, because it must be raised that

height in order to produce the same effect a second time
The ratios between the powers so estimated, and the effects
at the maximum, differ nearly from that of 10 to to that
 AND MACHINIST, 81

of 10 to 5.2, that is nearly from4.3 to 4.2. In those expe-

riments where the heads of water and quantities expended
are least, the proportion is nearly as 4 to 3 but where the
;

heads and quantities are greatest, it approaches nearer to

that of 4 to 2 ; and by a medium of the whole, the ratio is
that of 3 to 2 nearly. Hence it appears, that the effect of
overshot-wheels is nearly double to that of the undershot,
and, by consequence, that non- elastic bodies, when acting
by their impulse or collision, comniunicate only a part of
their original power, the remainder being spent in changing
their figure in consequence of the stroke. The ultimate
conclusion is, that the effects, as well as the powers, are as
the quantities of water and perpendicular heights multiplied
together respectively.
2. By increasing the head from 3 to 11 inches, that is, the
whole descent from 27 inches to 35, or in the ratio of
7 to 9 nearly, the effect is advanced no more than in the
ratio of 8.1 to 8.4, that is, as 7 to 7*26; and consequently
the increase of effect is not one- seventh of the increase of
perpendicular height. Hence it follows, that the higher the
wheel is in proportion to the whole descent, the greater will
be the effect ; because it depends less upon the impulse of
the head, and more upon the gravity of the water in the
buckets and if we consider how obliquely the water issuing
:

from the head must strike the buckets, we shall not be at a

loss to account for the little advantage that arises from the
impulse thereof, and shall immediately see of how little con-
sequence this impulse is to the effect of an overshot- wheel.
This, however, like other things, is subject to limitation, for
it is desirable that the water should have somewhat greater
velocity than the circumference of the wheel, in coming
thereon ; otherwise the wheel will not only be retarded by
the buckets striking the water, but a portion of the power
will be lost by the water dashing over the buckets.
3. To determine the velocity which the circumference of
the wheel ought to have in order to produce the greatest
effect, Mr. Smeaton observes, that the slower a body descends,
the greater will be the portion of tht action of gravity appli-
cable to the producing a mechanical effect, and, in consequence,
the greater wdll be the effect. If a stream of water falls into
the bucket of an overshot-wheel, it is there retained till
the wheel by moving round discharges it, and consequently
the slower the wheel moves, the more water each bucket
will receive: so that what is lost in speed, is gained by the
pressure of a greater quantity of water acting in the buckets
G
82 THE OPERATIVE MECHANIC
at once. From
the experiments, however, it appeared, that
when the wheel made about 20
turns in a minute, the effect
was near upon the greatest. When it made 30 turns, the
effect was diminished about V^^th part; and that when it
made 40, it was diminished about J when it made less than
;

18j, its motion was irregular; and when it was loaded so as

not to admit its making 18 turns, the wheel was overpowered
by its load. It is an advantage in practice, that the velocity
of the wheel should not be diminished further than will pro-
cure some solid advantage in point of power, because ccEteris
paribus, as the motion is slower, the buckets must be made
larger, and the wheel being more loaded with water, the
stress upon every part of the work will be increased in pro-
portion. The best velocity for practice, therefore, will be
such, as when the wheel made 30 turns in a minute, that is, _^
wdien the velocity of the circumference is a little more thaiiB
three feet in a second. Experience confirms that this velo^*
city of three feet in a second is applicable to the highest
overshot- wheels, as well as the lowest ; and all other parts ofjji
the work being properly adapted thereto, wall produce very"*^
nearly the greatest effect possible ; it is also determined by ,

experience, that high wheels may deviate further from this

rule, before they will lose their power, by a given aliquot^;
part of the whole, than low ones can be admitted to do;jf
For a wheel of 24 feet high may move at the rate of six feet?
per second without losing any part of its power; and, on^
the other hand, the author had seen a wheel of 33 feet high' .

that moved very steadily and well, with a velocity but little;
exceeding two feet. The reason of the superior velocity of
the 24 feet wheel seems to have been owing to the small*
proportion that the head, requisite to give the water the
proper velocity of the wheel, bears to the whole height.
4. The maximum load for an overshot-wheel, is that which^
reduces the circumferences of the wheel to its proper velocity;' ^
which will be known by dividing the effect it ought to pro-
duce in a given time, by the space intended to be described' jj

by the circumference of the wheel in the same time; the^ j

quotient will be the resistance overcome at the circumference^ |

of the wheel, and is equal to the load required, the friction^ 1

and resistance of the machinery included. *
j

5. The greatest velocity of which the circumference of an'^ I

overshot- wheel is capable, depends jointly upon the diameter '
j
of the height of the wheel, and the velocity of falling bodies '
j
for it is plain that the velocity of the circumference can'
j

never be greater than to describe a semi-circumference .

 AND MACHINIST. 83

while a body let fall from the top of the wheel will descend
through its diameter; nor even quite so great^ as a body
descending through the same perpendicular space cannot
perform the same in so small a time when passing through a
semi-circle as would be done in a perpendicular line. Thus,
if a wheel is 16 feet one inch in diameter, a body will fall
through it in one second: this wheel therefore can never
arrive at a velocity equal to the making one turn in two
seconds; but, in reality, an overshot-wheel can never come
near this velocity ; for when it acquires a certain speed, the
greatest part of the water is prevented from entering the
buckets, and the rest, at a certain point of its descent, is
thrown out again by the centrifugal force. As these circum-
stances depend chiefly upon the form of the buckets, the
utmost velocity of overshot-wheels caminot be generally
determined; and, indeed, it is the less necessary in practice,
as it is in this circumstance incapable of producing any
mechanical effect.
6. The greatest load an overshot-wheel will overcome,
considered abstractedly, is unlimited or infinite; for as the
buckets may be of any given capacity, the more the wheel is
loaded, the slow^er it turns, but the slower it turns, the more
will the buckets be filled with water; and, consequently,
though the diameter of the wheel and quantity of water
expended are both limited, yet no resistance can be assigned,
which it is not able to overcome ; but in practice we ahvays
meet with something that prevents our getting into infinitesi-
mals. For when we really go to work to build a wheel, the
buckets must necessarily be of some given capacity, and
consequently such a resistance will stop the wheel, as it is
equal to the effort of all the buckets in one semi-circum-
ference filled with water. The structure of the buckets
being given, the quantity of this efibrt may be assigned, but
is not of much consequence in practice, as in this case also
the wheel loses its power ; for though here is the exertion
of gravity upon a given quantity of water, yet being pre-
vented by a counterbalance from moving, is capable of
producing no mechanical effect, according to our definition.
But, in reality, an overshot-wheel generally ceases to be
useful before it is loaded to that pitch; for when it meets
with such a resistance as to diminish its velocity to a certain
degree, its motion becomes irregular ; yet this never happens
till the velocity of the circumference is less than two feet per

second, where the resistance is equable.

g2
84 THE OPERATIVE MECHANIC
The reader having now become acquainted with the valu-
able course of experiments made by Mr. Smeaton^ we shall
next offer to his notice a few remarks upon the best mode of
delivering water upon an overshot-wheel.
In wheels of this construction^ it has been^ and still is, the
common practice, to allow the water to flow into the buckets
at the highest point of the wheel ; but this system is deci-
dedly bad ) for the centre of gravity of the upper bucket is
direct over the axle of the wheel, and, consequently, any
water poured into that bucket will, instead of creating a rota-
tory motion, cause a greater pressure upon the pivots of the
axle. The greatest advantage would be obtained by causing
the water to fall upon the wheel, at an angle of 42J or
45 degrees, as then the power of the wheel will be aug-
mented by the increased leverage. In constructing wheels
upon this principle, however, great care must be taken to
allow a sufficiency of room in buckets for the escape of air,
otherwise the wheel will not act. The same observation is
also applicable to breast- wheels ; for we were once present,
and witnessed an instance of this kind, at the first starting
of a breast-wheel, in which the millwright, in order to ob-
tain the greatest possible effect, had made the back-boards
to fit so tight that no water or air could escape ; the conse-
quence of which was, the necessity of reducing the whole of
the back-boards, to allow air enough to escape for the water
to act freely upon the floats.

burns overshot-wheel without a shaft.

This ingenious machine was invented and erected by the
late Mr. Burns, whose mechanical ingenuity we have already
had occasion to admire. It is represented in two different
sections, in figs. 95 and 96, and forms a large hollow cylinder
by its buckets and sole, without having any shaft or axle-tree.
This wheel is 12^ feet diameter, and seven feet broad over
all, and has 28 buckets. The gudgeon is 6 inches diameter,
by 9 inches long. The flaunch is 1 J inch thick at the ex-
treme points. The arms are of redwood fir, 6 inches square;
one piece making two arms in length, where they cross one
another at the wheels centre, 1 J inch of the wood remaining
in each, connecting the two opposite arms as one piece. The
wheels was made by first fitting the gudgeon into a large
piece of hard wood, with the flaunch parallel to the horizon,
and in that position the arms and rings were trained and
 AND MACHINIST. 85

bound fast to it. All the grooves for starts or raisers^ and
buckets, were cut out before it was remov ed first one piece
;

was bolted to the flaunch at a a, and so of the others, leaving

the distant openings for the cross bars that reach between
each arm and its opposite arm. These bars, or pieces, were
only 4 inches square, and were of good beech wood, turned
round in the body. They were 10 inches square at each end,
in which was fitted a strong nut for a bolt, 1 j inch thick, to
go through Z>, and connect the two sides together.
After the arms were trained and fixed right upon the gijd-
geons, the innermost ring was completed ; the tenons were
trained on the arms first, and the rings 4^ inches thick and
8 inches deep, put on by keys driven into the mortice. The
remaining tenons were then reduced from 1| to 1 inch thick, and
the outermost ring, only 3 inches thick by 6 inches deep, was
firmly wedged thereon, and bound fast at the other ends by three
strong wooden pins, as at C C ; to the lower ring, the outside
of the uppermost and undermost rings are flush, all the addi-
tional thickness of the lower ring projecting inside the buckets.'
Some difficulty was found in laying the water properly
into the buckets of this wheel, owing to the narrowness of
the mouths of the buckets, by the high start or raiser, which
was remedied by adopting the following plan.
4'he openings in the bottom of the troughing should be of
iron, and so distant from each other that the water from
them is thrown into two separate buckets. The iron curved
parts should also be movable, to adjust the openings to the
quantity of water necessary for the wheel. Unless the head
of water is 12 or 14 inches above these openings, it will be
difficult to give it the proper direction into the buckets,
especially if the openings are pretty wide for them; for then it
deviates the more do'wn from the line of direction, and tends
to retard the wheel, by striking on the outside of the bucket.
The openings from which the buckets are filled, ought to
oe 10 inches less in length than the buckets, f. c. five inches at
each side, otherwise the water is apt to jerk over on each
side of the wheel, as the edges of the bucket pass by.
The mode of making and finishing the wheel at Cartside
requires very little workmanship, compared to the usual
method 5 and any good joiner will do it as well as a mill-
wright. The joiner finished Cartside wheel in six or seven
weeks. The construction will be better understood from the
following reference to the figures.
Fig. 95 represents three distinct transverse views. The part
A
marked supposes a part of the shrouding in section, showing
86 THE OPERATIVE MECHANIC
the pins ; the part marked B is a section of the wheel through
any part of the buckets^ and showing three of the ties, 1 , 2, 3,
in section. D
Part shows the manner in which the exterior
ends of the wheel are finished, also the gudgeons, flaunch, &c.
Fig. 96 is a longitudinal section of the wheel through one of
the arms, showing the projection of the shrouding, the manner
in which the arms of the wheel are connected together, and like-
wise the manner in which the ties are connected to the gudgeon.

CHAIN OF BUCKETS.
This is applicable in many situations where there is a
considerable fall of water. This sketch was taken from one
in Scotland used to give motion to a thrashing mill: the
fig. 97 is so obvious as to need little explanation. The
buckets t 5 D, G, H, &c. must be connected by several
chains to avoid the danger of breaking, and united into an
endless chain, which is extended over two wheels A
and B,
the upper one being the axis which is to communicate motion
to the mill- work ; E is the spout to supply the water. The
principal advantage of this plan is, that no water is lost by
running out of the buckets before they arrive at the lowest
part, as is the case with the wdieel. Another is, that the
buckets being suspended over the wheel A of small diameter,
it may be made to revolve more quickly than a wheel of
large diameter, and without increasing the velocity of the
descending buckets beyond what is proper for them. This
saves wheel-work when the machine is to be employed, as in
a thrashing machine, to produce a rapid motion. On the
other hand, the friction of the chain in folding over the wheel
at the top, and seizing its cogs, will be very considerable;
these cogs must enter the spaces in the open links between
the buckets, to prevent the chain slipping upon the upper
wheel. We think this machine might be much improved by
contriving it so that the chain would pass through the centre
of gravity of each bucket, whereas in the present form, the
weight of each bucket tends to give the chain an extra bend.
The chain^pump reversed^ has been proposed as a substitute
for a water-wheel when the fall is very great, and we think
it would answer the purpose with some chance of success.
It would have an advantage over the chain-pump when em-
ployed for raising water, in the facility of applying cup
leathers to the pistons on the chain, in the same way as other
pumps, which leathers expand themselves to the inside of
the barrel, and are kept perfectly tight by the pressure of
the water. In the chain-pump such leathers cannot be
 & Stockl^ frojid

mk
 AND MACHINIST. 87

employed, because the edges of the leather cups would turn

down and stop the motion, when the cups were drawn
upwards into the barrel. It is the defective mode of leather-

ing the pistons of the chain-pump which occasions its great

friction. In the motion of a machine of this kind, the pistons
would descend into the barrel, and might therefore be lea-
thered with cups like other pumps, so as to be quite tight
without immoderate friction. This machine was proposed
by a Mr. Cooper in 1784, who obtained a patent for it, and
Dr. Robison has again proposed it with recommendation,
BREAST-WHEELS.

The breast-wheel partakes of the nature both of an over-

shot and an undershot: it is driven partly by impulse, but
chiefly by the weight of water. The lower part of the
wheel is surrounded by a curved wall or sweep of masonry,
which is made concentric with the wheel, and the float-
boards of the wheel are exactly adapted to the masonry,
so as to pass as near as possible thereto without touching it;
and the side walls are in like manner adapted to the end of
the float -boards or sides of the wheel, the intention being
to let the least possible quantity of water pass without causing
the float-boards to move before it. In fig. 98, the water is
poured upon the top of the wheel over the breasting at I,
the efflux from the mill-dam K being regulated by the sluice
or shuttle M, which is placed in the direction of a tangent to
the wheel, and is provided with the rack R, and pinion P, by
which it can be drawn up so as to make any required degree
of opening, and admit more or less water to flow on the wheel.
The water first strikes on the float, and urges it by its
impulse ; but when the floats descend into the sweep, they
form as it were close buckets, each of which will contain a
given quantity of water, and the water cannot escape from
these buckets except the wheel moves, at least this is the
intention, and the wheel is fitted as close as it can be to the
race with that view. Each of the portions of v/ater contained
in these spaces bears partly upon the wall of the sweep, and
partly upon the floats of the wheel ; and its pressure upon
the floats, if not exceeded by the resistance, will cause the
wheel to move; hence the action upon all the floats which
are within the sweep of the breasting is by the weight of the
water alone ; but the water is made to impinge upon the first
float-board with some velocity, because the surface of the
water in the dam K is raised considerably above the orifice
bei;eath the shuttle where the water issues.
88 THE OPERATIVE MECHANIC
The Upper part of the fall at I is rounded off to a segment
of a circle, called the crown of the fall, and the water runs
over it. The lower edge of the shuttle when put down is
made to lit this curve, so as to make a tight joint; and in
consequence, when the shuttle is drawn up, the water will
run between its lower edge and the crown in a sheet or
stream which strikes upon the first float that presents itself,
nearly in a direction perpendicular to the plane of the float-
board, or of a tangent to the wheel. The float-boards of the
wheel are directed to the centre, but there are other boards
placed obliquely which extend from one float-board to the
rim of the wheel, and nearly fill the space between one float-
board and the next. These are called rising-boards, and the
use of them is to prevent the water flowing over the float-
board into the interior of the wheel; but the edges of these
boards are not continued so far as to join to the back of the
next float, because that would make all the boards of the
wheel close, and prevent the free escape of the air when the
water entered into the space between the floats.
As the water strikes with some force, the rising-boards are
very necessary to prevent the water from dashing over the
float-boards into the interior of the wheel.
This is the form of breast-wheel employed by Mr. Smeaton
in the great numberof mills which he constructed ; but
although he speaks of the impulse of the water striking the
wheel, he always endeavoured to make the top of the breast-
ing, or crown of the fall, as high as possible ; so as to attain
the greatest fall and the least of the impulsive action. All
rivers and streams of water are subject to variation in height
from floods or dry seasons, and in some this is very consider-
able: it was therefore necessary to make the crown I of the
fall, at such a height as that, in the lowest state of the Avater
R, it Avould run over the crown in a sheet of three or four
inches in thickness, and work the wheel. When the water
rose higher in the mill-dam, it would then have a pressure to M
force it through, and in that case would strike the wheel solM
as to impel it by the velocity.
Mr. meaton was well aware that the power communicated
by this impulse was very small. In some cases, where the
water was very subject to variation, he used a false or mov- A
*
able crown, that is, a piece of wood which fitted to the crown
I, and raised the surface thereof a foot or piore, so as to obtain
tlie greatest fall when the water stood at a mean height ; but I

when the water sunk too low to run over this movable I

crown, it could be drawn up to admit the water beneath it,

j
 AND MACHINIST. 89
This effect has since been produced in a more perfect manner
by making the crown of the fall a movable shuttle, to rise and
fall according to the height of the water in the mill-dam, by
which means the inconvenience before-mentioned is avoided.

IMPROVED BREAST-WHEEL, IN WHICH THE WATER RUNS OVER

THE SHUTTLE.
FiG.llOis a section of one of this kind. A
is the water

which is made to flow upon the float-board B, and urges

the wheel by its weight only, the water being prevented
from escaping or flowing off the float-boards by the breast
or sweep D
D, and the side-walls which enclose the floats
of the wheel. The upper part of the breast DD
is made

by a cast-iron plate, curved to the proper sweep to line with

the stone-work. On the back of the cast-iron plate the
moving shuttle e is applied 3 it fits close to the cast-iron so as
to prevent the water from leaking between them, and the
water runs over its upper edge. F is an iron groove or
channel let into the masonry of the side-walls, and in these,
the ends of the sliding shuttle are received ; / is an iron rack,
which is applied at the back of the shuttle, and ascends above
the water-line where the pinion g is applied to it to raise or
lower the shuttle. The axis of the pinion is supported in a
frame of wood II, Z> H
is a toothed sector and balance-weight,
which bears the shuttle upwards, or it might otherwise fall
down by its own weight, and put the mill in motion when
not intended. G
is a strong planking, which is fixed across
between the two side- walls, and retains the water when it
rises very high, as in time of floods ; but in common times
the water rises only a few inches above the lower edge of the
planking. When the shuttle is drawn up to touch this lower
edge, the water cannot escape; but when the shuttle is
lowered down, it opens a space e through which the water
flows upon the float-boards of the wheel.
Fig. Ill is a section of the most improved form for a
breast- wheel, taken from the Royal Armoury Mills at Enfield
Lock, erected by Messrs. Lloyd and Ostel. The general
description of this, is like the former, but it is constructed in
a better manner, and unites strength with durability. The
breast of masonry is surmounted by a cast-iron plate A,
feet high, which is let into the masonry of the side- walls
at each end, and the lower part is formed with a flanch, by
which it is bolted to the stone breast at top, This plate is
v

made straight at the back for the shuttle B to lie against,

^pd it slides up and down. The ends of the gate are guided
90 THE OPERATIVE MECHANIC
by iron groove pieces or channels which are let into the
stone-work of the side walls, and being made wedge-like,
they fix the ends of the cast-iron breast fast in its place.
Tlie grooves are not upright, but inclined to the perpendicular
so much, that the plane of the gate is at right angles to a
radius of the wheel drawn through the point where the water
falls upon the wheel. D
is a strong plank of wood, extended
between the iron grooves just over the shuttle. When the
shuttle is drawn up it comes in contact with the lower side
of this piece of wood, and stops the water; but the piece Dis
fixed at such a height, that the water will run clear beneath
it, unless its surface rises above its mean height.

The float-boards of the wheel do not point to the centre of

the wheel, but are so much inclined thereto that they are
exactly horizontal at the point where the water first flows
upon them. In this way, the gravity of the water has its full
effect upon the wheel, and the boards rise up out of the tail-
water in a much better position, than if they pointed to the
centre of the wheel; this is more particularly observable
when the wheel is flooded by tail-water penned up in the
lower part of the race, so that it cannot run freely away from
the wheel. The dimensions of this wheel are as follows;
diameter 18 feet to the points of the floats, and 14 feet
wide; the float-boards are 40 in number, each 16 inches
wide, and each rising-board 11 inches wide. The wheel is
formed of four cast-iron circles or wheels, each 14 feet
8 inches diameter, placed at equal distances upon the central
axis, which is 14 feet 8 inches long between the necks or
bearings, and 9 inches square; the bearing-necks are 9J
inches diameter. The wheel is calculated to make four revo-
lutioiis per minute, which gives near feet per second for
the velocity with which the float-boards move. The fall of
water is six feet, and the power of the wheel, when the
shuttle is drawn down one foot perpendicular, equal to
28-horse power.

BREAST-WHEEL WITH TWO SHUTTLES.

In this wheel the piece of wood marked D in the last
figure, is fitted into the groove of the shuttle, and is provided
with racks and pinions to slide up and down, independently of
the lower shuttle. This enables the lower shuttle to rise aifd
fall, according to the height of the water, so that the water shall

always run over the top of it, in the proper quantity to work
the mill with its required velocity, whilst the upper shuttle is
only used to stop the mill by shutting it down upon the
 AND MACHINIST. 91

lower shuttle, and preventing the water from running over it.
This plan is used when the mill is to be regulated by a
governor, or machine to govern its velocity ; in that case the
governor is made to operate upon the lower shuttle, and wdll
raise it up, or lower it down, according as the mill takes too
much or too little water, and this regulates the supply ; but
the upper shuttle is used to stop the mill, and by this means
the adjustment of the lower shuttle is not destroyed, but
when set to work again, it will move with its required
velocity. Fig. 101 is a section of one of the water-wheels
at the cotton-mills of Messrs. Strutt, at Helper, in Derby-
shire. The width of this wheel is very great, and to render
the shuttles AB firm, a strong grating of cast-iron is

fixed on the top of the breast K, and the shuttles are

applied at the back of the grating E, so as to slide up and
down against it, the strain occasioned by the pressure of the
water being borne by the grating. The lower shuttle is
moved by means of long screws, a, which have bevelled
wheels, b, at the upper ends, to turn them, by a connection
of wheel-work with the wheel- work of the mill. The upper
shuttle. A, is drawn up or down by racks and pinions, c,
which are turned by a winch, or handle. The bars of the
grating E are placed one above the other, like shelves, but
are not horizontal; they are inclined, so that the upper sur-
faces of all the bars form tangents to an imaginary circle of
one-third the diameter of the wheel described round the
centre thereof. These bars are not above half an inch thick,
and the spaces between them are 2^ inches. The bars are of
a considerable breadth, the object of them being to lead the
water, with a proper slope from the top of the lower shuttle
B, to flow upon the floats of the wheel. This disposition
allow^s the shuttles to be placed at such a distance from the
wheel as to admit very strong upright bars of cast-iron to
be placed between the wheel and the shuttles, for the shuttles
to bear against, and prevent them from bending towards the
wheel, as the great weight of water would otherwise occasion
them to do. These upright bars are very firmly fixed to
the stone-work of the breast at their lower ends, and the
upper ends are fastened to a large timber, D, which is sup-
ported at its ends in the side walls, and has a truss-framing
a*pplied to the back of it, like the framing of a roof, to prevent
it from bending towards the wheel. The upright bars are
placed at distances of five feet asunder, so as to support the
shuttles in two places in the middle of their length, as u eli
as at both ends ; and large rollers are applied m the shuttle.
92 THE OPERATIVE MECHANIC
where it bears against these bars, to diminish the friction,
which would otherwise be very great.
These precautions will not appear unnecessary when the
size of the work is known. The wheel is 21i feet in dia-
meter, and 15 feet broad; the fall of water is 14 feet, when
it is at a mean height; the upper shuttle is feet high, and
15 feet long; the lower shuttle is five feet high, and the same
length, so that it contains 7^ square feet of surface exposed
to the pressure of the water; now taking the centre of
pressure at two-thirds of the depth, or 3^ feet, we find
the pressure equal to that depth of water acting on the whole
surface; that is, the weight of 3->- cubic feet of water =
208
pounds, bears on every square foot of surface, which is equal
to 15,^0 pounds, or near seven tons, on the lower shuttle
only ; but if we take the two shuttles together, the surface is
112 square feet, and the mean pressure 312 pounds upon
each, or 16 tons in the whole. The wheel has 40 float-
boards pointing to the centre. The wheel is made of cast-iron.
There are two wheels of the dimensions above stated, which
are placed in a line with each other, and are only separated
by a wall which supports the bearings ; for they work toge-
ther as one wheel, and the separation is only to obviate the
difficulty of making one wheel of such great breadth as 30 feet,
though this is not impossible, for there is a wheel in the same
works 40 feet in breadth, but it is of wood and not iron, and
is framed in a particular manner, ^Dr. Reess Cyclopcedia,

DR. barkers mill.

Dr. Desaguliers appears to have been the first who pub-
lished an account of this machine. He ascribes the invention
to Dr. Barker, in the following words : Sir George Savill says,
he had a mill in Lincolnshire to grind corn, which took up so
much water to work it, that it sunk his ponds visibly, for
which reason he could not have constant work ; but now, by
Dr. Barkers improvement, the waste water only from Sir
Georges ponds keeps it constantly to work.
Dr. Barkers mill is shown in fig. 102, where CD
is a
vertical axis, moving on a pivot at D, and carrying the upper
millstone m, after passing through an opening in the fixed
millstone C. Upon this axis is fixed a vertical tube T T,
communicating with a horizontal tube A B, at the extremities
of which. A, B, are two apertures in opposite directions.
M
When water from the millcourse N is introduced into the
tube TT, it flows out of the apertures A, B, and, by the
reaction or counterpressure of the issuing water, the arm AB,
 AND MACHINIST. 93
and consequently the whole machine, is put in motion.
The bridgetree a b is elevated or depressed by turning the
nut c at the end of the lever c b. In order to understand
how this motion is produced, let us suppose both the aper-
tures shut, and the tube T T filled with water up to T. The
apertures A, B, which are shut up, will be pressed outwards
by a force equal to the weight of a column of water whose
height is TT, and whose area is the area of the apertures.
Every part of the tube AB
sustains a similar pressure; but
as these pressures are balanced by equal and opposite
pressures, the arm A B is at rest. By opening the aperture
at A, however, the pressure at that place is removed, and
consequently the arm is carried round by a pressure equal to
that of a column T T, acting upon an area equal to that of
the aperture A. The same thing happens on the arm T B
and these two pressures drive the arm A B round in the
same direction. This machine may evidently be applied to
drive any kind of machinery, by fixing a wheel upon the
vertical axis C D.
In the preceding form of Barkers mill, the length of the
axis CD must always exceed the height of the fall N D,
and therefore when the fall is very high, the difficulty of
erecting such a machine would be great. In order to remove
this difficulty, M. Mathon de la Cour proposes to introduce
the water from the millcourse into the horizontal arms A, B,
which are fixed to an upright spindle C T, but without any
tube T T. The water will obviously issue from the apertures
A, B, in the same manner as if it had been introduce-d at the
top of a tube TT as high as the fall. Hence the spindle
C D may be made as short as we please. The practical
difficulty which attends this form of the machine, is to give
the arms A, B, a motion round the mouth of the feeding pipe,
which enters the arm at D, without any great friction, or
any considerable loss of water. This form of the mill is
shown in fig. 103, where F is the reservoir, K the millstones,
D
K the vertical axis, F E C the feeding pipe, the mouth of
which enters the horizontal arm at C. In a machine of this
kind which M. Mathon de la Cour saw at Bourg Argental,
A B was 92 inches, and its diameter three inches ; the dia-
meter of each orifice was 14- inch, F G was 21 feet ; the
internal diameter of Dwas two inches, and it was fitted into
C by grinding. This machine made 115 turns in a minute
when it was unloaded, and emitted water by one hole only.
The machine, when empty, weighed 80 pounds, and it was
half supported by the upward pressure of the water.
94 THE OPERATIVE MECHANIC
This improvement^ which was first given by M. Mathon ile
la Cour, in the Journal de Physique^ 177^^ appeared twenty
years afterwards in the American Philosophical Transactions^
as the invention of a Mr. Ramsey; and Mr. Waring, who in-
serted the account, contrary to every other philosopher, makes
the effect of the machine only equal to that of a good under-
shot wheel, moved with the same quantity of water falling
through the same height.
Dr. Gregory, in his Mechanics, vol. ii. has given this
paper with some corrections, and recommends it as the best
theory. The following rules, deduced from his calculus,
may be of use to those who wish to make experiments on
the effect of this interesting machine.
1 .Make each arm of the horizontal rotatory tube or arm
of any convenient length, from the centre of motion to the
centre of the apertures, but not less than one-third (one-
ninth, according to Mr. Gregory) of the perpendicular height
of the waters surface above their centres.
2. Multiply the length of the arm in feet by .6136, and
take the square root of the product for the proper time of a
revolution in seconds, and adapt the other parts of the ma-
chinery to this velocity; or if the required time of a revolution
be given, multiply the square of this time by 1.629 for the
proportional length of the arm in feet.
3. Multiply together the breadth, depth, and velocity per
second, of the race, and divide the last product by 18.47
times (14.27, according to Mr. Gregory) the square root of
the height, for the area of either aperture.
4. Multiply the area of either aperture by the height of
the fall of water, and the product by 414 pounds (55. 77^,
according to Mr. Gregory) for the moving force, estimated
at the centres of the apertures in pounds avoirdupois.
5. The power and velocity at the aperture may be easily
reduced to any part of the machinery by the simplest me-
chanical rules.

TIDE-MILLS.

Tide-mills, as their name imports, are such as employ

for their firstmover the flowing and ebbing tide, either in
the sea or a river.
Mills of this kind have not often, we believe, been erected
in England, though several of our rivers, and particularly
the Thames, the Humber, and the Severn, in which the tide
rises co a great height, furnish a very powerful mover to
drive any kind of machinery, and would allow of tide-mills
 102 JFLio.

H
t'roni 102 t/)J03

103

105
--S.
 AND MACHINIST. 95

being very advantageously constructed upon their banks.

The erection of such mills is not to be recommended uni-
versally, as they are attended with a considerable original
expense ; beside that, some of their parts will require frequent
repairs: but in some places, where coal is very dear, they
may, on the whole, be found less expensive than steam-
engines to perform the same work, and may, on that account,
be preferred even to them.
We have not been able to ascertain who was the first
contriver of a tide-mill in this country, nor at what time one
was first erected. The French have not been so negligent
respecting the origin of this important invention, as to let
it drop into obscurity ; but have taken care to inform us
that such mills were used in France early in the last century.
Belidor mentions the name of the inventor, at the same
time that he states some peculiar advantages of this species
of machine. Lon en attribue, says he, la premiere
invention a un nomm^ Perse, maitre charpentier de Dun-
kerque, que merite assurement beaucoup deloge, ny ayant
point de gloire plus digne dun bon citoyen, que cede de
produire quelquinvention utile a la societe. En effet,
combien ny a-t-il point de choses essentielles a la vie, dont
on ne connolt le prix que quand on en est prive : les
moulins en general sont dans ce cas-la. On doit s 9 avoir bon
gre a ceux qui nous ont mis en etat den construire partout
par exemple, a Calais, comme il ny serpente point de
rivieres, on ny a point fait jusquici de moulins a eau, et ceux
qui vont par le vent chomant une partie de Iannee, il y a des
terns ou cette ville se trouve sans farine, et jai vu la
gamison en 1730, oblige de faire venir du pain de Saint-Omer,
au lieu quen se servant du flux et reflux de la mer, on pour-
rait construire autant de moulins a eau que Ton voudroit il
;

y a dautres villes dans le voisinage de la mer sujettes au

m^me inconvenient, parcecjuapparemment elles ignorent le
moyen dy rem^dier.
Mills to be worked by the rising and falling of the tide,
admit of great variety in the essential parts of their con-
struction ; but this' variety may perhaps be reduced to four
general heads, according to the manner of action of tlie
water-wheel. 1. The water-wheel may turn one way when
the tide rises, and the contrary when it falls. 2. The water-
wheel may be made to turn always in one direction.
3. The water-wheel may fall and rise as the tide ebbs and
flows. 4. The axle of the water-wheel may be so fixed as
that it shall neither rise nor fall, though the rotatory motion
 96 THE OPERATIVE MECHANIC
shall be given to the wheel, while at one time it is only;^ !

partly, at another completely, immersed in the fluid. In the ^ i

mills we have examined, says Dr. Gregory, the first and third of < j
~
these idivisions have been usually exemplified in one machine ;
and the second and fourth may readily be united in another
we shall, therefore, speak of them under two divisions on y.
1. When the water-wheel rises and falls, and turns one^B
way with the rising tide, and the contrary when it ebbs. In^H
order to explain the nature of this species of tide-mills, we^K
shall describe one which has lately been erected on the^B
right bank of the Thames, at East- Greenwich, under the^
direction of Mr. John Lloyd, an ingenious engineer of*'
Brewer *s-green, Westminster.
This mill is intended to grind com, and works eight pair S
of stones. The side of the mill-house parallel to the course^B
of the river, measures 40 feet within ; and as the whole of thi&^B
may be opened to the river by sluice-gates, which are carried
down to the low water- mark in the river, there is a 40 feet
waterway to the mill : through the waterway the water
^
X
presses during the rising tide into a large reservoir, which S
occupies about four acres of land ; and beyond this reservoir
is a smaller one, in which water is kept, for the purpose of
^
being let out occasionally at low water to cleanse the whole t
works from mud and sediment, which would otherwise, in J|
time, clog the machinery.
The water-wheel has its axle in a position parallel to the
side of the river, that is, parallel to the sluice-gates which
Jj;
admit water from the river ; the length of this wheel is 26 |
feet, its diameter 11 feet, and its number of float-boards 32. i:
These boards do not each run on in one plane from one end
of the wheel to the other, but the whole length of the wheel is jH
divided into four equal portions, and the parts of the float-boards, ^B
belonging to each of these portions, fall gradually one lower than
another, each by one-fourth of the distance from one board ^B
to another, measuring on the circumference of the wheel.
This contrivance, which will be better understood by refer- a
ring to fig, 104, is intended to equalize the action of water A
upon the wheel, and prevent its moving by jerks. The wheel, B
with its incumbent apparatus, weighs about 20 tons, the whole
of which is raised by the impulse of the flowing tide, when ^B
admitted through the sluice-gates. It is placed in the middle .^B
of the waterway, leaving a passage on each side of about six 9
feet, for the water to flow into the reservoir, besides that which, 9
in its motion, turns the wheel round. Soon after the tide has ,9
risen to the highest, (which at this mill is often 20 feet above, |
 AND MACHINIST. 97

the low water-mark,) the water is permitted to run back

again from the reservoir into the river, and by this means it
gives a rotatory motion to the water-wheel, in a contrary
direction to that with which it moved when impelled by the
rising tide : the contrivance by which the wheel is raised and
depressed, and that by which the whole interior motions of
the mill are preserved in the same direction, although that in
which the water-wheel moves is changed, are so truly inge-
nious as to deserve a distinct description, illustrated by
diagrams. Let, then, AB (fig 105) be a section of the

water-wheel, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, &c. its floats ; C D

the first cog-
wheel upon the same axis as the water-wheel ; the vertical
shaft F E carries the two equal wallower-wheels E and F,
which are so situated on the shaft that one or other of them
may, as occasion requires, be brought to be driven by the
first wheel C ID ; and thus the first wheel acting upon F and
E at points diametrically opposite, will, although its own
motion is reversed, communicate the rotatory motion to the
vertical shaft always in the same direction. In the figure
the wheel E is shown in geer, while F is clear of the cog-
wheel CD; and at the turn of the tide the wheel F is let
into geer, and E is thrown out ; this is effected by the lever
G, whose fulcrum is at H, the other end being suspended by
the rack K, which has hold of the pinion L on the same axle
as the wheel M ;
into this wheel plays the pinion N, the
winch O, on the other end of whose axle, furnishes sufificient
advantage to enable a man to elevate or depress the wallower-
w^heels, as reqilfred.
The centre of the lever may be shown more clearly by
fig. 104, where Z> is a section of the lever, which is com-
posed of two strong bars of iron, as Z> ; there are two steel
studs or pins which w^ork in the grooves of the grooved wheel
I, this w^heel being fixed on the four rods surrounding the

shaft, of which three only can be shown in the figures, as

cde; the ends of these are screwed fast by bolts to the
sockets of the wallower-wheels, and they are nicely fitted
on the vertical shaft, so as to slide with little friction ; thus
the wallowers may be raised or lowered upon the upright
shaft, while the gudgeon, on which it turns, retains the same
position.
When the top wallower is on a shoulder
in geer, it rests
that prevents it from going too far down
and wLen the
;
bottom one is in geer, there is a bolt that goes through the
top wheel socket and shaft which takes the weight from the
lever G, at the same time that it prevents much friction on
H
 THE OPERATIVE MECHANIC
the stuas or pins of the lever v*^hich works in the grooved
wheel I.

When the tide is flowing, after the mill has stopped a suf-
ficient time to gain a moderate head of water, the fluid is
suffered to enter and fall upon the wheel at the sluice Q,
(fig. 105,) and the tail water to run out at the sluice R.

The hydrostatic pressure of the head of water acting against

the bottom of the wheel -frame S, and at the same time act-
ing between the folding-gates T W, which are thus converted
into very large hydrostatic bellows, buoys up the wheel and
frame, (though weighing, as before observed, nearly 20 tons,)
and makes them gradually to rise higher and higher, so that
the wheel is never, as the workmen express it, drowned in the
flowing water ; nor can the water escape under the wheel-
frame, being prevented by the folding-gates, which pass from
one end to the other of the wheel. In this way the wheel
and frame are buoyed up by a head of four feet ; and the mill
works with a head of 5 or 5.^ feet. 1
When the tide is ebbing, and the water from the reservoir
running back again into the river, it might, perhaps, be ex-
pected that in consequence of the gradual subsiding of the
water, the water-wheel should as gradually lower ; but lest
any of the water confined between the wheel-frame at S, and
the folding-gates T W, should prevent this, there are strong
rackworks of cast-iron, by which the wheel-frame can be
either suspended at any altitude, or gradually let down so as
to give the water returning from the reservoir an advantageous
head upon the wheel ; then the sluice R is shut, and V opened
as well as X, the water entering at Xto act upon the wheel,
and flowing out at R. The upper surface of the wheel-frame
is quadrangular, and at each angle is a strong cast-iron bar,
which slides up and down in a proper groove, that admits of
the vertical motion, but prevents all sucli lateral deviation
as might be occasioned by the impulsion of the stream.
At each end of the water-wheel there is a vertical shaft,
with wallowers and a first cog-wheel, as F E, and C ;
D
and
each of these vertical shafts turns a large horizontal wheel at
a suitable distance above the wallowers, while each horizontal
wheel drives four equal pinions placed at equal or quadrantal
distances on its periphery, each pinion having a vertical
spindle, on the upper part of which the upper millstone of
its respective pair is fixed. Other wheels, driven by one or
other of these pinions, giving motion to the bolting and
dressing machines, and different suboi*dinate parts of the
mill.
 AND MACHINIST. 99

Although the vertical shaft at each end of the water-wheel

risesand falls with that wheel, yet the large horizontal wheel
turning with such shaft does not likewise rise and fall, but
remains always in the same horizontal plane, and in contact
with the four pinions it drives. The contrivance for this
purpose is very simple, but very efficacious ; each great
horizontal wheel has a nave, which runs upon friction-rollers,
and has a square aperture passing through it vertically, just
large enough to allow the shaft P to slide freely up and down in
but not to turn round without communicating its rotatory
it,

motion to the wheel ; thus the weight of the wheel causes it

to press upon the friction-rollers, and retain the same hori-
zontal planes, and the action of the angles of the vertical shaft
upon the corresponding parts of the square orifice in the
nave causes it to partake of the rotatory motion, such motion
being always in one direction, in consequence of the con-
trivance by which one or other of the wallowers E F is
brought into contact with the opposite points of the first cog-
wheel C D.
Several of the subordinate parts of this mill are admir-
ably constructed 5 but we can only notice here the means by
which the direction of the motion in the dressing and bolt-
ing machines may be varied at pleasure. On a vertical
shaft are fixed^ at the distance of about 15 or 18 inches, two
equal cog-wheels, and another toothed-wheel, attached to a
horizontal axle, is made so as to be movable up and down by
a screw, and thus brought into contact with either the
upper or lower of the two cog-wheels on the vertical shaft
thus, it is manifest, the motion is reversed with great faci-
lity by changing the position of the horizontal axle so that
the wheel upon it may be driven by the two cog-wheels
alternately. A wheel and pinion working at the other end
of the horizontal axle will communicate the motion to the
dressing machines.
Mr. W. Dryden, Mr. Lloyds foreman, employed in the
erection of this mill, suggests that a nearly similar mode
may beadvantageously adopted in working dressing ma-
chines in wind-mills ; three wheels, all of different diameters,
may be employed, two of them, as A and C, turning upon a
vertical shaft, and the third, B, upon an inclined one. In
fig. 106, the wheels A and B are shown in geer, while C is
out ; and if A be struck out by some such contrivance as is
adopted with regard to the first cog-wheel and wallowers,
(fig. 104 and 105,) C would come in contact with B, while, A

would be free, and so communicate a motion to B the reverse

H 2
 100 THE OPJERATIVTS MECHANIC
way. By this contrivance it would be easy^ when the winds
are strong and give a rapid motion to the vertical axle, to
bring C to drive B, the wheel on the axle of the dressing-
machines ; and on the contrary, when the wind is slack,
and the consequent motion of the machinery slow, let C be
thrown out of geer, and the wheel B driven by the larger
wheel A, as shown in the figure.
We should have been glad to see adopted in this well-
constructed mill, a contrivance, recommended and pursued
by the American mill-wrights, for raising the ground corn to
the cooling-boxes or beaches from which it is to be con-
veyed into the bolting-machine. In this mill, as in all we
have seen, the corn is put into bags at the troughs below the
mill-stones, and thence raised to the top of the mill-house by
a rope folding upon barrels turned by some of the interior
machinery of the mill. In the American method, a large
screw is placed horizontally in the trough which receives
the flour from the mill- stones. The thread or spiral line of
the screw is composed of pieces of wood about two inches
broad and three long, fixed into a wooden cylinder seven or
eight feet in length, which forms the axis of the screw.
When the screw is turned round this axis, it forces the meal
from one end of the trough to the other, where it falls into
another trough, from which it is raised to the top of the mill-
house by means of elevators, a piece of machinery similar to
the chain-pump. These elevators consist of a chain of buckets,
or concave vessels, like large tea-cups, fixed at proper
distances upon a leathern band, which goes round two wheels,
one of which is placed at the top of the mill-house, and the
other at the bottom, in the meal-trough. When the wheels
,are put in motion, the band revolves, and the buckets, dip-
ping into the meal-trough, convey the flour to the upper story,
where they discharge their contents. The band of buckets
is enclosed in two square boxes, in order to keep them clean, ?
and preserve them from injury.
We shall now proceed, tMj
2. To tide-mills, in which the axle of the water-wheelW
neither rises nor falls, and in which that wheel is made always
to revolve in the same direction. A water-wheel of this kind
must, manifestly, at the time of high-tide, be almost, if not
entirely, immersed in the fluid ; and to construct a wheel to
work under such circumstances is, obviously, a matter which
requires no small skill and ingenuity.
The first person who devised a wheel which might be
turned by the tide, when completely immersed in it, were
 AND MACHINIST. 101

Messrs. Gosset and De la Deuille. Their wheel is described

by Belidor in nearly the following terms. Suppose G H
I

(fig. 107 ) to denote the surface of the water at high-tide^ the

hne L M the surface at low- water, and that the current fol-
lows the direction of the arrow N ;
the problem is to construct
I
the wheel so that it may always turn upon its axis I K.
The figure just referred to is a profile of an assemblage of
I carpentry, which must be repeated several times along the
arbor, according to the length which it is proposed to give to
the float-boards ; and the planks or plates which compose
these floats, must be hung to the other parts of the frame by
as many joints as are necessary, to enable them to sustain
the impulse of the water without bending. The sole pecu-
liarity of this wheel consists in hanging upon the transverse
beams in the frame-work, by hinges, the planks which are to
compose the float-boards ; so that they may present them-
selves in face, as D, D, D, when they are at the bottom of the
wheel, to receive the full stroke of the stream ; and, on the
contrary^, they present only their edges, as A, A, A, when
they are brought towards the summit of the wdieel ; hence,
the water having a far greater effect upon the lower than the
upper parts of the wheel, compels it to revolve in the order
of the letters ; instead of which, if the float-boards were
fixed as in the usual way, the impulse of the fluid upon the
wheel would be nearly the same in all its parts, and it would
remain immovable.
We see, at once, that the boards D, D, D, having moved
towards M, then begin to float, as at E, E, E, and more still
I
at F, F, F, but that it is not till they arrive at A, A, A, that
they attain the horizontal position ; after that, having arrived
at B, B, B, they begin to drop towards the beams to which
they are hooked, and as soon as they have passed the level of
the axle I K, the stream commences its full action upon
them, which it attains completely between C, C, C, and
E, E, E, and this, whether the surface of the w^ater be at
GH or at L M;
for even in the latter case it is manifest that
the float-boards are entirely immersed when in the vertical
position P Q. Belidor says, he was present at the first
trial of such a wheel at Paris, and that it was attended with
all the success that could be desired.
A water-wheel has been lately invented by Mr. Dryden,
which will work when nearly immersed in the water of a
flowing tide. Fig. 108 is an elevation of this wheel, its upper
parts being supposed to stand a foot or two higher than the
tide ever rises ; the axis of this wheel remains always in one
102 THE OPERATIVE MECHANIC
place, and the wheel will work at high-water when the head
is at B, and the tail- water at the dotted line A ; it will also
perform nearly the same work when the head is at C, and the
tail- water level with the bottom of the wheel. The floats
are all set at one and the same angle, with the respective
radii of the wheel, as may be seen in the figure, and are made
so as to have an opening of at least an inch between each
float and the drum-boarding of the wheel. This opening is
intended to prevent the wheel from being impeded by the
tail- water; for as the bucket rises out of the water, there
can be no vacuum formed in it, there being a full supply of
air, in consequence of which the water leaves the wheel de-
liberately. The case is different with regard to wheels made
in the common way ; for if such are open wheels, the floats
are made in such a manner as to throw the tail-watei if they
are immersed any depth in it ; or, if they are close, the w'heel
wants proper vent for the air to prevent the formation of a
vacuum in the rising bucket, or what is called by the miller
sucking up the tail-water. At D is planking made cir-
cular to fit the wheel pretty close for rather more than the
space of two floats, so as to confine the water nearly close to
the wheel. E, F, G, H, are sluices which are all connected
together by the iron bar I, and lifted with the assistance of

the wheel, two pinions, and a winch, the first pinion working
into the rack K ; these sluices are merely for stopping the
wheel when occasion requires, although one might be suffi-
cient to supply the wheel. The rings of this wheel may be
made either of cast-iron or of wood ; the floats may be iron
plates rivetted together. The flanches on the arms of the
wheel, exhibited in the sketch, are intended to facilitate the
fixing of the first cog-wheels ; the ring of the wheel may be
fixed to the flanches at the extremity of the arms, and the
large flanch made fast to the axle will receive the middle part
of the wheel.
Fig. 109 is a plan of the house in which either of the two
latter wheels may be fixed, showing in what manner the
water may be conveyed always on one side of the wheel by
the assistance of the four gates A, B, C, and D. When the
mill is working from the river, A and B are open, the arrows
point out the way the water runs from the river to the basin ;
and the dotted lines on the contrary the course from the basin
to the river, when A, B, are shut, and C, D, opened. These
gates are made to turn on an axle, which is about six inches
from the middle of the gate, and on the top of the axle is a
half- wheel ; by some crane- work connected to it, the gate
 AND MACHINIST. 103

can be opened or bhiit at pleasure ; when a head of water

presses against the gates they will open great part of the
way of themselves, by only letting the catches that keep them
shut be lifted out of their place. X, Y, are two knees of
cast-iron, to support the posts that the gates are fixed to.
The walls of the building are represented at a, Z, c, and d.
The reader will now be able to form an estimate of the
comparative value and ingenuity of the two kinds of tide-
mills here described. The simplicity of construction of the
wheels of Gosset, De la Deuille, and Dryden, recommend
them strongly ; but we entertain some doubts of their being
completely successful in practice : had the curious wheel,
with the folding-gates, &c. fig. 104 and 106, been placed
with its axle perpendicular, instead of parallel, to the course
of the river, the water might then have always been admitted
to act upon the same side of it, and the hydrostatic pressure
would have operated as completely in lowering it continually
during the time of ebb, as in raising it continually during the
rising of the tide ; thus, as appears to us, would the labour
of a man be saved, who, according to the present construc-
tion, must attend the water-wheel; and all the additional
apparatus now requisite to shift the spur-wheels, would at
the same time be saved, and a consequent diminution of
original expense. Dr. Gregory's Mechanics, vol. ii.
In selecting a site for the erection of a mill, the engineer
must be careful not to make choice of a spot that is liable to
be flooded. When the water in the mill-tail will not run off
freely, but stands pent up in the wheel-race, so that the
wheel must work or row in it, the wheel is said to be tailed,
or to be in back-w^ater or tail-water ; wdiich greatly impedes
the velocity of the wheel, and, if the flood be great, com-
pletely stops it.
Every mill that is well and properly constructed, will clear
itself of a considerable depth of tail- water, provided there is,
at the time, an increase in the height of the water in the
mill-dam or head, and an unlimited quantity of water to draw
upon the wheel. Common breast-mills will bear two feet of
tail-water, when there is an increase of head, and plenty of
water to be drawn upon the wheel, without prejudice to their
performance ; and mills that are well constructed, with slow
moving wheels, will bear three and even four feet aud up-
wards of tail-water. Mr. Smeaton mentions having ?ten an
instance of six feet ; and it is a common thing in leve coun-
tries, where tail-water is most annoying, to lay the wheel
from six to twelve inches below the water's level ?f the
 104 THE OPERATIVE MECHANIC
pond below, in order to increase the fall of water 5 and, if
judiciously applied, is attended with good effect, as it in-
creases the diameter of the wheel, and though it must
always work in that depth of tail- water, it will perform full
as well, because the water ought to run off from the bottom
of the wheel, in the same direction as the wheel turns.

ON THE CONSTRUCTION OF THE WHEEL-RACE AND

WATER-COURSE.
The wheel-race should always be built in a substantial
manner with masonry, and if the stones are set in Roman

cement, it will be much better than common mortar. The

earth, behind the masonry, should be very solid, and if it is
not naturally so, it should be hard rammed and puddled, to
prevent percolation of the water. This applies more parti-
cularly to breast-wheels, in which the water of the dam or
reservoir is usually immediately behind the wall or breast in
which the wheel works, a sloping apron of earth being laid
from the wall in the dam to prevent the water leaking. The
wall of the breast should have pile planking driven beneath,
to prevent the water from getting beneath, because that might
blow up the foundation of the race. The stones of the race
are hewn to a mould, and laid in their places with great care ;
but afterwards, when the side walls are finished, and the axis
of the wheel placed in its bearings, a gauge is attached to it
and swept round the curve, and by this the breast is dressed
smooth, and hewn to an exact arch of a circle ; the side w^alls,
in like manner, are hewn flat and true at the place where the
float-boards are to work. It is usual to make the space be--
tween the side walls two inches narrower at each side, in the
circular part where the float acts, than in the other parts.
In some old mills the breast is made of wood planking,
but this method has so little durability that it cannot be
recommended.
In modern mills, the breast is lined with a cast-iron plate,
but we do not approve of this, because it is next to impossible
to prevent some small leakage of water through the masonry |
and this water, being confined behind the iron breast, cannot
escape, but its hydrostatic pressure to force up the iron is
enormous ; and if the water can ever insinuate itself behind
the whole surface of the plate, rarely fails to break it, if notj
to blow it up altogether. This is best guarded against by
making deep ribs projecting from the back of the plate, and
bedding them with great care in the masonry; these notj
only strengthen the plate, but also cut off the communication'
 AND MACHINIST. 105

of the water, so that it cannot act upon larger surfaces at

once, than the strength and weight of the plate can resist.
Stone is undoubtedly the best materials for a breasting. In
overshot-wheels the loss of water, by running out of the
buckets as they approach the bottom of the wheel, may be
considerably diminished by accurately forming a sweep or
casing round the lower portion of the wheel, so as to prevent
the immediate escape of the water, and causing it to act in
the manner of a breast-wheel. While this improvement
remains in good condition, and the wheel. works truly, it
produces a very sensible effect; but it is frequently objected
to, because a stick or a stone falling into the wheel would
be liable to tear off part of its shrouding, and damage the
buckets ; and again, a hard frost frequently binds all fast,
and totally prevents the possibility of working during its
continuance ; but we do not think the latter a great objection,
for the water is not more liable to freeze there than in the
buckets, or in the shuttle, and may be prevented by the same
means, viz. by keeping the wheel always in motion, a very
small stream of water left running all night will be sufficient.
Mr. Smeaton always used such sweeps, and with very good
effect ;
it is certainly preferable to any intricate work in tiie
form of the buckets.
Mill-courses.
i\s it is of the highest importance to have
the height of the fall as great as possible, the bottom of the
canal or dam which conducts the water from the river should
have a very small declivity ; for the height of the water-fall
will diminish in proportion as the declivity of the canal is
increased ; on this account, it will be sufficient to make A B,
fig. 100, slope about one inch in 200 yards, taking care to
make the declivity about half an inch for the first 48 yards,
in order that the water may have a velocity sufficient to pre-
vent it from flowing back into the river. The inclination of
the fall, represented by the angle G
C R, should be 25 50'
or C R, the radius, should be to G R, the tangent of this
angle, as 100 to 48, or as 25 to 12 ; and since the surface
of the water S Z> is bent from a h into a c, before it is pre-
cipitated down the fall, it will be necessary to incurvate the
upper part B C D
of the course into B D, that the water at
the bottom may move parallel to the water at the top of the
stream. For this purpose, take the points B, D, about
12 inches distant from C, and raise the perpendiculars B E,
DE ;
the point of intersection E
will be the centre, from
which the arch B D
is to be described
;
the radius being about
lOi^ inches.
106 THE OPERATIVE MECKAMC
Now, ill order that the w^ater may act more advantageously
upon the float-boards of the wheel W W, it must assume a
horizontal direction H K, with the same velocity which it
would have acquired when it came to the point G but, in :

falling from C to G, the water will dash upon the horizontal

part H G, and thus lose a great part of its velocity ; it will
be proper, therefore, to make it move along F H, an arch of
a circle, to which D F and K H are tangents in the points F
and H. For this purpose, make GF and G H each equal to
three feet, and raise the perpendiculars HI, FI, which will
intersect one another in the points I, distant about four feet
nine inches and -rVths from the points F and H, and the
centre of the arch F II will be determined. The distance
H K, through which the water runs before it acts upon the
wheel, should not be less than two or three feet, in order that
the different portions of the fluid may have obtained a hori-
zontal direction ; and if HK be much larger, the velocity of
the stream would be diminished by its friction on the bottom
of the course. That no water may escape between the bot-
tom of the course KH and the extremities of the float-
boards, K L should be about three inches, and the extremity
o of the float-board o, should be beneath the line HK X,
suflicient room being left between o and M for the play of
the wheel, or K M
L may be formed into the arch of a circle
K M, concentric with the wheel. The line L M V, called
by M. Fabre the course of impulsion, (le coursier dimpulsion,)
should be prolonged, so as to support the water as long as it if:
can act upon the float-boards, and should be about nine
inches distant from O P, a horizontal line passing through O,
the lowest point of the fall ; for if O L were much less than^
nine inches, the water, having spent the greater part of its^^
force in impelling the float-boards, would accumulate below^j
the wheel and retard its motion. For the same reason, an-jH
other course, which is called by M. Fabre the course of dis-^B
charge, (le coursier de decharge,) should be connected with^H
M
L V by the curve V N, to preserve the remaining velocitylH
of the water, which would otherwise be destroyed by falling.^; I
perpendicular from V to N. The course of discharge is re-||^
presented by V Z, sloping from the point O. It should be*i' ^
about 16 yards long, having an inch of declivity in every twoS [
yards. The canal, w^hich reconducts the water from the.f, ^

course of discharge to the river, should slope about four

inches in the first 200 yards, three inches in the second 200 .. j
yards, decreasing gradually till it terminates in the river. Butjf
J
if the river, to wdiich the water is conveyed, should, whep'
^
 AND MACHINIST. 107

swollen by the rains, force the water back upon the wheel, the
canal must have a greater declivity, in order to prevent this from
taking place. Hence it will be evident, that very accurate level-
ling is necessary for the proper formation of the mill-course.

ON SETTING OUT WATER-COURSES AND DAMS.

The most ancient mills were undershot-wheels placed in
the current of an open river, the building containing the mill
being set upon piles in the river. It would soon be observed
that the power of the mill would be greatly increased if all the
water of the river was concentrated to the wheel, by making an
obstruction across the river which penned up the water to a
required height; and also to form a pool or reservoir of water.
A sluice or shuttle would then become necessary to regulate
the admission of water to the wheel, and other sluices would
be necessary to allow the water to escape in times of floods
for though in ordinary times the water would run over the
top of the obstruction or dam, yet a very great body of water
running over might carry away the whole work, by washing
away the earth at the foot of the dam, and then overturning
it into the excavation. This is an accident which frequently
happens to milk so situated; and the dangei is so obvious,
that most water-mills are now removed to the side of the
river, and a channel is dug from the river to the mill to
supply it with water, and another to return the water from
the mill to the river. The difference of level between these
two channels is the fail of water to work the mill, and this is
kept up by means of a wear or dam entirely across the river,
but the water can run freely over this dam in case of floods,
without at all affecting the mill, because the entrance to the
channel of supply is regulated by sluices and side walls.
The dam should be erected across the river at a broad
part, where it will pen up the water so as to form a large
pond or reservoir, which is called the mill-pond or dam-head.
This reservoir is useful to gather the water which comes
down the river in the night, and reserve it for the next days
consumption : or for such mills as do not work incessantly,
but which require more water, when they do work, than the
ordinary stream of the river can supply in the same time.
The larger the surface of the pond is, the more efficient it
will be, but depth will not compensate for the want of
surface, because, as the surface sinks, when the water is
drawn off^ the fall on descent of the water, and consequently
the power of the water, diminishes.
The dam for a large river should be constructed with the
108 THE OPERATIVE MECHANIC
utmost solidity; wood framing is very commonly used, but
masonry is preferable. Great care must be taken, by driving
pile planking under the dam, to intercept all .leakage of the
water beneath the ground under the dam, as that loosens the
earth, and destroys the foundation imperceptibly, when a
violent flood may overthrow the whole. It is a common
practice to place the dam obliquely across the river, with a
view of obtaining a greater length of wall for the water to run
over, and consequently prevent its rising to so great a height,
in order to give vent to the water of a flood. But this is
very objectionable, because the current of water constantly
running over the dam, always acts upon the shore or bank of
the river at one point, and will in time wear it away, if not
prevented by expensive works. This difficulty is obviated
by making the dam in two lengths which meet in an angle >,
the vertex pointing up the stream. In this way the currents
of water, coming from the two opposite parts of the dam,
strike together, and spend their force upon each other,
without injuring any part. A still better form is a segment
of a circle, which has the additional advantage of strength, 5|j

because if the abutments at the banks of the river are j ^

firm, the whole dam becomes like the arch of a bridge laidJ? '

down horizontally. This was the form generally used bv'^ '

Mr. Smeaton.
The foot of the dam -where the water runs down should be
a regular slope with a curve, so as to lead the water down
regularly; and this part should be evenly paved with stone,
or planked, to prevent the -s^^ater from tearing it up when it
moves with a great velocity.

When the fall is considerable, it may be divided into more

than one dam ; and if the lower dam is made to pen the water ^

upon the foot of the higher dam, then the water running
over the higher dam, will strike into the water, and lose its
force. There is nothing can so soon exhaust the force of
rapid currents of water as to fall into other water, because
its mechanical force is expended in changing the figure of
the water ; but when it fails upon stone or wood, its force is
not taken away, but only reflected to some other part of the
channel, and may be made to act upon such a great extent of
surface as to do no very striking injury at any one time ; but ]

by degrees it wears away the banks, and requires constants]^,

repairs for. it is demonstrable that, as much of the force of
:

the water as is not carried away by the rapid motion with

which it flows, after passing the dam, must be expended^
^
either in changing the figure of the water, or in washing
 AND MACHINIST. 109

away the banks, or in the friction of the water running over

the bottom.
The cotton- works of Messrs. Strutt, at Belper, in Derby-
shire, are on a large scale, and the most complete we have
evei'* seen, in their dams and water-works. The mills are
turned by the water of the river Derwent, which is very
subject to floods. The great wear is a semicircle, built of
very substantial masonry, and provided with a pool of water
below it, into which the water falls. On one side of the
wear are three sluices, each 20 feet wide, which are drawn
up in floods, and allow the water to pass sideways into the
same pool ; and on the opposite side is another such sluice,
22 feet wide. The water is retained in the lower pool by
some obstruction which it experiences in running beneath
the arches of a bridge; but the principal fall of the water is
broken by falling into the water of the pool, beneath the
great semicircular wear.
The water which is drawn off from the mill-dam above
the wear, passes through three sluices, 20 feet wide each, and
is then distributed by different channels to the mills, which
are situated at the side of the river, and quite secure from
all floods. There are six large water-wheels; one of them,
which is 40 feet in breadth, we have mentioned, from the
ingenuity of its construction ; and another, which is made in
two breadths of 15 feet each, we have also described. They
are all breast-wheels. The iron-works of Messrs. Walker,
at Rotherham, in Yorkshire, are very good specimens of
water-works; as also the Carron- works in Scotland. Dr.
Rees's Cyclopcedia and Dr.- Brewster's Ferguson,

PENSTOCK,
The following is a description of a pentrough and stock for
equalizing the water falling on water-wheels, by Mr. Quayle.
To ensure a regular supply of w^ater on the wheel, and to
obviate the inconveniencies arising from the usual mode of
delivering it from the bottom of the pentrough, this method
is devised of regulating the quantity delivered by a float, and
taking the whole of the water from the surface.
Section of the pentrough. Fig. 99. A, the entrance of the
water; B, the float, having a circular aperture in the centre,
in which is suspended C, a cylinder, running down in the case
E below the bottom of the pentrough. This is made water-
tight at the bottom of the pentrough at F, by a leather collai*
placed between two plates, and screwed down to the bottom.
The cylinder is secured to the float so as to follow its rise
110 THE OPERATIVE MECHANIC
and falland the water is admitted into it through the opening
;

in its sides,and there, passing through the box or case E,

rises and issues at G on the wheel. By this means, a uniform
quantity of water is obtained at G ; which quantity can be
increased oi diminished by the assistance of a small rack
and pinion attached to the cylinder, which will raise or
depress the cylinder above or under the water line of the
float; and, by raising it up to the top, it stops the water
entirely, and answers the purpose of the common shuttle.
This pinion is turned by the handle H, similar to a winch-
handle; and is secured from running down by a ratchet-
wheel at the opposite end of the pinion axis.
K and L are two upright rods to preserve the perpendicular
rise and sinking of the float, running through the float, and
secured at the top by brackets from the sides.
M, a board let down across the pentrough nearly to the
bottom, to prevent the horizontal impulse of the water from
disturbing the float.
Fig. 99*. A transverse section, showing the mode of
fixing the rack and pinion, and their supports on the float.
The rack is inserted into a piece of metal running across the
cylinder near the top. That the water may pass more freely
when nearly exhausted, the bottom of the cylinder is not a
plane, but is cut away so as to leave two feet, as at C,
fig. 99. The float is also kept from lying on the pentrough
bottom by four small feet ; so that the water gets under it
regularly from the first.
Fig. 99**;, An enlarged view of the cylinder, showing the
rack and ratchet-wheel, with the clink, and one of the openings
on the side of the cylinder ; the winch or handle being on the
opposite side, and the pinion, by which the rack is raised,
enclosed in a box between them.

MR. SMEATON^S PENTROUGH.

Fig. 93*. G represents the pentrough through which the
water flows, and F F strong cross-beams on which it is sup-
ported ; the wheel is situated very close beneath the bottom of
the trough, as the figure shows. E E are two arms of the
wheel, which are put together, as shown in fig. 110. B D is

the wooden rim of the wheel; the narrow circle beyond this is
the section of the sole planking, and on the outside of this the
bucket-boards are fixed as the figure shows ; one of the bottom-
boards, b, of the trough at the end is inclined, and an opening
is left between that end and the other boards of the bottom, to
let the water pass through ; this opening is closed by a sliding
 AND MACHINIST. HI
shuttle, c, which is fitted to the bottom of the trough, and
can be moved backwards and forwards by a rod d, and
lever e, which is fixed into a strong axis f; this axis has a
long lever on the end, which, being moved by the miller,
draws the shuttle along the bottom of the trough, and
increases or diminishes the aperture through which the
water issues. The extreme edge of the shuttle is cut
inclined, to make it correspond with the inclined part h,
and by this means it opens a parallel passage for the
water to run through, and this causes the water to be
delivered in a regular and even sheet; and to contribute to
this the edges of the aperture where the water quits it are
rendered sharp by iron plates; the shuttle is made tight
where upon the bottom of the trough, by leather, so as
it lies

to avoid any leakage -when the shuttle is closed. When the

wheel is of considerable breadth, the weight of the water
might bend down the middle of the trough until it touched
the wheel; to prevent this, a strong beam, O, is placed across
the trough, and the trough is suspended from this by iron
bolts which pass through grooves in the shuttle, so that they
do not interfere with the motion of the shuttle.
Mr, Nouaille took out a patent, in October, 1812, for a
new method of laying water upon an overshot-Wheel, (see
fig. 94,) which he thus describes
:

In my new method of
applying water to water-wheels, I cause it to commence its
action upon a point of the wheels circumference, which is
about 53 degrees distant from the vertex, or the highest point
thereof, instead of applying it at the top of the wheel, as hereto-

fore commonh practised for overshot- w^heels. By these means

1 can have the advantages of a large wheel in situations where
the fall would only allow of a smaller, if the water was applied
at the top ; thus, if there be a perpendicular of 1 2 feet, I cause
a wheel of 15 feet diameter to be made, and of course the
water must be made to act upon it at a height of 12 feet,
which is three feet perpendicular below the top of the wheel,
and at about 53 degrees from the top, measured round its
circumference as above stated. I make the pentrough which
brings the water to the wheel of such a form that it delivers
the water from the bottom of it through the floor, and is
directed at such an angle as to fall into the buckets nearly
in the direction of the wheels motion, which will be at an
angle of 75 degrees with the horizon ; the shuttle or gate
slides upon the floor of the trough, so as to cover the aperture,
and determine the quardity of water to be let out upon the
wheel.
 112 THE OPERATIVE MECHANIC
The exact manner of carrying this principle into effect is
particularly explainedby the annexed draft, which is a vertical
section of a water-wheel on my improved plan. In this the
dotted line A A, 116, represents the level of the water
fig.

and B the
at its full head, level of the tail- water ; therefore
A B is the extreme fall, A C is the depth of the water in the
pentrough. Now, instead of the common practice of making
a wheel of the diameter equal to B C, 1 make the wheel
DE G F one-fourth larger than B C, then the water will be
delivered upon it at the point E. The floor C of the pen-
trough C H Lj does not come up to meet the end H
thereof,
but leaves a small space through which the water issues in
the direction of the dotted line 1 1, to the buckets of the
wheel. The breadth of this space is determined by the
shuttle K, which lays flat upon the floor of the pentrough,
and slides over the aperture. It is regulated by means of a
lever N, acted upon by a screw, rack, or other adjustment, at
M, and the water is thus delivered in a very thin and regular
sheet into the buckets."
Fig. 117 represents a method of laying on water which
has for several years been in common use in Yorkshire and
the north of England. In this the water is hot applied quite
at the top of the wheel, but nearly in the same position as
the last described; but the advantages of this wheel over all
others is, that the water can be delivered at a greater or less
height, according to the height at which the water stands in
the trough ; but in all the preceding methods, if the water is
subject to variations of height, as all rivers are, then the
wheel must be diminished, so that in the lowest state of the
water it will stand a sufficient depth above the orifice in the
bottom of the trough to issue with a velocity rather greater
than the motion of the wheel. In this case, when the water
rises to its usual height, or above it, the increase of fall thus
obtained is very little advantage to the wheel ; the improved
wheel can at all times take the utmost fall of the water, even
when its height varies from three to four feet. A is the A
pentrough made of cast-iron; the end of it is formed by a
grating of broad flat iron bars, which are inclined in the
proper position to direct the water through them into the
buckets of the wheel. The spaces between the bars are shut
up by a large sheet of leather, which is made fast to the
bottom of the iron trough at a, and is applied against the
bars ; and the pressure of the water keeps it in close contact
with the bars, so as to prevent any leakage. This is the
real shuttle, and to open it so as to give the required stream
 n.ii.
'Wbi:ekls
Fiom 109 to I'll

yotU'Jh Jtr/md
 AND MACHINIST. 113

of water to the wheels the upper edge of the leather is

wrapped round a smaller roller^ h ; the pivots at the ends of
this roller are received in the lower ends of two racks, which
are made to slide up and doum by the action of two pinions
fixed upon a common axis which extends across the trough
this axis being turned, raises up or lowers down the roller,
and the leather shuttle winds upon it as it descends, or
unwinds from it as it ascends, so as to open more of the
spaces between the bars, or close them, as it is required. In
order to make the roller take up the leather, and always draw
it tight, a strap of leather is wound round the extreme ends

of the rgllers, beyond the part w'here the leather shuttle rolls
upon it. These straps are carried above water and applied on
wheels, which Mind them up with a very considerable tension,
by the action of a band and weight wrapped on the circum-
ference of a wheel, which is on the end of the axis of those
wheels.
The water runs over the upper side of the roller, and flows
through the spaces between the grating into the buckets of
the wheel; the descent of the water passing through the
bars, and afterwards in falling before it strikes the bottom
of the bucket, is found fully sufficient to produce the neces-
sary velocity of the water, for a fall cd four inches produces
a velocity of more than four feet per second.
We recommend this as the best method of applying the
water, as we see in all other forms that a much greater
portion of the fall is given up in order to make the water
flow into the wheel; not that any such depth as is commonlv
given is at all necessaiy, but the aperture in the trough
must be placed so low that the water will run through it in
the very lowest states of the water, otherwise the wheel

must stop at such times. Dr. Reess Cyclopcedia. Reper-
tory of Arts, 1813.

SLUICE GOVERNOR FOR REGULATING THE INTRODUCTION OF

WATER UPON WATER-WHEELS OF ALL KINDS.
The ingenious Mr. Burns actually constructed for the
Cartside Cotton Mills, the sluice governor, represented at
figs. 118, 119, 120, and 121, which was considered of such
advantage as to produce a saving of more than lOOf.per annum.
The motion of the w^ater- wheel is communicated bv a belt
or rope going round the pulley I to the axis E F* which
carries the balls G H, fig. 118. This motion is conveyed to
the upright shaft T, by the wheels and pinions
Q, R, S, T,
and the v heel N at the bottom of the shaft drives the wheels
1
114 THE OPERATIVE MECHANIC
P, figs. 119 and 120, in opposite directions. When the
velocity of the wheel is such as is required, the wheels O, P
move loosely about the axis, and carry the motion no farther.
But when the velocity of the wheel is too great, the balls
G, H, separated by the increase of centrifugal force, raise
the box a upon the shaft E F. An iron cross h c, see fig. 121,
is fitted into the box . This cross works in the four prongs
of the fork eb c, fig. 1 19, at the end of the lever dqfe, which
moves horizontally round / as its centre of motion. When
the box a is stationary, which is when the wheel has its
proper velocity, the iron cross works within two of the
prongs so as not to affect the lever afc, but to allow the
clutch q q, fixed at the end of the lever, to be disengaged
from the wheels. When the cross be rises, it strikes in
turning round the prong 3, see fig. 121, which drives aside the
lever efa, and throws the clutch q into the arms of the
wheel P, figs. 119, 120. This causes it to drive round the shaft
DC in one direction. When the iron cross b c, on the
contrary, is depressed by any diminution in the velocity of
the wheel, it strikes in turning round the prong 4, which
pushes aside the lever efd, and throws the clutch q into the
wheel O. This causes the wheel O to drive the sWt in an
opposite direction to that in which it was driven by P.
Now the shaft D C, which is thus put in motion, drives, by
means of the pinion C and wheel B, the inclined shaft B W,
which, by an endless screw, X, working in the toothed
quadrant Z, elevates or depresses the sluice K L, and admits
a greater or a less quantity of water, according to the motion
given to the shaft by the wheel P or O. This change in
the aperture is produced very gradually, as the train of wheel-
work is made so as to reduce the motion at the sluice. The
centre in which the sluice turns should be one-third of its
height from the bottom, in order that the pressure of the
water on the part above the centre may balance the pressure
on the part below the centre.
MR. FERGUSOT^s RULES FOR THE CONSTRUCTION OF
UNDERSHOT WATER-MILLS.
When the float-boards of the water-wheel move with
a third part of the velocity of the water that acts upon them,
the water has the greatest power to turn the mill and when
'

the mill-stone makes about 60 revolutions in a minute, it is^^ ;

found to do its work the best. For, when it makes but i

about 40 or 50 it grinds too slowly, and when it makes more !

than 70, it heats the meal too much, and cuts the bran so ?
 AND MACHINIST. 115

small, that a great part thereof mixes with the meal, and
cannot be separated from it by Conse-
sifting or boiilting.
quently, the utmost perfection of mill-work lies in making
the train so, as that the mill-stone shall make about 60 turns
in a minute when the water-wheel moves with a third part
of the velocity of the water. To have it so, observe the
following rules
1. Measure the perpendicular height of the fall of water,
in feet,above the middle of the aperture, where it is let out
to act by impulse against the float-boards on the lowest side
of the undershot-wheel.
2. Multiply this constant number 64.2882, by the height
of the fall in and extract the square root of the product,
feet,
which shall be the velocity of the water at the bottom of the
fall, or the number of feet the water moves per second.
3. Divide the velocity of the water by 3, and the quotient
shall be the velocity of the floats of the wheel, in feet, per
second.
4. Divide the circumference of the wheel in feet, by the
velocity of its floats, and the quotient will be the number of
seconds in one turn or revolution of the great water-wheel
on whose axis the cog-wheel that turns the trundle is fixed.
5. Divide 60 by the number of seconds in a turn of the
water-wheel, or cog-wheel, and the quotient will be the
number of turns of either of these wheels in a minute.
6. By this number of turns divide 60, (the number of turns
the mill-stone ought to have in a minute,) and the quotient
will be the number of turns the mill-stone ought to have for
one turn of the water or cog wheel. Then,
7. As the required number of turns of the mill-stone in a
minute is to the number of turns of the cog-wheel in a
minute, so must the number of cogs in the wheel be to the
number of staves in the trundle on the axis of the mill- stone,
in the nearest whole number that can be found. By these
rules the following table is calculated ; in which the diameter
of the water-wheel is supposed to be 18 feet, (and conse-
quently its circumference 56|- feet,) and the distance of the
mill-stone to be five feet.
IIG THE OPERATIVE MECHANIC
1 i |
in in for the the and
of the
cogs
that turn these
feet. turns minute
Avheel.

of of of
in water,
wheel, of of one
height
minute. for by a cogs
the
turns

water
second. second. turns
rnill-stones
turns for staves.
in
the the number of number wheel

a
of of in
staves
of of
of per of per turn and
these

mill-stone mill-stone

Perpendicular
the purpose. the
fall
staves.
wheel
Required Number Number
each Nearest cogs
Velocity feet, Velocity
feet, Number
of and of by
the

Coes. Staves.
1 8-02 2*67 2-63 21*20 127 6 21*17 59*91
2 11*40 3*72 4-00 15-00 105 7 15-00 60-00
3 13-89 4*63 4-91 12-22 98 8 12-25 60-14
4 16*04 5*35 5*67 10-58 95 9 10-56 59-87
5 17-93 5*98 6*34 9*46 85 9 9*44 59-84
6 19-64 6*55 6*94 8-64 78 9 8*66 60-10
7 21-21 7-07 7-50 8-00 72 9 8*00 6000
8 22-68 7-56 8-02 7-48 67 9 7-44 59-67
9 24*05 8-02 8 51 7-05 70 10 7-00 59-57
10 25*35 8-45 8-97 6*69 67 10 6-70 6009
11 26*59 8*86 9-40 6*38 64 10 6-40 60*16
12 27-77 9*26 9*82 6*11 61 10 6*10 69*90
13 28-91 9*64 10-22 5*87 59 10 5*90 60-18
14 30-00 1000 10-60 5-66 56 10 5-60 59*36
15 31*05 1035 10-99 5*46 55 10 5*40 50*48
lo- 32-07 10-69 11*34 5-29 53 10 5*30 60*10 ,

ir 33-06 11*02 11-70 5-13 51 10 5*10 59*67 .

18 34-12 11*34 12-02 4*90 50 10 5-00 60*10

19 34*95 11-65 12-37 4-85 49 10 4-80 60-61
20 35*86 11-92 12-68 4*73 47 10 4-70 .59-59 :

1
1
2 3 4 5 e 7 B J
Fjxample ,
Suppose an undershot-mill is to be built where J '

the perpendicular height of the fall of water is nine feet ; it

is required to find how many cogs must be in the wheel, and h
how many staves in the trundle, to make the mill-stone go E
about 60 times round in a minute, while water-wheel floats
move with a third part of the velocity with which the
water spouts against them from the aperture at the bottom ofai i

the fall.
Find 9 (the height of the fall) in the first column of the
table ; then against that number, in the sixth column, is 7^
for the number of cogs in the wheel, and 10 for the number
of staves in the trundle ; and by these numbers we find in
 AND MACHINIST. U7
the eighth column that the mill- stone will make 59 turns
in a minute, which is within half a turn of 60, and near enough
for the purpose ; as it is not absolutely requisite that there
should be just 60 without any fraction : and throughout the
whole table the number of turns is not quite one more or
less than 60.
The diameter of the wheel being 18 feet, and the fall of
water nine feet, the second column shows the velocity of
the water at the bottom of the fall to be 24 t feet per
second ; the third column the velocity of the float-boards of
the wheel to be 8 t^it feet per second ; the fourth column shows
that the wheel will make 8-rW turns in a minute ; and the
sixth column shows that for the ^nill- stone to make exactly
60 turns in a minute, it ought to make 7 tw (or seven turns
and one-twentieth part of a turn) for one tu>rn of the wheel.
Dr. Brewster, in the valuable Appendix which he has
annexed to his edition of Mr. Fergusons works, shows, that
the principles upon which the above table is calculated, are
erroneous, owing to the author having, with Desagulier and
Maclaurin, embraced M. Parents theory, which Mr. Smeaton,
by repeated experiments, proved to be incorrect.
The constant number used by Mr. Ferguson for finding
the velocity of the water from the height of the fall, 64.2882,
appears to be also wrong. For, from some recent experi-
ments made by Mr. Whitehurst on pendulums, it is found,
that a heavy body falls 16.087 feet in a second of time :

consequently the constant number should be 64.348.

Dr. Brewster then states, that in Mr. Fergusons table,
the velocity of the mill-stone is too small ; and Mr. Imison,
in correcting this mistake, has made the velocity too great.
From this circumstance, the Mill-wrights Table, as hitherto
published, is fundamentally erroneous, and is more calculated
to mislead than to direct the practical mechanic. Proceed-
ing, therefore, upon the practical deductions of Smeaton, as
confirmed by theory, and employing a more correct constant
number, and a more suitable velocity for the mill- stone, we
may construct a new Mill-wrights Table by the following
rules :

1 Find the perpendicular height of the fall of water in

.

feet above the bottom of the mill-course, at K, (fig. 100,)

and having diminished this number by one-half of the
natural depth of the water at K, call that the height of the
fall.

2. Since bodies acquire a velocity of 32* 174 feet in a

second, by falling through 16'087 feet, and since the velocities
 118 THE OPERATIVE MECHANIC
of falling bodies are as the square roots of the heiglits through
which they fall, the square root of 16087 will be to the
square roots of the height of the fall, as 32 174 to a fourth
number, which will be the velocity of the water. '^Therefore
the velocity of the water may be always found by multiply-
ing 32*174 by the square root of the height of the fall, and
^
dividing that product by the square root of 16*087. C)r it
may be found more easily by multiplying the height of the
fall by the constant number 64*348, and extracting the
square root of the product, which, abstracting the effects of
friction, will be the velocity of the water required.
3. Take one-half of the velocity of the water, and it will
be the velocity which must be given to the float-boards, or
the number of feet they must move through in a second, in
order that the greatest effect may be produced.
4. Divide the circumference of the wheel by the velocity
of its float-boards per second, and the quotient will be the
number of seconds in which the wheel revolves.
5. Divide 60 by this last number, and the quotient will
be the number of revolutions which the wheel performs in a
minute. Or the number of revolutions performed by the
wheel in a minute, may be found by multiplying the velocity
of the float-boards by 60, and dividing the product by the
circumference of the wheel, which in the jiresent case is
47*12.
6. Divide 90 (the number of revolutions which a mill-stone
five feet diameter should perform in a minute) by the number
of revolutions made by the wheel in a minute, and the
([uotient will be the number of turns which the mill-stone
ought to make for one revolution of the wheel.
7. Then, as the number of revolutions of the wheel in a
minute is to thenumber of the revolutions of the mill-stones
in a minute, so must the number of staves in the trundle be
to thenumber of teeth in the wheel, in the nearest whole
numbers that can be found.
8. Multiply the number of revolutions performed by the
wheel in a minute, by the number of revolutions made by
the mill-stone for one of the wheel, and the product will be
the number of revolutions performed by the mill-stone in a
minute.
In this manner the following table has been calculated for
a water- wheel 15 feet in diameter, which is a good medium
si/e, the mill-stone being five feet in diameter, and revolving
90 times in a minute.
 AND MACHINIST. 119

DR. BREWSTERS MILL-WRIGHTS TABLE.

In which the velocity of the wheel is three- sevenths of the velocity of
the water, and the ^ects offriction on the velocity of' the stream
reduced to computation.

of 3-
watei
wheel wheel mill-
the and
mill-
by
water. teeth.

friction diame-

fall
of trundles.

being feet. the minute

the and
the the
the its
5 for
one
wheel,

the considered.

of
of 1 the
of
per
of of for
the staves

of second,
second, minute, in
that
being
in
Revolutions Revolutions
Revolutions

wheel. stones
staves
per 7ths
stone, these
water.
per being per
Height Velocity Velocity ter
Teeth

100 parts 100 parts 100 parts 100 parts 100 parts
Feet. Feet, of a Feet, of a Rev, of a Rev. of a Teeth. Staves. Rev. of a
foot. foot. rev. rev. rev.

1 7*62 3-27 4-16 21-63 130 6 89-98

2 10-77 4-62 5-88 15-31 92 6 90-02
3 13-20 566 7-20 12-5Q 100 8 90-00
4 15-24 6-53 8-32 10-81 97 9 89-94
5 1704 7-30 9-28 9-70 97 10 90-02
6 18-67 8-00 10-19 8-83 97 11 89-98
7 20-15 8-64 1099 8-19 90 11 90-01
8 21-56 9-24 11-76 7-65 84 11 89-96
9 22-86 9-80 12-47 7-22 72 10 90-03
10 24-10 10-33 13-15 6-84 82 12 89-95
11 25-27 10-83 1379 6-53 85 13 90-05
12 26-40 11-31 14-40 6-25 72 12 90-00
13 27-47 11-77 14-99 6-00 72 12 89-94
14 28-51 12-22 15-56 5-78 75 13 89-94
15 29 52 12-65 16-13 5-58 67 12 9001
16 3048 13-06 16-63 5-41 65 12 89-97
17 31-42 13-46 17*14 5-25 63 12 89-99
18 32-33 13-86 17-65 5-10 61 12 90-01
19 33-22 14-24 18-13 4-96 64 13 89-92
20 34-17 14-64 18-64 4-83 58 12 89-84

1 2 3 4 5 6 i
120 TllJi Ol'KRATIVK MECHANIC

TREATISES ON MILL -WORK.

Kiinsliche abriss Allcrhand, Wasser, Wind-ross, und Hand-muhlcn, &c.,
von Jacob, de Strada a Rosberg, 1617.
Georg. Christoph Luerncr Machina toreutica nov'a ; oder bcschreibung dcr
neu erfundenen Drehmuhlen, 1661.
T.hcatrum Machinaruiu Novum ; das ist, neu vermehrter Schauplatz der
Mecbanischen Kiinste, handelt von Allerhand, Wasser, Wind, Ross, Gevvicht
und Hand-muhlen, von Geo. And. Bocklern, 1661.
Contenta discursus Mechanic!, concernentis Descriptionem Optimae formea
Velorum liorizontalium pro usu Molaruin, nec non fundamentum inclinatorum
Velorum in Navibus, habita coram Societate Regia, a R. H. translata ex
Collectionibus Philosophicis M. Dec. num. 3, pa. 61, 1681.
Dissertatio Historica de Molis, quam prseside Joh. Phil. Treuer defend.
Jo. Tob. Miihlberger Ratisbonens Jenae, 1695.
Martin Martens Wiskundige beschouwinge der Wind of Wadermoolens,
vergeleken met die van den heer Johann Lulofs Amsterdam 1700.
Vollstilndige Miihlen-baukunst, von Leonhard Christoph. .Sturm, 1718:
Jacob Leopolds Theatrum Machinarum Molinarum, folio, 1724, 1725.
Remarques sur les Aubes ou Palettes des Moulins, et autres Machines mues
par le Courant des Rivieres, par M. Pitot, Mem. Acad. Roy. Paris, 1729.
Joh. van Zyl Theatrum Machinarum Universale of Groot Algemeen, Moolen-
bock, &c., Amsterdam, 1734.
Jo. Cai'al. Totens Disser. de Machinis Molaribus optime construendis, Lugd.
Batav. 1734.
Kurze, aber Deutliche anweisung zur construction der Wind und Wasscr-
muhlen, von Gottfr. Kinderliug, 1735
Desaguliers Experimental Philosophy, 2 vols. 4to. 1735, 1744.
Architecture Hydraulique, par M. Belidor, 4 vols. 4to. 1737 1753.
Mr. W. Anderson, F. R. S. Description of a Water-wheel for Mills. Phil.
Trans, vol. 44, 1746.
Leonh. Euleri, De Constructione aptissima Molarum alatarum disp. Nor.
Com. Acad. Petrop. tom. 4, 1752.
M^moire dans lequel on d^montre que IEau dune Chute, destin(?e a faire
mouvoir quelque Moulin ou autre Machine, pent toujours produire beaucoup
plus deffet en agissant par son poids quen agissant par son choc, ct que le
roues a pots qui tournent vite, relativement aux chutes et aux d^penses deau,
par M. de Pareieux, Acad. Roy. Paris, 1754.
Jo. Alberti Euleri Enodatio Questionis : quo modo vis Aquae aluisve fluidi
cum maximo lucro ad Molas circumagendas, aliavc opera perficienda impendi
possit, praemio a Societate Regia. Sci. Getting. 1754.
An experimental Inquiry concerning the Natural Powers of Wind and Water
to turn Mills and other Machines depending on Circular Motion, by Mr. J.
Snieaton, F. R. S. Phil. Trans. 1759.
This, and Mr. Smeatons other papers are republished with his Reports, 1313,
in 4to.
M^moire dans lequel on prouve que les Aubes de Roues mues par les courans
de grandes Rivieres feroient beaucoup plus detfet si elles ^toient inclin(^es
aux I'ayons, quelles ne font 4tant appliqu^es contre les rayons monies, comme
elles sont aux Moulins pendans et aux Moulins sur Bateaux qui sont sur les
Rivieres de Seine, de Marne, de Loire, &c. par M. de Pareieux. Mem. Acad. Roy.
Paris, 1759.
Joh. Albert Eulers Abhandlung von der bewegung ebeD<>r Flaehen, wen sie
vom Winde Getrieben Werden, 1765.
Schauplatz des Mechanischen Miihlenbaues, Darinnen von Verschiedenen
lIand,Trett, Ross, Gewicht, Wasser, und Wind-muhlen Gehandelt Wird, durch
Johan Georg. Scopp. J. C. iter Theil, 1766.
Theatrum Machinarum Molarium, oder schauplatz dcr Miihlenbaukunst,
iL der Neunte theil von des sel hrn Jac. Leopolds, Theatro Machinarum, vop
Joh. Mathias Beyern, 1767, 1788, 1802.
 AND MACHINIST. 121

A Memoir concerning the most advantageous Construction of Water-wheels,

&c. by Mr. Mallet of Geneva, Phil, Trans. 1767.
Momoire sur les Roues Hydrauliques, par M. le Chevalier de Borda, Mem,
Acad. Roy. Paris, 1767.
Kurzer unterricht, allerley arten von Wind und Wasser-miihlen auf di
vortheilhafteste weise zu erbauen, nebst einigen gedanker iiber die verbessening
des rkderwerks, an den Miihlen, von Joh. Konig, 1767.
G. G. Bischolfs Beytriige zur Mathesis der Miihlen, 1767.
Determination gen^rale de IEfFet des Roues mues par le Choc de PEau, par
M. IAbbe Bossui, Mem. Acad. Roy. Paris, 1769.
Andreas Kaovenhofer, Deutliche abhandlung von den rildern der Wasser-
miihlen, und von dem einrandigeu werke der Schneidemiihlen, 1770.
Manuel du Meunier et du Charpentier des Moullns, redige parEdm.Bcquillet,
177.5.
Remarques sur les Moulins et autres Machines, ou PEau tombe en dessus
de la Roue, par M. Lambert,
Experiences et Remarques sur les Moulins que PEau meut par en bas dans
line Direction horizontale, par M. Lambert,
Remarques sur les Moulins et autres Machines, dont les Roues prenant
PEau a line certaine Hauteur, par M. Lambert.
(The three last articles are inserted in Mem. Acad. Roy. Berlin, 1775.
Ausfiihrliche erkliiruag der Vorschlage fiir die Liingere dauer de Muhlen-
werk, nebst ahnlichen gegenstander, in ein gesprilch verfasset, von Johann
Christian Fullmann Muhlenmeister, 1780.
Tratado de los Granos y Modo de Molelos con Economic de la Conservation
de Astos y de las Haidnas; escr. en Fr. par M. Bcguillet y extract, y trad, al
Cast, conalgun Notas y un Supplem. por Ph. Marescaulchi, Madrid, 1786.
Suite de PArchitecture Hydraulique, par M. Fabre, 1786.
M^moires sur les Moyens de perfectionner les Moulins, et la Mouture
tconomique, par C. Bucquet, 1786.
Manuel ou Vocabulaire des Moulins a Pot, a Amst., 1786.
Die Nothigsten Kenntnisse zur Anlegung, Beurtheilung, und Berechnung
der Wasser-miihlen, and zwar der Mahl, Oehl, und Siige-Muhlen, siir Anfanger
und Liebhaber der Miihlenbaukunst, von Joh. Christ. Huth, 1787.
^\n Essay proving Iron far superior to Stone of any kind for breaking and
grinding of Corn, &c. by W. Walton, 1788.
Miihlenpraktik, oder unterrjcht in dem Mahlen der Brodfriichte, fiir Polizey-
bcainte, Gaverksleute und Hauswirthe, von L. Ph. Hahn, 1790.
The Young Miil-wright and Millers Guide, by Oliver Evans, Philadelphia,
1790.
Manuel du Meunier, et du Constructeur des Moulins a Eau et a Grains, par
C. Bucquet, 1791.
Praktische anweisung zura Miihlen bau, von Lr. Clausen, 1792.
Beschreibung zweir Machinen zur Reinigung des Korns, von Lr. Clausen,
1792.
Instructions surPUsage des Moulins a Bras, invent6s et perfectionn^s par
les CitoyensDuraud, P^re et Fils, M^chaniciens, 1793.
Theoretisch-praktische abhandlung iiber die Besserung der Miihlrader, von
dem Vertasser der Zweckmilssigen, Luftreiniger, &c, 1795.
ATreatise ou Mills, in four parts, by John Banks, 1795.
Flandbuck der Maschinenlehre, sur prakiker und akademische lehrer, von
Karl Christian Lanpdorf, 1797, 1799.
On the Power ol Machines; including Barkers Mill, Westgarths Engine,
Coopers Mill, Horizontal Water-wheel, Ac. by John Banks, 1803.
The Experienced Mill-wright, by Andrew Gray, Miil-wrigbt, 1804.
The i ransactions of the Society of Arts and Manufactures several of the
;
volumes of which contain improvements in Mill-work.
See also the Repertory of Arts, first series 16 vols. and second
series 31 vols
Hachetto, Traitb Eldmentaire des Machines, 4to. Paris, 1811,
Buchanans Essay on Mill-work, 1811, 8vo.
122 THE OPERATIVE MECHANIC

WINDMILLS.
The windmill derives its name from the motion it receives
from the impulse of the wind.
The date of its invention is not precisely knowTi, though
authors generally concur in believing it to have taken place
at no very distant period of time. Some state it to have
been first used in France in the sixth century: others, on the
contrary, assert, that at the time of the crusades it was
introduced into Europe from the east, where scarcity of
water gave the impetus that led to its discovery.
Windmills are of two kinds, horizontal and vertical,
THE VERTICAL WINDMILL
Consists of a strong shaft, or axis, inclining a little upwards
from the horizon, with four long yards, or arms, fixed to the
highest end, perpendicular to the shaft, and crossing each
other at right angles. Into these arms are mortised several
small cross-bars, and to them are fastened two, three, or four,
long bars, running in a direction parallel with the length of
the arms; so that the bars intersect each other, and form a kind
of lattice work, on which a cloth is spread to receive the action
of wind. These are called the sails, and are in the shape
of a trapezium, usually about nine yards long and two wide.
As the direction of the wind is very uncertain, and
perpetually changing, it becomes necessary to have some
contrivance for bringing the wdndshaft and sails into a
position proper for receiving its impression. To effect this,
two methods are in general use the one called the post-mill
:

the other the smock-mill.

post-mills.
In the post-mill it is accomplished by driving perpendicularly
into the earth the trunk of a strong tree, that is held securely
upright by several oblique braces, which extend from a
platform on the ground to the middle of the tree, leaving 10
or 12 feet of the upper part free from the braces. The part
thus left free from obstruction is rounded, and made to pass
through a circular collar, formed in the flooring of the lower
chamber, and to enter into a socket fixed into the flooring of
the upper chamber, and to one of the strongest cross-beams,
which must sustain the whole weight of the mill-house, so
that, by means of a pivot, or gudgeon, fastened on that part
of the post which enters into the socket, the whole machine
can turn about horizontally to face the wjnd. A strong
 AND MACHINIST, 123

framing, united .by joints to the back part of the mill-house,

descends in a sloping direction till it touches the ground;
the bottom of it is very heavy, and is fastened by cords to
some short posts that are driven in a circle, at regular intervals
round the mill, to prevent the mill from turning about at
every sudden squall. This framing is furnished with steps
to serve as a ladder of ascent or descent. At the bottom of
it a rope is fastened, and carried thence in an inclined position

to the top of the mill, where, by a lever or tackle of pullies,

it can be shortened so as to raise the framing from the
ground, and then by pushing against it, in the manner of a
lever, the whole mill may be turned in any required direction,
To obtain more force, a small capstan is often provided to
draw a rope fixed to the end of the ladder this capstan is :

movable, and can be fastened at pleasure to anyone of the posts.

The internal mechanism of a post-mill is exhibited in fig. 123. WXY
the upper chamber; X YZ the lower one; AB the shaft, or axis, with the
cog-wheel G, moving round in order of the letters that describe the sails
CDEF, giving motion to the lantern H, and its spindle IK; is a LM
bridge to support the said spindle ; and N and O P are beams to sustain
the bridge. The top mill-stone Q is the only one that moves, and is fixed

on the spindle I K
by a piece of iron, called the rynd, let in at the lower
part of the stone ; the lower mill-stone R, is somewhat larger than the
other. The corn is put into the hopper S, and runs from thence along the
spout T ; the spindle I K, being square, shakes in its revolutions the
spout T, and causes the corn to fall through the hole V
between the stones,
where it is ground ; the flour then passes through the tunnel a h, and is
finally deposited in the chest c ; c? e is a string going round the pin d, and
serving to draw the spout T nearer to, or farther from, the spindle I K, that
the corn may be made to run out either faster or slower, according to the
velocity of the wind ; fg and h i are levers, whose centres of motion are
f
and m; i Z re p is a cord going about the pins I and re to wind up and raise
the stone Q. By bearing down the end rh, g is raised, which raises the
perpendicular N O, the perpendicular raises the cross-beam O P, the cross-
beam the bridge L M
and the spindle 1 K, together with the upper mill-
stone Q, so that the stones can be set at any required distance apart. The
com is drawn up to the top of the mill by means of a rope rolled about the
.axis A B ; qr is a ladder for ascending to the higher part of the mill. A
girt or gripe of pliable wood is fixed at one end s, and at the other tied to
the lever tv, movable about at w, which being pressed down stops the
motion of the mill at pleasure. When the wind is great, the sails are only
in part, or on one side covered, and sometimes only one-half of two
opposite sails. The same shaft can have another cog-wheel fixed to the
,

end B, with trundle and mill-stones similar to those already described:

by which means the shaft can turn two pair of stones at once and when
;
one pair only is wanted to grind, the lantern H
and spindle I are taken K
out from the other.

SMOCK-MILL.
The other method of bringing the windshaft and sails into
A position proper for receiving the impression of the wind is,
124 THE OPERATIVE MECHANIC
by what is called the smock-mill. This mill is more expen
sive in the construction^ and more decidedly advantageous,
as it can be made of any required dimensions. It is built in
the form of a round turret, having at the top of it a wooden
ring with a groove in it, furnished with a number of brass
truckles, kept equi-distant from each other by their centre
pins being fixed into a circular hoop. Into this groove the
framing of the upper or movable part of the mill, which is
called the head, or cap, enters, and a very slight power is
alone sufficient to turn it about that the sails may receive the
action of the wind. The head or cap is very ingeniously
contrived to turn itself about whenever the wind changes,
by a small pair of sails, or fans, fixed up in a frame that
projects from the back part of the head.
Fig. 124, a the fans, having on its axis a pinion of 10 leaves b, which
gives motion to a cog-wheel of 60 teeth c, its axis d, and a pinion of
12 teeth at the lower end e, turning a bevelled wheel of 72 teeth/, a vertical
iron shaft g, having a pinion of 11 teeth h, that works in a circle of 120
cogs. Therefore, whenever the wind changes, it acts obliquely upon the
vanes of the fan, and turns it round, which, giving an impulse to the
connecting machinery, brings the main shaft of the sails slowly about to face
the direction of the wind, llie method of this operation is as follows the:

fans, having received the action of the wind, turn round, and the pinion h of
10 leaves, that is upon its axis, gives motion to the cog-wheel of 60 teeth
c, fixed on an inclined axis which has at the lower end the pinion of
12 leaves e, acting upon the bevelled wheel of 72 teeth/, fixed on a vertical
iron axis, and giving motion to the pinion of 1 1 teeth A, that works in the
circle of 120 cogs. A B two of the sails (the other two being endwise
cannot be seen) fixed on an iron shaft or axis C D, by screwing them to
an iron cross formed at one end of it. Upon this shaft is the cog-wheel E,
that acts upon the lantern F, fixed on a strong vertical shaft extending from
the top to the bottom of the mill, and having on the lower end the large
wheel i i, giving motion to the two opposite pinions k k, which turn the
spindles and the mill-stones G H. A wheel is fixed on the main axis at I,
to give action to the pinion on the horizontal roller n, which has a rope
wrapped about it to wind up the sacks of corn. The same wheel I turns
another horizontal axis that has several wheels to receive endless ropes for
turning the bolting and dressing machines. On the middle part of the
vertical shaft K L is the wheel 1, which turns the roller w. to draw up the
sacks of corn from the lower part of the mill, which is used as a storehouse
being divided into as many compartments as the miller may require. To
the mill-stone spindle is attached a pair of regulating balls, to regulate the
velocity of the mill. For the manner of applying this regulator see
rig. 125, Za spindle, on which is fixed the pinion k, playing into the large

wheel that is attached to the vertical shaft ; the lower end of the spindle
enters into a square formed on the top of the mill-stone axis at m imme-
,*

diately beneath the pinion two iron rods are jointed, bending downwards,
having a heavy iron ball o o fastened to the end of each ; to these rods are
attached two links at pp, to suspend a collar capable of sliding freely up
and down upon the spindle 1; this collar is embraced by a fork, formed on
a steelyard, lying horizontal, and suspended by the fulcrum
q ; r is an
iron
i'od fixed at the extreme cud of the steelyard, and having at the bottom an
Jmana
 AND MACHINIST. 125

iron hook to connect it with the lever s, whose fulcrum is t this, by means

of an iron rod, suspends one end of the bridge on which the lower pivot of
the mill-stone rests, the other end bearing on a fulcrum, or centre.
Whenever the mill acquires velocity, the iron balls, by their centrifugal
force, will fly out,and elevate the collar, which, acting upon the connecting
parts, will let the upper mill-Mone down nearer to the lower one, and the
resistance or friction thus caused will counteract the increased velocity of
the wind. On the contrary, if the wind decreases, the balls will fall
towards each other, and let down the sliding collar, which will raise the
top mill-stone, and by increasing the distance between it and the lower
one cause the mill to acquire greater velocity. For this purpose a weight v
is hung upon the steelyard, sufficient to raise the stone whenever the

descent of the collar will permit it so to do. Several notches are cut into
the steelyard for different positions of the fulcrum q and rod r, to regulate
more effectually the motion of the machinery. For instance, if the wind
should blow stronger, and the mill go slower, contrary to the effect expected,
it shows that the regulation is too strong to remedy this, the leverage of the
:

balls must be increased by reducing the distance between the fulcrum q

and the rod r,by shifting either of them into different notches. On the other
hand, if the velocity of the mill should increase with the velocity of the
wind, it shows that the regulation is not strong enough, and that the
fulcrum q and the rod r must be set a greater distance apart. Sometimes
it happens that the whole limits of the notches on the steelyard is insuffi-

cient to effectuate the desired object ; in such case, the acting length of the
lever s s must be increased or diminished by removing the fulcrum i to a
greater or less distance from the suspended rod v.
'

In fig. 126 is shown

the construction of the horizontal shaft or axis that
bears the sails. It is shaft, having two cylindrical necks,
an octagonal iron
c and d, where it rests upon its bearings. At the end it has a kind of box
which has two mortises, e and /, through it in perpendicular directions, to
receive the sails. At the back of one of these mortises, and the front of the
other, a projecting arm is left in the casting to receive screw bolts for
holding the sails secure in the mortises. The sails are braced to each arm
by a rope stay, proceeding from the end of a pole, fixed at the end of the
cast-iron axis. Each sail is formed of a sail cloth, spread upon a kind of
lattice work, similar to that described under the head of Post-mill. The
plane of this frame is inclined to the plane of the sails motion, at such an
angle, that the wind blowing in the direction of the axis acts upon the sails
as inclined planes, and turns them about with a power proportionate to the
size of the sails and the force of the wind. The cog-wheel is fixed on the
axis by bolting its arms against the stanch marked C. The mill-stones are
the same as those described under the head of Flour-mill.

Parent, Euler, and other geometricians have written much

upon the nature and construction of windmills; but as we
consider the experiments and researches made by our own
countryman Smeaton to be far superior in point of practical
utility, we
content ourselves with giving his opinion
shall
as to the shape, magnitude,and position of the sails.
By Mr. Smeaton s experiments it appears, that when the
sails were set at the angle of 55 degrees with the axis,
proposed as the best by M. Parent and others, they were the
most disadvantageous of any that were tried by him.
 !2G THE OPERATIVE MECHANIC

On increasing the angle of the sails with the axis from J2

to 7^ degrees, an augmentation of power was produced in
the ratio of 31 to 45, and this proves to be the angle most
commonly in use when the surfaces of the sails are planes.
If nothing more were requisite than to make the mill
acquire motion from a state of rest, or to prevent it from
passing into rest from a state of motion, the position recom-
mended by M. Parent would be the best; but if the sails are
intended, with given directions, to jiroduce the greatest
effect possible in a given time, we must reject M. Parents
position; and, if use be made of planes, confine our angle
within the limits of 72 and Jb degrees with the axis.
The variation of a degree or two in the angle makes very little
difference in the effect, when the angle is near upon the best.
Mr. Smeaton made several experiments upon a large scale,
and found the following angles to answer as well as any^
The radius is supposed to be divided into six parts, and one-
sixth, reckoning from the centre, is called one, the extremity
being denoted six.
Angle with Angle with the
No. the axis. plane of the motion.
- - - - - - 72'^ - 18
1

2 - - - - - - 71 - ----- 19
3 - - - - - - 72 - ----- 18 middle
4 _ _ - - - - 74 - 16
5
6
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
77f
83
-
- ----- m 7 extremity.

Having thus obtained the best position of the sails, or

manner of weathering, as it is called by the workmen^
Mr. Smeaton next proceeded to try what advantage could be
made by an addition of surface upon the same radius. The
result was, that a broader sail requires a greater angle ; and
that when the sail is broader at the extremity than near the
centre, this shape is more advantageous than that of a
parallelogram. The figure and proportion of the enlarged
sails he found to answer best upon a large scale, where the
extreme bar is one-third of the radius, or whip, and is divided
by the whip in the proportion of 3 to 5. The triangular, or
leading sail, is covered with board, from the point downwards,
one-third of its height, the rest with cloth as usual. The
angles mentioned in the preceding article are found to be the
best for the enlarged sails also ; for in practice it is found,
that the sails had better have too little than too much wind.
Many persons have imagined that the more sail the greater
the advantage, and have therefore proposed to fill up the
whole area, and by making each sail a sector of an ellipsis.
 AND MACHTNTST. 127
according to M. Parent, to Intercept the whole cylinder of
wind, and thereby to produce the greatest effect possible
but from our authors experiments it appears, that when the
surface of all the sails together exceeded seven-eighths of
the circular area containing them, the effect was rather
diminished than augmented; and consequently, he concludes,
that when the whole cylinder of wind is intercepted, it does
not then produce the greatest effect for want of proper
interstices to escape.
It is certainly desirable,^ says Mr. Smeaton, that the
sails of windmills should be as short as possible, but at the
same time it is equally desirable the quantity of cloth should
be the least that may be, to avoid damage by sudden squalls
of wind. The best structure, therefore, for large mills, is
that where the quantity of cloth is the greatest in a given
circle that can be : on this condition, that the effect holds
out in proportion to the quantity of cloth; for otherwise the
effect can be augmented in a given degree by a lesser
increase of cloth upon a larger radius, than would be
required if the cloth were increased upon the same radius.
The ratios between the velocities of windmill sails unloaded,
and when loaded to their maximum, turned out different in
different experiments, but the most general ratio of the whole
was as 3 to 2. In general, however, it appeared, w^here the
power was greater, whether by an enlargement of surface, or
a greater velocity of the wind, that the second term of the
ratiowas less.
The ratio between the greatest load that the sails wdll bear
without stopping, or what is nearly the same thing, between
the least load that will stop the sails, and the load at the
maximum, were confined between that of 10 to 8, and of 10
to 9; and at a medium about 10 to 8.3, or of 6 to 5; though
itappeared on the whole, that where the angle of the sails or
quantity of cloth was greatest, the second term of the ratio
was less.
The
following maxims have been deduced by Mr. Smeaton
from his experiments
Maxim 1. The velocity of the windmill sails, whether unloaded or loaded,
so as to produce a maximum, is nearly as the velocity of the wind, their
shape and motion being the same,
Maxim 2. The load at the maximum is nearly, but somewhat less than,
as the square of the velocity of the wind, the shape and position of the
sails being the same.
Maxim 3. The effects of the same sails at a ma3.imum are iiea.Tly, but
somewhat less than, as the cubes of the velocity of the wind.
Maxim 4. The load of the same sails at the maximum is nearly as the
squares, and their effects as the cubes of their number of turns in a given time.
i2B THE OPERATIVE MECHANIC
Maxim 5. When the sails are loaded so as to produce a maximum at a I
given velocity, and the velocity of the wind increases the load containing
*
j|
the same: first, the increase of effect, when the increase of the velocity of
the wind is smaller, will be nearly as the squares of those velocities
secondly, when the velocity of the wind is double, the effects will be
nearly as 10 to 27^; but thirdly, when the velocities compared are more
than double of that where the given load produces a maximum, the effects
increase nearly in a simple ratio of the velocity of the wind.
Maxim 6. If sails are of a similar figure and position, the number of
turns in a given time will be reciprocally as the radius or length of the sail.
Maxim 7. The load at a maximum that sails of a similar figure and
position will overcome, at a given distance from the centre of motion, will
be as the cube of the radius.
Maxim 8. The effect of sails of similar figure and position are as the
square of the radius.
Maxim 9. The velocity of the extremity of Dutch sails, as well as of the
enlarged sails, in all their usual positions when unloaded, or even loaded to a
maximum, are considerably quicker than the velocity of the wind.
Mr. Ferguson remarks, that it is almost incredible to
think with what velocity the tips of the sails move when
acted upon by a moderate wind. He several times counted
the number of revolutions made by the sails in 10 or 15
minutes ; and, from the length of the arms from tip to tip,
has computed, that if an hoop of the same size were to run
upon plain ground with equal velocity, it would go upwards
of 30 miles in an hour.

RULES FOR MODELLING THE SAILS OF WINDMILLS.

Fig. 127 is a fi'ont view of one of the four sails of a windmill.
The letters of reference will serve to explain the terms made
use of in the following description
1. The length of the arm, or whip A
A, reckoned from the centre of the
great shaft B to the outermost bar 19, governs all the rest.
2. The breadth of the face of the whip A, next the centre, is one-thirtieth
of the length of the whip, its thickness at the same end is three-fourths of
the breadth, and the back-side is made parallel to the face for half the
length of the whip, or to the tenth bar ; the small end of the whip is square,
and at its end is one-sixtieth of the length of the whip, or half the breadth
at the great- end.
3. From the centre of the shaft B to the nearest bar 1 of the lattice, is
one-seventh of the whip ; the remaining space of six-sevenths of the whip
is equally divided into 19 spaces, so as to make 19 bars ; one-ninth of one
of these spaces is equal to the mortises for the bars, the tenons of which
are made square where they enter and go through the whip, and conse-
quently the mortises must be square also.
4. To prepare the whip for mortising, strike a gage-score at about three-
fourths of an inch from the face on each side, and the gage-score, on the
leading side 4, 5, will give the face of all the bars on that side ; but on
the other side, the faces of all the bars will fall deeper than the gage-score,
according to a certain rule. To find the space to be set off for this purpose
for each bar, construct a scale in the following manner;
5. Extend the compasses to any distance at pleasure, so that six times
 AND MACHINIST. 129
that extent may begreater than the breadth of the whip at the seventh bar
set those six spaces off upon a straight line for a base, at the end of which
raise a perpendicular ; set off three spaces upon the perpendicular, and divide
the two spaces that are farthest from the base line into six equal parts each,
so that this quantity of two spaces may be equally divided into 12 spaces,
marked out by 1 3 points ; from each of these points draw a line to the
opposite end of the base, as so many rays to a centre, and the scale is finished.
6. To apply this scale to any given case, set off the breadth of the whip
at the last bar, (that is, the bar at the extremity of the sail,) from the
centre of the scale along the base towards the perpendicular; and at this
point raise a perpendicular to cut the ray nearest to the base ; also set off
the breadth of the whip at the seventh bar in the same manner, and at this
point erect another perpendicular to cut the thirteenth radius. From the
intersection of the perpendicular (drawn upon the breadth of the last bar)
with the first of the thirteen radii, to the intersection of the other perpendi-
cular with the thirteenth radius, draw an oblique line cutting all the rest,
and the distances of each of these last-mentioned points of intersection from
the base line is the space which the face of each bar is distant from the gage-
line on the driving side.
7. These distances give a difference set off for each bar till the seventh,
which same must be set off for all the rest to the first.
8. These mortises must be square to the leading side of the whip.
9. When the mortises are cut, let the face of the whip be sloped off so as
to agree with the face of the bars in every part.
10. Two-fifths of the whip are the length of the last or longest bar.
11. Five-eighths of the longest bar must be on the driving side of the
whip, and three-eighths on the leading side, each being reckoned from tlie
middle of the whip.
12. The proportion of the mortises already given determines the size of
the bars at the mortises, but their thickness must be diminished each way,
so as to be only one-half at the ends ; but the face must be kept of equal
breadth all the way.
13. The leading side goes no farther than the fourth bar, and there only
projects one-third of the projection of the last bar.
14. All the bars on the driving side are made hollowing in the arch of a
circle, which begins to spring one-third of the length of the bars on the
driving side from the whip ; and the sweep is such, that if a straight line be
applied to the face of the bar from the wmip to the end, the face of the bar
should leave the straight line about the breadth of the bar.
15. There ought to be three uplongs, as 3,2, 10, to the driving, and
two to the leading side, as 5, 4, to strengthen the lattice. Dr. Rees's Cyclopedia.

Mr. Richard Hall Gower, a gentleman in the sea-service of

the East India Company, has made some judicious experiments
with a view of determining the proper angles of weather which
ought to be given to the vanes of a vertical windmill his :

general conclusion is, that each vane should be a spiral, gene-

rated by the circular motion of a radius, and of a line moving
at right angles to the plane of a circular motion. Tlie con-
struction he deduces from his inquiries is simple, being this
The length, breadth, and angle of weather at the extremity
of a vane being given ; to determine the angles of weather at
different distances from the centre,
K
130 THE OPERATIVE MECHANIC
Let A B, fig. 129, be the length of the Tane; BC
its breadth; and

BCD the angle of the weather at the extremity of the vane, equal to
20 degrees. With the length of the vane A
B, and breadth B C, construct
t }'*3 isosceles triangle ABC: from the point 13 draw B D
perpendicular to
D
C B, then B is the proper depth of the vane.
Divide the line A B into any number of parts, (five for instance,) at those
divisions draw the lines 1 E, 2 F, 3 G, and 4 H, parallel to the line B C ;
also, from the points of division 1,2, 3, and 4, draw the lines 1 I, 2 K, 3 L,
and 4 M, perpendicular to 1 E, 2 F, 3 G, &c. all of them equal in length
to B D. Join E I, F K, G
L, and HM;
then the angles l EI, 2FK,
3 G L, and H M, are the angles of weather at those divisions of the vane
and if the triangles be conceived to stand perpendicular to the plane of the
paper, the angles I, K, L, M, and D, becoming the vertical angles, the
hypothenuse of these triangles Will, as before suggested, give a perfect idea
of the weathering of the vane as it recedes from the centre.

METHOD OF CLOTHING AND UNCLOTHING THE SAILS WHILE IN

MOTION.
Ma. John Bywater, of Nottingham, took out a patent in
1804, for a method of clothing and unclothing the sails of
windmills while in motion, by which the mill may be clothed
cither in whole or in part, in an easy and expeditious manner,
by a few revolutions of the sails, whether they be going fast
or slow, leaving the surface smooth, even, and regular in
])readth from top to bottom; and in like manner the cloth,
or any part of it, may be rolled or folded up to the whip at
pleasure, by simple and durable machinery.
Fig. 130, Nos. 1, 2, 3, are front views of the sails as unclothed, half-
clothed, and clothed.
Fig. 131, a ring of iron, or other material, about 4 inches wide, and | of
an inch thick, whose diameter must be sufficient to embrace the shaft-head,
to which it must be well secured by the stays a a.
Fig. 132, a bevelled wheel, without arras, made of iron, stayed on the
edge of the ring so as to turn easily. ^
Fig. 133, a spur wheel of iron, without arms, made to turn easily on four
pins fixed into four ears bbbb, 'm the back of the ring ; which pins ara
turned up at their ends to keep it steady.
Fig. 134 is one of the four spindles of iron, or other material, with a
spur nut a, and a bevelled nut b ; this spindle passes through fig. 131 at
c a cc, and the nut a works into the spur-wheel as seen in fig. 135, aaaa.
The four bevelled nuts (fig. 134) work into the bevelled wheels at the end
of four cylinders iiii fig. 130, Nos. 1, 2, 3, and so turn them ; and two
of these spindles must be shorter than the others when the stocks are net
flush. These cylinders are made of wood of about 3 inches diameter,
and are to be placed at the outside of the leading edge of each sail, round
which the cloth is rolled (one edge being fastened on for that purpose)
when the sail is unclothed. A
gudgeon from the end of each cylinder
runs into an iron fastened to the shaft-head, and is kept in its place by a
nut screwed to its end. The other end has a gudgeon b, which turns in
the eye of the cross iron h, at the points of the whips
; ffff
four cylinders,
similar to i i i i, placed on the inside the whips ; one behind each sail to
clothe the sails, by means of ropes o o oo, &c. fastened to them-and the edge
of the cloth. At the end of each of these four cylinders a nut or wheel is
 II.J3.

From 130 to 139

134

><u>rldey Sti\md
 AND MACHINIST. 131

fixed, eeee^ to work the bevelled wheel; fig. 133, whose teeth
into
decline from the centre in proportion as these work from it, which
declination must be reversed when the sails turn in the contrary way, and
gudgeons to run into irons either projecting from the ring or fastened to the
shaft-head like the other cylinders. The gudgeons g keep these cylinders
steady in the cross iron h at the point of the whips, and stays of any shape
or number will keep them from springing.
Now, suppose the mill fully clothed, as at 3, all the parts of the
machinery revolve with it undisturbed until a lever, fig. 136, which is
fastened to the braces or fencing, by the centre pin a, fig. 1 37, on which it
turns, and whose end h is weighted to hang down towards the breast of
the mill, is brought into an horizontal direction by pulling a string attached
to the end a within-side the mill, which end b stops the stud h, projecting
from the inner surface or back-front of the spur-wheel, fig. 135; conse-
quently the four spur-ntlts a, at the end of the spindle, fig. 134, and seen at
aaaa, fig. 135, roll round the spur-wheel, and the bevelled nuts b at the
other end of the spindle work into the bevelled wheels of the outside
cylinders at 1, 2, 3, in a straight direction behind them, and so
turning the cylinders roll the cloth on them till it is rolled up to the whip.
The lever is then driven sideways (its spring c returning it again) from
the stud in the back face of the spur-wheel by the following contrivance :

A screw, 5, fig. 138, is cut on the gudgeon of any one of the cylinders
behind the sail, and a piece of iron, c, is tapped to fit it. The end of this
iron runs into a slot in the iron d, made fast to the shaft-head, to prevent
the iron c from turning with the cylinder, but allows it to slide up and
down so as to press on that on the iron a, which has the eye in it, and
raises the end a just high enough to drive the lever aside when the cloth
is all rolled up, the thread of the screw adjusting it to what number of

revolutions you choose to employ for that purpose. The point-end of the
iron a, is that part of it which pushes aside and passes the lever, fig. 136,
and moves on its centre c, and must be carried under the spur-wheel so as
to act behind it for that purpose. By letting go the string the miller may
at any time leave the cloth on the sail where he chooses, likewise the sails
may be clothed, or any part thereof, by a lever, similar to a, stopping the
stud a, on the edge of the bevelled wheel, fig. 132, and driven off in a
manner similar to the spur-wheel.
Fig. 139 is a stay of wood, fixed to the stock or whip at n n n n, 1, 2, 3,
to prevent the cylinders from springing too much. In the inside there is
left room enough for the cloth to be rolled upon the cylinder through its
lips in the eye of this stay. In order to keep the strings, which go over the
edge of the shrouds oo o o, &c. tight in all weathers, a cord, passing over
a spring of any sort or shape, placed under the sail, is fastened to and
wound about the upper ends of the cylinders, in a direction contrary to the
strings and cloth. To prevent the strings frorn being driven downwards by
the centrifugal force, a ring or two are left on to run along the rods in the
old manner asp. Nos. 2, 3.

The width of the cloth, diameter of the cylinders, and

number of revolutions you choose to employ to roll up your
cloth, must determine the size of the wheels* In order to
fold the cloth instead of rolling it, one end of it must be
fastened to the whip and lines passed across the outside of it
through loops fastened to its edge, and consequently over
the edge of the shrouds, and connected with the cylinder or
132 THE OPERATIVE MECHANIC
roller, of any shape, placed under the sail, or elsewhere, the
other ends of the lines must be connected with the said
cylinder or roller; and when the cloth is drawn up in folds
towards the whip, so much of these lines will be rolled on
the cylinder one way, and off from it the other, as will be
sufficient to let out the cloth again when the same cylinder,
turning the contrary w'ay, draws the cloth on the sail; By
this mode the patentee gets rid of fom* cylinders, with their
appendages, the work being in other respects the same as in
rolling the cloths ; but since folding gives a surface much
inferior in many respects to rolling, and induces incon-
veniences and accidents from which the rolled surface is free,
he advises the rolling, rather than for a small saving to endure
the inconveniences of folding.
If a sudden gust of wind should arise in the absence of the
miller, so as to drive the mill faster than a given velocity, a
pair of centrifugal balls, like the governor of a steam engine,
may be so placed as to adjust the lever so that it may
immediately unclothe itself.
Bainess vertical windmill sails.
Mr. Robert Raines Baines, of Myton, Kingston upon
Hull, secured to himself in June 1815, by patent, an improve-
ment in the construction of vertical windmill sails.
Fig. 140 represents six sails; the stocks or arms marked A are the same
as used for common vertical windmills ; the sails marked B are made of
canvass, and fastened to the front sides of the said stocks or arms along the
edges marked a, a, and to the rods or bars marked D, at or near the point
marked h, and are also extended by the rods or bars marked E, which are
inserted into or fixed to the backs thereof, and by rods or bars marked m,
which are inserted into or fastened to the edges of thje said sails; each sail
is also connected by a bar or rod marked F, as hereinafter described,
with the next following sail. Tlie shafts or rods marked C are fastened to
the stocks or arms marked A, at or near d, d, by loops or otherwise, so as
to allow them to move as hinges do. Tlie bars or rods marked D are each of
them connected with the shafts or rods marked C by a joint, which will
allow the said bars or rods marked D to move from the wind independent
of the shafts or rods marked C, in case it should blow against the back sides
of the said sails, but will not allow the said bars or rods marked D to move
from the wind independent of the said shafts or rods marked C, when the
wind blows against the front sides of the said sails. The bars or rods
marked F connect the corners marked e of each sail with the corner of the
next following sail at or near the point marked b, leading behind such
following sail, and which bars or rods are fastened by hooks, or other proper
means, at or near their points, bent to such an angle that if the wind
should blow against the back sides of the said sails and force them forward,
the said bars or rods will be unhooked and set at liberty A rim or circle
marked G is fixed by screws or otherwise upon the said stocks or arms
marked A, for the purpose of supporting the fulcra or props marked H.
At I is represented the head or end of a rod or bar wliich passes through
 AND MACHINIST. 133
the centre of the axletree of the mill, and to which weight may be applied,
in the manner well known to mill-wrighls, to regulate the said sails
towards or from the wind. The bars or cranks marked K are fixed to the
shafts or rods marked C, at such an angle, and in such a manner as will,
when and as they are acted upon by the levers or bars marked L, either
suffer the said bars or rods marked D and the sails to recede from the wind
until the said sails present only their edges to it, or will force the said
bars or rods marked D towards the wind, until they present to it their
breadth. The levers or bars marked L are connected at one of their ends
with the head of the aforesaid rod marked and at the other ends with the
bars or cranks marked K, and form levers resting or acting upon the fulcra
or props marked H, and are governed or regulated in their action by the
said rod, the head of which is shown at I. The said rods, bars, cranks,
loops, and rim, may be made of iron, or other suitable material or materials,
and connected at their proper places by joints or otherwise, (so as to fix
them or allow their action,) by modes well known to raill-wrights.

cubitts method op equalizing the motion of the sails

OF WINDMILLS.
Mr. William Cubitt^ of North Walsham, Norfolk, en-
gineer, took out a patent for this invention in May 1807,
which the specification thus describes
My invention consists in applying to windmills an appa-
ratus or contrivance which shall cause the vanes, constructed
or formed in a new and peculiar manner, to regulate them-
selves, so as to preserve an uniform velocity under those
circumstances in which the wind would otherwise irregularly
impel them, as is the case with the sails or vanes of mills of
the present construction. I accomplish this object by forming
the vanes (for the sake of lightness) with fewer cross bars or
shrouds than in the common method, and filling up the
remaining open space with small flat surfaces, formed either of
boards or sheet iron painted, or any other fit substance, (though
I prefer and recommend them to be made of a framing of
wood, covered over with canvass.) I hang or suspend the
same on their ends by gudgeons, pivots, centres, or any other
convenient method, so as to open and shut like valves, (for
w^hich reason I shall hereafter so call them,) preferring
always to have the centre of motion as near the upper longi-
tudinal edge of the valve as possible, as shown in the drawing,
h b, fig. 141, which exhibits a valve detached. I apply these
valves to vanes of the present construction, by suspending
them to the cross bars or shrouds of the vane by their longi-
tudinal edges, fastened thereto by joints or otherwise, as may
be preferred. These vanes, constructed of valves as above
.described, and which are represented in the drawing, fig. 142,
present a greater or less surface to the wind, according as it
acts with more or less force on them ; and if the wiiid be very
 134 THE OPERATIVE MECHANIC
strong or high, the valves, by its impulse, Vould turn their
edges to it, and their surfaces parallel to the direction of the
wind^ the vanes would consequently remain stationary, or
at least have but little motion; but to obviate this circum-
stance taking place, I apply an apparatus which shall cause
the valves always to present their flat surfaces to the wind,
or such portion of their surfaces as may be desirable. The
apparatus which I have usually applied is exhibited in the
drawings, figs. 143 and 144, which last figure shows two
modes of performing this object; though it must be evident
that various other means may be applied to produce the same
effect on the valves, and I therefore do not mean to confine
myself to those precise modes of effecting it, but consider it
unnecessary here to detail others, as the examples exhibited
in the drawings fully ascertain the sort of apparatus requisite.
Fig. 142 represents a set of vanes, in which A A show the valves turned
to the wind, and their surfaces all exposed at right angles with the direction
of the wind ; B B exhibit the vanes as close reefed, or the valves with their
edges to the wind, so that it can have no effect upon them except on their
edges, which must be trifling. In the drawing, the vanes are exhibited as
having the whip down the middle, with valves on both sides ; but it is
evident that the vanes may be constructed with the whip placed in the
usual way, and have valves on one side only, which is the method I usually
adopt in applying them to vanes of the present form.
Fig. 143 represents a side view of the apparatus for regulating the
valves; and fig. 144 is a section of the same, exhibiting two methods
of performing this operation. A
represents the shaft, which is bored
through its centre to admit an iron rod B to pass freely through it ; one
end of this rod is made to turn in a box C, which is fastened to a toothed
rack D, wh 9 se teeth take into those of a pinion E, upon the axis of which is
a sheave F, with a groove on its circumference to receive a rope G, to
which is hung a weight, shown at H, fig. 143, and which must be sufficient
to regulate the force of the wind upon the valves, though no precise
quantity of weight can be herein specified, as the same must be adjusted
by experiment, or by the quantity of work to be performed by the mill.
On the top of the rack D
is a roller I, which serves to keep the rack and
pinion in the proper depth of geer. The end of the rod B, which turns in
the box C, has a knob or onion on it, by which it can be moved endwise
while it is turning in the box C. In the other end of the rod is fixed a boss
or plate of iron K, with a gudgeon projecting from each side, on which are
the bridles or leaders LL, which permit the levers MM to describe a
curve with their ends while the iron rod B moves in a straight line. N N
are two studs or props fixed to the stock O of the sail ; on the ends of
which props the levers MM move, and communicate their motion to the
racks P P, the teeth of which take into the pinions QQ, on the axis of
which, (according to one method herein exhibited, fig. 145,) is fixed a
strong iron stud R, which is attached to a rack or slider S. Iron studs or
levers are fixed at one end in this slider S by a pin or gudgeon, and at the
other made fast to the valves a, which move on gudgeons as before
described.

The other method of regulating the valves is shown at

 AND MACHINIST. 135

fig. 14G, where, instead of the studs or levers, the valves may
be moved by having pinions fixed to them, and working with
teeth in a rack or slider, as at T. V V are rollers to keep
the racks P in their geer. Ihe operation of this apparatus
will be clearly comprehended by imagining that if the hook
4, on the rope G, be pulled down to 5, the sheave F with the
pinion will turn at the same time, putting in motion the rack
D with the rod B, which will bring the levers MM
into the
position represented by the dotted lines the racks P will
:

have turned the pinions Q till the sliders S and T, with the
studs or levers, or racks, (according to whichever method
may be used,) bring the valves into the position of the
dotted lines, in which position they are represented as having
all their surfaces to the wind ; therefore, if a sufficient weight
be hung to the hook 4, the weight will descend to 5, and
keep the valves in the situation of the dotted lines ; and
supposing the wind to blow upon them with too much force
ill this state, they will turn on their gudgeons, and raise the

weights, so that the superfluous wind will pass through or

between them, without exerting an irregular force upon the
vanes, so as to produce an unequal velocity.'"

MILL WITH EIGHT QUADRANGULAR SAILS.

This mill, which is the invention of Mr. James Verrier, is

represented in fig. 14J.
AAA are the three p.rincipal posts, 27 feet inches long, 22 inches
broad at theirlower extremities, 18 inches at their upper, and 17 inches
thick. The column B
is 12 feet 2^ inches long, 19 inches in diameter

at its lower extremity, and 16 inches at its upper: it is fixed in the

centre of the mill, passes through the first floor E, having its upper
extremity secured by the bars G. G E
E E are the girders of the first
floor, one of which only is seen, being eight feet three inches long, 1 1 inches
broad, and nine thick ; they are mortised into the posts AAAand the column
B, and are about eight feet three inches distance from the ground floor. D D,D
are three posts, six feet four inches long, nine inches broad, and six inches
thick : they are mortised into the girders E F of the first and second floor,
at the distance of two feet four inches from the posts A, &c. F F F are the
girders of the second floor, six feet long, 1 1 inches broad, and nine thick
they are mortised into the posts A, &c., and rest upon the upper extremities
of the posts D, &c. Tire three bars GGGare 3 feet 1 inches long,
seven inches broad, and three thick they are mortised into the posts
: D and
the upper end of the column B, four feet three inches above the floor. P
is one of the beams which support the extremities of the bray-trees or
brayers ; its length is two feet four inches, its breadth eight inches, and its
thickness six inches. I is one of the bray-trees into which the extremity of
one of the bridge-trees K
is mortised. Each bray-tree is 4 feet 9 inches
long, 9i inches broad, and seven thick, and each bridge-tree is four feet
six inches long, nine inches broad, and seven thick; being furnished
with a piece of brass on its upper surface to receive the under pivot of the
mill-stones. LL
are two iron screw-bolts, which raise or depress the
136 THE OPBRATIVB MECHANIC
extremities of the bray-trees. MMM are the three mill-stones, and
NNN the iron spindles or arbors on which the turning mill-stones are
fixed. D is one of three wheels or trundles which are fixed on the upper

ends of the spindles NNN: they are 16 inches in diameter, and each is
furnished with 14 staves; /is one of the carriage-rails on which the upper
)ivot of the spindle turns, and is four feet two inches long, seven inches
f)road, and four thick. It turns on an iron bolt at one end, and the other
end slides in a bracket fixed to one of the joints, and forms a mortise in
which a wedge is driven to set the rail and trundle in or out of work :
t is the horizontal spur-wheel that impels the trundles ; it is five feet six
inches in diameter, is fixed to the perpendicular shaft T, and is furnished
with 42 teeth. The perpendicular shaft T is nine feet one inch long, and
14 inches in diameter, having an iron spindle at each of its extremities; the
under spindle turns in a brass block fixed into the higher end of the
column B ; and the upper spindle moves in a brass plate inserted into the
lower surface of the carriage-rail C. The spur-wheel r is fixed on the
upper end of the shaft T, and is turned by the crown-wheel v on the
wind shaft c it is three feet two inches in diameter, and is furnished with
15 cogs. The carriage-rail C, which is fixed on the sliding kerb Z, is
1 7 feet 2 inches long, one foot broad, and nine inches thick. Y Y Q is the
fixed kerb, 17 feet 3 inches diameter, 14 inches broad, and 10 thick, and
is mortised into the posts A A A, and fastened with screw-bolts. The
sliding kerb Z is of the same diameter and breadth as the fixed kerb, but its
thickness is only 7f inches; it revolves on 12 friction rollers fixed on the
upper surface of the kerb Y Y Q, and has four iron half-staples, Y, Y, &c.,
fastened on its outer edge, whose perpendicular arms are 10 inches long,
two inches broad, and one inch thick, and embrace the outer edge of the
fixed kerb, to prevent the sliding one from being blown off. Tlie capsills
XV are 13 feet 9 inches long, 14 inches broad, and 1 foot thick : they
are fixed at each end with strong iron screw bolts to the sliding kerb,
and to the carriage-rail C. On the right hand of tv is seen the extremity of
a cross-rail, which is fixed into the capsills XV by strong iron bolts; <? is a
bracket 5 feet long, 16 inches broad, and 10 inches thick; it is bushed with
a strong brass collar, in which the inferior spindle of the windshaft turns,
and is fixed to the cross-rail tv ; b is another bracket, seven feet long, four
feet broad, and 10 inches thick; it is fixed into the fore ends of the capsills,
and in order to embrace the collar of the windshaft, it is divided into two
parts, which are fixed together with screw-bolts. The windshaft c is 15 feet
long, two feet in diameter at the fore end, and 18 inches at the other; its
pivot at the back end is six inches diameter ; and the shaft is perforated,
to admit an iron rod to pass easily through it. The vertical crown-wheel v
is six feet in diameter, and is furnished with 54 cogs, which drive the spur-
wheel r ; the bolster d, which is six feet three inches long, 13 inches broad,
and half a foot thick, is fastened into the cross-rail iv, directly under the
centre of the windshaft, having a brass pulley fixed at its fore end. On the
upper surface of this bolster is a groove in which the sliding bolt R moves, !

having a brass stud at its fore end. This sliding bolt is not distinctly seen }
i

in the figure, but the round top of the brass stud is visible below the
'

letter h ; the iron rod that passes through the windshaft bears against this
brass stud. The sliding bolt is four feet nine inches long, nine inches j
|

broad, and one-third of a foot thick. At its fore end is fixed a line which L.|
passes over the brass pulley in the bolster, and appears at a with a weight
attached to its extremity, sufficient to make the saib face the wind that is
strong enough for the number of stones employed ; and when the pressure
of the wind is more than sufficient, the sails turn on an edge and press back

ibe sliding bolt, which prevents them from moving with too great velocity
 lilies PLis.

from 147 to 15L

iiiiiiiiniitiii
 AND MACHINIST. 137
and as soon as the wind abates, the sails, by the weight , are pressed up
to the wind till its force is sufficient to give the mill a proper degree of
velocity. By this apparatus the wind is regulated and justly proportioned
to the resistance, or work to be performed ; an uniformity of motion is also
obtained, and the mill is less liable to be destroyed by the rapidity of its
motion.
That the reader may understand how these effects are produced, we have
represented in fig. 148, the iron rod, and the arms which bear against the
vanes; a A is the iron rod which passes through the windshaft c, in fig. 147
h ii the extremity which moves in the brass stud that is fixed upon the
sliding bolt; a i, are the cross-arms at right angles to ah, whose
extremities i, i, similarly marked in fig. 147, bear upon the edges of the
vanes. The arms a i are 6 feet long, reckoning from the centre a, one foot
broad at the centre, and five inches thick ; the arms 7i, n, &c., that carry the
vanes or sails, are 18 feet long, their greatest breadth is one foot, and their
thickness nine inches, gradually diminishing to their extremities, where they
are three inches in diameter The four cardinal sails, m, m, m, m, are each
13 feet long, eight feet broad at their outer end, and three feet at their lower
extiemities; p, p, &c., are the four assistant sails which have the same
dimensions as the cardinal ones, to which they are joined by the line S S S S.
Tlie angle of the sails inclination when first opposed to the wind js
45 degrees, and regularly the same from end to end.
It is evident from the preceding description of this machine, that the
windshaft c moves along with the sails ; the vertical crown-wheel v impels
the spur-wheel r, fixed upon the axis T, which carries also the spur-wheel
t. This wheel drives the three trundles H, one of which only is seen in
the figure, which being fixed upon the spindles N, &c. communicate motion
to the turning mill-stones.

That the wind may act with the greatest efficacy upon the
sails, the windshaft or principal axis must always have the
same direction as the wind. But as this direction is per-
petually changing, some apparatus is necessary for bringing
the windshaft and sails into their proper position. As both
the common methods of adjusting the windshaft require
human assistance, it would be very desirable that the same
effect should be produced solely by the action of the wind.
This may be done by fixing a large wooden vane or weather-
cock at the extremity of a long horizontal arm which lies in
the same vertical plane with the windshaft. By this means,
when the surface of the vane and its distance from the centre
of motion are sufficiently great, a very gentle breeze will
exert a sufficient force upon the vane to turn the machinery,
and will always bring the sails and windshaft to their proper
position. This weathercock, it is evident, may be applied
either to machines which have a movable roof, or to those
which revolve upon a vertical arbor. Prior to the French
revolution, windmills were more numerous in Holland and
the Netherlands than in any other part of the world, and
there they seem to have been brought to a very high state of
perfection. This is evident not only from the experiments
138 the operative mechanic
of Mr. Smeaton, from which it appears that sails weathered
in the Dutch manner produced nearly a maximum effect, but
also from the observations of the celebrated Coulomb. This
philosopher examined above 50 windmills in the neighbour-
hood of Lisle, and found that each of them performed nearly
the same quantity of work when the wind moved with the
velocity of 18 or 20 feet per second, though there were some
trifling differences in the inclination of their windshafts, and
in the disposition of their sails. From this fact,Coulomb
justly concluded that the parts of the machine must have
been so disposed as to produce nearly a maximum effect.
In the windmills on which Coulombs experiments were
made, the distance from the extremity of each sail to the
centre of the windshaft or principal axis was 33 feet. The
sails were rectangular, and their width was a little more than
six feet, five of which were formed with cloth stretched upon
a frame, and the remaining foot consisted of a very light board.
The line which joined the board and the cloth formed, on the
side which faced the wind, an angle sensibly concave at the
commencement of the sail, which diminished gradually till it
vanished at its extremity. Though the surface of the cloth was
curved, it may be regarded as composed of right lines perpendi-
cular to the arm or whip which carries the frame, the extre-
mities of these lines corresponding with the concave angle
formed by the junction of the cloth and the board. Upon this
supposition, these right lines at the commencement of the sail,
which was distant about six feet from the centre of the
windshaft, formed an angle of 60 degrees with the axis or
windshaft, and the lines at the extremity of the wing formed
an angle increasing from 78 to 84 degrees, according as the
inclination of the axis of rotation to the horizon increased
from 8 to 15 degrees ; or in the mill-wrights terms, the
greatest angle of weather was 30 degrees, and the least
varied from 12 to 6 degrees, as the inclination of the windshaft
varied from 8 to 15 degrees. A pretty distinct idea of the
surface of windmill sails may be conveyed by conceiving a
number of triangles standing perpendicular to the horizon,
in which the angle contained between the hypothenuse and
the base is constantly diminishing ; the hypothenuse of each
triangle will then be in the superficies of the vane, and they
would form that superficies if their number were infinite.
 AND MACHINIST. 139

ON HORIZONTAL WINDMILLS.
A VARIETY of opinions have been entertained respecting
the relative advantages of horizontal and vertical windmills.
Mr. Smeaton gives a decided preference to the latter; but^
when he asserts that horizontal wind mills have only one-eighth
or one-tenth of the power of vertical ones, he certainly forms
too low an estimate of their power. Mr. Beatson, on the
contrary, who has a patent for the construction of a new
horizontal windmill, seems to be prejudiced in their favour.
From an impartial investigation, it will probably appear,
that the truth lies between these tw'o opposite opinions ;
but
before entering on this discussion, we must first consider the
nature and form of horizontal windmills ; which we shall do
in presenting thereader with a description of the horizontal
mill erected at Margate by Captain Hooper,
Fig. 149 an upright section, and fig. 150 a plan of the building.
is

H H are the side walls of an octagonal building which contains the

machinery. These walls are surmounted by a strong timber framing
G G, of the same form as the building, and connected at top by
cross-framing to support the roof, and also the upper pivot of the main
vertical shaft A A, which has three sets of arms, B B, C C, D
D, framed
upon it at that part which rises above the height of the walls. The arms
are strengthened and supported by diagonal braces, and their extremities
are bolted to octagonal wood frames, round which the vanes or floats E E
are fixed, as seen in outline in fig. 150, so as to form a large wheel, resem-
bling a water-wheel, which is less than the size of the house by about
18 inches all round This space is occupied by a number of vertical
boards or blinds F F, turning on pivots at top and bottom, and placed
obliquely, so as to overlap each other, and completely shut out the wind, and
stop the mill, by forming a close case surrounding the wheel ; but they can
be moved altogether upon their pivots to allow the wind to blow in the
direction of a tangent upon the vanes on one side of the wheel, at the time
the other side is completely shaded or defended by the boarding. The
position of the blinds is clearly shown at F F, fig. 150. At the lower end
of the vertical shaft A A, a large spur-wheel a a is fixed, which gives motion
to a pinion c, upon a small vertical axis d, whose upper pivot turns in a
bearing bolted to a girdei of the floor n. Above the pinion c, a spur-
wheel e is placed, to give motion to two small pinions /, on the upper ends
of the spindles of the mill-stone h. Another pinion is situate at the
opposite side of the great spur-wheel a a, to give motion to a third pair of
mill-stones, which are used when the wind is very strong; and then the
wheel turns so quick as not to need the extra wheel e to give the requisite
velocity to the stones. The weight of the main vertical shaft is borne by a
strong timber 6, having a brass box placed on it to receive the lower pivot of
the shaft. It is supported at its ends by cross-beams mortised into the upright
posts h b, as shown in the plan, fig. 150. A floor or roof 1 1 is thrown across
the top of the brick-building to protect the machinery from the weather, and
to prevent the rain blowing down the opening through which the shaft
descends,
a broad circular hoop K is fixed to the floor, and is surrounded by another hoop
or case L, which is fixed to the arms DD of the wheel, lliis last is of such a
140 THE OPERATIVE MECHAMC
size, as exactly togo over the hoop K, without touching it when the wheel
turns round. By this means, the rain is completely excluded Crom the
upper room M, which serves as a granary, being fitted up wuth the bins
m m, to contain the different sorts of grain which is raised up by the sack-
tackle. A w'heel i is fixed on the main shaft, having cogs projecting from
both sides. Those at the under side work into a pinion on the end of the
roller K, which is for the purpose of drawing up sacks. Another pinion is
situated above the w^heel i, which has a roller projecting out over the flap-
doors seen at p, in fig. 150, to land the sacks upon. The two pinions m m,
fig. 150, are turned by the great wheel a a, and are for giving motion to the

dressing and bolting machines, which are placed upon the floor N, but are
not shown in the drawing, being exactly similar to the dressing machines
used in all flour-mills. The cogs upon the great wheel a are not so broad
as the rim itself, leaving a plain rim about three inches broad. Tliis is
encompassed by a broad iron hoop, which is made fast at one end to the
upright post b ; the other being jointed to a strong lever ?, to the extreme
end of which a purchase o is attached, and the fall is made fast to iron pins
on the top of a frame fixed to the ground. TTiis apparatus answers the
purpose of the brake or gripe used in common windmills to stop their
motion. By pulling the fall of the purchase o, it causes the iron strap to
embrace the great wheel, and produces a resistance sufficient to stop the
w'heel. The mill can be regulated in its motion, or stopped entirely, by
opening or shutting the blinds F, which surround the fan- wheel. They are
all anoved at once by a circular ring of wood situated just beneath the
lower ends of the blinds upon the floor 1 1, being connected with each blind
by a short iron link. Tlie ring is moved round by a rack and spindle which
descend into the mill-room below, for the convenience of the miller.
The mode of bringing the sails back against the wind, which Mr. Beatson
invented, is, perhaps, the simplest and best for that end. He makes each
sail A I, fig. 151, to consist of six or eight flaps or vanes,A P, 51, 5 1, c 2,
&c., moving upon hinges represented by the dark lines, AP, 51, c2, &c.,
so that the low^er side 5 1 of the first flap wraps over the hinge or higher
side of the second flap, and so on. "When the wund, therefore, acts upon
the sail A I, each flap will press upon the hinge of the one immediately
below it, and the whole surface of the sail will be exposed to its action.
But when the sail A
I returns against the wind, the flaps will revolve round
upon their hinges, and present only their edges to the wind, as is repre-
sented at E G, so that the resistance occasioned by the return of the sail
must be greatly diminished, and the motion will be continued by the great
superiority of force exerted upon the sails in the position A I. In com-
puting the force of the wund upon the sail A I, and the resistance opposed

to it by the edges of the flaps in E G, Mr. Beatson finds, that when the
pressure upon the former is 1872 pounds, the resistance opposed by the
latter is only about 36 pounds, or part of the whole force ; but he
neglects the action of the wind upon the arms, C A, &c., and the frames
which carry the sails, because they expose the same surface in the position
A I, as in the position E G. This omission, however, has a tendency to
mislead us in the present case, as we shall now see; for w'e ought to
compare the whole force exerted upon the arms, as well as the sail, with
the whole resistance which these arms and the edges of the flaps oppose to
the motion of the windmill. By inspecting the figure it will appear, that if
the force upon the edges of the flaps, which Mr. Beatson supposed to be
1 2 in number, amounts to 36 pounds, the force spent upon the bars C D,
E) G, G F, F E, &c., cannot be less than CO pounds. Now, since these
bars are acted upon with an eoual force, when the sails have the position
 AND MACHINIST. 141
A 1,1872 + 60 = 1932 willbe the force exerted upon the sail A I and its
appendages, while the opposite force upon the bars and edges of the flaps
when returning against the wind will be 36 + 60 = 96 pounds, which is
nearly ^ of 1932, instead of as computed by Mr. Beatson. Hence we
may see the advantages which will probably arise from using a screen for
the returning sail instead of movable flaps, as it will preserve not only the
sails, but the arms and the frame which supports it, from the action of the
wind.*
Mr. Brewster makes also the following remark on the
comparative power of horizontal and vertical windmills. It
has been already stated, that Mr. Smeaton rather unden-ated
the former while he maintained that they have only one- eighth
or one-tenth the power of the latter. He observes, that when
the vanes of a horizontal and a vertical mill are of the same
dimensions, the power of the latter is four times that of the
former ; because, in the first case, only one sail is acted upon
at once; while, in the second case, all the four receive the
impulse of the wind. This, however, is not strictly true,
since the vertical sails are all oblique to the direction of the
wind. Let us suppose that the area of each sail is 100 square
feet; then the power of the horizontal sail may be called
100 X sin.^ 70 (which is the common angle of inclination)
= 88 nearly ; but since there are four vertical sails, the
power of them all will be 4 X 88 =
362 so that the power
:

of the horizontal sail is to that of the four vertical ones as

1 to 3.52, and not as 1 to 4, according to Mr. Smeaton.
But Mr. Smeaton also observes, that if we consider the
further disadvantages which arises from the difficulty of
getting the sails back against the wind, we need not wonder
if horizontal windmills have only about or tV of the com-
mon sort. We have already seen that the resistance occa-
sioned by the return of the sails amounts to of the ^
whole force which they received; by subtracting there- ^
fore, from we shall find that the power of horizontal
windmills is only or little more than one-fourth less
than that of vertical ones. This calculation proceeds upon a
supposition that the whole force exerted upon vertical sails
is employed in turning them round the axis of motion;
whereas a considerable part of tliis force is lost in pressing
the pivot of the axis or windshaft against its gudgeon.
Mr. Smeaton has overlooked this circumstance, otherwise he
could never have maintained that the power of four vertical
* The sails of horizontal windmills are sometimes fixed like float-hoards on
the circumference of a large drum or cylinder. These sails move upon hinges
so as to stand at right angles to the drum, when they are to receive the impulse
of the wind ; and when they return against it, they fold down upon Its circum-
ference.
 142 THE OPERATIVE MECHANIC
sails was quadruple the power of one horizontal sail, the
dimensions of each being the same. Taking this circum-
stance into the account, we cannot be far wrong in saying
that, in theory at least, if not in practice,the power of a
horizontal windmill is about one-third or one-fourth of the
power of a vertical one, when the quantity of surface and the
form of the sails are the same, and when all the parts of the
horizontal sails have the same distance from the axis of
motion as the corresponding parts of the vertical sails. But
if the horizontal sails have the position I, A E
G, in fig. 1.51,
instead of the position C c? wz, A CD
on, their effect will be
greatly increased, though the quantity of surface is the same \
because the part C P 3 m
being transferred to B I 3 c?, has
much more power to turn the sails. Having this method,
therefore, of increasing the effect of horizontal sails, which
cannot be applied to vertical ones, we would encourage every
attempt to improve their construction, as not only laudable
in itself, but calculated to be of essential utility in a com-
mercial country.
See Dr. Brewsters valuable Appendix to
Fergusons Lectures,

FLOUR-MILLS.
In fig. 152 we have given a section of a double flour-mill,
reduced from Grays Experienced Mill- wright, with the follow-
ing account
A A, the water-wheel. R B, its shaft or axle. C C, a wheel fixed uport
the same shaft, containing90 teeth or cogs, to drive the pinion No. 1,
having 23 teeth, which is fastened upon the vertical shaft D. No. 2, a
wheel fixed upon the shaft D, containing 82 teeth, to turn the two pinions
F F, having 15 teeth, which are fastened upon the iron axles or spindles
that carry the two upper mill-stones. E E, the beam or sill that supports
the frame on which the under mill-stones are laid. G G, the cases or
boxes that enclose the upper mill-stones ; they should be about two inches
distant from the stone all round its circumference. XT, the bearers, called
bridges, upon which the under end of the iron spindles turn. These
spindles pass upwards through a hole in the middle of the nether mill-stones,
in which is fixed a wooden bush that their upper ends turn in. The top
part of the spindles, above each wooden bush, is made square, and goes
into a square hole in an iron cross, which is admitted into grooves in the
middle and under surface of the upper mill-stone. By this means that stone
is carried round along with the trundles F F, when turned by the wheel
No. 2. One end of the bridges TT is put into mortises in fixed bearers;
and the other end into mortises in the bearers that move at one end on iron
bolts, their other ends hanging by iron rods having screwed nuts, as UU;
so that when turned forward or backward they raise or depress the upper
mill-stones, according as the miller finds it necessary. S S, the feeders, in
the under end of each of which is a square socket that goes upon the square of
 JFX.'OHJM MUL.l
FI. 16 .

From ISQ to JS

lo6
154

Falc / jc j,v Jcmnd

 AND MACHINIST. 143
the spindles above the iron cross or rind, and having three or four branches
that move the spout or shoe, and feed the wheat constantly from the
hoppers into the hole or eye of the upper mill-stone, where it is introduced
betwixt the stones, and by the circular motion of the upper stone acquires
a centrifugal force, and proceeding gradually from the eye of the mill-
stone towards the circumference, is at length thrown out in flour or meal.
11 R, the sluice, machine, and handle, to raise the sluice, and let the water
on the wheel A to drive it round. No. 3 is a wheel fixed upon the shaft D,
containing 44 teeth, to turn the pinion No. 4, having 15 teeth, which is
fastened upon the horizontal axle H. On this axle is also fixed the
barrel K, on which go the two leather belts that turn the wire engine and
bolting mill. L, an iron spindle, in the under end of which is a square
socket that takes in a square on the top of the gudgeon of the vertical shaft
D. There is a pinion M, of nine teeth, fixed on the upper end of the
spindle L, to turn the wheel M M, having 48 teeth, which is fastened
upon the axle round which the rope Z Z rolls, to carry the sacks of flour up
to the cooling benches. By pulling the cord O O a little, the wheelMM
and its axle are put into motion, in consequence of that wheel and its axle
being moved horizontally, until the teeth of the wheel are brought into
contact with those of the pinion at the top of the spindle L : and, on the
contrary, by pulling the cord P P, the wheel M and its axle are moved in
the opposite horizontal direction, till they are thrown out of geer with the
pinion, and the rotatory motion of that wheel stops. But when the sack of
flour is raised up to the lever Q, it pushes up that end of the lever, and of
course the other end down ; by which means the pinion M is disengaged,
and thus that part of the machine stops of itself. NN are two large
hoppers, into which the clean wheat is put to be conveyed down to the
hoppers S S, placed on the frame immediately above the mill-stones.
W W, the side wall of the mill-house. V, the couples or frame of the roof.
X X, windows to lighten the house.
Fig. 153 represents the surface of the under grinding mill-stone; the way
of laying out the roads or channels ; the wooden bush fixed into the hole
in its middle, in which the upper end of the iron spindle turns round ; and
the case or hoops that surround the upper one, which ought to be two inches
clear of the stone all round its circumference.
Fig. 154, the upper grinding mill-stone, and iron cross or rind in its
middle; in the centre of which is a square hole that takes in a square on the
top of the iron spindle, to carry round the mill-stone. When the working
sides or faces of the mill-stones are laid uppermost, the roads (or channels)
must lie in the same direction in both ; so that when the upper stone is
turned over, and its surface laid upon the under one, then the channels may
cross eadi other, which assists in grinding and throwing oat the flour, the
sharp edges of the two furrows then cutting against each other like scissars.
The roads are likewise laid out according to the way the upper stone
revolves. In those represented in the figures, the running mill-stone is
supposed to turn sunway, or as in what is called a right-handed mill
but if the stone revolves the other way, the channels must be cut the reverse
of this, and then the mill is termed a left-handed one.

The mill-stones are of the utmost importance in the con-

struction of flour-mills, as upon them principally depends the
quality of the meal ; we cannot, therefore, do better than to
annex Mr. Fergusons opinion upon them, as also some sub-
sequent remarks by his editor. Dr. Brewster,
144 THE OPERATIVE MECHANIC

MM.L SONE.
The heavier the running mill-stone is, and the greater the
quantity of water that falls upon the wheel, so much the
faster will the mill bear to be fed, and consequently, so much
the more it will grind and, on the contrary, the lighter the
:

stone, and the less the quantity of water, so much slower

must the feeding be. But when the stone is considerably
wore, and become light, the mill must be fed slowly at any
rate ; otherwise the stone will be too much borne up by the
corn under it, which will make the meal coarse.
The quantity of power required to turn a heavy mill-stone
is but very little more than what is sufficient to turn a light
one for as it is supported upon the spindle by the bridge-*
:

tree, and the end of the spindle that turns in the brass foot
therein being but small, the odds arising from the weight is
but very inconsiderable in its action against the power or
force of the water ; and, besides, a heavy stone has the same
advantage as a heavy fly, namely, that it regulates the motion
much better than a light one.
In order to cut and grind the corn, both the upper and
under mill- stones have channels or furrows cut into them,
proceeding obliquely from the centre towards the circum-
ference: and these furrows are cut perpendicularly on one
side, and obliquely on the other, into the stone, which gives
each furrow a sharp edge, and in the two stones they come,
as it were, against one another like the edges of a pair of
scissars, and so cut the corn, to make it grind the easier
when it falls upon the places between the furrows. These
are cut the same way in both stones when they lie upon their
backs, which makes them run cross ways to each other when
the upper stone is inverted, by turning its furrowed surface
toward that of the lower. For, if the furrows of both stones
lay the same way, a great deal of the corn would be driven
onward in the lower furrows, and so come out from between
the stones without being either cut or bruised.
When the furrows become blunt and shallow by wearing,
the running stone must be taken up, and both stones new
dressed with a chisel and hammer ; and every time the stone
is taken up, there must be some tallow put round the spindle
upon the bush, which will soon be melted by the heat the
spindle acquires from its turning and, rubbing against the
bush, and so will get in between them, otherwise the bush
would take fire in a very little time.
The bush must embrace the spindle quite close, to prevent
 and machinist. 145

nny shake in the motion, wliich would make some parts of

the stones grate and fire against each other, while other parts
of them would be too far asunder, and by that means spoil
the meal in grinding.
Whenever the spindle wears the bush so as to begin to
shake in it, the stone must be taken up, and a chisel drove
into several parts of the bush; and when it is taken out,
wooden wedges must be driven into the holes; by which
means the bush will be made to embrace the spindle close
all round it again. In doing this, great care must be taken
to drive equal wedges into the bush on opposite sides of the
spindle, otherwise it will be thrown out of the perpendicular,
and so hinder the upper stone from being set parallel to the
under one, which is absolutely necessary for making good
work. When any accident of this kind happens, the perpen-
dicular position of the spindle must be restored by adjusting
the bridge-tree by proper wedges put between it and the
brayer.
It often happens that the rind is a in
little wrenched
laying down the upper stone upon it, to sink a
or is made
little lower upon one side of the spindle than upon the other 5
and this will cause one edge of the upper stone to drag all
round upon the other, while the opposite edge will not
touch. But this is easily set to rights, by raising the stone
a little with a lever, and putting bits of paper, cards, or thin
chips, between the rind and the stone.
The diameter of the upper stone is generally about six
feet, the lower stone about an inch more; and the upper
stone, when new, contains about 22 J cubic feet, which
weighs somewhat more than 19,000 pounds. A stone of
this diameter ought never to go more than 60 times round
in a minute, for if it turns faster it will heat the meal.
The grinding surface of the under stone is a little convex
from the edge to the centre, and that of the upper stone a
little more concave so that they are farthest from one
:

another in the middle, and come gradually nearer towards

the edges. By this means, the corn at its first entrance
between the stones is only bruised ; but as it goes farther on
towards the circumference or edge, it is cut smaller and
smaller; but at last finely ground just before it comes out
from between them.*

* The upper mill-stone, when six feet in diameter, is generally hollowed

about one inch at the centre ; and the under one rises about three-fourths
of an inch. The com that falls from the hopper insinuates itself between
them as far as two-thirds of the radius where the grinding begins ;
the
L
 146 THE OPERATIVE MECHANIC
When the furrows of mill-stones are worn shallow, and
consequently new dressed with the chisel, the same quantity
of stone must be taken from every part of the j^rinding
surface, that it may have the same convexity or concavity as
before. As the upper mill-stone should always have the
same weight when its velocity remains unchanged, it will be
necessary to add to it as much weight as it lost in the dressing.
This will be most conveniently done by covering its top with
a layer of plaster, of the same diameter as the layer of stone
taken from its grinding surface, and as much thicker than
the layer of stone, as the specific gravity of the stone exceeds
the specific gravity of the plaster. That the reader may
have some idea of the manner in which the furrows, or
channels, are arranged, we have represented, fig. 154, the
grinding surface of the upper mill-stone, upon the supposition
that it moves from east to west, or for w^hat is called a right-
handed mill. When the mill-stone moves in the opposite
direction, the position of the furrows must be reversed.
In fig. 156, we have
a section of the mill-stone, spindle, and lantern.
The under mill-stone M P H G,
which never moves, may be of any
thickness. Its grinding surface must be of a conical form, the point b being
about an inch above the horizontal line P 11, and M a and P b being straight
lines. The upper mill-stone E F P M, which is fixed to the spindle C D, at
C, and is carried round with it, should be so hollowed that the angle
O M a, formed by the grinding surfaces, may be of such a size that O n,
being taken equal to n M, n s may be equal to the thickness of a grain of
corn. The diameter O N of the mill-eye m C, should be between 8 and
14 inches; and the weight of the upper mill-stone E P, joined to the
weight of the spindle CD, and the trundle x, (the sum of which three
numbers is called the eqiujmge of the turning mill-stone,) should never be
less than 1550 pounds avoirdupois, otherwise the resistance of the grain
would bear up the mill-stone, and the meal be ground too coarse.
In order to find the weight of the equipage; divide the third of the
radius of the gudgeon by the radius of the water-wheel which it supports,
and having taken the quotient from 2,25 multiply the remainder by the
expense of the source, by the relative fall, and by the number 19,911, and
you will have a first quantity, which may be regarded as pounds. Multiply
tlie square root of the relative fall by the weight of the arbor of the water-

wheel, by the radius of its gudgeon, and by the number 1617, and a second
quantity will be had, which will also represent pounds. Divide the third
part of the radius of the gudgeon by the radius of the water-wheel, and
having augmented the quotient by unity, multiply the sum by 1005, and a
third quantity will be obtained. Subtract the second quantity from the
first, divide the remainder by the third, and the quotient will express the

number of pounds in the equipage of the mill-stone.

The weight of the equipage being thus found, extract its

distance between the stones being there about two-thirds or three-fourths

of the thickness of a grain of corn. This distance, however, can be altered
at pleasure, by raising or sinking the upper stone. Dr. Brewster.
 AND MACHINIST. 147
square root, expressed in pounds, and multiply it oy 039,
and the product will be the radius of the mill-stone in feet.
In order to find the weight and thickness of the upper mill-
stone, the following rules must be observed

1. To find the weight of a quantity of stone equal to the mill-eye

take any quantity which seems most proper for the weight of the spindle
C D, and the lantern X, and subtract this quantity from the weight of the
mill-stones equipage, for a first quantity. Find the area of the mill-eye,
and multiply it by the weight of a cubic foot of stone of the same kind as
the mill-stone, and a second quantity will be had. Multiply the area of
the mill-stone by the weight of a cubic foot of the same stone, for a third
quantity. Multiply the first quantity by the second, and divide the product
by the third, and the quotient will be the weight required.
2. To find the number of cubic feet in the turning mill-stone, supposing
it to have no eye ; from the weight of the spindle and lantern subtract tlie

quantity found by the preceding rule, for the first number. Subtract this
first number from the weight of the equipage, and a second number will

be obtained. Divide this second quantity by the weight of a cubic foot of

stone of the same quality as the mill-stone, and the quotient will be the
number of cubic feet inEM m
P F, C being supposed to be filled up.
3. To find the quantities wjN and EM,
i.e. the thickness of the mill-
stone at its centre and circumference; divide the solid content of the
mill-stone, as found by the preceding rule, by its area, and you :\vill have
the first quantity. Add b R, which is generally about an inch, 'to twice
the diameter of a grain of corn, for a second quantity. Add the first
quantity to one-third of the second, and the sum will be the thickness of the
mill-stone at the circumference. Subtract the third of the second quantity
from the first quantity, and the remainder will be its thickness at the centre.

The size of the mill-stone being thus found,

its velocity is
next to be determined. M. Fabre
observes, that the flour
is the best possible when a mill- stone five feet in diameter
makes from 48 to 61 revolutions in a minute. Mr. Ferguson
allows 60 turns to a mill- stone six feet in diameter; and
Mr. Imison 120 to a mill- stone 4^ feet in diameter. In
mills upon Mr. Imisons construction, the great heat that
must be generated by such a rapid motion of the mill-stone,
must render the meal of a very inferior quality : much time,
on the contrary, will be lost, when such a slow motion is
employed as is recommended by M. Fabre and Mr. Ferguson.
In the best corn-mills in this country, a mill-stone five feet
in diameter revolves, at an average, 90 times in a minute.
The number of revolutions in a minute, therefore, which must
be assigned to mill-stones of a different size, may be found
by dividing 450 by the diameter of the mill-stone in feet.
The spindle c D, which is six feet long, may be made eitlier
commonly
of iron or wood. When
of iron, and the weight of the mill-stone
it is
7558 pounds avoirdupois, it is generally three inches in diameter; and
when made of v/ood, it is 10 or 11 inches in diameter. For mill-stones of
a different weight, the thickness of the spindle may be found by propot i

L 2
 148 THE OPERATIVE MECHANIC
tioning it to the square root of tlie mill-stones weight, or which is nearly
the same thing, to the weight of the mill-stones equipage.
The greatest diameter* of the pivot D, upon which the mill-stone rests,
should be proportional to the square root of the equipage, a pivot half an
inch diameter being able to support an equipage of 5398 pounds. In
most machines, the diameter of the pivots is by far too large, being capable
of supporting a much greater weight than they are obliged to bear. 'I'lie
friction is therefore increased, and tiie performance of the machine
diminished.
The bridge-tree, A B, generally from 8 to 10 feet long, and should
is
always be elastic, that it may
yield to the oscillatory motion of the mill-
stone. When its length is nine feet, and the weight of the equipage 5182
pounds, it should be six inches square ; and when the length remains
unchanged, and the equipage varies, the thickness of the bridge-tree should
be proportional to the square root of the equipage.
Although the mechanism of a flour-mill is exceedingly
simple, the profitable manufacture of flour requires consider-
able experience and attention. We
shall therefore give a
sketch of the points most particularly to be attended to in
such manufacture.
The grow in Essex and Kent make the best
Avheats that
flour. In choosing the wheat much attention should be paid
to the thinness of the skin and to its cleanliness from weed.
Good wheat may be known by its weight, which should be
about 62 pounds per Winchester bushel of 32 quarts. The
wheat to be manufactured into the best flour should be
winnowed.
The miller judges of the quality of the flour by feeling it,
and accordingly as it is too fine or too coarse regulates the
upper mill-stone, or increases or decreases the supply of
grain. The flour in grinding always acquires a slight warmth,
and care must be taken that the warmth does not increase, or
the flour will be permanently injured.
The dressing of the flour is of great importance, and too^
much attention cannot be paid to it. The bran should be in
large flakes and free of flour. In grinding the best wheats,
in the best manner, the bran will amount to about seven
pounds per bushel.
In the process of dressing, the bran is examined as a
criterion to know whether too much flour be admitted upon
the machine. Care should be taken to have the brush screwed
close to the end of this machine.
French stones of about four feet in diameter are expected
to grind about five bushels per hour.
Mr. Thomas Fenwick, the autlior of Four Essays oc: Practical
Mechanics, has made numerous experiments on some of
the be'st mills for grinding corn, in order to form, by practical
observation, a set of tables illustrative of the cftect of a given
Fli'ors :^TELIaS n.i7.
From 166 to 160

lo6

&Stiid^ jcJSt Strand

 AND MACHINIST. 14^?

quantity of water, in a given time, applied to an overshot-

wheel of a given size.
The quantity of water expended on the wheel was measured
with great exactness the corn used was in a medium state
:

of dryness; the mills, in all their parts, were in a medium

working state; the mill-stones, making from 90 to 100
revolutions per minute, were from 4^ to 5 feet in diameter.
The result of the experiments was, that the power requisite
to raise a weight of 300 pounds avoirdupois, with a velocity
of 190 feet per minute, would grind one boll of good rye in
one hour ; but for the sake of making the following tables
hold in practice, where imperfection of construction exists
in some small degree, he took it at 300 pounds raised with
a velocity of 210 feet per minute, (being -rVth more,) and
for grinding two, three, four, or five bolls j3er hour, requires
a power equal to that which could raise 300 pounds with
the velocity of 350, 506, 677^ or 865 feet per minute respec-
tively. The difference of the power requisite to grind equal
quantities of wheat to that for rye will be very trifling.
To enable the young mechanist to understand the applica-
tion of his principles, he adds, as an illustration, that that
number of horses, or other applied power, which, by means
of a rope (considered as without weight) passing over a
single pulley placed over the mouth of a pit or well, can
raise out of it a load of 300 pounds avoirdupois, at the rate
of 210 feet per minute, will be sufficient to grind one boll of
corn per hour; and that a power which, in similar circum-
stances, can raise the same weight of 300 pounds with a
velocity of 350 feet per minute, will be able to grind two
bolls of corn per hour, and so on.
Having made some experiments to ascertain the friction
of a mill, when going with velocity sufficient to grind two
bolls of corn per hour, he relates the manner in which he
made them, that the reader may be able to judge of the
accuracy of his deductions.
The mill was made quite clear of corn, and the upper
mill-stone raised so that it would touch as little as possible
on the under stone in its revolutions; then such a quantity
of water was admitted to flow on the water-wheel, as to give
the mill, when empty, the same velocity it had when grinding
corn at the rate of two bolls per hour, which quantity of
water was sufficient to raise a load of 300 pounds with
a velocity of 100 feet per minute, which was therefore con-
sidered by him as the measure of the friction. Now as the
power requisite to grind two bolls of corn per hour, including
150 THE OPERATIVE MECHANIC
the friction of the mill, is equal to that which can raise
a weight of 300 pounds with a velocity of 350 feet per
minute, and the friction of the moving parts of the mill is
equal to a power which would raise 300 pounds with a
velocity of 100 feet per minute ; therefore the difference of
the two, which is 300 pounds raised with the velocity of
250 feet per minute, is equal to the power employed in the
actual grinding of the corn, which is about two- thirds of the
whole.
The power equal to raise a weight of 300 pounds avoir-
dupois, with a velocity of 390 feet per minute, will prepare
properly one ton of old rope per week, for the purpose of
making paper: and, for preparing in like manner, two tons
of the same kind of materials per week, requires a power
equal to raise 300 pounds with a velocity of 525 feet per
minute, the mill working from 10 to 12 hours per day.

Tables^ showing the quantity of water (ale measure) re-

quisite to grind different quantities of corn, from one
to Jive bolls (Winchester measure ) per hour, applied on
overshot water-wheels from 10 to defect diameter; also
the size of the cylinder of the common steam-engine to
do the same work. '

The water-wheel, 10 feet The water-wheel, 11 feet

diameter. diameter.

Bolls ofQuantity of Diameter of Bolls of Quantity of Diameter of

corn water requi- the cylinder of corn water requi- the cylinder of
ground site, in ale a steam-engine ground site, in ale a steam-engine |

per gallons, per to do the same per gallons, per to do the same
hour. minute. work, in inches. hour. minute. work, in inches.

1 786 12-5 1 705 12-5

H 1056 14-6 4 945 14-6
2 1341 16-75 2 1188 16-75
1617 18-5 1454 18-5
3 1894 20-2 3 1723 20-2
31 2220 21-75 34 2014 21-75
4 2541 23-25 4 2306 23-25
4i 2891 24-75 41 2626 24-75
5 3242 26-25 5 2944 26-25
 AND machinist. 15i

The water-wheel, 12 feet The water-wheel, 14 feet

diameter. diameter.

Bolls of Quantity of Diameter of Bolls of Quantity of Diameter of

corn water requi- the cylinder of corn water requi- the cylinder of
ground site, in ale a steam-engine ground site, in ale a steam-engine
per gallons, per to do the same per gallons, per to do the same
hour. minute work, in inches. hour. minute. work, in inches.

1 655 12-5 1 564 12-5

n 873 14-6 14 740 14-6
2 1091 16-75 2 927 I6-75
n
3
1343 18-5
20-2
24
3
1140
1353
18-5
20-2
1576
1840 2175 34 1583 21-75
4 2117 23-25 4 1811 23-25
44 2408 24-75 44 2060 24-75
5 2700 26-25 5 2306 26-25

, The water-wheel, 13 feet The water-wheel, 15 feet

diameter diameter.

Bolls, Water, Bolls, Water,

Cylinder, in Cylinder, in
per gallons per per gallons per
inches. inches.
hour. minute. hour. minute.

1 606 12-5 1 535 12-5

14 806 14-6 14 710 14-6
2 1009 I6-75 2 894 I6-75
24 1234 18-5 24 1090 18-5
3 1458 20-2 3 1290 20-2
34 1705 21-75 34 1503 21-75
4 1952 23-25 4 1717 23-25
44 2223 24-75 44 1967 24-75
5 2494 26-25 5 2211 26-25
152 THK orERATJVE MECHANIC

!
The water-wheel. 16 feet The water-wheel, 18 feet
diameter. diameter.

Bolls olQuantity of Diameter of Bolls of' Quantity of Diameter of

j

corn water requi- the cylinder of corn water requi- the cylinder of
1
ground site, in ale a steam-engine ground site, in ale a steam-engine
1
per gallons, per to do the same per gallons, per to do the same
hour. minute. work, in inches. hour. minute. work, in inches.
1

1 491 12-5 1 410 12-5

1 u 650 14-6 H 595 14-6
! 2 811 16-75 2 730 I6-75
993 18-5 24 860 18-5
1 3 1176 20-2 3 1054 20-2
1380 21*75 34 1227 21-75
j

4 1582 23 25 4 1400 23-25

44 1802 24*75 1600 24-75
5 2023 26-25 5 1800 26-25

The water- wheel, 17 feet The water-wheel, 19 feet

j
diameter. diameter.
1

Bolls, Water, Bolls, Water,

Cylinder, in Cylinder, in
per gallons per per gallons per
inches. inches.
liour. minute. hour. minute.

1 458 12-5 1 411 12-5

li 628 14*6 14 550 14-6
2 770 16-75 2 690 16-75
24 943 18-5 24 845 18-5
3 1117 20-2 3 1000 20-2
34 1300 21*75 34 1165 21*75
4 1482 23-25 4 1330 23-25
1695 24*75 44 1517 24*75
5 1906 26-25 5 1707 26-25
 AND MACHINIST 153

^
f

The water-wheel, 20 feet The water-wheel, 22 feet

diameter. diameter.

'
Bolls Quantity of
ol Diameter of Bolls Quantity of
oif Diameter of |

corn water requi- the cylinder of corn water requi- the cylinder of
ground site, in ale a steam-engine ground site, in ale a steam-engine
per gallons, per to do the same per gallons, per *0 do the same
hour. minute. work, in inches. hour. minute. work, in inches.

1 392 12-5 1 350 12-5

H 530 14-6 14 473 14-6
2 675 16-75 2 594 I6-75
808 18-5 24 722 18-5
3 945 20-2 3 860 20-2
34 1110 21-75 34 1007 21-75
4 12/0 23-25 4 1153 23-25
44 1445 24-75 44 1313 24-75
5 1623 26-25 5 1472 26-25
1I

The water-wheel, 21 feet The water-wheel, 23 feet

diameter. diameter.

Bolls, Water, Bolls, Water,

Cylinder in, Cylinder, in
per gallons per per gallons per
inches. inches.
hour. minute. hour. minute.

1 370 12-5 1 338 12-5

14 500 14-6 14 454 14-6
2 635 16-75 2 570 I6-75
24 767 18-5 -^2 707 18-5
3 900 20-2 3 - 824 20-2
34 1060 21-7o 34 964 21-75
4 1212 23-25 4 1124 23-25
44 1379 24-75 44 J258 24-75
5 1547 26-25 5 1412 26-25
 154 THE OPERATIVE MECHANIC

-
The water-wheel. 24 feet The water-wheel, 26 feet
diameter. diameter.

Bolls o: Quantity of Diameter of Bolls ol Quantity of

: Diameter of
corn water requi- the cylinder of corn water requi- the cylinder of
ground site, in ale a steam-engine ground site, in ale a steam-engine
per gallons, per todo the same per gallons, per to do the same
hour. minute. work, ill inches. hour. minute. work, in inches.

1 327 12-5 1 303 12-5

1 2 436 14-6 14 403 14-6
2 545 16-75 2 504 I 6-75

2i 671 18-5 24 617 18-5

3 788 20-2 3 730 20-2
3i 920 21 -75 34 852 21-75
4 1050 23-25 4 975 23-25
1204 24-75 44 1111 24-75
1350 26.25 5 1247 26-25

The water-wheel, 25 feet The water-wheel, 27 feet

diameter. diameter.

Bolls, Water, Bolls, Water,

Cylinder, in Cylinder, in
per gallons per per gallons per
inches. inches.
hour. minute. hour. minute.
j

1 316 12-5 1 293 12-5

14 418 14-6 14 385 14-6
2 520 16-75 2 482 I 6-75

24 635 18-5 24 593 18-5

3 752 20-2 3 703 20-2
34 876 21-75 34 822 21-75
4 985 23-25 4 940 23-25
44 1150 24-75 44 1070 24-75
5 1300 26-25 5 1200 26-25
 AND MACHINIST 155

The water-wheel. 28 feet The water-wheel, 30 feet j

diameter. diameter. |

Bolls of Quantity of Diameter of Bolls of Quantity of Diameter of

{

corn water requi- the cylinder of corn water requi- the cylinder of |

ground site, in ale a steam-engine ground site, in ale a steam-engine j

per gallons, per to do the same per gallons, per to do the same
hour. minute. work, in inches. hour. minute. work, in inches.

1 282 i2-5 1 267 12*5

H 370 14-6 14 355 14*6
2 463 16*75 2 447 16*75
570 18*5 24 545 18*5
3 676 20*2 3 645 20*2
34 791 21*75 34 750 21*75
4 905 23*25 4 858 23*25
44 1030 24*75 44 983 24*75
5 1153 26*25 5 1106 26*25

The water-wheel, 29 feet The water-wheel, 31 feet

diameter. diameter.

Bolls, Water, Bolls, Water,

Cylinder, in Cylinder, in
per gallons per per gallons per
1
inches. inches.
hour. minute. hour. minute.

1 274 12*5 1 256 12*5 .

14 363 14*6 14 340 14*6

2 455 . 16*75 2 426 16*75
24 557 18*5 24 520 18*5
3 660 20*2 3 620 20*2
34 770 21*75 34 717 21*75
4 880 23*25 4 827 23*25
44 1005 24*75 44 940 24*75
5 1130 26*25 5 1058 26*25 !

1
156 THE OPERATIVE MECHANIC

The water-wheel, 32 feet

diameter.

Bolls of Quantity of Diameter of

corn water requi- the cylinder of
ground site, in ale a steam-engine
per gallons, per to do the same
hour. minute. work, in inches.

1 245 12*5
n 325 14-6
2 406 1675
24 496 18*5
3 588 20-2
34 690 2175
4 791 23-25
41 900 24-75
5 1012 26-25

To make the foregoing tables applicable to mills intended

to be turned by undershot or breast water-wheels from :

Smeatons experiments it appears that the power required

on an undershot, water-wheel, to produce an effect equal to
that of an overshot (to which the tables are applicable,) is as
2*4 to one ; and also the power required on a breast water-
wheel, which receives the water on some point of its circum-
ference, and afterwards descends on the ladle boards, to
produce an equal effect with an overshot water-wheel, is as
175 to 1.
 AND MACHINIST. 157

A Table, shmving the necessary size of the cylinder of the

common steam-engine to grind different quantities of
corn, from 1 to 12 bolls (4 to 48 bushels Winchester
measure) per hour.

Bolls of Diameter of
corn the cylinder of
ground a steam-engine
per to do the same
hour. work, in inches.

1 12-5
H 14-6
2 16-75
24 18-5
3 20-2
34 21-75
4 23-25
44 24-75
5 26-25
54 27-25
6 28-1
(34 29-
7 29-8
74 31-1
8 32-
81 33-3
9" 34-2
94 35-2
10 36-
104 37-3
11 38-
114 38-85
12 39-5

N. B. This table will be applicable to any improved

steam-engine, as well as that of the common kind^ if the ratio
of their efficacies be known.

APPLICATION OF THE TABLES.

Exampi.e If a stream of water, producing 808 gallons,
I. ale measure,
per minute, can he applied to an overshot water-wheel 20 feet diameter,
2 vhat quantity
<

of corn will it be able to grind per hour?

158 THFi OPERATIVE MECHANIC
Look in the tables under a 20 feet water-wheel, and opposite 808 gallons
will be found 2 bolls of corn ground per hour.
Example II. If a stream of water produchig SOS gallons, ale measure,
per minute, can he applied to an undershot water-wheel 20 feet diameter,
what quantity of corn can it grind per hour P
It is found by the tables, that, if applied on an overshot water-wheel
20 feet diameter, the stream will grind bolls per hour; and from
page 156, the power required by the undershot to that of the overshot
water- wheel, to produce an equal effect, is as 2*4 to 1 ; therefore, as
2-4:1: 2-5 1-04 bolls of corn ground per hour by means of the stream.
:

Example III. If a stream of water, producing 808 gallons, ale measure,

per minute, can be applied on a breast water-wheel 20 feet diameter, what
quantity of corn can it grind per hour ?
It is found by the tables, that, if applied to an overshot water-wheel of
equal size, 2^ bolls of corn will be ground per hour; and from page 156,
the power of a breast water-wheel to that of an overshot water-wheel, to
produce an equal effect, is as 1-75 to 1 ; therefore, as 1-75 1: 2-5
: ;1-42:

bolls of corn ground per hour by the stream.

Example IV. Of what diameter must the cylinder of a common steam-
engine be made, to grind 10 bolls of corn per hour?
By looking on the table, page 157, opposite 10 bolls ground per hour,
the diameter of the steam cylinder will be found to be 36 inches.

FAMILY MILL AND BOLTER.

Asa family mill and bolter cannot but be highly useful in
many situations, we shall give a description of one or two,
beginning with that invented by Mr. T. Rustall, of Purbrook-
heath, near Portsmouth, who received a premium of forty
guineas from the Society of Arts for his invention.
In fig. 157, A is the handle of the mill; B one of the mill-stones,
which is about 30 inches in diameter, and five inches in thickness, moving
with its axis C ;D is the other mill-stone, which, when in use, is stationary

but which may be placed near to or at a distance from the movable stone
B, by means of three screws passing through the wooden block E, that
supports one end of the axis C, after it has been put through a hole or
perforation in the-bed stone. The grain likewise passes through this
perforation, from the hopper F, into the mill. F represents the hopper,
which is agitated by two iron pins on the axis C, that alternately raise the
vessel containing the grain, which again sinks by its own weight. In
consequence of this motion the corn is conveyed through a spout that
passes from such hopper into the centre of the mill behind, and through
the bed-stone D. G, a paddle, regulating the quantity of corn to be
delivered to the mill, and by raising or lowering which, a larger or smaller
proportion of grain may, be furnished ; H, the receptacle for the flour, into
which it falls from the mill-stones, when ground ; I represents one of the
wooden supporters on which the bed-stone, D, rests. These are screwed
to the block E, and likewise mortised into the lower frame-work of the
mill at K, which is connected by means of the pins or wedges, L, L, L,
that admit the whole mill to be easily taken to pieces; M, a fly-wheel,
placed at the farthest extremity of the axis C, and on which another handle
may be occasionally fixed; N, a small rail, serving to keep the hopper in its
place, the furthest part of such hopper resting on a small pm, whicli
admits of sufficient motion for that vessel to shake forward the corn ; 0,
 AND MACHINIST. 159
a spur-rail, for strengthening tlie frame-work of the mill ; P, the front
upright, that is mortised into the frame-work, and serves as a rest for the
end of the iron axis C, which is next to the handle. On each extremity
of such axis there is a shoulder, which keeps it steady in its place. Lastly,
there is a cloth hood fixed to a broad wooden hoop, which is placed over
tlie stones while working, to prevent the finer particles of flour from

escaping.
158 represents the bolter, with its front removed, in order to display
Fig.
its interior structure
;
the machine being 3 feet 10 inches in length, and
19 inches in breadth, and 18 inches in depth. A is a movable partition,
sliding about four feet backwards or forwards from the centre of the box,
upon two wooden ribs, which are fixed to the back and front of the box,
and one of which is delineated at the letter B ; C, the lid of the bolter,
represented open ; D, a slider, which is movable in a groove made in tire
lid, by nreans of two handles in the back of such lid ; E, a forked iron, fixed
in the slider D, and which, when the lid is shut, takes hold of the sieve F,
and moves it backwards and forwards on the wooden ribs B, according to
the agitation of the slider; G represents a fixed partition in the lower centre
of the box, which it divides into two parts, in order to separate the fine
fi om the coarse flour ; from this partition the slider A moves each way
about four inches, and thus affords room for working the sieve ; II, a board
that is parallel to the bottom of the bolter, and forms part of the slider A ;
this board serves to prevent any of the sifted matter from falling into the
other partition; I represents two of the back feet which support the
bolter.
Fig. 159 is a view of the top or upper part of the lid of the bolter; R
the slider that moves the lengthwise of the bolter; LL the handles by
wliich the slider is worked ; M, a screw, serving to hold the fork, which
imparts motion to the sieve.
Fig. 160 represents the forked iron, E, separately from the lid.

Both the mill and bolter may be constructed at a moderate

expense, and they occupy only a small space of ground.
The former may even be worked in a public kitchen, or
within a room in a farm-house, without occasioning any
great encumbrance.
The particular excellence of this mill consists in this cir-
cumstance, that, from the vertical position of its stones, it
may be put in action without the intervention of cogs or
wheels. It may be employed in the grinding of malt, the
bruising of oats for horses, and for making flour, or for all
these purposes it likewise may be easily altered, so as to
:

grind either of those articles to a greater or less degree of

fineness.
Another advantage peculiar to Mr. Rnstalls contrivance
is,that one man is sufficient to w^ork it; though, if two
persons, namely, a man and a boy, be employed, they will
be able to produce, in the course of two hours, a quantity of
hour sufiicient to serve a family, consisting of six or eight
persons, for a wffiole week:
repeated satisfactory trials have
Ijioved that this mill grinds the corn completely, and at the
 I GO THK OPERATIVE MECHANIC
rate of one biisliel of wheat within the hour. Besides, tlie
industrious farmer will thus he enabled to make comparative
experiments on the quality of his grain, and may furnish
himself, at a trifling expense, with flour from his own wheat,
without apprehending any adulteration, or without being
exposed to the impositions or caprice of fraudulent and
avaricious millers.
Lastly, though Mr. Rustairs bolter be more particularly
calculated for sifting flour, it may also be applied to various
other useful purposes, and especially with a view to obviate
the inconveniences necessarily attendant on the levigation of
noxious substances, and to prevent the waste of their finer
particles.
In order to reduce the labour in grinding, and to adjust
the power to the acquired force, and also to simplify mill-
making and grinding, and to reduce the expense attendant
upon them, so as to enable the farmer and housekeeper to
be independent of the millers system of grinding, Mr. George
Smart, of the Ordnance- wharf, Westminster-bridge, in April
1814, obtained a patent for certain improvements in machinery
for grinding corn, and various other articles,' by means of
which every article required to be broke or ground is exposed to
the application of rubbers or crushers, resting on their fulcrums,
and pressed against the revolving body by means of levers,
weights, or springs. The rubbers, or crushers, each acting
on a separate axle, will admit of any irregular surface, from
a square to a circle, to revolve against them, as each can
be loaded more or less, by moving the weights on the levers
further from, or nearer to, the fulcrum or, if with springs,
;

by screwing them more or less down. The rubbers or

crushers may be plain, grooved, circular sided, concave, or
any other figure best adapted for the substance to be broke
or ground. The square or octagon are best adapted for
breaking cement-stones, l)ones for manure, chalk, mixing
clay, mortar, &c. For breaking malt, beans, &c. one crusher
only is wanted; but for wheat, oats, barley, rice, or any
jj
flour, or meal, the more rubbers or crushers the finer the
article will be ground; and the more flats there are on the
revolving body, the more crushers can be applied to advantage.

HAND-MILLS

Are most commonly used in grinding coffee and spices

but they are sometimes made of a larger size, and used to
grind wheat, malt, &c. ; in such cases the hand is generally
 AND MACHINIST. 161

applied to a winch handle. In Bocklers Theatrum Ma^

chinarum there is a description of a mill, in which the effort
of a man is applied to a lever moving to and fro horizontally,
nearly as in the action of rowing : as this is a very advan-
tageous method of applying human strength, the effort being
greatly assisted by the heaviness of the man in leaning
back, we shall give a brief description of it.
It is represented in fig. 161. The vertical shaft E G
carries a toothed
wheel C, and a solid wheel F ; the latter being intended to operate as a
regulating fly. Upon the crank A
B hangs one end of an iron I, the
other end of which hangs upon the lever H
K, the motion being pretty free
at both ends of this bar I. One end of the lever HK
hangs upon the fixed
hook K, about which, as a centre of motion, it turns. Then, while a man,
by pulling at the lever H
K, moves the extremity from H H
to N, the bar
I acting upon the crank A
B gives to the wheels C and F half a rotation
and the momentum they have acquired will carry them on, the man at the
lever suffering it to turn back from N to II, while the other half of the rota-
tion of the w'heels is completed. In like manner another sufficient pull
at the lever HK gives another rotation to the wheel C, and so on, at
pleasure. The wheel C turns by its teeth the trundle D, the spindle of
which carries the upper mill-stone, just as the spindle D
carries round the
upper mill-stone in ng. 156. In this mill the nearer the end of the bar I upon
the lever HK is to the fixed hook K, the easier, cceteris paribus, will the
man work the mill. If the in the wheel C be six times
number of teeth
the number of cogs in the trundle D, then
the labourer, by making ten
pulls at the lever H
in a minute, will give sixty revolutions to the upper mill-
stone in the same space of time.

In the Transactions of the Society of Arts, may be seen

a description of a mill, invented by Mr. Garnett Terry,
of the City-road, for grinding hard substances, by means
of a wheel turning upon a horizontal axis instead of a
vertical one, as in the common construction. See hg. 162.

THE FOOT-MILL
used for grinding corn or any other substance, moved
Is
by the pressure of the feet of men or oxen. A judicious
construction of the foot-mill is given in G. A. Bockler's
Theatrum Machinarum,
Tliis mill is represented in fig. 163. A
is an inclined wheel, which is

turned by the weight of a man, and the impulsive force of his feet while
he supports himself, or occasionally pushes with his hands at the horizontal
bar H. The face of this wheel has thin pieces of wood nailed upon it at
proper distances, to keep the feet of the man from slipping while he pushes
the wheel round and the under side has projecting teeth or waves which
:

:atch into the cogs of the trundle B, and by that means turn the horizontal
?haft G
with the wheel C this latter wlieel turns the trundle D, the axle
:

jf which carries the upper mill-stone E. This kind of foot-mill will

insw'er extremely well to grind malt, 8cc. when no very great power is
equired.
M
JG2 THE OPERATIVE MECHAMIC

KNEADING-MILL.
The business of grinding and baking is in one sense so
closely connected, that we shall in this place present a
description of the kneading-mill ; which is meant to do away
with that disgusting practice among bakers of kneading the
dough with their bare feet. It would be well if the legisla-
ture paid some attention to this, which is still carried on in
some parts of the metropolis, and particularly in the kneading
of dough for biscuits.
In the public baking-houses of Genoa a machine is used
which produces a great saving of time and labour. It was
first described in the Atti della Soeieta Patriotica di Milano^
vol. ii.

A, in fig. 164, is a frame of wood which supports the axis of the machine:
a wall 14 palms high from the ground may be made use of instead of
this frame. B, a wall, palms thick, through which the aforesaid axis
passes. C, another wall, similar to the former, and facing it at the distance*
of 21 palms. D, the axis, 30 palms in length, and one palm and one-third
ill thickness. E, the great wheel, fixed to the said axis, between the frame
and the wall ; its diameter is 28 palms and its breadth, which is capable of
;

holding two men occasionally, is five palms. F, are steps, by treading on

which, the men turn the wheel very smartly ; they are two palms distant
from each other, and one-third of a palm in height. G, a small wheel with
cogs, fixed almost at the further extremity of the axis; its diameter is
12f palms. II, a beam of wood which extends from one wall to the other,
being 21 palms in length, and one and a third in thickness. A similar beam,
not seen in the figure, is on the opposite side of the axis. I, a transverse
piece of wood, placed near the wall C ; it is fixed into the two beams, and
serves to support the further extremity of the axis; its length is 14 palms,
and its thickness one and a third there is likewise a transverse piece (which
:

cannot be seen in the figure) 14 palms long, and half a palm thick, placed
close to the wall B. K is a strong curved piece of oak, fixed transversely

in the side beams H, to receive the axis of the trundle: its length is 14
palms, and thickness If.
its L is a trundle of 5f palms in diameter,
and If in height, which is moved by the cog-wheel G. M is a trundle

proceeding from the trundle L, and continued through the cross N to the
bottom of the tub P ; its centre is made of iron, partly scjuare and partly
round, and it turns in a socket of brass. The first part of this axis between
the trundle L and the cross N is of square iron, surrounded by two pieces
of wood, held together by iron hoops, which may be removed at pleasure
to examine the iron within ; its length is three palms, its diameter about
one palm. The second part of the axis which is within the tube, is made
like the first part; its length is If palm, its diameter 1^. The wooden
sheath of this part of the axis is fixed to the bottom of the tub, by the means
of three screws with their nuts. This axis is distant one-third of a palm
from the nearest triangular heater of the cross. N, the cross, formed of t^vo**
bars of wood unequally divided, so that the four arms of the cross are of
different lengths one of the two pieces of wood of which the cross is made,
:

is six palms in length, the other five ; their' thickness is ~i of a palm,

sc.SSzStfxin^
 AND MACHINIST. 163
and their breadth one palm. O, four pieces wood, called beaten, of a
of
triangular shape, fixed vertically into the extremities of, and underneath,
the arms of the fore-mentioned cross; they are palm in length, and half
a palm in thickness, and beat or knead the dough in the tub at unequal
distances from the centre. P is a stout wooden tub, about a quarter of a
palm thick, well hooped with iron; its diameter is six palms, its height in
the clear. Fig. 165 is a box or trough of wood, four palms long, and
three wide, in which the leaven is formed (in about an hour) in a stove, and
in which it is afterwards carried to the tub P. Fig. 166 exhibits a view of
the trundle, cross, &c. with a section of the tub. Fig. 167 is a birds-eye view
of the cross and tub, with the upper ends of the triangular beaters. This tub
P will contain about 18 rubbi (about 19 bushels) of flour, which is carried
to it in barrels the leaven is then carried to it in the box or trough, and
:

when the whole is tempered with a proper quantity of warm water, the
men work in the wheel till the dough is properly and completely kneaded.
In general a quarter of an hour is sufficient to make very good dough ; but
an experienced baker, who superintends, determines that the operation
be continued a few minutes more or less, according to circumstances.
shall

The measures in the preceding description are given in

Genoese palms^ each of which is very nearly equal to 9.85
of our inches. The machinery may be varied in its construc-
tion according to circumstances, and the energy of the first
mover much better applied than by men walking in a common
wheel.
In November, 1811, a patent was granted to Mr. Joseph
Baker, navy contractor, for a method of kneading dough by
means of machinery. The invention consists in having an
upright shaft, turning on a pivot, fixed in tlie centre of a
circular trough, so that the dough placed in such trough may
be kneaded by a stone or iron roller, on its edge, passing
over it. in a rotatory motion, being fixed at a due distance by
an horizontal bar or axle to the shaft, which is to be turned
by means of one or more other horizontal bars likewise fixed
thereto, and worked like a capstan by a proportionate number
of bipeds or quadrupeds, such horizontal bars having small
shares fixed to them, so as to run in the trough, and, acting
like a plough, cause the dough to present fresh surfaces for
each successive revolution.
Independent of the methods above quoted, many others
might easily be adapted, to do away with the filthy practice
to which we have alluded.
 164 THE OPERATIVE MECHANIC

THE STEAM-ENGINE.
The most prominent feature in modern discovery is tlie
steam-engine, which has, with much propriety, been deno-
minated the noblest monument of human ingenuity. The
Marquis of Worcester, who lived in the reign of Charles II.,
is entii^led to the honour of having first directed the attention
of mankind to the expansive force of steam when used in a
close vessel: but in the book published by him in 1663, he is
not sufficiently explicit or intelligible, for us to determine
what kind of apparatus, or combination of machinery, was
used by him for the guidance of its powers. It is however
but reasonable to suppose, notwithstanding the vagueness of
his expressions, that it was principally owing to the direction
his observations gave to the minds of others that steam began
to be used as a first mover of machinery.
When water is exposed to the action of heat, it expands
and assumes the gaseous state called steam. When it is
confined in a close vessel, and heat is applied to it, the
quality of expansion is exerted to a powerful extent j and as
the space between the top of the water and the top of the
vessel is filled with atmospheric air, the first portion of the
power, exerted by the expansion of the steam, is directed
towards the displacing of that atmosphere from the situation
which its weight had assigned it, and, consequently, such
portion of the direct action of the expansive force of steam
is to be deducted from its disposable power. Tliis portion
of power is, however, ultimately available. For as by a
reduction of temperature steam reassumes the state of water,
leaving the space which it had occupied again void, the
atmosphere which it had displaced returns to its former
situation, exerting a force, so to do, exactly tantamount to
that which the steam had exerted to displace it. This force
may be termed the consequent power of steam. The direct-
ing and controlling of these powers, so that they may be
applied to the purpose of creating equable motion, is the
object attained almost to perfection in the steam-engine: and
it is the more accurate control, the more advantageous
application, and the more economic production of these
powers, that have been aimed at in its various modifications.
For more perfectly illustrating the mode in which steam operates we will
suppose the vessel, represented at fig. 168, to be filled with water up to
the line A, and the space E occupied with air, and having a plug or piston
fitting it at C, and an aperture at D; now if the aperture I) be closed, and
 AND MACHINIST. 165

heat applied to the water, as at F, steam will be generated, and by its

expansive force will raise the piston C upwards ; then if the heat be w'ith-
drawn and the vessel suddenly cooled, condeusatioii will take place ; the
steam, reassuming the form of water, will again occupy the space below
the lineA, and the piston C will return to its place. In this experiment
the expansive force of the steam compressed the air in the space E, and
forced the plug C upwards, we will suppose, to H
; but C, in travelling to

H, displaced so much of the atmosphere as occupied the tube from C to H ;

consequently, theportion so displaced will seek to resume its natural

position, and when the force of the steam is withdrawn by condensation,
the weight of that portion of the atmosphere will again return the plug C
to its place ; by which, it is obvious, that the raising of the plug w'as the
direct action of the steam, and the returning its consequent action, or
the action of the atmosphere in consequence of its having been displaced
by the force of the steam.
Again, if we suppose the plug to be in its first situation, as at C, and w'e
open the aperture at D, and apply heat, the steam will rise into the space
K, and expel the air through the aperture D, w'hich being closed, and
condensation caused, the space E will be left a vacuum, and the atmo-
sphere seeking to occupy that space will force the plug C down to the line
A ; here
the movement of the plug C w^as solely caused by the atmosphere
exerting itself to regain the position whence it had been expelled by the
force of the steam through D, and this eft'ect is performed by the conse-
quent power of steam alone.
It has been found by experiments, that the pressure of the atmosphere is
equal to about 14 pounds weight upon every square inch, so that sup-
posing the superficies of the aperture of the vessel, fig. 168, to contain one
square inch, the power exerted by the steam in raising C to II will be
tantamount to raising 14 pounds weight that height, together with the
power necessary to overcome the friction and w^eight of the piston C, in
the cylinder; and, that the power exerted by the steam in expelling the
atmosphere from the space E, and obtaining its consequent pressure to the
raising of 14 pounds from A to C ; and that the disposable power, obtained
by the return of the piston from H, will, in the first instance, be equal to the
raising of 14 pounds weight from C to H, less the amount of the friction of the
piston C ; and, in the second, will be equal to the raising of 1 4 pounds weight
from C to A, less the amount of the friction as before. In both these instances
the expansive or direct force of the steam has only been considered as equal
to the displacing of the atmosphere, or what will be equal to 14 pounds
pressure on each superficial inch ; but if the piston C be loaded with any
weight, the steam will, if urged with sufficient heat, raise it, always premising
that the vessel is strong enough to resist the increased pressure. Suppose
C tobe loaded with 10 pounds of weight, the steam must be urged until its
pressure is equal to 24 pounds, 10 pounds more, 14 pounds the pressure
of the atmosphere on each square inch, and the resulting disposable force
will be equal to 24 pounds more, the weight of C, less its friction return-
ing to the place from where C was raised ; so that, in this case, the pressure
on the internal sides of the vessel, tending to burst it, will be equal to
10 pounds per square inch of the internal superficies, the remaining
14 pounds being counteracted by the pressure of the atmosphere on the
external surface, which is equal to 14 pounds of the internal pressure. By
this, it is evident, that the direct force of steam may be increased without
limits, whereas the resulting force or pressure of the atmosphere is mani-
festly bounded to 14 or 15 pounds qn the square inch according as its
density varies.
 THE OPERATIVE MECHANIC
IVusting from this explaiiiition that even those who are
miacqiiainted with matters of this nature will clearly compre-
]';end the manner in which the expansive force of steam
operates, we sluill proceed to explain the different mechanical
combinations which have been formed to render this power
subservient lo oiir will premising that what we have hereto-
:

fore called the consequent power of steam wdll, in future, be

considered the pressure of the atmosphere, which in fact
it is, having adopted the other term in the introductory
explciiiation, in order more clearly to impress on the mind,
that the expansive force of steam is actually the only originator
of power in this machine.
The first apparatus with which we ?n*e acquainted, con-
structed for the purpose of employing steam as power to act
in a close vessel, was invented by a Captain Savary, for
which, in the year 1698, he obtained a patent. The form of
it, as invented by him, is represented in fig. 169 .

:.iclose boiler, placed on a furnace, and of sufficient strength to resist

considerable pressure; B another vessel strongly constructed ; cc a pipe with
a cock in it at ?, by means of which a communication can be made from a to B
at pleasure; c a pipe proceeding downwards into a well or other reservoir of
water; ff another pipe proceeding from B to a reservoir placed above;
h k is a pipe communicating from B to the pipe //, and having a cock in
it at k to allow of, or cut oft, such cotumunication ; m is a valve capable of

closing the pipe e by pressure from above, and of opening it by pressure

from below ; I a similar valve fitted to the pipe /y, and capable of being
acted upon in a similar manner. If the boiler a be filled with water to the
dotted line, and heat applied by means of the furnace, the steam will rise
in tlie boiler, mid, passing through the pipe c c, fill the vessel B, and pass
up the pipey/; the valve wbeing shut by the expansive force of the steam
pressing upon it ; if the cock i be now shut and the steam in the vessel B
condensed, by throwing cold water upon its outer surface, the atmosphere
pressing on the valve m will close it, and the interior of the vessel B remain
a vacuum, and the water in the reservoir to which the pipe e passes will be
forced by the external pressure of the atmosphere into the vessel B up to
the dotted line, which is supposed to be about 26 feet from the surface
of the v/ater in tlie reservoir, being the length of a column of water, which,
faking into account that the vacuum thus formed is not quite perfect, is
equal to the pressure that will be exerted by the atmosphere. If the cock
i be opened again, and the steam allowed to press on the surface of the
water, in B, it will close the valve m, and cause the water to ascend the
pipe ff, through the valve I, to the upper reservoir ; and when the cock i
is again shut, and the steam in B again caused to condense, the operation

will be repejfied, and the weight of the water in the pipe yywill close the
valve I, and cause the vessel B to be filled by e as before.
Such was tlie construction and mode of operating with the first apparatus
tnade by Captain Savary. But he, finding it inconvenient to cause con-
xlcnsation by means of throwing cold water upon the outer surface, introduced
the pipe h h into B, which, by opening the cock k, allowed some portion of
ihe svatcr to pass fiom the pipe ff, which was always full after the first
;;lrukc, and thereby cause condensation more quickly to ensue.
 AND MACHINIST. 1G7
The trial or gauge cocks o, q, were also contrived by Captain Savary, in
order to ascertain the height of the water in the boiler. If the surface of
the water is above the lower ends of the cocks, and the cocks be opened,
water will issue from them; if below, steam. But if the water is at its
proper level, that is to say, if the surface of the water be in the inter-
mediate space between the ends of the cocks q and n o, water will issue
from the former, and steam from the latter. This knowledge was neces-
sary to be obtained ; for should the surface of the water exceed the height
of tlie cocks 0, there will not be room for a sufficiency of steam to remain
in store for continued operation.

The application of this engine was confined to the raising

of water to small heights, as operated only by atmospheric
it

pressure ; in deep mines it w^as found not to be effective. Tak-

ing into consideration, however, the then imperfect state of
knowledge, so far as regarded steam as a first mover, the
inventor is entitled to no inconsiderable degree of praise for
this specimen of his ingenuity. The greatest objection to
this mode is, the great waste of steam, and consequent
unnecessary expenditure of fuel, arising from the condensa-
tion being effected by allowing cold water to come into
contact with the steam in the vessel B.
At the time when the existence of this engine was first
made known to the public, tlie amazing power of steam,
which it so plainly demonstrated, began very deservedly to
obtain the attention of ingenious men; and disputes for the
honour of the discovery took place, the English ascribing it
to the Marquis of Worcester, the French to Papin.
Without entering into the minutiae of this contest, it will
be sufficient for us to trace progressively the grand improve-
ments that have taken place in the steam-engine in this
country: though not forgetting to mention the accessary
improvements derived from foreign aid. Of this latter is the
safety valve, an instrument, though in itself simple, of such
vast importance, that to it may be attributed the general
introduction, and consequent improvement, of the steam-engine
to its present existing state of perfection. It was contrived
by Dr. Papin, wdio, at the time of Captain Savarys invention,
was making experiments on the power of steam at high
temperatures, for the purpose of dissolving bodies. It con-
sists merely of an aperture of a specific dimension, suppose,
for instance, one square inch, in or communicating with any
close boiler, and a valve properly fitted in that aperture, such
valve being on the outside loaded to any extent considered
necessary to resist the force of the steam until it has
acquired a certain degree of power, computed to be what the
boiler is perfectly capable of sustaining without the chance of
bursting. Now it is manifest, until the pressure of the steam
 168 THE OPERATfVE MECHANIC
Avithin has exerted itself so far as to raise such weight, the
internal pressure per square inch, tending to burst the boiler,
does not exceed the amount of such weight, so that, by this
means, an estimate of the chances of such an occurrence
taking place can easily be made.
The contrivance by Dr. Papin, of placing a piece of wood
to float upon the surface of the water, though an improve-
ment in this stage of the engine, is now of no importance:
but it is not improbable, that this flrst suggesl*ed the idea of
a close fitted piston working in a cylinder, which constituted
the most valuable part in the next step of advancement.
This Avas effected by an ironmonger or smith of the name of
NeAvcomen, and a glazier of the name of Cauly, residing at
Dartmouth, in Devonshire, Avho were contented to share the
profits of the invention with Savary, and jointly with him
obtained a patent for it in the year 1705.
This engine, generally called Newcomens engine, was the
first that had a piston fitted to work in a cylinder, which,
together with the beam, gave to the construction of the
machine a new character.
An engine upon this construction is represented in fig, 170, where A is
a boiler placed upon a furnace ; B, a cylinder, bored true, and having the
piston c fitted to work easily therein ; q, a cock in the pipe forming a com-
munication from the boiler to the lower part of the cylinder ; S, a safety
valve loaded by the weight at the extremity of the lever r pressing upon
the upright pin of the valve at , d d, 2i pipe leading from the cylinder B
to the reservoir i, with the cock e for opening and closing the connection;

//, another pipe leading also from the cylinder to the reservoir h, having a
valve at the lower extremity, opening outwards, for the purpose of allowing
any accumulation of condensed water in the cylinder to run off, and
through which the air may be ejected by the steam when filling B; LL is
a beam, supported upon the wall K K, and capable of vibrating upon the
centre IJ ; a is the rod of the piston, fastened to the curved end of the beam
by a chain ; m m the rod of the pump, fixed to the beam in a manner
similar to the piston rod; the pump is placed in the well or pit a;, with
the weights o o hanging upon the pump rods sufficient to counter-
balance the piston and rod on the other end of the beam, and keep it raised
to the top of the cylinder ; is a pipe leading from the pump in the well

to supply the cistern i.

Supposing the piston c to be in the situation cb near the top of the
cylinder, and the steam in the boiler to be urged by fire in the furnace, and
the cock q to be open, the cylinder B will become filled with steam, and
the air that is in it be expelled by the pipe//, and through the clack-valve
at the end, which, from the noise made by such expulsion is called the
snifting-clack. If the cock q be closed, and that at e opened, water will
rush from the reservoir i into the cylinder, and by causing an immediate
condensation of the steam create a vacuum, so that the pressure of the
atmosphere will operate upon and force down the piston c to the bottom
of the cylinder, and cause the other end of the beam L to rise as much as
that end falls, which makes one stroke of the pump-rods. If the cock e be
pow closed, and q opened, gleam will force against the bottom of c, and by
 'v^TE AM( !EF(B]L^:E
FI. 19.
From Ui8 to 17. ?

168 E

170

>
 AND MACHINIST. 169
overcoming the pressure oi ihe atmosphere again raise it to its original
position ;
and q being again closed, and e opened, the performance of a
similar operation will be effected.
The advantage sought in the construction of this sort of engine was
obtained, namely, that of not being required to use steam of greater
pressure than the atmosphere, which was the case in Savarys engine, when
the height the water was to be raised by the pipe f fig. 169, exceeded

more than about 32 feet. In Newcomens engine, the weight o o balances

the piston c, and the exertion of the steam is never required to be more than
about 14 pounds to the superficial inch; w^hilst the introduction of the
beam affords a movement applicable to the working of pumps, by which
water can be raised to any required height.
The cocks q and e were opened by the hand of an attendant until a boy
of the name of Potter, who was intrusted with the management of them,
to save himself the labour and attention which they required, ingeniously
contrived to attach a piece of string to the levers of the cocks, and to the
beam L L, in such a manner, as to procure by its movement their being
opened and shut at the proper periods. It was this gave the idea for the
construction of that part of the present engine called hand-geer.

The next person who made any considerable improvement

in the steam-engine was Mr. Henry Beighton, of Newcastle,
who invented the part called the plug-tree, for opening and
shutting the valves, which we shall describe in a more
advanced part of the work he also adopted a force-pump, to
:

supply the deficiency of water in the boiler caused by the

expenditure in the production of steam. This engine, called
Beighton s fire-engine^ was much used for nearly half a
century \ and the attention of engineers was directed more
towards the economizing of fuel, than the further improve-
ment of the engine.
At length, however, it began to be' perceived, that the
attainment of a rotatory motion would open an extensive
field for the application of its powers to various mechanical
purposes ; and, accordingly, we find the attention of engineers
most actively engaged in endeavouring to effect so desirable
an object, which was eventually accomplished by Mr. Matthew
Washbrough, of Bristol, who, in the year 177^, obtained a
patent for the application of the crank. Though this is by
far the best application that has been yet applied, as is
evident from its now almost universal adoption, it was for
some time superseded by the sun and planet wheels intro-
duced by Messrs. Boulton and Watt.
The sun and planet wheels are represented in fig. 171. A represents the
end of the beam, to which is affixed, by a movable centre at F, the rod B,
called the connecting rod, upon the lower end of which is immovably fixed
the wheel C ; D is a cog-wheel, fixed upon the axis of the fly-wheel
G G G G, and capable of revolving with it. When the beam A passes
downwards, the wheel C changes from its position at C to C\ and I's cogs,
acting upon those of the wheel D, cause that, and the fly-whes! to wliirh
170 THE '>PERATIVE MECHANIC
it attached, to perform that portion of a revolution round its axis. The
is

wheel C, from the manner in which it is suspended, tends always to press

against (3 in its downward and upward motions. When C is in the position
of C^, the wheel D, from the velocity it has acquired by its connection with
tlic fly-vdieel, causes it to pass under the centre of D, and the beam begin-
ning immediately to ascend, operates by C on the other side of D, giving it
another portion of impulse towards a continuous motion whilst passing
from to and when it arrives at C it will be impelled over the centre-
DD by the velocity wliich its own action had given the fly-wheel.
The crank and fly-wheel invented by Mr. Matthew Washbrough is shown
in fig. 172. A and B represent the same 171, but the lower
parts as in fig.
end of B is, C
and is capable of
in this case, attached to the crank at c^,
revolving round the centre E; the other end of the crank is attached to the
fly-wheel DDD
D, so that both that and the fly-wheel are capable of
revolving round the centre E. When the beam A
is depressed, it com-

municates motion to the crank and fly-wheel to which it is attached, and

when it arrives at H, the to pass under
velocity of the fly-wheel causes it

the centre E, and the beam beginning immediately to ascend, again com-
municates motion to the fly-wheel.

The length of the connecting rod B should be such that

when the beam A is in an horizontal position, the crank will
likewise be the same; and when the crank is in the position
as at G, its length, together with the length of the crank,
such as to permit the other end of the beam. A, to descend
until the piston which is attached to it is at the bottom of
the cylinder; and the length of these and the cylinder such,
that when the crank is in the position H, the piston shall be
at the top of the cylinder. This method not only affords a
rotative motion, but determines the length of the stroke
which the piston may be required to perform, to an exactness
that is of great importance ; for prior to its introduction, the
forcible striking of the piston against the top and bottom of
the cylinder, which was attended with injurious effects, was'
|j

an occurrence by no means unfrequent, and which the sun

and planet wheels were in no way calculated to remedy.
Watt, a native of Glasgow, having his attention ac-
cidentally directed to the construction of the steam-engine,
discovered that water, when confined in a close vessel, and^
heated considerably beyond the boiling temperature, would,'!
when the steam was permitted to escape, cool rapidly down
to the boiling point, which suggested an idea, that the I
amount of steam issuing from any vessel was simply in pro- |

portion to the amount of heat applied, and that the economiz-
ing of fuel could only be obtained by the economizing of
steam. Mr. Watt also noticed the great change which took place
in tlie temperature of the cylinder when the cold water was
injected to condense the steam; and concluded, that as the
coldness of the cylinder would remain after the necessary con-
 ANL> mac Hi NIST. 17 *

:lensation had been effected, a wasteful condensation of the

lewly introduced steam must take place. By experiment he
blind, that the quantity of steam thus wasted was no less than
hrice the contents of the cylinder, or three times the quan-
;ity which was required for producing the effect sought. The
nodes to which he had recourse to remedy this defect were
irst, the substitution of a wooden cylinder, which, upon
repeated trials, he was compelled to abandon, on account of
.he roughness produced by wet and the changes of temper-
iture ; secondly, the enclosing of the cylinder with wood, and
filling the intermediate space with powdered charcoal ; which

ifterwards was superseded by the introduction of an extra

cylinder, that enclosed the working cylinder, and permitted
5team to flow round it, which maintained it at a regular tem-
perature. The outer cylinder is termed a jacket, and is now
ised with advantage.
In the year 1J63, Mr. Watt made the grand improvement
)f effecting the condensation in a separate vessel, communi-

:ating only by a pipe to the cylinder, termed the condenser.

la fig. 178,A is the lower part of the cylinder; B the condenser ; C the
duction pipe, or pipe of communication between the cylinder and condenser,
apable of being opened or closed by the cock c ; and DD a chamber of cold
7ater, in which the condenser B is immersed. ^\^len the cock c is
pened, the steam, by its elastic force, rushes into B, where it is condensed
nd the space it has left in the cylinder allows a new supply of steam to be
enerated, which, by the opening of the cock c, also passes into B, and is
imilarly condensed. The condensing of the steam necessarily accumulates
/ater in B, and reduces the eapacity of the condenser; to remedy which,
Ir. Wat-t introduced a small pump, worked by the engine, to withdraw the

xtra water, as also the air, which in some degree hindered the perfectness
f the vacuum : he named it the air-pump. He also found it expedient to
ermit a small stream of water to run from the chamber DD, by means of a
ock, which could regulate the supply according to the temperature of the
/ater in D, or the required rapidity of the condensation. The cistern in
/hich the condenser is placed is called the cold-water cistern it is con-
nually being supplied with fresh water from a pump connected with a
.-ell or pit, and the overplus is discharged by a spout into a dram. The
,ot water drawn from the condenser by the air-pump is delivered into
nother cistern, termed the hot-ivater cistern.
These parts are represented in fig. 174, where their distribution is such as
exhibit them conveniently without taking into view their construction in
'i

ny particular engine, as their form and relative position is of no import-

nce, and is arbitrarily varied as the different builders think fit, or as con-
eniency or circumstances may in many cases require. A is the cylinder ;
)the condenser; C the air-pump; EE the cold-water cistern; F the cold-
'ater pump for supplying the same SS the steam pipe from the boiler
;
1 the eduction pipe from the cylinder to the condenser
; OO the hot-water
istern ; N the injection cock for allowing a small stream of water to flow
ato B ; P the hot -water pump, which forces a sufficiency of water from the
ot-water cistern through the pipe ij- to keep up the supply in the boiler
172 THE OPERATIVE MECHANIC
t tt are pump rods, fixed to the beam and worked by its motion ; 5 is a
t *

suction pipe ; and m

the foot-valve. The pipe I and the valve V, opening
upwards, are for the purpose of permitting the steam to pass through to
expel the atmosphere from the condenser, called a blow-valve, and then by
its own condensation to leave a vacuum on the starting of the engine.
A communication is made from the condenser by a pipe to the upper part
of a tube standing in a basin of mercury. The amount of mercury in the
tube will indicate the perfectness of the vacuum in the condenser, by ex-
hibiting the height at which it is supported by the pressure of the atmosphere.
If the vacuum is perfect, the mercury will stand from 28 to 31 inches.

The only difference between the working of this engine and

those already described is, that the pipe HH, instead of being
an injection pipe for the admission of cold water to the cylin-
der, merely leads off the steam to the condenser B, therefore,
when condensation is to be effected, the cock h is opened to
admit the steam from the cylinder into B, there to become
condensed, whilst the continued action of the pump C main-
tains a vacuum in B, by drawing off the condensed water and
the air. The cold-water pump F keeps up an abundant
supply in the cistern E E, and the superplus is discharged at
W ;
thus maintaining a depression of temperature sufficient
to procure condensation in B.
Such was the importance of this alteration in the mode of
construction^ that one half the quantity of fuel consumed by
an engine of the former construction was saved. Still, how-
ever, the engine was not complete ; the piston was required to
have water kept upon its upper surface to keep it air-tight, and
as this, in the descent, cooled the cylinder considerably, it
was, as is evident from what has been already stated, when
speaking of the former mode of injecting cold water, pro-
ductive of a loss, to which Mr. Watt turned his serious
attention, and eventually succeeded in remedying the evil.
The next construction of the engine is what is now called
the single acting engine, and as the improvement con-
sisted merely in the c} liiider, a diagram of that will be sufficient
to make it clearly understood. Finding, as has been stated,
the disadvantages attending the open-ended cylinder, Mr,
Watt conceived the idea of closing the top of the cylinder,
and of causing tlie piston-rod to work through a close collar
stuffed with hemp and grease and instead of making use of
;

water to procure tlie piston working air-tight, of using oil or

fat as a substitute 5 and instead of causing it to descend by the
pressure of the atmosphere, of employing steam of an ex-
pansive force equal to that pressure.
In reference to fig. 175, A is the cylinder; B the piston; CC the stuffing-
bpx filled with hemp moistened with tallow, having its cap screwed firmly
 AND MACHINIST. 1 73
down by two screws, so as to form a steam-tight joint round the piston-rod.
The piston-rod being turned true and polished, is capable of working up
and down through the steam-tight joint. D is the steam pipe leading from

the boiler; Kthe eduction pipe leading to the condenser; Hand I are two
valves upon the rod L, which passes through stuffing-boxes, or steam-tight
joints, at m n. While raising and lowering the rod L, the valves H and I
open or close their respective apertures D and K. ^ is a valve which affords,
when open, a communication between the top and bottom of the cylinder
through the pipe P E, and from thence through O, Its spindle, which is
hollow, works in a steam-tight collar at N, and has the rod L passing
through it, likewise steam-tight, in such a manner, that the rod L, with its
valves, may be moved independent of the valve g, or the valve g independ-
ent of the rod L. If the valves are placed as represented, I and H open,
and g shut, and the steam be permitted to come from the boiler through D,
it will pass through II, and enter the top of the cylinder at P, depressing the

piston B by its elastic force, whilst the lower part of the cylinder is open
through O and K
to the condenser. When the piston is depressed to B^,
the rod L must be moved downwards, and the valves II and I closed, and
tlie valve
g opened, that the steam, by its elastic force, may pass through
P E and the valve g, and act equally upon the lower as well as the upper
surface of the piston ; the piston, therefore, being in an unbiassed state, as
regards the pressure, will again be raised to its original situation by the
counterpoise weights acting at the other end of the beam, and the steam will
pass from above to below the piston. When it has arrived at that place,
the valves may be again put in their first position, as represented in the
drawing, when that at I, being open, affords a communication through OK
for the steam, which now occupies the cylinder below the piston, to pass to
the condenser, whilst fresh steam forces through D upon the upper surface
3f the piston tantamount to the pressure of the atmosphere, and produces an
effect fully equal to that obtained from an atmospheric engine.

In the engine just described, the beam was drawn down by

the pressure of the steam upon the top of the piston, and
when the steam had passed into the condenser, was raised by
counterpoise weights placed at its further end by which it
;

is manifest, that the action of an engine of this construction

must be somewhat irregular, for whilst the piston is descend-

ing the steam must act upon it to an amount capable of raising
the counterpoise weights, and of likewise doing the work put
upon it ; but when the piston is rising, the actual fall of the
counterpoise weights is the only amount of power which the
engine is supplying, and from which is to be deducted the
friction and weight of the piston. Such engines, therefore,
when a continuous and equable force is required, are not so
advantageous as those where the rising and depressing of the
piston are alike performed by the same means and the same
extent of force. This desirable end was accomplished by
Mr. Watt in the construction of the double-acting engine,*
which we shall next notice, in contradistinction to the one
that last claimed our attention, and which is now seldom used
for any other purpose than that of pumping water
174 Tin: OlERATIVF. MECHANiri

The double-acting engine is formed in such a manner that

whilst tlie steam is pressing on one side of the piston, the
cylinder on the other side is ahvays open to the condenser,
so that a vacuum exists on the opposite side to that on which
the pressure is exerted. This effect is produced by several
modes of distributing various pipes, or valves, or cocks. The
simplest in its construction is the four-way cock.

Fig. 176. A is ;
B the piston; C the pipe communicating
the cylinder
with the boiler; / m
a communication with the condenser; I K and Hg
communicate to the top and bottom of the cylinder ; C and D are two dif-
ferent passages through the plug of a cock, (the plug of the cock is shaded
for distinction,) capable of being turned by means of its handle m'. When
the cock is as now represented, the steam from C passes through Dalong

g to beneath the piston, whilst there will be a C* communication

II, and direct
w'ith the condenser from above the piston through K I F M. When the
cock is turned in the position as represented in fig. 177, both these com-
munications will be inverted by the different dispositions of their openings.
The opening e in the plug will then afford a communication from the steam
pipe C to I, leading to the upper part of the cylinder; and the opening
will permit a communication from H, leading from the lower part of the
cylinder to M, the eduction pipe, leading to the condenser; thus perfecting
by its motion the different changes of communication, so that the steam is
always made to act on the one side of the piston, whilst the vacuum is
effected on the other. The effect on the piston in ascending or descending
is equal, and the power is much more regular and convenient for application
to rotative motion.

Illthe single and the double engine the pressure of the

atmosphere is not used ; but the direct force of the steam

which, in the old engines, went to expel the atmosphere, and

then by its own condensation to leave a vacuum, is first re-
sorted to, and its condensation leaves a vacuum to assist the
action of the next supply. Consequently the single-acting
engine has not gained more power than the atmospheric
engine in proportion to the steam used, otherwise than by
what is saved through keeping the cylinder warm ; and the
double-acting engine is only a mode of using the steam in a
more continuous and unbroken manner, taking just twice the
(piantity of steam, and exerting twice the power of the single-
acting engine.
Other modes for attaining this change of communication,
so as to produce the double action, are adopted as circum-
stances may demand. The one last described, called the
four- way cock, was found not to answer in large engines, in-
asmuch as plugs of sufficient dimensions to afford steam-
way enough caused so much friction in their collars, that it
was an expenditure of considerable power to turn them ; the
method, therefore, most usually adopted in engines of large
 STEAM EPfG.l[NE n.zo
*
From 174 to 18Z

1/
6 j
iSi

*
182

jK II
 AND MACHINIST. 175
dimensions is, a system of valves, opened and shut at tlie
proper periods by levers.
Theinternal arrangement of such a system is shown at fig. 173, where C
is a pipe leading from the boiler for the conveyance of steam ; and DK a
pipe leading to L the condenser ; o p, m
n, are two boxes, each divided in-
ternally into three compartments, in which are the valves efgh, capable
of opening upwards. From the centre compartment in each of the boxes
above and below there is a communication, at a and h, with the top and
bottom of the cylinder. The steam is conveyed along the pipe C into the
upper chamber of the upper box, and by means of the pipe i passes through
it and proceeds to the upper chamber of the lower box, and the pipe KD
affords a communication from each of the lower chambers to the con-
denser L.
If the valve h be opened, there will be a communication from the lower
part of the cylinder through the aperture 6 and pipe K
into the condenser
L; and if, at the same instant, the valve e be opened, the steam will be ad-
mitted through C into the centre chamber of the upper box, and through
the aperture a into the upper part of the cylinder ; consequently the steam
will be admitted to the upper part ot the cylinder while the lower part has
communication with the condenser, and the piston be forced downwards.
If these valves be closed, and the valves
g opened, the steam will have
f
access through C h the valve and aperture b, to the lower part of the
cylinder, whilst there will be a communication from the top of the cylinder
through the aperture a, the valve f, and the pipe K
D, to the condenser, so
that the piston will then be forced upwards.

This mode of effecting the changes of communication,

though by no means so simple as that of the four-way
cock, has an advantage over it that gives it a decided
preference. For as the movements of the valves are inde-
pendent of each other, the shutting off of the steam, and of
the communication with the condenser, can, if desired, be
effected at different periods, so that the steam may be allowed
to act upon the piston only during one half of the stroke,
which was discovered by Mr. Watt to effect a saving in
steam. Besides this advantage, which can, if required, be
effected in other engines by simple contrivances, the valve
geer is superior from its lightness, when compared to
slides or cocks, adapted to large engines.
In small engines, these advantages, not being of so much
importance, are more than counterbalanced by the simplicity
obtained by other modes.
The first that we shall
notice was invented by Mr. Murray, of Leeds, and
is represented in 179, where a section of this apparatus, termed the
fig.
slide valve, is shown. A
is the steam pipe from the boiler ; B B B R a
close chamber, in which the interior chamber, C C, is capable of sliding
upwards and downwards by means of a rod, D
D, which passes through a
steam-tight box at E. GG
is a passage from the chamber B B B B to the
upper part of the cylinder ; HH
to the lower part of the cylinder ; and 1
to the condenser. Now when the chamber C C is placed as is represented,
it is plain, that the steam has access to the top of the cylinder, and that a
 l/fi THK OPERATIVE MBCIIAXIC
commun:c:itioii exists l)y II II aiul 1 I to tlie condenser. By moving C C
up wards, tlic communication would be reversed, tliat is, G(t from tlie top of
the cylinder would communicate by I I to the condenser, and li H admit
steam" into the lower part of the cylinder. By the movement of CC up-
wards and downwards, the alternating etfect is produced.
Messrs. Boulton and Watt introduced another very neat and
useful inode of distributing the steam in small engines, deno-
minated D valves, on account of the shape they present when
seen in atop view.
Fig. 130. A Band C D represent the two D valves capable of moving
upwards and downwards by means of the spindle E. Their faces at A and
C are made to fit steam-tight upon the inside of the box, and the back part
at B and D, as shown at D, is semicircular, to admit of its being packed with
hemp in the same manner as the piston. G and II are communications to
tlie top and bottom of the cylinder ; I is the steam way in the boiler, which,

in some engines, comes from the jacket of the cylinder; and K is the educ-
tion pipe, which carries the steam to the condenser.
Now^ if the rod E be moved upwards until the lower surface of A B is above
the aperture II, the lower surface of C D will be above the aperture G,
consequently the steam from I will pass into the cylinder at H, and the steam
from the cylinder will pass through G and N K into the condenser. Again,
if the upper surface, A B, be below H, C D will be below G, and the steam
will pass through the aperture O, down a pipe behind M K, through P,
and, by means of G, will have access to the bottom of the cylinder, whilst a
communication will be effected by M K and through H, from the top of tlie
cylinder with the condenser. The rod E
passes through steam-tight joints,^
at top and bottom, into boxes.
Fig. 181 represents another manner of forming valves upon this principle,
in which a flat surface is introduced at the back, and the packing is effected
by having the faces, backs, and sides of the valves made of brass, and
fitted to plates of the same material, which can be screwed against the
valves as they w'ear. The slides or moving parts are shadowed. The po-
sition in w'hich they now are will admit the steam to pass from I through
II, and the condensation to be effected by passing from G through N to K ;

but if moved downwards until the aperture C is opposite G,

the slides be
the upper slide wdll be below H, and the steam will pass through P into
tlio cylinder by means of G, and exhaustion will take place from II through
I\I to K,
Fig. 182 a combination of what are called concentric valves.
is Their
distribution exactly similar to those already explained.
is The spindlesCC
of the lower valves, in both the top and bottom boxes, pass through the
spindles of the upper valves, which are pipes. Tliis mode of constructing
the valves was invented by Mr. Murray. They are capable of being moved
in many ways ; but the one most generally adopted is represented in the
figure, where the rods d e, attached to the cross-levers that move on the
centres G G G G, act upon the valves. Thus the rod c, by moving down-
wards, will raise the solid or the lower spindle valve of the lower box, which
opens to the condenser, and the hollow spindle the upper valve of the upper
box, which admits steam to the top of the cylinder, while the rod d acts
upon the other two, and changes the course of the steam and exhaustion, as
before shown.

Conceiving that we have sufficiently explained the several

modes of guiding the immediate power of steam, we shall in
 AND MACHINIST. 177

the next place proceed to examine into the construction of

the piston.
A section of the piston most commonly used in condensing engines is ex-
hibited in fig. 183. The lower face of the piston is fixed to the rod rfrf, and
the upper face is capable of being raised up upon the rod d. Hemp
moistened with tallow, called packing, is introduced round the interstice at
C E, which, when the upper plate DD is screwed down by the screw at

E E, forced outwards against the sides of the cylinder, so as to render it

is
perfectly steam-tight. As it wears by the friction against the cylinder
more must be forced out by tightening the screws; and when entirely worn,
the plate d d must be raised and the piston fresh packed.
This construction of the piston answers perfectly for condensing engines ;
but in high-pressure engines the hemp is destroyed so rapidly by the heat
and friction, that pistons formed entirely of metal have been introduced with
advantage.
Tlie top view of one kind of metallic piston is represented at fig. 184.
AAAA is a ring of brass divided into four equal disconnected portions,
resting upon the plate B B, which is affixed to the piston-rod d d, as seen in
fig. 185 ; the portions of the ring are forced outwards against the sides of

the cylinder by springs of any convenient form pressing from the piston-rod
D. A^, in fig. 185, represents a side view of a similar ring, similarly
divided. Its portions are placed upon the ring last described, so that the
divisions fall upon the centres of the other four pieces, and are forced
against the sides of the cylinder in like manner by springs, and the plate C C
is placed over the whole. The upper and lower sides of the plate and rings
are all carefully ground, so as to fit steam-tight. This form of piston,
though it has, in some cases, been used for a considerable time with advan-
tage, is, upon the whole, defective, as the rings near the interstices between
the segments, must open and allow the steam to gain access to the interior
where the springs lie, and from thence, through similar interstices, to the
other side of the piston.
A metallic piston of a better construction is shown at fig. 1 86, consisting
of six pieces of brass of the forms represented in the figure, byABC D E F.
ABC are circular, and are made to fit the inside of the cylinder,
against which they are forced by the wedge pieces D E F, which have
springs behind them. WhenABC wear so as to divide at the angles, the
wedge pieces protrude themselves against the cylinder, keeping the space
always filled. These pistons have, in some cases, been used for many years
without requiring alteration.

Having now duly considered the construction of the cylin-

der, or seat of motion, and the means of distributing the
operative power so as to produce a reverting rectilinear
action, we shall next proceed to' exhibit the manner in which
this action is transferred, so as to maintain its continuance.
The movement of a four-way cock may be accomplished by a plug-tree,
which is a perpendicular rod attached to the beam of the engine as repre-
sented in fig. 187. OPare two studs or pins placed at such a distance
from each other, that the upper one, O, shall force the handle N to the
situation of W, just as the piston shall have reached the lower part of the
cylinder, and the pin P is so placed that it shall carry the handle to its
original situation at the time when the piston is again to change its direc-
N
 IJS the operative mechanic
tion. But the plug-tree is now seldom used in engines that have a rotative
engines are mostly
motion; and where there is no rotative motion, the
single action, and arc applied only to the purpose
of pumping, in which
piston is descending.
the power is only required to be exerted whilst the

In engines for turning mill-work, where a rotatory motion

exists,the action is given to the spindle valves, sliding
valves, or whatever apparatus is used for the same object, by
means of a rod working from the axis of the fly-wheel by an
eccentric motion.
the fly-wheel
In 188, the small circle is supposed to be a section of
fig.
sliaft, B a circular piece on the shaft, round which the clips, or semi-
and
circular pieces, CC, are fastened, so that B can turn on them, therefore
when the revolving of the shaft A carries B to the situation of the dotted
circle B*, it is plain that it will have forced the rod in an horizontal direc-
tion the distance from the centre of A to Bh and when in the course of its
revolution it shall liave brought B to the situation B^, it will have moved it
a similar distance in a contrary direction, consequently the total amount of
the horizontal motion thus communicated to the rod DEE will be the amount
of tlie distance from B^ to B^. The horizontal is converted into a perpen-
dicular motion by the crank h g i raising and lowering the rod K, upon
wliich the slide box or D valves is fixed.
Tlie method moving the rods of concentric valves is represented in fig.
for
182*. E is the rod from the eccentric motion, which, by its backward and
forward motion, moves the ends //of a T piece, fastened on the centre G,
and causes them to move alternately upwards and downwards, opening
and shutting each pair of valves as before described.
Fig. 190 represents a mode, applicable to large engines, of moving either
U valves or slides from an eccentric. A B is an iron plate, capable of
vibrating upon its centre H ; F is a rod from the eccentric, moving the weight
C upon a roller over the surface of A B. The latch pieces D move upon
t\\ o pins, and are prevented falling forwards by the stops M N. The rod
of the valves, shown at <?, is attached by the lever P H to the shaft from the
centre H. Tire two stops, I and G, support A B in the two positions shown,
the one in the view, the other by the dotted lines. When the rod F moves,
it carries C towards A by the eccentric motion, and C, acting on the same,

raises the latch D, and permits the end A of A B to fall, whilst the end B,
in rising, latches itself at Dh shown in the dotted representation of A B. By
this motion II P, on the same axis H, is moved downwards, carrying
with it the rod E attached to the slides ; and the motion of C, instantly
changing towards F, acts upon the other latch and places the slides in
their former position.

As the beam of all engines vibrates upon a centre, of

course performs portions of a circle with each of its extremi-
it

ties and as the rod of the piston is required to move up and

;

down in a straight line, it cannot be attached to the end of

the beam. In single engines of the old construction, where
the action was a pull at both ends of the beam, (at the one
end by the weight of the pump-rod, and at the other by the
down stroke of the piston,) a chain was affixed to the upper
 AND MACHINIST. 179

part of each of the curved ends of the beam, and to the pump
and piston rods, as represented in fig. IJO, which answered
the required purpose ; but in double-acting engines, where
the piston-rod forces upwards as well as pulls, some other
mode of converting the action is required. The most perfect
yet introduced is the parallel motion, the principle of which
may be comprehended by referring to fig. 191.

Suppose A B to represent one end of a beam, vibrating on its centre at

A, the other end B will perform the arc C Ch and carry whatever is
attached to it in the direction of that arc ; then suppose another rod, G H,
of equal length to A B, vibrating on its centre G, the point in the connect-
ing piece, L II, will, by the vibrations of A B and H G, move upwards and
downwards in a perpendicular line. For so much as the curve from the
radius A B draws it towards A, so much will the curve of the radius II G
draw it towards G, and the movements, correcting each other, will cause I
to rise and fall in a perpendicular line.
A more simple mode, which answers very well in small engines, is repre-
sented in fig. 192. The sling piece attached to the end of the beam has a
pair of rollers, one on each side, which press on each side of the guiding
bars D D D D, and carry the piston, attached at C, in a perpendicular
line.

All steam-engines are proportioned to go at a settled

rate, and to make a certain number of strokes of the piston
per minute, which, reckoning the number of feet the piston
travels in its upward and downward motion in the cylinder,
has been by general agreement settled at 200 to 220 feet
per minute.
To obtain this regularity of action, it is manifest that a
regularity must be obtained in the amount of power that is to
produce the movement ; or, in other words, a regular amount
of elastic force must be exerted at each stroke of the piston.
This is somewhat difficult to accomplish, and depends much
upon keeping the fire, which generates the steam, of a uni-
form heat ; consequently the care of the fire should only be
intrusted to one who is well skilled in his business. There
are, however, contrivances, called governors, which greatly
assist in maintaining a regular action, and where very great
nicety is not required, they produce it to a sufficient extent.
The governor (which we have already described under the
article 0?z the Equalization of Motion in Mill-geering)
acts upon the principle of centrifugal force, and is applicable
only to engines that have a rotative motion.
The mode of applying the governor is by connecting it by
means of levers to a throttle valve, shown in fig, 193. A B
represents a section of the pipe that conveys the steam from
the boiler, having a small circular fan of iron, capable of being
N2
180 THE OPERATIVE MECHANIC
turned so as to be parallel with the line of the pipe, or
of lying across it in such a manner as to stop the com-
munication.
The governor is placed at any convenient part of the engine,
upon an upright spindle, and is driven either by a band or by
bevil-wheels, from the fly-wheel shaft. VVhen the fly-wheel
increases or decreases in velocity it transmits the same to the
governor, and causes the balls to fly from, or approach nearer
to, each other ; and the lever affixed to the collar of the
governor turns the handle C of the throttle valve, which
regulates the supply of steam, and produces regular motion.
In single-acting engines, which do not create rotative
motion, this sort of governor cannnot be applied, nor is it de-
cidedly adapted to the sort of regulation they want ; for as
tliey act only one way, and the steam being entirely shut olf at
the end of every stroke, it is a regulation of the amount of
power to be exerted at every interval which is sought, rather
than a continuous equable supply of steam.
This sort is most wanted in engines that supply towns with
water, as when the dififerent districts are being supplied, the
diversity of their magnitude and situation causes a consider-
able variation in the burden thrown upon the engine. In
engines used for this purpose there are two pieces of wood,
called spring-beams, placed across each end of the beam,
which, when the burden is lightened, and the engine makes
too long a stroke, strike, as they descend, the upper floor of
the engine-house and ring a bell, to warn the attendant that
steam must be shut off earlier, or that the upper tapit of the
plug-tree must be moved downwards. In engines of recent
construction, the spring-beams are made to strike a lever,
wliich either shuts oft the steam entirely, or opens a cock that
admits it into the cylinder in either case the movement of
:

the engine ceases.

The regulation of the plug-tree tapit is obtained by intro-
ducing a pipe from the water in the air-vessel to a small cylin-
der, having a working piston. The water from the air-vessel
forces against the under side of the piston and raises it and its
rod, and by that motion tlie tapit of the plug-tree is raised or
lowered as is required. This mode, from error in construc-
tion, or otherwise, has mostly proved inefficient when the
burden of the engine is liable to great and rapid fluctua-
tions.
Such is the general construction of engines now in use;
but there are many ingenious contrivances in boilers which
require special notice.
 AND MACHINIST. 181
Fig. 94 represents a boiler fitted up with all the appendages now
1
generally applied, and set in a furnace of a proper construction. Part of
the furnace is shown in a sectional view. B B B B the boiler, the operation
of which has been described. C, the steam-gauge, represented at large in
fig. 195. Its object is to ascertain the pressure acting in the boiler. It is
formed of a bent iron tube, at one end A communicating with the boiler,
and at the other end B open to the atmosphere. The tube is filled up to
C and D with mercury, and has a thin piece of stick, E, placed in the leg
B, which floats perpendicularly in the mercury at D. To the leg B is
appended a flat piece of brass, divided into inches, and numbered upwards,
to form a scale. The stick is made of such length that the top of it shall be
even with the first mark on the scale.

If the steam in the boiler presses against the mercury at

C, and raises the surface, D, one inch, (which will be indicated
by the end of the stick rising to 1 upon the scale,) it proves
that there is one half pound pressing per square inch against
the internal surface of the boiler, tending to burst itj for if
the section of the bore of the pipe was just one superficial
inch the pressure would be supporting one cubic inch of
mercury, which will be found to weigh near half a
pound; for every two inches rise, one pound
therefore
pressure may
be reckoned, and as condensing engines
seldom work with more than three or four pounds pressure
upon the inch, the scale need not be longer than .eight or
nine inches.

C* is a strong iron plate, covering a circular or oval hole of about 18

inches diameter, to admit a man into the boiler with a view to clean or
examine it.

D isthe steam pipe, containing the throttle valve E, to which the rod
from the governor is connected. F F are gauge cocks. I I is a feed pipe
which passes into the boiler and reaches very near to the bottom. II HH
II
the cistern, on the top of the feed pipe ; i i is a float, formed of stone, and
balanced so as to remain always on the surface of the water in the boiler.
By the raising and hilling of the water the float acts upon the lever K
by the wire P, which passes through a steam-tight joint at I^, and as the
water sinks, draws down the end K, which raises K^, and the valve M
attached to it. By this contrivance when the boiler requires a fresh supply
of water the valve M
opens and supplies it from the cistern HHH II.
The feed pipe II is made to contain a column of water equal to the
amount of pressure exerted by the steam in the boiler, which we have
already stated should not exceed the supporting of eight inches of mercury.
As one inch of mercury being equal in weight to about 13 inches of water,
the pipe should be about nine feet high from the surface of the water when
the boiler is supplied ; and the water in the feed pipe should stand about
three feet when the pressure is six inches of mercury, or three pounds to the
square inch of surface.
The feed pipe contains likewise an iron bucket weight O, hung by a chain
that passes over two pullies, P P ; to the other end of the chain is attached
a sheet of iron called a damper. When the steam in the boiler is urged to
too great an extent, it forces the w^er in the feed pipe upwards, and raises
182 the operative mechanic
the iron bucket weight O, which lowers the
damper into the flue of the

chimney, and checks the force of the fire. ^ ,

S is a safety valve, loaded with a determinate weight, and

of such a
dimension in the bore, as will relieve the boiler of its pressure should it
arrive beyond a certain temperature. It is enclosed in ackse, to prevent the

engine tender having access to it, as some engine tenders

have been known
to load the safety valves, to save themselves
the trouble of attending to the
fire with that diligence which is
necessary, and by which they have endan-
gered theii own lives as well as the lives of others.
A pipe proceeds from this case to the chimney, to carry whatever steam
may escape into the flue of the chimney.
There is very frequently another safety valve,
which is open to the view
of the engine tender, to indicate when the fire is too high.
T T is a flue formed of sheet iron, and passing lengthwise through the
centre of the boiler so near to the bottom that it is always covered with water.
The flame and smoke from the fire at n n passes first under the boiler,
and then immediately returns back through this flue, then dividing itself
passes through flues which lead it on both sides the boiler to the chimney.
^ V is a cock for the purpose of emptying the boiler when required to be
cleaned or repaired.

Such is the construction and general arrangement of the

parts of Messrs. Boulton and Watts engines both single and
reciprocating. We
shall now proceed in the examination of
some other forms of engines which likewise condense their
steam.
Mr. Hornblower, conceiving he could obtain greater power
from the complicated force of steam acting in two cylinders,
obtained a patent, in 1781, for that object. His own account,
taken from the specification, we here transcribe.
First, says Mr. H., I use two vessels, in which the
steam is to act, and which in other engines are called
cylinders. Secondly, I employ the steam after it has acted
in the first vessel to operate a second time in the other, by
permitting it to expand itself, which I do by connecting the
vessels together, and forming proper channels and apertures,
whereby the steam shall occasionally go in and out of the said
vessels. Thirdly, I condense the steam, by causing it to
pass in contact with metalline surfaces, while water is applied
to the opposite side. Fourthly, to discharge the engine of
the water used to condense the steam, I suspend a column
of water in a tube or vessel constructed for that purpose, on
the principles of the barometer, the upper end having open
communication with the steam vessels, and the lower end
being immersed in a vessel of water. Fifthly, to discharge
the air which enters the steam vessels with the condensing
water or otherwise, I introduce it into a separate vessel,
whence it is protruded by the admission of steam. Sixthly,
that the condensed vapour shall not remain in the steam
 AND MACHINIST. 183

vessel in which the steam is condensed, I collect it into

another vessel, which has open communication with the steam
vessels and the water in the mine, reservoir, or river.
Lastly, in cases where the atmosphere is to be employed
to act on the piston, I use a piston, so constructed as to
admit steam round its periphery, and in contact with the
sides of the steam vessel, thereby to prevent the external air
from passing in between the piston and the sides of the
steam vessel."
The following is a description of this engine by the inventor : LetA and
B, fig. 196, represent two cylinders, of which A is the largest; a piston

moves in each, having their rods, C and D, moving through collars at E

and F. These cylinders may be supplied with steam from the boiler by
means of a square pipe G, which has a flanch to connect it with the rest of
the steam pipe. This square part is represented as branching off to both
cylinders : c and d are two cocks, which have handles and tumblers as
usual, worked by the plug-beam W. On the fore side of the cylinders
(that is, the side next the eye) is represented another communicating pipe,
whose section is also square, or rectangular, having also two cocks, a, h.
The pipe Y, immediately under the cock 6, establishes a communication
between the upper and lower parts of the small cylinder B, by opening the
cock b. There is a similar pipe on the other side of the cylinder A, imme-
diately under the cock d.
When the cocks c and a are open, and the cocks b and d are shut, the
steam from the boiler has free admission into the upper part of the small
cylinder B; and the steam from the lower part of B has free admission
into the upper part of the great cylinder A ;
but the upper part of each
cylinder has no communication with its lower part.
From the bottom of the great cylinder proceeds the eduction pipe K,
having a valve at its opening into the cylinder; it then bends downward,
and is connected with the conical condenser L. The condenser is fixed on
a hollow box M, on which stand the pumps N and O, for extracting the air
and water, which last runs along the trough T, into a cistern U, from which
it is raised by the pump V, for recruiting the boiler, being already nearly

boiling hot. Immediately under the condenser there is a spigot valve at

S, over which is a small jet pipe, reaching to the bend of the eduction pipe
K. The whole of the condensing apparatus is contained in a cistern, R,
of cold water ; a small pipe, P, comes from the side of the condenser, and
terminates on the bottom of the trough T, and is there covered with a valve,
Q, which is kept tight by the water that is always running over it.
Lastly , the pump-rods, H, cause the outer end of the beam to preponderate,
so that the quiescent position of the beam is that represented in the figure,
the pistons being at the top of the cylinders.
Suppose all the cocks open, and steam coming in copiously from the
boiler, and no condensation going on in L, the steam must drive out all
the air, and at last follow it through the valve Q. Now shut the cocks b
and d, and open the valve S of the condenser; the condensation will
immediately commence, and draw off the steam from the lower part of the
great cylinder. There is now no pressure on the under side of the piston
of the great cylinder A, and it immediately descends. The communication,
Y, between the lower part of the small cylinder, B, and the upper part of
the great cylinder. A, being open, the steam will go from the lower part of
B into the space left by the descent of the piston of A. It must, therefore,
184 THE OPERATIVE MECHANIC
expand, and its elasticity must diminish, and will
no longer balance the
pressure of the steam coming from the boiler, and pressing
above the piston
of B. 1 j 1 j -11

Tins piston, therefore, if not withheld by the beam, would descend till it
having steam of equal density above and below it.
came in equilibuo, from
But it cannot descend so fast ; for the cylinder Ais larger than B, and the
is no longer than
arch of the beam, at which the great piston is suspended,
the arm which supports the piston of B ; therefore, when
the piston of B
has descended as far as the beam will permit it, the steam between the two
pistons occupies a larger space than it did when both
pistons were at the

top of their cylinders, and its density diminishes as its bulk increases. The
steam beneath the small piston is, therefore, not a balance for the steam on
the upper side of the same, and the piston B will act to depress the beam
with all the difference of these pressures.
The slio-htest view of the subject must show the reader, that as the pistons
descend, the steam that is between them will grow continually rarer, and less
elastic, and that both pistons will draw the beam downwards. Suppose
now, that each one had reached the bottom of its cylinder, shut the cock a,
and the eduction valve at the bottom of A, and open the cocks b and d.
The communication being now established between the upper and lower
part of each cylinder, their pistons will be pressed equally on the upper
and lower surfaces; in this situation nothing, therefore, hinders the counter-
weight from raising the pistons to the top.
Suppose them arrived at the top the cylinder B is at this time filled
:

with steam of the ordinary density, and the cylinder A

with an equal
absolute quantity of steam, but expanded into a larger space. Shut the
cocks b and d, and open the cock a, and the eduction valve at the bottom of
A, the condensation will again operate, and cause the pistons to descend
and thus the operation may be repeated as long as steam is supplied ; and
once full of the cylinder B of ordinary steam, is expended during each
working stroke.

The cocksof this engine are composed of two flat circular

plates,ground very true to each other, and one of them turns
round on a pin through their centres each is pierced with
:

three sectorial apertures, exactly corresponding with each

other, and occupying a little less than one half of their surfaces.
By turning the movable plate so that the apertures coincide^
a large passage is opened for the steam ; and by turning it so
that the solid part of the one covers the aperture of the
other, the cock is shut. Such regulators are now very com-
mon in the cast-iron stoves for warming rooms. Mr. Horn-
blowers contrivance for making the collars for the piston
rods air-tight is thus the collar is in fact two, placed at a
:

small distance from each other, and a small pipe, branching*

off from the steam pipe, communicates with the space between
the collars. This steam, being a little stronger than the
pressure of the atmosphere, effectually prevents the air from
penetrating through the upper collar; and though a little
steam should get through the lower collar into the cylinder
A, it can do no harm. The manner of making this stuffing-
ST AM EN J( NE ri.zz
From 106 to 'ZOO

197

^ele ^-StoeH^ 35Z Sty\xnd.

 AND MACHINIST 185

box is as follows : on the top of the cylinder is a box to

contain something soft, yet pretty close, to embrace the
piston-rod in its motion up and down; and this is usually a
sort of plaited rope of white yarn, nicely laid in, and rammed
down gently, occupying about a third of its depth ; upon that
is placed a sort of tripod, having a flat ring of brass for its
upper, and another for its lower part ; and these rings are in
breadth equal to the space between the piston-rod and the
side of the box. This compound ring being put on over the
end of the piston-rod, another quantity of this rope is to be
put upon it, and gently rammed as before ; then there is a
hollow space left between these two packings, and that space
is to be supplied with strong steam from the boiler. Thus is
the packing about the piston-rod kept in such a state as to
prevent the air from entering the cylinder when at any time
there may be a partial vacuum above the piston.
Mr. Hornblowers description of this engine was followed
by a mathematical investigation of the principles of its action,
by the ingenious Professor Robison, which demonstrates that
it is the same thing in effect as Mr. Watts expansion engine;
but though this is true, there is a considerable difference in
the steps by which the effect is attained, which gives an
important advantage when it is reduced to practice. We
shall give an investigation in a more popular form, using only
common arithmetic. Mr. Hornblower assumed, that the
power or pressure of steam is inversely as the space into
which the steam is expanded ; this is the case with air, and
for the present we will grant it to be so with steam, and
reason from the same data as the ingenious inventor gives us.
To explain clearly what passes in the two cylinders, we
must deviate from the precise form of the engine, and divest
ourselves of one complication of ideas, by reducing both cylin-
ders to the same stroke ;
therefore, suppose the engine to be
made like fig. 197, which represents the two cylinders placed
one upon the other, the lower one being double the capacity of
the upper one, and both pistons being attached to the same
rod, which may be applied to the end of the beam, so that the
descent of the pistons must draw up the load at the opposite
end of the beam.
Then, if we suppose the small piston to be ten inches in
diameter, the great piston must be 14,14 inches ; and to
avoid all difficulties of the ratio of the expansion, and the
pressure of steam, we will suppose the engine to be worked
by the pressure of atmospheric air instead of steam ; and for
the convenience of round numbers in our calculation we will
 18G THE OPERATIVE MECHANIC
consider the pressure at only ten pounds per circular inch on
the surface of the piston.
The area of the small piston will be 100 circular inches,
and being assumed to move without friction, the pressure upon
it will be 10 X 100= 1000 pounds. The area of the great
piston is twice as much, or 200 circular inches, and the
pressure 2000 pounds.
Suppose both pistons to be at the top of their respective
cylinders ; let the atmospheric air be admitted to press freely
upon the upper surface of the small piston ; and suppose the
space between the two pistons filled with air of the same
density, while there is a perfect vacuum made in the lower part
of the great cylinder, beneath its piston.
Under these circumstances, the two pistons will begin to
descend with something less than 2000 pounds of pressure on
the great piston, by the air contained in the space between the
two pistons bearing on the 200 inches of surface with a weight
of 10 pounds per inch ; and beneath this piston there is no-
thing to counteract the pressure. At the same time, the small
piston, having air of equal density above and below it, is in
equilibrio.
This force would balance a load of 2000 pounds ; but sup-
pose we diminish the load to 1900 pounds, then the pistons
|

will immediately begin to descend ; but they will soon stop,

because the air between the two pistons must expand itself, to, 1
fill the increasing space occasioned by the equal descent of
j
both pistons in the cylinders, one of which is twice the area
of the other ; and as the air becomes rarer, its pressure on the
great piston must diminish. Now as this same diminution ,

occasions the small piston to have a power of descent, we

will first consider the pistons separately, and then conjointly,
in their power of descent, with which they draw down the J |

beam.
 AND MACHINIST, 187
Descending powef of the Descending power of the Combined powers of
srreat piston. small piston, both pistons.
lbs. lbs. lbs.

At first, the power will be 2000 A t first the power will be 0 At first . . . 2000
In consequence of the Because the piston is in
pressure of 10 pounds per equilibrio, having 1000
circular inch upon its up- poundspressing upwards,
per surface, and no pres- and 1000 pounds down-
sure beneath. wards.
At one-fourth of the de- At one-fourth, the power At one-fourth . 1800
scent, the power will will be 200
have diminished, by Because the equilibrium
600 does not continue, and at
regular decrements, to 1
one-fourth of the descent
Because the air be- i
the pressure beneath the
tween the two pistons small piston is reduced by
must occupy three-fourths the expansion of the air
of the small cylinder, and between the two pistons
one-fourth of the great to four-fifths of 1000 = 800
cylinder, which is a space pounds, while the pres-
equal to one and one- sure above the piston con-
fourth of the original tinues to be 1000. The
space which it filled
power is, therefore, 1000
therefore the spaces will - 800 = 200.
be. as 5 to 4; andthe if
density of air is as the
inverse proportion of the
space which it occupies,
the pressure on the great
piston must be as 4 to 5, or
four-fifths of 2000 = 1000.
At one-half of the de- At one-half of the de- At one -half .
1666f
scent, the power will scent, the power will
have diminished to 13331 have increase.d to . 333 ^
Because at this position Because the pressure
the air between the pis- beneath is diminished by
tons occupies one-half of the increased rarity of the
the small cylinder and one- air to two-thirds of 1000 =
half of the great one, 662, while the doumward'
which is a space equal to pressure continues to be'
one and one-half of the 1000. The power is there-
space it filled originally, fore 1000 - 662 = 333|.
l^e spaces will therefore
be as 6 to 4, and the pres-
sure on the great piston as
4 to 6, or two-thirds of
2000 = 1333J.
At three-fourths of the At three-fourths of the At three-fourths 1571^
descent, the power will descent, the power
be only .... 1142f will be 428 ^
Because the air must Because the pressure
now occupy one-fourth of beneath is reduced by the
the small cylinder, and rarity of the air to four-
three-fourths of the large
cylinder, which is a space
sevenths of 1000 = 571|.;
equal to one and three- therefore the power is
fourths of the original 1000 - 571^ = 428^.
space. Thus the spaces
will be as 7 to 4, and the
pressure on the great pis-
ton four-seventlis of 2000
= 1142f
At the bottom of the cy- At the bottom, the power
linder the power will be 1000
At the bottom. 1500
will be 500
Because the air must Because the airbeneath
occupy the whole of the the piston is reduced to
large cylinder, a space one-half of its pressure, or
equal to twice the small
500, w'hich, deducted from
cylinder which it at first
1000, leaves 500.
filled. The pressure will
therefore be one-half of
2000 .
Sum of the powers ex- "I Sum of the
erted by the great >7076 Sum of the powers of "I

1461 combined >8538

the small piston . /
piston in its descent. J powers J
188 THE OPERATIVE MECHANIC
Upon action of this engine Dr. Rees, in his C 5^clop 8edia,
tlic

presents us with the following remarks and comparative

statement between it-and Mr. Watts principle of expansion.
Now let us consider how Mr. Watts principle of expan- ,

sion would operate in the same circumstance ; that is, in a

cylinder of 14,14 inches diameter; which is to be supplied
with air of 10 pounds pressure per circular inch, until it has
completed one- half of its descent, and leaving the remainder
of the descent to be accomplished by the expansion of the
air already contained in the upper half of the cylinder.

lbs
At the beginning, the power of descent will be 2000
At one-fourth, the power will still be 2000
At one-half, the power will be 2000
At three-fourths of the descent, the power will be diminished to . 1333J
Because the air must occupy one-fourth of the length of the
cylinder, in addition to that half of the cylinder which it occupied
before the expansion began; therefore the space one and a half
is

times the former, or as 3 to 2, and the pressure will be two-thirds

of 2000.
At the bottom, the pressure will be 1000
Because the air is expanded to occupy twice the space it filled

before.
8333|

The sum total is veiy nearly the same as the former, but
both are greater than they should be, from the imperfect
manner in which we have been obliged to make our calcula-
tion, so as to express it in common arithmetic, without
liavlng recourse to fluxions, which is the only method of
treating quantities that are constantly increasing or decreasing
by any given law.
41ie source of the inaccuracy is easily explained at first :

wc set with the pressure at 2000 pounds in Mr. Hornblowers

engine, and did not take into the account that it decreases
at all, until the piston has descended to one-fourth, but
reasoned as though it diminished all at once at that place
whereas it began to diminish from the very first starting.
Here then we have taken a small quantity too much. In the
same manner, our process takes no notice of the diminution
which happens between one-fourth and one-half of the
descent, or between the other points at which we have
chosen to examine it ; the result is, as if the diminution took
place suddenly at each of those points. The remedy for this
would have been to have taken the account at a greater
number of places, as it is by fluxions alone that we can take
an infinite number, so as to obtain a true result. Now in the
 AND MACHINIST. 189

second calculation of Mr. Watts expansion-engine, we have

taken a still less number of steps for the consideration of the
expansion, because, although there are four steps in the
process, two of them are before the expansion begins.
This is the reason of the apparent difference ; for in reality
there is none in the sum total of the varying pov/ers exerted
through the whole stroke, as will appear to any person who
will take the trouble to read Professor Robisons investiga-
tion. But if we consider the difference of the manner in
which the whole power is expended during the stroke, we
shall see great reason to prefer Mr. Hornblowers method,
from the much greater uniformity of the action ; it begins at
2000, and ends at 1500, whilst Mr. Watts begins at 2000,
and ends at 1000 ; hence the necessity of those ingenious
contrivances for equalizing the action in Mr. Watts patent of
1782. Mr. Hornblowers is not uniform, but approaches
uniformity more nearly, so that he could have carried the
effect of the expansive principle much farther, in employing
stronger steam, than we believe he ever proposed to do.
We have been thus full upon this subject, because the
gaining more powder by the expansion of air or steam acting-
in double cylinders, has been a favourite idea with many,
and there are no less than five different patents for it, but
several of these have been upon mistaken notions; neither
Mr. Watts nor Mr. Hornblowers can have any advantage
from shutting off the air, or from a double cylinder, when air
is used to press the piston ; nor could they derive any advan-
tage from the expansion of steam in their engines, if the
pressure of it was inversely as the space it occupies.
The advantage of the expansive principle arises wholly
from a peculiar property of steam, by which, when suffered
to expand itself to fill a greater space, it decreases in pressure
or elastic force by a certain law, which is not fully laid down
that is, the relation between its expansive force and the
space which it occupies is not clearly decided : but Mr.
Woolf has found that, by applying these properties in their
fullest extent to the double-cylinder engine, he can make
most important improvements in the effects which can be
obtained from any given quantity of fuel. Steam is a fluid
so different from air, as to have no one property in commou
with it, except elasticity. This elasticity is wholly derived
from the quantity of heat which it contains, and its force
increases and diminishes w ith the quantity of heat ; but by
what law it increases or diminishes we are uncertain, because
we have no measure of the actual quantity of heat which is
190 THE OPERATIVE MECHANIC
contained in steam of any given elastic force. All we know
with certainty is what is stated in our table of expansion,
viz. that water, being converted into steam, and confined in
a close vessel, when heated until the thermometer indicates
a certain temperature, will have a certain pressure or elastic
force. But here we must observe, that the thermometer
indicates only the intensity of the heat, without affording a
direct measure of its quantity. When steam is suffered to
expand itself into any given space, the quantity of rarefied
water which will be found to be contained in any given bulk
of steam, in its expanded state, must be undoubtedly propor-
tioned to the quantity of water contained in the same bulk
of the steam, before the expansion took place, in the inverse
ratio of the space wdiich it originally occupied, and that space
which it fills v/hen expanded ; but we cannot say that this
is the case with heat ; and it is the quantity of heat alone
which determines the elastic force.
We believe that, Mr. Hornblower was not able
in practice,
to obtain any greater from the application of the,
effect
expansive action in two cylinders, than Mr. Watt did in one
cylinder. In 1791
2, he erected an engine in Cornwall
at Tin-Croft mine, of which the large cylinder was 27 inches
diameter, and worked with a stroke of eight feet long, and
the small cylinder 21 inches diameter, working with a six
feet stroke. The only account we have been able to obtain
of the performance of this engine, is from a pamphlet pub-
lished by Thomas Wilson, an agent of Messrs. Boulton and
Watt, professedly with a view to prevent the introduction of
Mr. Hornblower s engines into that country, in which he
makes it appear, that it raised only 14,222,120 pounds of
water one foot high with each bushel of coals.
In Mr. Hornblowers own account of his engine, in Gre-
gorys Mechanics^ he informs us, That an engine w^as
erected in the vicinity of Bath, some years since, on this
principle, and under very disadvantageous circumstances,
the engine had its cylinders 19 inches and 24 inches dia-
meter, with lengths of stroke in each suitable to the occasion:
viz. six feet and eight feet respectively. The condensing
apparatus was very bad, through a fear of infringement on
Mr. Watts patent, and the greatest degree of vacuum which
could be obtained, was no more than 27 inches of mercuiy.
The engine worked four lifts of pumps to the depths of 576
feet, 4500 pounds, 14 strokes in a minute, six feet each, with
a cylinder six feet long, and 19 inches diameter, with a
great deal of inertia and friction in the rods and buckets 5
 AND MACHINIST. 191

some of the latter of which were not more than 3| inches

diameter: and this it did^ under ail these disadvantageous
circumstances, with JO pounds of coal (light coal) per hour.^

To reduce standard of one foot high, we must put the load

this to the
4500 pounds x 6 = 27,000 pounds which the engine raised
feet stroke
one foot high at every stroke; 27,000 pounds x 14 strokes per minute =
378,000 pounds raised one foot high each minute ; 378,000 pounds x 60
= 22,680,000 pounds raised one foot high per hour, or with 70 pounds
of coals. As the coals are stated to be light, we will take them at only
84 pounds per bushel, instead of 88 pounds, as Mr. Srneaton did, and
say as 70 pounds 22,680,800 pounds
: : 84 pounds 27,216,000 pounds of
: :

water raised one foot high with a bushel of coals, wliich is a very good
performance, but not greater than Mr. Watt's.

In this engine, Mr. Hornblower says that two remarkable

circumstances jiresented themselves to show the advantages
of this application of the principle the one was, that the
:

man who attended the engine would sometimes detach the

smaller cylinder from the beam, and work only with the large
one, and then the boiler would scarcely raise steam enough
to keep the engine going ; but no sooner was the small
cylinder-rod attached to the beam, than the engine resumed
its wonted activity, and the steam would blow up the
safety-valve.
The next circumstance is, that when the detent, which
kept the exhausting valve shut, happened to miss its action,
the piston would be checked, as it were, not being permitted
to rise through the whole of the returning stroke ; and it
would, as by an intuitive nature, come down again and
again, until the detent performed its office, which is a
practical argument for the power of the engine at the ter-
mination of its stroke.
Several engines have been constructed upon the princi-
ples of admitting a further expansion of the steam in a second
cylinder. The one, however, which has been most effectually
tried by comparison, is that which goes by the name of
Woolfs engine. An account of which we transcribe, toge-
ther with other improvements in the minor parts, which
from their ingenuity are worthy of notice.
In 1804, Mr. Arthur Woolf had a patent for improvements
in steam-engines. The specification of his invention states,
that he has ascertained by actual experiment, and reduced to
practice, the following particulars respecting the expansibility
of steam. That, in practice, it is found that steam, acting
with the expansive force of four pounds pressure per square
inch against a safety-valve exposed to the atmosphere, is
capable of expanding itself to four limes the volume it then
192 THE OPERATIVE MECHANIC
occupies, and still to be equal to the pressure of the atmo-*
sphere that, in like manner, steam of the force of five pounds
:

the square inch, can expand itself to five times its volume j
and that masses or quantities of steam of the like expansive
force of six, seven, eight, nine, or ten pounds pressure per
square inch, can expand to six, seven, eight, nine, or ten
times their volume, and still be respectively equal to the
atmosphere, or capable of producing a sufficient action
against the piston of a steam-engine, to cause the same to
rise in the atmospheric engine of Newcomen with a counter-
poise, or to be carried into the vacuous part of the cylinder
of the improved engine, first brought into effect by Mr. Watt
that this ratio is progressive, and nearly, if not entirely, uni-
form ; so that steam pressing with the expansive force of 20,
30, 40, or 50 pounds the square inch against a common
safety-valve, will expand itself to 20, 30, 40, or 50 times its
volume ; and that, generally, as to all the intermediate or
higher degrees of elastic force, the number of times which
steam of any temperature and force can expand itself, is nearly
the same as the number of pounds it is able to sustain on a
square inch exposed to the common atmospheric counter-
pressure ; provided always, that the space, place, or vessel, in
which it is allowed to expand itself, be kept at the same tem-
perature as that of the steam, before it is allowed room to
expand.
Respecting the different degrees of temperature required
to bring steam to, and maintain it at, different expansive
forces above the weight of the atmosphere, Mr. Woolf states,
that he has found by actual experiment, setting out from the
boiling point of water, or 212 of Fahrenheit, at which degree
steam of water is only equal to the pressure of the atmo-
sphere ; that, in order to give an increased elastic force equal
to five pounds on each square inch, the temperature must be
raised to about 227 i, when it will have acquired a power to
expand itself to five times its volume, and still be equal to the
atmosphere, and capable of being applied as such in the work-
ing of steam-engines according to his invention. Various
other pressures, temperatures, and expansive forces of steam,
are shown in the following table.
 AND MACiHNIST, 193

Woolf s TMe of
the relative pressures per square inch ;
the temperature and expansibility of steam at different
degrees of heat above the boiling point of water^ begin-
ning with the temperature of steam of an elastic force
equal to Jive pounds per square inch, and extending to
steam able to sustain forty pounds on the square inch.
Pounds per Degrees of
Square Inch. Heat.
C
5 227f^ 5
6 230J 6
Steam of an 7 2321 7
times its vo-
elastic force 8 235J and at these 8
lume, and con-
predominat- 9 requires to be 237^ respective de- 9
tinue equal in
ing over the J 10 maintained by 2394 grees of heat. 10
elasticity to
pressure of ^ L5 ^a temperature^ 2504 "steam can ex- 15
the pressure
the atmo- 20 equal to about 2594 pand itself to 20
of the atmo-
sphere upon 25 267 about 25
sphere.
a safety-valve 30 273 30
35 278 35
40 282 40
W J

And so manner, by small additions of temperature,

ill like
an expansive power may be given to steam to enable it to
expand to 50, 60, 70, 80, 90, 100, 200, 300, or more times
its volume, without any limitation but what is imposed by the
frangible nature of every material of which boilers and other
parts of steam-engines can be made. Prudence dictates that
the expansive force should never be carried to the utmost
which the materials can bear, but rather be kept considerably
within that limit.
Having thus explained the nature of his discovery, Mr.
Woolf proceeds to give a description of his improvements
grounded thereon.
If the engine is constructed originally with the intention of
adopting these improvements, it ought to have two steam
cylinders of different dimensions, and proportioned to each
other, according to the temperature or the expansive force
determined to be communicated to the steam made use of in
working the engine 5 for the smaller steam-vessel or cylinder
must be a guide for the larger. For example ; if steam of
forty pounds the square inch is fixed on, then the smaller
cylinder should be at least one-fortieth part the contents of
the larger one. Each cylinder should be furnished with a
piston, and the smaller cylinder should have a communica-
tion, both at its top and bottom, (top and bottom being here
employed merely as relative terms, for the cylinders may be
worked in a horizontal, or any other required position, as well as
vertical,) with the boiler which supplies the steam j and the
o
 m THE OPERATIVE MECHANIC
communications, by means of cocks or valves of any construc-
opened and shut
tion adapted to the use, are to be alternately
during the working of the engine. The top of the small cylin-
der should have a communication with the bottom of the larger
cylinder, and the bottom of the smaller one with the top of
the larger, with proper means to open and shut them alter-
nately by cocks, valves, or any other well-known contrivance.
And both the top and bottom of the larger cylinder should,
while the engine is at work, communicate alternately with a
condensing vessel, into which a jet of water is admitted to
hasten the condensation ; or the condensing vessel may be
cooled by any other means calculated to produce that effect.
This arrangement being made, when the engine is set to
work, steam of a high temperature is admitted from the
boiler to act by its elastic force on one side of the smaller
piston, while the steam which had last moved it has a com-
munication with the larger steam-vessel or cylinder, where it
follows the larger piston, now moving towards that end of its
cylinder which is open to the condensing vessel. Let both
pistons end their stroke at one time ; and let us now suppose
them both at the top of their respective cylinders, ready to
descend ; then the steam of forty pounds the square inch,
entering above the smaller piston, wdll carry it downwards;
while the steam below it, instead of being allowed to escape
into the atmosphere, or applied to any other purpose, will
pass into the larger cylinder above its piston, which will
make its downward stroke at the same time that the piston
of the smaller cylinder is doing the same thing ; and while
this goes on, the steam which last filled the larger cylinder in
the upward stroke of the engine will be passing into the con-
denser, to be condensed during the downward stroke. When
the pistons in the smaller and larger cylinder have thus been
made to descend to the bottom of their respective cylinders,
then the steam from the boiler is to be shut off from the top,
and admitted to the bottom of the smaller cylinder. The
communication between the bottom of the smaller and the top
of the larger cylinder is also to be cut off and the communi-
;
cation is to be opened between the top of the smaller and the
bottom of the larger cylinder. The communication between
the bottom of the larger cylinder and the condenser is to be
cut off, and the steam which, in the downward stroke of the
engine, filled the upper part of the larger cylinder, suffered
to flow off to the condenser. The engine will then make its
upward stroke from the pressure of the steam in the top of the
small cylinder acting beneath the piston of the great cylinder,
 AND MACHINIST, 195

and so on alternately, admitting the steam to the different

sides of the smaller piston, while the steam last admitted into
the smaller cylinder passes alternately to the different sides
of the larger piston in the larger cylinders : the top and bot-
tom of which are at the same time made to communicate
alternately with the condenser.
In an engine working in the manner just described, while
the steam is admitted on one side of the piston into the
smaller cylinder, the steam on the other side has room made
for its admission into the larger cylinder, on one side of its
piston, by the condensation taking place on the other side of
the large piston which is open to the condenser ; and that
waste of steam which takes place in engines worked only by
the expansive force of steam, from steam passing the piston,
is prevented ; for all steam that passes the piston in the
smaller cylinder is received into the larger.
In such an engine, where it may be more convenient for any

particular purpose, the arrangement may be altered, and

the top of the smaller made to communicate with the top of
the larger cylinder; in which case the only difference will be,
that when the piston in the smaller cylinder descends, that
in the larger will ascend, and vice versa; which, on some
occasions, may be more convenient than to have the two
pistons moving in the same direction.
This engine is exactly the same in its action as Mr. Horn-
blowers, which we have before described. The novelty con-
sists in the application of steam of a high pressure thereto, and
in proportioning the capacities of the two cylinders to the
expansibility of the steam, according to his table. But Mr.
W. goes on to state, that effectual means must be used to
keep up the requisite temperature in all parts of the ap-
paratus into which the steam is admitted, and in which it is not
intended to be condensed ; and here it may be proper to state,
that instead of the usual means of accomplishing this, by en-
closing them in the boiler, or in a steam-case communicating
with the boiler, a separate fire may with advantage be made
under the steam-case containing the cylinders, which in that
event will become a second boiler, and must be furnished
with a safety-valve, to regulate the temperature. By means
of the last-mentioned arrangement, the steam from thes mailer
cylinder, or steam measurer, may be admitted into the larger
cylinder, when kept at a higher temperature than the steam
in the smaller cylinder, by which its power to expand itself
may be increased ; and, on the contrary, by keeping the
larger cylinder at a lower temperature than the smaller, its
o2
19G TIIK OPLRATIVK MKChANIC

expansibility will be lessened, which, on particular occasions,

and for particular purposes, may be desirable. In every case
care must be taken that the boiler, or case in which the cylin-
der is enclosed, the steam -pipes, and generally all the parts
exposed to the action of the expansive force of the steam, shall
have a strength proportioned to the high pressure to which
they are to be exposed.
It is not advisable that the proportion of the capacity of
the smaller cylinder, or steam-measurer, to the capacity of the
larger or working cylinder, should in any case be smaller than
the proportion of the expansion of the steam which is to be
used in it, as we have stated, yet, in the making of it larger,
considerable latitude may be allowed; for example, with
steam of forty pounds the square inch, a small cylinder, or
measurer, of one-twentieth, or even larger, instead of one of
fortieth the capacity of the larger or working cylinder, and so
with steam of any given strength. And in many cases, it may
be advisable that this should be the case, because of the
difficulty of preventing some waste of steam, or partial
condensation, which might lessen the rate of working,
if not allowed for in the size of the small cylinder or steam-
measurer.
In all cases when the engine is ready for working, whatever
may be the proportion that has been adopted, or intended to
be worked with, it should have its power tried by altering the
load on the valve that ascertains the force of the steam, in
order that the strength of steam best adapted for the engine
may be ascertained, for it may turn out to be advantageous,
that the steam should be employed in particular engines of
an elastic force somewhat over or under what was first
intended.
Mr. Woolf also states, that Mr. Watts engines may be
improved by the application of his discovery in making the
boiler, and the steam-case in which the working cylinder is
enclosed, much stronger than usual, and by altering the
structure and dimensions of the valves for admitting steam
from the boiler into the cylinder in such a manner that the
steam may be admitted very gradually by a progressive
enlargement of the aperture, so as at first to wiredraw the
,

steam and afterwards to admit it more freely. The reason

this precaution is this, that steam of such elastic force as
Mr VVoolf proposes to employ, if admitted suddenly into the
cylinder, would strike the piston with a force as would en-
danger the safety and durability of the engine. The aperture
allowed for admitting steam into the cylinder, or cylinders.
 AND MACHINIST. 197
should be regulated by the following consideration. If the
intention is that the engine should work wholly, or almost
wholly, by condensation, the steam, in passing into the cylin-
der, should be forced to wiredraw itself only so much that the
piston may perform the whole, or a great part of the stroke,
by the time that the intended quantity of steam has been ad-
mitted into the cylinder. For example, when steam of forty
pounds on the square inch is used, such a quantity of it must
be allowed to enter as shall be equal to one-fortieth of the
capacity of the cylinder, and so in proportion when steam of
any other force is employed ; and when the requisite quantity
has been admitted, the steam is to be shut off till the proper
moment for admitting a fresh quantity. But if it is intended
that advantage shall also be taken of the elastic force of the
steam acting on one side of the piston, while condensation
goes on on the other side, then the steam must be admitted
more freely, but still with caution at first, for the reason
already mentioned.
This latter is the same thing as Mr. Watts expansion
engine ; but with the addition of gradually diminishing the
aperture of the steam-valve as the piston descends, instead of
stopping it altogether at a certain portion of the descent, by
which means the action of the engine is rendered more uni-
form. We think that, by regulating the descent of the valve
by an accurate movement, a very good effect may be pro-
duced in this manner, without the complication of two cylin-
ders or other parts ; the only objection is, that if at any time
the valve should be fully opened by accident, the pressure
might suddenly become so great, from the strong steam act-
ing upon the full surface of the piston, as to break the engine
to pieces.
In 1805, Mr. Woolf took out a second patent for further
improvements, in which he proposes, as before, to apply fire to
the cylinder itself, to heat the steam after it is thrown into
the working cylinder ; and this was to be done by a fire
being placed beneath the case containing the cylinder the :

space between the case and the cylinder was to be filled with
oil, wax, fusible metal, or mercury. He also proposes a
method of preventing the passage of any of the steam from
that side of the piston which is acted upon by the steam, to
the other side, which is open to the condenser. In those
steam-engines which act as double engines, he effects this by
employing, upon or about the piston, a column of mercury
or fluid metal, in an altitude equal to the pressure of the
btcam. The efficacy of this arrangement will, he says^
 1H8 THE OPERATIVE MECHAKIC
appear obvious, from attending to what takes place in the
working such a piston. When the piston is ascending,
that is, when the steam is admitted below it, the space on
its upper side being open to the condenser, the steam, endea*
vouring to pass up by the side of the piston, is met, and
effectually prevented by the column of metal, equal or su-
perior to it in pressure, and during the down stroke, no
steam can possibly pass without first forcing all the metal
through.
Ill working what is called a single engine, a less consider-

able altitude of metal is required, because the steam always

acts on the upper side of the piston ; and in this case, oil, or
wax, or fat of animals, or similar substances, in sufficient
quantities, will answer the purpose. But care must be taken,
either in the double or single engine, when working with this
piston, that the outlet which conveys the steam to the con-
denser shall be so situated, and of such a size, that the steam
may pass freely, without forcing before it, or carrying with it,
any of the metal or other substance employed that may have
passed by the piston ; and at the same time providing another
exit for the metal, or other substance collected at the bottom
of the cylinder, to convey the same into a reservoir kept at a
proper heat, whence it is to be returned to the upper side of
the piston by a small pump, worked by the engine, or by
some other contrivance. In order that the fluid metal used
with the piston may not be oxydated^ some oil or other fluid
substance is always to be kept on its surface, to prevent its
coming in contact with the steam ; and to prevent the neces-
sity of employing a large quantity of fluid metal, although
the piston must be as thick as the depth of the column re-
ijiiired, the diameter need be only a little less than the steam-
vessel or working cylinder, excepting where the packing, or
other fitting, is necessary to be applied ; so that, in fact,
the column of fluid metal forms only a thin body round the
piston.
We have seen an engine of an eight-horse power of this
kind at work, with a fluid metal on the pistons it effectually
:

prevented the leakage. But as it required to have the cylin-

ders twice as long as usual, in order to have sufficient room
for the long or thick pistons which it required, and as these
pistons must be of considerable weight, the method is not at
all applicable in practice ; and, indeed, the increase of the bulk
<)1 llie moving parts is such as to counterbalance the advan-
tage, which is confined to the saving of steam by leakage ;
foi I Ik iiictioii must be greater than in another engine,
 AND MACHINIST. 199

because the piston must be packed as tight as usual, to be able

to sustain a column of fluid metal, which must be more than
equal in pres>sure to that of the steam ; and when the steam
presses upon the piston, the pressure of the fluid metal to leak
by the piston must be double that of the steam also the
:

friction of so great a surface of fluid metal pressing against

the inside of the cylinder is very great.
In 1810, Mr. Woolf had a third patent, the object of which
is to prevent the waste of steam from leakage by the piston.
For this purpose, he does not allow the steam to come to the
piston at all, but causes it to act in a different vessel, and
transmits the action thereof to the piston by oil or fluid metal
thus, at the side of the cylinder, he places a separate vessel,
communicating with the lower part of the cylinder by a
large pipe or passage from the bottom of each ; then
steam, being admitted into this vessel, will press upon
the surface of the oil or fluid metal contained in it, and
force the same to pass out of that vessel into the cylinder,
where it will act beneath the piston to press the same up-
wards, a vacuum being at the same time made in the upper
part of the cylinder to give effect to the pressure.
The steam is then made to press upon the upper surface
of the piston, which is always covered with a quantity of the
fluid ; and at the same time a vacuum is made in the separate
vessel, so as to relieve the surface thereof from all pressure
in consequence the piston is made to descend. It is evident
that the piston must be packed so tight as to suffer none of the
fluid to pass by it ; but this is easy, in comparison with the
difficulty of making a packing sufficiently tight to resist the
passage of steam, particularly when it is so rare as the ex-
panded steam which Mr. Woolf sometimes uses in his
engine. The separate vessel of which we have spoken, is in
some cases to be the jacket or space which surrounds the
cylinder, which is then to be open at bottom.
This contrivance is ingenious, but we think the necessity
of an additional cylinder is an objection which will prevent
its adoption in large engines ; and for small engines the
advantages are not so great.
Since his first patent, Mr. Woolf has erected several small
engines, which performed well, and with an evident economy
of fuel. But these engines being employed to turn mills, of
which the operations do not afford so exact an estimate of the
power as the operation of pumping water, Mr. Woolfs
engines did not come to a direct and indisputable comparison
with those on Mr. Watts principle, until 1815, when two
 200 IHK OPERATIVE MECHANIC
lari^e engines were set to work in Cornwall, at Wheal Vor
and Wheal Abraham mines, for pumping water ; and these
have since been regularly reported in Messrs. T. and J,
l^eans reports, and of which one of the objects was to ascer-
tain the comparative merit of the double and single cylinder
engines.
Tlie report for May, 1815, states the average performance of these two
engines at 49,980,882 lbs. lifted one foot high for each bushel of coals ; and
since that time they have done more than 50,000,000 lbs.
Tlie engine at Wheal Vor has a great cylinder of 53 inches diameter, and
nine-feet stroke; and the small cylinder is about one-fifth of the contents
of the great one. The engine works six pumps, which, at every stroke, raise
a loa.d of water of 37,982 lbs. weight 7^ feet high, which is the length of the
stroke in the pumps. This makes a pressure of 14,1 lbs. per square inch on
die surface of the great piston, and it makes 7,6 strokes per minute. With
respect to its consumption of coals, it raised, in March, 1816, 48,432,702lbs.
one foot high with each bushel; April, 1816, 44,000,000 lbs. ; May, 1816,
49,500,000 lbs. ; and in June, 1816, 43,000,000 lbs.
Jrom the same reports we learn, that the engine at Wheal Abraham mine
has a great cylinder of 45 inches diameter, working with a seven-feet stroke,
at the rate of 8,4 strokes per luiirute under a load of 24,050 lbs., which it
laises seven feet at each stroke. Its performance during the above four
months was 50,000,000 lbs. ; 50,908,000 lbs. ; in May, 56,917,312 lbs.,
which, we believe, is the greatest performance ever made by a steam-engine
and in June, 51,500,000 lbs.
We
must observe, that the variation in the performance
of different steam-engines, which are constructed upon the
same principle, and working under the same advantages, is
the same as would be found in the produce of the labour of
so many different horses, or other animals, when compared
with their consumptive food; for the effects of different
steam-engines will vary as much from small differences
illthe proportions of their parts, as the strength of animals
from the vigour of their constitution ; and, again, there will
be as great differences in the performance of the same
engine, when in bad or good order, from all the parts
being tight and well oiled, so as to move with little friction,
as there is in the labour of an animal, from his being in good
or bad health, or excessively fatigued ; but in all cases, there
willbe a maximum which cannot be exceeded, and an average
which we ought always expect to attain.
Fig. 198 is a sketch to show the arrangement of the valves and cylinders
of these two engines ; A
is the large cylinder, and B the little cylinder, each
enclosed in its steam-case. Tlie steam is admitted from the boiler into the
steam-case of the large cylinder A, by a communication at C and there is
;
u communication between this steam-case and that of tlie small cylinder;
so that all the steam for the supply of the engine passes through
both of the
sicam-cascs, wliich therefore become part of the communication between die
b'jler ait'l the litllc cylinder, into which the steam is first admitted, D
 AND MACHINIST 201
furtiishos acommunication for carrying back to the boiler any water which
may be produced by condensation in the steam-case, before the engine is
heated to the proper temperature. E is the pipe from the steam-case to
supply the engine ; it has a regulating valve. F is the valve-box of the
small cylinder, the spindle of the one valve working through that of the
other ; and the passage for the steam from the case into the small cylinder is
situated between the two valves. G is the valve that opens the communi-

cation between the bottom of the small cylinder B and the top of the large
cylinder A, when the piston thereof is to be pressed down. II is the valve
that returns the steam from above to below the large piston, when the piston
is to ascend. And I is the exhaustion-valve, to carry off the steam to the
condenser.
When the engine makes its down-stroke, the upper valve at F is opened,
and admits the steam from the case to press upon the small piston, the valve
G being opened at the same time, which suffers the steam to pass from the
under side of the small to the upper side of the large piston ; and the valve I
is opened to make a passage from beneath the great piston to the condenser.

These three upper valves, F, G, I, open at the same instant of time.

When both pistons arrive at the bottom of their respective cylinders, these
three valves are shut altogether, and the lower steam-valve at F is opened,
to return the steam from above to below the small piston, the valve H doing
the same to the large cylinder, and both pistons return in equilibrio by the
counter-weight ; but the upper valve at F can be shut off at any part of the
stroke, according to the load of the engine.

Those who are conversant with steam-engines will per-

ceive, from the passing of the steam, as above described, from
the upper to the lower side of each of the pistons respectively,
that the engines at Wheal Vor, and at Wheal Abraham, are
at present working with a single stroke. Were these engines
working double, the steam would, on the down-stroke, be
made to pass, the same as before described, from the under
side of the small to the upper side of the large piston, steam
from the boiler in the mean time coming in upon the small
piston, and the under side of the large piston being open to
the condenser; but on the up-stroke, the action would be
different from what we have described, for the steam would
pass from the top of the small cylinder to beneath the large
piston, while steam would be admitted from the boiler under
the small piston, the top of the large cylinder being open to
the condenser.
The which Mr, Woolf employs in his engines are
boilers
differentfrom those of other engines which work with steam
of a low pressure, the water being contained in small cylin-
drical tubes of cast-iron, which are filled with water, and
exposed to the flame nearly in an hoi/izontal position.
Mr. Woolf has a patent for this boiler, which the specifica-
tion states to consist of iwo or more cylindrical vessels,
properly connected together, and so disposed, as to constitute
a strong and fit receptacle for the water intended to be con-
 202 THE Of'KRATIVE MECHANIC
verted into steam of a temperature and under a pressure
uncommonly high, and also to present an extensive portion
of convex surface to the current of flame and heated air from
a fire; likewise of other large cylindrical receptacles placed
above the former cylinders, and properly connected with
them, for the purpose of containing some water and the
steam.
These cylindrical vessels are set in a furnace so adapted to
them, as to cause the greater part of the surface of each of
them, or as much of the surface as may be convenient, to
receive the direct action of the fire, or heated air or flame.

Figs.199 and 200 represent one of these boilers in its most simple form.
It consists of eight tubes marked a, made of cast-iron, or any other fit
metal, which are each connected with the larger cylinder A, placed above
them, as is shown in the side view, fig. 200, in which the same letters refer
to the same parts as in fig. 199. In fig. 200 is also shown the manner in
which the fire is made to act. The fuel rests on the grate-bars at B, and
the flame and heated air, being reverberated from the part above the two
first smaller cylinders, go under the third, over the fourth, under the fifth,
over the sixth, under the seventh, and partly over and partly under the
eighth small cylindric tube, all which tubes are full of water. The direc-
tion of the flame, until it reaches the last-mentioned tube, is shown by the
dotted curved lines and arrows. When it has reached that end of the
furnace, it is carried by the flue, O, to the other side of a wall, built
beneath the main cylinder A, in the direction of its length, and the flame
then returns under the opposite end of the seventh smaller cylinder over
the sixth, under the fifth, over the fourth, under the third, over the second,
and partly over and partly under the first, when it passes into the chimney.
The wall before-mentioned, which divides the furnace longitudinally,
answers the double purpose of lengthening the course which the flame and
heated air have to traverse, giving off heat to the boiler in the passage, and
also of securing the flanges, or other joinings, employed to unite the
smaller tubes to the main cylinder, from being injured by the fire. The
ends of the small cylindric tubes rest on the brickwork which forms the
sides of the furnace, and one end of each of them is furnished with a cover,
secured in its place by screws and a flanch, but which can be taken
off at pleasure, to allow the tubes to be cleared, from time to time, from
any incrustation or sediment wnich may be deposited in them.
To any convenient part of the main cylinder A, a tube is affixed, to
convey the steam to the steam-engine. In v^^orking with such boilers, the
water carried off by evaporation is replaced by water forced in by the
usual means for a high pressure boiler, that is, a forcing-pump and the
;

steam generated is carried to the place intended by means of pipes con-

nected with the upper part of the cylinder A. In the specification, means
are pointed out for applying this plan to the boilers of steam-engines
already in use, by ranging a row of cylinders beneath the present boiler, and
connecting them with each other, and with the boiler. Directions are also
given for constructing boilers compc-sed of cylinders disposed vertically.
Jn every case the tubes composing the boiler should be so combined and
arranged, and the furnace so constructed, as to make the fire and flame act
aiouiid and over the tubes, so as to embrace the largest possible quanliiy
>jf tlieir s.iiTace. It must be obvious to any one, that the tubes may be
 AND MACHINIST. 203
made of any kind of metal ; but cast-iron is the most convenient. The size
of the tubes may be varied ; but in every case, care should be taken not to
make the diameter too great ; for it must be remembered, that the larger
the diameter of any single tube is in such a boiler, tlie stronger it must be
made in proportion, to enable it to bear the same expansive force of steam
as the smaller cylinders. It is not essential, however, to the invention,
that the tubes should be of different sizes ; but the upper cylinders, espe-
cially the one which is called the steam cylinder, should be larger than the
lower ones, it being the reservoir, as it were, into which the lower ones
send the steam, to be thence conveyed away by the steam-pipe. The
following general directions are given respecting the quantity of water to be
kept in a boiler of this construction ; viz. it ought always to fill, not only
the whole of the lower tubes, but also the great steam cylinder A, to about
half its diameter, that is, as high as the fire is allowed to reach ; and in no
case should it be allowed to get so low, as not to keep the vertical necks,
or branches, which join the smaller cylinders to the great cylinder, full of
water, for the fire is only beneficially employed w'hen applied, through the
medium of the interposed metal, to water, to convert it into steam ; that is,
the purpose of the boiler would in some measure be defeatedt if any of the
parts of the tubes which are exposed to the direct action of the fire, should
present a surface of steam in their interior, instead of water, to receive the
transmitted heat. This must, more or less, be the case, whenever the lower
tubes, and even a part of the upper, are not kept filled with the water.

Respecting the furnace for this kind of boiler^ it should

always be so built as to give a long and waving course to the
flame and heated air, forcing them the more effectually to
strike against the sides of the tubes which compose the
boiler, and so to give out the greatest possible portion of
their heat before they reach the chimney. Unless this be
attended to, there will be a much greater waste of fuel than
necessary, and the heat communicated to the contents of the
boiler will be less from a given quantity of fuel.
When very high temperatures are not to be employed, the
kind of boiler just described is found to answer very well
but where the utmost force of the fire is desirable for pro-
ducing the most elastic steam, the parts are combined in a
manner somewhat different, though the principle is the same.
In the Philosophical Magazine, vol. xvii. p. 40, is a descrip-
tion and drawing of a boiler of this kind, two of which were
erected, in 1803, at Messrs. Meux's brewery.
In every case Mr. Woolf uses two safety-valves, at least,
in his apparatus, to prevent accidents ; a precaution which
cannot be too strongly enforced, as it may happen, when but
one is employed, that by some accident it may get locked,
and the engine and people about it be exposed to the danger
of an explosion.
In those engines of Mr. Woolfs which we have seen, he
employs boilers like the one described, viz. with two small
tubes beneath, which are full of water, and exposed to the
 204 THE OPERATIVE MECHANIC
immediate action of the flame, communicating by perpen-
dicular necks or branches with the large cylinder above,
which has water in the lower part, and steam in the upper.
The only difference from wdiat we have above described is,
that the lower and upper tubes are placed in the same direc-
tion, instead of being at right angles to each other ; and the
flame proceeds in the direction of their length, instead of
crossing them ; the lower or water tubes are rather inclined
upwards. The metal of these tubes is made very thick,
with a view to strength and durability.
The idea of making boilers for raising strong steam by a
number of small tubes, which can be made stronger than one
large vessel, is not original with Mr. Woolf, Mr. Blakey, of
whom we have before spoken, having proposed it in a small
tract which he published in French, at the Hague, in 1776.
But his tubes were to be placed over each other, in an
inclined direction, and the water, being admitted at the upper
end, ran down within the heated inclined tubes, and became
converted into steam.
Woolf's regulating steam-valve .
Besides the common
safety-valves. Sir. Woolf has also introduced a valve of a new
construction into the steam-pipe itself, to regulate the quan-
tity that shall pass from the boiler. In fact, it is a self-acting
steam-regulator, and extremely ingenious.

A (fig. 201) is a part of the great or steam cylinder of one of Mr. Woolf'
boilers ;
B
B, the neck or outlet for the steam, surmounted by a steam-bo?
C, which is joined to the neck B B, by the flanges a, a. The top or covei
of the steam-box C, marked with the letter D, is well secured in its place,
and has a hole through it for the rod of the valve to pass ; and the interioi
of the hole is formed to a box to hold a stuffing, and make the rod work up
and down steam-tight, the stuffing being kept in its place by means of a
collar, screwed down in the usual way, as shown in the figure. By means
of a pin 6, and tlie two vertical pieces c, e, the sliding-valve rod is made fast
to wz, which is a close cover to the hollow cylinder n n. The cover m fits
steam-tight into the conical seat, at the upper end of a collar o o, which is
made fast to tlie flange a a, and descends into the neck of the boiler, forming
a barrel, in which the cylinder fits close. The cylinder n n is open at
bottom, having a free communication with the steam in the boiler A ; and
it has three vertical slits cut through the sides, one of which, S, is shown irr

the plate. The sum of the area of all these slits or openings is equal to the
area of the opening of the seat or collar o o, in which the cylinder n n works.
When the steam acquires a sufficient degree of elastic force to raise the
valve, (that is, the cylinder n n, with its cover m, and the rod R,) together
with whatever weight the rod may be loaded, then the openings S, rising
above the steam-tight collar or seat o o, allow the steam to pass into the
steam-box C, and to flow off to the engine through the pipe N. But the
quantity of steam that passes is proportioned to the elastic force it has
acquired, and the weight with which the valve is loaded ; because the rise
of the openings, S, above the collar o o, will be in that proportion.
 AND MACHINIST. 205
This valve may be loaded by applying weights in any of
the usual methods ; but Mr. Woolf prefers the one shown in
the drawing, in which the upper part of the rod R
is joined,
by means of a chain, to a quadrant of a circle Q, for the pur-
pose of carrying a pendulum weight Z, that admits of being
moved nearer to or farther from the centre of the quadrant,
according as the pressure of the valve is wished to be increased
or diminished.

As the valve rises, the weight moves upwards in the arc n w, giving a
continually increased resistance to the farther rising of the valve, propor-
tioned to the horizontal distance of the weight from the centre of Q, of
which the weight attains a continual increase by its rise in the arc, accord-
ing to the horizontal distances measured on the line Q p, pressing through
the centre of the weight by perpendiculars from the horizontal line.
Tims, weight Z presses down the valve m with a force equal to
if the
20 pounds on the square inch of the aperture in o o, in its present position,
when it rises to the position at i, it will press with a force equal to 30
pounds, and at p, with a force equal to 40 pounds on the square inch ; so
that the rod Z may be made to serve at the same time as an index to the
p'erson who attends the fire, nothing more being necessary for this purpose
than to graduate the arc, described by the end of the rod Q Z, by experi-
mental trials. In the side of the steam-box C there is an opening, N, to
allow the steam to pass from it by a pipe to the steam-engine.
It is plain that the adjustment of the positive pressure on this valve
can be determined by sliding the weight Z of the pendulum to a greater
or less distance from the centre of motion. Again, to adjust the rate of
the increasing forces, so as to correspond with the increasing force of the
steam, the radius of the quadrant, Q, must be apportioned to the diameter
of the valve and the opening of the slits, S, so that the ascent of the weight,
Z, in its quadrant will be correspondent to the varying pressure. This
adjustment must be made as nearly as it can be done before the valve is
fixed; and to bring it afterwards to an exact regulation, the chain is
attached to the rod, R, by a nut and screw ; by means of which, any part
of the arc can be used that is found most correspondent with the varying
pressure, because the rate at which the resistance of the lever increases is
more rapid when the pendulum is near to the perpendicular, than when it
approaches the horizontal position.
The same effect may be produced, by making the slits in the side of the
cylinder narrower at the lower part of the cylinder, instead of being
parallel.

BELL-CRANK ENGINE.
Messrs. Boulton and Watt, soon after the expiration of
their patent for effecting condensation in a separate vessel,
introduced a form of engine, called the bell- crank engine,
of which we shall represent so much as is necessary to
exhibit the alteration in the mode of construction.

Fig. 202 is a side view of the engine. A B C is the bell-crank, there

being another exactly similar part on the other side, moving upon a fixed
centre, C ; the end AD is joined to a cross-piece which works the piston-
20G THE OPERATIV^E MECHANIC
rod in the cylinder. E serves for the air-pump, and G for the cold-water
pump, and the hot-water pump may be woiKed upon the same bar. The
connecting rod from B to II is supposed to be attached to the crank of the
fly-wheel at H. Engines of this description are mostly constructed with
slide or D
valves, which are worked by the beam A
C. This form of
engine does not possess any particular advantages otherwise than those
arising from compactness, which are not of sufficient weight to counter-
balance the increased friction. It was, in some few instances, at the
commencement of steam navigation, applied to boats, but it was found to
answer not so well as the double-beam engine.

VIBRATING ENGINE.
With a view to do away with the beam of the engine^
and to communicate the motion direct from the piston-rod
to the fly-wheel crank, a form of engine has been constructed,
which, in engines of small dimensions, where the piston-rod
can be made of sufficient strength compared with the weight
of the cylinder that is to vibrate, have answered tolerably
well. We have seen one of about one-horse power, which
had been at work four years.
Fig. 203. Ais the cylinder, B the piston-rod, C the crank, D the fly-
wheel, Ea stand supporting the cylinder pivot F, which has a similar one
on the opposite side. One of these pivots is formed like the key of a four-
way cock, having a communication to the top and bottom of the cylinder.
By the movement of the piston, the cylinder is caused to vibrate, to turn the
crank and fly-wheel, and the steam passes alternately to the top and bottom
of the cylinder, by tlie two-way axes on which the cylinder vibrates.

When engines of this construction are formed of any

considerable size, there is a danger of bending the piston-
rod, and in vibrating, the weight of the cylinder loosens its
fitting in the stuffing collar of the cylinder-cap.

ROTATORY ENGIN*:.
All steam-engines as yet noticed, have their action pro-
duced by the movement of a piston in a cylinder, and act by
what is called a reciprocating motion. In engines of this
description, a very considerable degree of power is ex-
pended in arresting the motion of the different working parts,
and putting them into action in a direct contrary course :

this has claimed much attention from engineers, and many

attempts have been made to construct an engine in which
the action of the steam should operate in a continuous manner,
without bringing the parts to a state of rest.
The most obvious mode of attaining this object, is the producing a
rotatory motion. One of the most simple engines on this construction is
represented in fig. 204, where two sections are shown, the one at right
angles to the revolving shaft, the other parallel to it, the same letters in
both denoting the same parts. UUUU is a circular steam-case, with the
STEAM EPTOIKJE
ri.z3
 AND MACHINIST. 207
two ends enclosed ty the circular plates V VVV, through which the shaft
R passes. ToR is attached by four arms, S SSS, the ring PP, in which
A
the fans or flat pieces, and B, are fixed on hinges formed steam-tight, but
capable of being shut in upon the ring, as A, or opening and closing the
steam-course O O O O, as B. To each of these four pieces is attached a
tail or tripping piece, C and D, which, during their revolution, touch the
stud E, and raises their respective fans into the steam-way, as shown by the
dotted fan at A^, just after it has passed the steam aperture, I. The passage
to the condenser is represented at N ; G is a camb-piece attached to the
outer case, and fitting in a steam-tight manner upon P P P P, serving to
close the fans as they come round. The steam entering at I presses upon
G and A^, which is supposed to have been just raised to that position, and
forces it round, together with the ring P P P P, and the centre shaft R, until
it pass^ the aperture through which the steam issues to the condenser, prior

to which the other fan, B, passes the steam-w^ay, and obtains a position to
receive the action of the steam, and continue the motion.
The steam- way, O O O O, may be considered to be a cylinder bent round,
and the fans, as they obtrude themselves, act the part of a piston, receiving
the impulse of the steam always on the one side, and effecting the con-
densation always on the other. It being requisite that the steam-way
should have some teimination, the obstacle, G, is indispensable, and the
movement of the fans upon hinges, or some other mode, to pass such
obstacle, is unavoidable ; and therefore, from being thus compelled to move
the piece acting as a piston continually to and from its fittings, it becomes
extremely difficult to maintain those fittings steam-tight. This, together
with the steam-way not being capable of receiving the cylindrical form,
are inconveniences of great moment. It has been found, therefore, that in
maintaining engines of this construction in a working condition, great
difficulties arise, which hitherto have not been surmounted; and as at present
these engines exist to no useful end, we shall refrain from describing them
further.

HIGH-PRESSURE ENGINES.
If water be urged greatly by fire, steam of greater pres-
sure is obtained; and it has been long known, that the
extent of the pressure increases in a greater ratio than the
expenditure of heat, which has been an inducement to many
to attempt to use steam at excessive pressures. The pres-
sures generally allowed in high-pressure engines, is not more
than 30, 40, and seldom exceeds 50 pounds to the inch.
In engines where the pressure is so great, the weight of
the atmosphere is not taken into account, and the mode of
effecting the motion of the piston is, by allowing one end of
the cylinder to be open to the air, whilst the steam acts on
the opposite side of the piston. By this mode of operation,
all the parts appertaining to the promotion of condensation,
are dispensed with, and, consequently, the expense of making
those parts, the friction caused by their operations, and the
attention which was necessary to their well-being, is entirely
saved. This gives to the engine a peculiar degree of sim-
plicity, but it is unfortunately attended with some danger.
208 THE OPERATIVE MECHANIC
Steam was applied in this mode so early as the year 1724,
and is described by Leupold, in his Theatrum Machinarum
Hydraulicarum^ vol. ii. p. 93. The engine thus described,
is formed with two cylinders, having pistons fitted and
attached to two separate beams, whose other ends are con-
nected with two force-pumps. Between the two cylinders is
a four- way cock, and as the pistons are weighed and brought
down to the bottom of each cylinder, it is evident that by
means of this cock, the steam can be let on alternately to the
bottom of each cylinder, whilst, at the same time, the oppo-
site cylinder to that in which the steam is admitted has a
communication with the atmosphere. Thus, by turning the
cocks, the two pistons are alternately raised by the steam, and
permitted to descend by the loading of weights attached to
their other end. This simple construction of high pressure
may be placed on a par with Newcomen's condensing
engine.
Mr. Watt presents to our notice this mode of using the
direct action of steam, in the latter part of his specification, in
1769 ; but the most common application of high-pressure
steam, of late years, is used in a form of engine invented
by Mr. Trevitheck, for the purpose of applying this power
to locomotion. He obtained a patent for it, in union with
Mr. Vivian, in the year 1802. This engine, from its compact-
ness, is peculiarly applicable to this purpose, as it requires no
condensing water, which would be an insurmountable bar to
its introduction.

Fig. 205 presents a section of this form of engine. AB is the boiler,

A' a safety-valve, C D the cylinder, E the four-way cock, G the passage
from the boiler, H the passage to the chimney, for the exit of the steam.
E is a four-way cock, F the passage to the top, and K the passage to the bot-
tom of the cylinder. M the piston, N the piston-rod, O the connecting rod,
joined to the cranks of the fly-wheel. The beam R is worked by the con-
necting rod, which has the rod of a small force-pump S attached to it, acting
on the other side of the boiler, and forcing water along QU into the boiler
by I. The fire-place is behind the chimney, as seen in the view, and is
surrounded on all sides by the boiler. Fig. 206 is a section of the cylinder
at right angles to the section at fig. 205. The four-way cock is moved by
means of a lever on its axis, which is struck by a tapit upon a rod from the
cross-piece Ca. It must be understood that there is another connecting
rod and crank on the farther side of the engine, and that the beam
connects them.

This engine, we conceive, requires little elucidation. The

four-way cock permits the steam to pass alternately to the top
and bottom of the cylinder by the passages F and K, and
affords it egress by G and the cold water coming to supply
;

the boiler, surrounding it on all sides, imbibes its heat, by

 AND MACHINIST. 209
which means the boiler is fed with water of a much higher
temperature, and the steam is condensed in H , by which a
more rapid exit is obtained for it.

This kind of engine was expressly intended for working

carriages. A locomotive engine was made by Mr. Treve-
theck, in South Wales, in 1804, and was tried upon the rail-
roads at Merthyr Tydvall. It drew after it as many carriages
as carried ten tons of bar iron for a distance of nine miles,
without any further supply of water than that contained in
the boiler at setting out, travelling at the rate of five
miles per hour. Since that period they have been tried in
many places upon rail-roads, but their introduction had not
become general until 1811, when Mr. Blenkinsop, proprietor
of the Middleton Coal-works, which supply the town of
Leeds, adopted them for conveying the coals on his rail-road.
Mr. Blenkinsop, when he adopted the locomotive engine, took
up the common rails on one side of the whole length of
the road, and replaced them with rails which had cogs on
their upper surface. These cogs are cast at the same time
with the rails, and are hollow beneath, to be as light as is con -
sistent with strength and durability. The pitch of the cogs
is six inches, so that each rail of three feet in length has only
six cogs. A wheel which is fixed on an axis which would be
that of the fly-wheel at one side of the carriage, works in the
teeth of these ^rails ; the whole machine is thus caused to
advance along the railway. Many fruitiest attempts have
been made to produce an engine capable of moving carriages
upon common roads; but before this can be effected, the
numerous parts of the engine must be made more compact,
and its weight considerably reduced.

Observations on the work, of steam-engine^ iit

Cornwall, from August 1811 to May 1816, inclusive,

by Messrs. Lean,
Messrs. Thomas and John Lean were appointed to the
general superintendence ; and the different proprietors,
as also the regular engineers of the respective mines,
engaged to give them every facility and assistance in their
power. Their first Monthly Report was for August, 1811,
and included eight engines, which had in that month consumed
23,661 bushels of coals, and lifted 126,126,000 pounds of
water one foot high, with one hushel of coals for each engine,
being an average duty of 15,760,000 pounds lifted one foot
high with each bushel of coals. In the months of September
and October the engines reported were nine, and in November
p
210 THE OPERATIVE MECHANIC
and December twelve 3 and it now evidently appeared that
the regular publication of Messrs. Leans very useful tables
had already been attended by some improvements in the con-
dition of the engines 3 for the average duty for December,
1811, extracted from these tables, appears to have been
17 , 075,000 pounds.
In January, 1812, the number of engines reported was four-
teen, and by the end of that year they were increased to nine-
teen 3 and the average duty performed by all the engines in.
the last-mentioned month had advanced to 18,200,000 pounds.
In 1813, the number of engines included in the Monthly
Reports continued to increase, till in December they were 29,
and the average work 20,162,000.
During some of the months of 1814, the engines reported
were 32, and the average duty performed during December
was 19,784,000 pounds lifted one foot high with each bushel
of coals.
The table which is subjoined is an abstract from Messrs.
Leans Reports, and has been formed by first counting how
many engines are reported, as in January 1815, 32 engines 3
then adding up the column containing the quantity of coals
consumed by all the engines during the month, and putting
down the amount, 110,824 3 in like manner adding up the
column of pounds lifted by each engine one foot high by one
bushel of coals, the amount of which was 637,320,990 ; and
lastly, dividing the latter quantity by 32, the number of
engines at work, to obtain the average duty performed, viz.
19,916,250 pounds.

TABLE.

Bushels of Bushels of Pounds of water Average of

Number of coals con- coalsupon lifted one foot pounds lifted
Engines re- sumed by all which the high by the one foot high
ported. the report is coals so with each
engines. founded. reported. bushel of coals

1811. August 8 23,661 8 126,126,000 15,760,000

September 9 25,237 9 125,164,000 13,900,000
October 9 24,487 0 121,910,000 13,540,000
November 12 30,998 12 189,340,000 15,770,000
December 12 39,545 12 204,907,000 17,075,000

1812. January 14 50,089 14 237,661,409 16,972,000

February 15 54,349 15 260,514,000 1 7,900,000
March 16 59,140 16 274,222,000 17,138,000

i
April 16 62,384- 16 276,233,000 17,260,000
 AND MACHINIST. 211

Table continued.

Bushels of Bushels of Pounds of water Average of

Number of coals con- upon
coals lifted one foot:
pounds lifted
Engines re- sumed by all which the high by the one foot high
ported. the report is 'oals so with each
engines. founded. reported. bushel of coals

1812. May 16 51,903 16 273,546,000 17,096,000

June 17 50,410 17 288,076,000 16,940,000
July 17 51,574 17 300,441,000 17,677,000
August 17 44,256 17 314,753,000 18,510,000
September 18 46,536 18 348,396,000 19,355,000
October 18 53,941 18 321,900,000 17,883,000
November 21 57,176 21 381,460,000 18,160,000
December 19 55,784 19 341,803,000 18,200,000

1813. January 19 60,400 19 363,906,000 19,153,000

February 22 58,044 22 438,737,000 1 9,940,000

March 23 73,862 23 440,642,000 19,157,000

April 23 61,739 23 431,032,000 18,700,000
May 24 58,890 24 463,346,000 19,300,000
June 24 53,110 24 470,157,000 19,590,000
July 23 56,709 23 443,462,000 19,281,000
August 21 50,110 21 416,898,000 19,852,000
September 22 58,008 22 427,148,000 19,415,000
October 26 74,796 26 488,671,000 18,795,000
November 28 77,1 35 28 537,958,000 19,212,000
December 29 86,273 29 584,721,000 20,162,000

1814. January 28 91,753 28 .550,751,000 19,670,000

February 26 78,986 26 536,677,000 20,641,000
March 28 109,904 23 565,406,000 20,193,000
April 29 91,607 29 576,617,000 20,325,000
May 28 79,437 28 569,319,000 20,305,000
June 30 75,343 30 626,669,000 20,888,000
July 27 85,224 27 573,208,000 21,229,000
August 26 70,443 26 545,019,000 20,960,000
September 27 78,167 27 560,608,000 20,763,000
October 32 75,080 32 630,704,000 19,709,000
November 32 82,000 32 637,322,000 19,916,000
December 29 84,669 29 573,744,006 19,784,276

1815. January 32 110,824 32 637,320,990 19,916,250

February 33 101,667 33 710,271,250 21,523,370
March 34 117,342 34 706,071,990 20,766,820
April 35 105,701 35 695,212,340 19,863,210
May 34 107,530 34 669,299,140 20,479,350

From the foregoing table it appears that the average duty of

the engines reported, exclusive of WoolFs patent engine, is
at thistime about 20 millions.
We have purposely omitted Woolfs patent engine, because
one of tlie ends intended to be gained by the Monthly Report
r 2
212 THE OIERATIVE MECHANIC
of work actually done by the engines employed in the mineSy
particularly in pumping, was to know the comparative merit
of Woolfs engine with two cylinders when contrasted with the
steam-engines in common use. One of Mr. Woolfs engines
has been lately erected at Wheal Vor mine, of 53 inches
diameter in the great cylinder, (the smaller cylinder being
about one-fifth of the contents of the great one,) and nine
feet stroke. According to Messrs. Leans Report for May, the
duty performed by the engine alluded to, was 49,980,882
pounds lifted one foot with every bushel of coals consumed
and by letter we are informed (for the printed Report has not
yet reached us) that the duty performed by Woolfs engine in
the month of June was 50,333,000.
Thus it appears that the average duty of the patent engine
for the months of May and June was fifty millions, while the
aggregate average duty of the other engines is only twenty
millions. From this it is evident that Mr. Woolfs improve-
ments on the steam-engine will be productive of much benefit
to the mining interests of the kingdom. On some of the large
mines, when this engine shall have come into general use,
which it must do sooner or later, the saving in fuel only will
add to the yearly dividends among the proprietors several
thousand pounds sterling. Nor is this all ; the expense that
will thus be saved will prevent numbers of mines from
stopping work ; and will be the means of setting many again
to work which have ceased on account of the expense neces-
sary to keep them free from water.
By Messrs. Leans^ Report for January, (1816,) the average work of 33
engines was 20,694,630 pounds of water lifted one foot high for each bushel
of coals consumed. WoolPs engine at Wheal Vor during the same month
lifted 47,900,333 pounds, and his engine at Wheal Abraham 47,622,040
pounds one foot high with each bushel of coals.
By the Report for February, the average work of 34 engines was
20,667,398 pounds lifted one foot with each bushel of coals. WoolPs
engine at Wheal Vor lifted 45,493,303 ; and the one at Wheal Abraham
45,896,382 pounds one foot high with each bushel.
Having examined into the construction of the several kinds
of engines general use, we shall forbear to mention the
in
steps of every speculatist who has attempted improvements
in this machine, and which have for years filled our pe-
riodical publications with plans, possessing more or less
ingenuity.
Calculations with respect to the power of steam are of great
importance ; but practical people are well aware that they
cannot be attended with accuracy. We
have already shown
tlMit the mnount of actual force expended in steam-pressures.
 AND MACHINIST. 213
can be ascertained with great accuracy, by gauges and safety-
valves ; but the resulting disposable power is not so easily
discovered, as the friction of the various parts vary greatly
according to the state which they are in. The state of the
condensation, in condensing engines, gives a more or less
perfect vacuum, which will vary notwithstanding the utmost
vigilance. It has been generally set down, among engineers,
that nearly one half of the power of steam must be deducted
from the disposable force ; therefore, suppose an engine of
24 inch piston, the area of which will be 452 square inches,
has a perfect vacuum, as exhibited by the barometer of tlie
condenser, and the weight of the atmosphere, denoted by the
weather-barometer, be about fourteen pounds, and the steam-
gauge on the boiler stands at about two inches, which is an
indication of two pounds pressure, we may estimate that there
is 17 lbs. per square inch pressing upon the piston ; therefore

17 X 452 = 7684 lbs. on the piston, half of which being

deducted for allowance of friction, leaves a disposable force
of 3842 lbs. moving through the distance at the same rate in
which the piston moves ; wliich force being divided by Messrs,
Bolton and Watts estimate of a horse-power, will give the
nominal power of such engine. In high-pressure engines,
where the steam is not condensed, what is indicated by the
steam-gauge of the boiler only, must be estimated as the
power acting upon the piston.
That the increments of power take place in a quicker ratio
than those of the temperature, has been long known ; and
an ingenious mechanic of the present day has attempted to
use steam at very high pressures. Without entering into a
description of the obstacles he met with, we will briefly ob-
serve, that the requisite strength of the parts to withstand
the pressure, conjoined to the excessive heat, present ob-
stacles not easily to be overcome.
The reciprocating motion in steam-engines is a loss of
power which cannot be denied. For the momentum of the
beam and other parts passing in one direction have suddenly
to be arrested and moved in the opposite direction, which
produces a loss of power. Rotatory action has been sought,
therefore, with propriety, but has not yet been obtained with
advantage.
Messrs. Boulton and Watt, in the introduction of the
steam-engine into many works where the power of horses
was used, were obliged to take into consideration the number
of horses used for any particular purpose, in order to ascer-
tain the amount of force wanted. Upon the conclusion of a
214 THE OPERATIVE MECHANIC
lulincrous set of experiments they decided, that a horse,
working eight hours a day, was capable of raising 33,000 lbs.
one foot high, in a minute. Therefore, by dividing the num-
ber of pounds an engine can lift one foot high in a minute, it
vrill give the amount of horses power to which that engine is

equal.
An entire view of an engine of the construction termed portable, is repre-
sented at fig. 207. A is the cylinder, B the air-pump, C the cola-water
pump, D the hot-waler pump, E the beam, F the connecting rod, G the
fiy-wheel, H the eccentric shaft, and I the governor.
Itwould occupy many volumes to describe the various forms
of construction of engines which have, since the knowledge of
the power of steam, been contrived ; and the information such
descriptions would convey would be, comparatively speaking,
of very little value, as the majority of them have arisen from
men ignorant of the principles of the action of the machine,
and whose productions should be classed as futile alterations.
In attempting any improvements, the principles of action
should first be taken into consideration. In condensing
engines the movement is effected by the alternate increase
and decrease of temperature, the perfection of both of which
js of great importance. The primary point to be aimed at,
therefore, is the maintaining of high temperature whilst the
steam is forcing, and reducing it suddenly when the conden-
sation is to be effected. This was taken into consideration
in the construction of Newcomens engine, and' was most
effectually attained by Mr. Watt.
The other parts of the engine may be examined v/ith a view
of improvement, by considering their weight and friction,
and by the substituting of a rotatory instead of a reciprocating
motion.
Simplicity of construction cannot be too strongly recom-
mended in all mechanical combinations ; for there are many
contrivances which would certainly be deserving of the name
of improvements, were they not inapplicable on account of
their intricacy.
Attempts havefrequently been made to avoid the use of the
air-pump, which takes up a considerable portion of the power of
an engine. A water barometer, adapted to the condenser, has
been sometimes adopted ; and a fall of water has been made
to pass over the upper edges and down the orifice of a tube,
forcing the air before it. The upper end of this tube com-
municates with the eduction pipe, and is said to support a
vacuum of considerable rarity. Exposing the steam which is
to be condensed to an increased surface by passing it along
\

\
W''
TXEraLAT.'[(r EF'I^IJsrjg PL 25

lu q 20 8
.

Nedr i Stodhy -<c

 AND MACHINIST. 216
tubes surrounded by water, or amongst tubes containing
water, has likewise been frequently adopted. Indeed the ex-
posure of considerable surface to receive heat in the generation
of steam, and the same to abstract it in condensation, have
been subjected to frequent trial. That an advantage is to be
procured by the adoption of such plans is undoubted; but to
attain such increased surface an intricacy in the parts, we
fear, must be adopted, which will more than counterbalance
the advantages gained.
The valves, or those parts of an engine which direct the
distribution of the steam, have always had the attention of
engineers, and, as we have shown, many elegant combina-
tions have resulted from their ingenuity.
In running a steam-engine, attention should be given to the
working parts. The cylinder should be packed with clean
hemp and the best tallow, and frequently examined to see
that the packing is in order. The steps of the fly-wheel,
shaft, and of the crank, beam, &c. should be frequently ex-
amined, and kept well oiled with sperm oil, which is the best
for all machinery. These parts must be kept from dust, and
if dry grindstones are driven in the mill, the dust must be care-
fully boxed off from the engine. The use of sand on the floor
of an engine-house should, for the same reason, be dispensed
with.
The method of starting an engine is, first to shut the con-
densing cock, then to open all the valves to let the steam
pass into the jacket, into the cylinder, through the eduction
pipe into the condenser, and out at the blow-valve, in order
to expel the air from all the parts, and get them to a proper
temperature, which will be shown by the steam issuing from
the blow-valve ; for previously to the parts being sufficiently
warmed, the steam in its progress becomes condensed.
When all the parts are heated, the injection water may be
let on, and a vacuum procured on one side of the piston,
which produces instant action.
The lever of the throttle-valve,which is ultimately to be
attached to the governor, should, on starting the engine, be
held by the hand of the attendant until the work is thrown on,
and the engine has acquired regular motion.
216 THB OPJERATIVK MECHANIC

BROWNES VACUUM, OR PNEUMATIC ENGINE.

Having concluded our account of the steam-engine, we
shallnow proceed to give a description of the engine above-
mentioned, which has recently claimed much attention from
the mechanical part of society. It is represented in fig. 208.
AA a beam, capable of vibrating upon a centre at B.
C and two chambers, formed of metal, of sufficient strength to resist
the pressure of the atmosphere (about 14 lbs. to the square inch) upon its
external surface, and having the caps C suspended, one at each end of
the beam, capable of closing each of these chambers in an air-tight manner.
The chamber is shown in section.
EE and E^ E^ are two pipes, containing valves opening upwards, leading
and affording a communication from the vessels F and F^ with each of the
chambers C and C*. These vessels, F and F\, contain floats, F^ F^, attached
to the beam A A, by rods which receive motion from the floats ; to these
rods are attached the slides t ty to close alternately, at each vibration of the
beam, the apertures h h. The pinsj^p, attached to one of the rods from the
floats, give motion to the small vibrating tube R, which, by the rods R'
attached to the cranks in the chamber S, alternately opens and closes the
pipes S^, communicating with the vessels F and F^,
DD is a pipe leading from the gasometer, branching off at into
the two chambers C and for the purpose of supplying the gas that is to
be consumed in effecting the vacuum. This supply can be admitted or
shut off by means of the cocks D^, which open and close by cranks,
worked by the movement of the beam.
G G two other branch-pipes, supplied with gas from the gasometer, and
ending in a jet at each end. By the slanting direction of the ends, it is
evident, that the flames from these jets will, when their respective orifices
A A be open, protrude into the chambers Cand Ch
K and are two pipes, affording a communication from the outer air to
the interior of each of the chambers C and C* ; their outer ends are
capable of being closed by means of the cranks n n, which are attached by
chains to the floats F^ F^.
Tlie mode of operation consists in allowing the gas to pass from the
gasometer along one of the branches of the pipe D
D, and thence into one
of the chambers C or C^, (suppose C *,) where, by the jet of ignited gas play-
ing in the orifice h, it becomes ignited, and by its combustion rarefies and
expels a considerable portion of the atmospheric air from that chamber.
Suppose now the cap of the chamber be put dawn, and by the movement of
the rod attached to the float the orifice h and gas-pipe D
be closed, the
combustion will immediately cease, and leave therein a partial vacuum. The
atmosphere beginning now to press upon the vessel F, will cause so much
of the water to pass from it into the chamber C
as will nearly compensate
*

the vacuum, when the valve through which the water passed being closed,
and communication between the interior of the chamber and the open air
effected by the opening ofKhthe water contained in the chamber flows from
thence through the aperture m, and affords power, by its fall and weight, to
the overshot water-wheel W. From hence it passes into the vessel S, and
finally is admitted by S* S* into F or F*, leaving the engine in a condition
to renew the operation.
 AND MACHINIST. 217
By inspecting the plate it be seen, that when the cap of one chamber
will
croses, the several openings to the same chamber close with it : and by the
rising of the other end of the beam the similar openings to the other cham-
ber are opened, and prepared for a like operation. It will also be seen
that the production of this motion is attained by the rising of the two floats
in the chambers F and F h

The advantages to be derived from this engine, as detailed

in the descriptive outline of the inventor, are,
First, The quantity of gas consumed being very small, the
expense of working the engine is moderate. In its application
on land the saving will be extremely great, the cost of the
coal gas (deducting the value of the coke) being inconsider-
able. The expense of working a marine engine will certainly
be greater, as the gas used for that purpose must be extracted
from oil, pitch, tar, or some other substance equally portable,
yet even in this case, it will not equal the cost of the fuel
required to propel a steam-boat ; and as a few butts of oil will
be sufficient for a long voyage, vessels of the largest tonnage
may be propelled to the most distant parts of the world.
Secondly, ^^The engine is light and portable in its construc-
tion, the average weight being less than one-fifth the weight
of a steam-engine (and boiler) of the same power. It also
occupies a much smaller space, and does not require the
erection of so strong a building, nor of a lofty chimney. In
vessels, the saving of tonnage will be highly advantageous,
both in the smaller comparative weight and size of the
engine, and in the very reduced space required for fuel.
Thirdly, This engine is entirely free from danger. No
boiler being used, explosions cannot take place, and as the
quantity of gas consumed is so small, and the only pressure
that of the atmosphere, it is impossible that the cylinder can
burst, or the accidents incidental to steam-boats occur.
The power of the engine (being derived from the atmo-
spheric pressure of ten pounds and upwards upon the square
inch) may be increased with the dimensions of the cylinders,
to any extent, and always ascertained by a mercurial gauge.
It
is scarcely necessary to allude to the well-known fact,
that, after deducting the friction arising from the use of the
air and cold-water pumps, &c. &c. the general available
power of the condensing steam-engine is from seven to eight
pounds per square inch.
The cost of the machine will be more, particularly as
constructed for raising water ; it is therefore peculiarly
adapted for draining fens, &c. or supplying reservoirs. The
expense of wear and tear will also be considerably less than
that of the steam-engine, and wheu occasionally out of order,
218 THK OPERATIVE MECHANIC
it may be repaired at a trifling cost^ and with but little
delay/
In examining the effects of this engine, we cannot to a cer -
tain extent withhold our approbation ; for the patentee has
undoubtedly effected and applied a vacuum, produced by
ignition, in a manner different and more manageable than
any attempts that have hitherto come to our knowledge.
The probability of its entering efficiently into competition
with the steam-power, is a question that requires the data
of experience, which, in this early state of the invention,
cannot be procured.
We understand it is the intention of the inventor to apply
the effects of the vacuum thus produced to the movement of a
piston in a cylinder, which object will, when attained, afford
a much greater scope for the application of its powers, and
render it peculiarly applicable to locomotion. The obstacle
which at present suggests itself to the attainment of this end
is, the difficulty of procuring a rapid condensation without
allowing cold water to enter the cylinders at each stroke,
which in the present form of construction is allowed, and
which greatly aids the operation by keeping the chambers
entirely cool. Without, however, seeking for obstacles,
we wish the ingenious inventor success in surmounting
them.

ON THE STRENGTH OF MATERIALS

An accurate knowledge of the following experiments
made by Mr. George Rennie, Jun., and communicated by him
in a letter to Thomas Young, M. D. For. Sec. R. S., is of so
much importance in the construction of machines, that we
have extracted it from the Transactions of the Royal Society
to which we have annexed some useful notes by Mr. T.
Tredgold.
In presenting the result of the following experiments,
says Mr. Rennie, trust I shall not be considered as deviating
from my subject, in taking a cursory view of the labours of
others. The knowledge of the properties of bodies which
come more immediately under our observation, is so instru-
mental to the progress of science, that any approximation to
it deserves our serious attention. The Royal Society appears
to have instituted, at an early period, some experiments on
 AND MACHINIST. 219
this subject, but they have recorded little to aid us. Emerson,
in his Mechanics, has laid down a number of rules and
approximations. Professor Robison in his excellent treatise
in the Encyclopcedia JBritaniiica, Banks on the Power of
Machines, Dr. Anderson of Glasgow, Colonel Beaufoy, &c.
are those, amongst our countrymen, who have given the
result of their experiments on wood and iron. The subject,
however, appears to have excited considerable attention on the
continent. Atheory was published in the year 1638, Dy
Galileo, on the resistance of solids, and subsequently by rn^any
other philosophers. But however plausible these investiga-
tions appeared, they were more theoretical than practical, as
will be seen in the sequel. It is only by deriving a theory
from careful and v/ell-directed experiments, that practical
results can be obtained. It would be useless to enumerate
the labours of those philosophers, who, in following, or varying
from the steps of Galileo, have merely tended to obscure a
subject respecting which they had no data to proceed upon.
It is sufficient to enumerate the names of those who, in con-
junction with our own countrymen, have added their labours
to the little knowledge we possess. The experiments of
Bulfon, recorded in the Annals of the Academy of Scie7ices at
Paris, in the years 1/40 and 1741, were on a scale sufficiently
large to justify every conclusion, had he not omitted to ascer-
tain the direct and absolute strength of the timber employed.
It however appeared from his experiments, that the strength
of the ligneous fibre is nearly in proportion to the specific
gravity. Muschenbroeck, whose accuracy (it is said) entitled
him to confidence, made a number of experiments on wood
and iron, which, by being tried on various specimens of the
same materials, afforded a mean result considerably higher
than other previous authorities. Experiments have also been
made by Mariotte, Varignon, Perronet, Ramus, Rondelet,
Gauthey, Navier, Aubry and Texier de Norbeck, as also at
the Ecole Poly technique, under the direction of M. Prony.
With such authorities before us, it might be deemed presump-
tion in me, to offer you a communication on a subject which
had been previously treated of by so many able men.* But

* It is true that the subject has been considered by many able philoso-
phers, from Galileo down to the present period, but it is only lately that
the proper object of attention has been ascertained ; or at least the results
of their inquiries had not been brought forward in a practicable form. For
when Dr.T, Young published his Lectures, there was little on the subject
besides the intricate, and I may add unsatisfactory, investigations of Euler
and Lagrange. As to the resistance to fracture, which with the greatei part
220 TIIM OPERATIVE MECHANIC
whoever has had occasion to investigate the principles upon
which any edifice is constructed, where the combination of its
parts are more the result of uncertain rules than sound prin-
ciple, will soon find how scanty is our knowledge on a
subject so highly important. The desire of obtaining some
approximation, which could only be accomplished by repeated
trials on the substances themselves, induced me to undertake
the following experiments.
A bar of the best English iron, about ten feet long, was selected and
formed into a lever, whose fulcrum is denoted by/, fig. 209. The hole was
accurately bored, and the pin turned, which suffered it to move freely. The
standard A was firmly secured by the nut c to a strong bed plate of cast-
iron, made firm to the ground. The lever was accurately divided in its
lower edge, which was made straight in a line with the fulcrum. A point,
or division D, was selected, at five inches from the fulcrum, at which place
was let in a piece of hardened steel. The lever was balanced by a weight,
and in this state it was ready for operation. But in order to keep it as level
as possible, a hole was drilled through a projection on the bed plate, large
enough to admit a stout bolt easily through it, which again was prevented from
turning in the hole by means of a tongue t fitting into a corresponding groove
in the hole. So that, in order to preserve the level, we had only to move
the nut to elevate or depress the bolt, according to the size of the specimen.
But as an inequality of pressure would still arise from the nature of the
apparatus, the body to be examined was placed between two pieces of steel,
the pressure being communicated through the medium of two pieces of thick
leather above and below the steel pieces, by which means a more equal
contact of surfaces was attained. The scale was hung on a loop of iron,
touching the lever in an edge only. I at first used a rope for the balance
weight, which indicated a friction of four pounds, but a chain diminished
the friction one half. Every movable centre was well oiled. Of the resist-
ances opposed to the simple strains which may disturb the quiescent state
of a body, the principal are the repulsive force, whereby it resists com-
pression, and the force of cohesion, whereby it resists extension. On the
former, with the exception of the experiments of Gauthey and Rondelet, on
stones, and a few others, on soft substances, there is scarcely any thing on
record. In the memoir of M. Lagrange, on the force of springs^ published
in the year 1760, the moment of elasticity is represented by a constant
quantity, without indicating the relation of this value to the size of the
spring but in the memoir of the year 1770, on the forms of columns, where
;

he considers a body whose dimensions and thickness are variable, he makes

the moment of elasticity proportional to the fourth power of the radius, in
observing the relations of theory and practice to accord with each other. This

of mechanical writers is the only object attended to, it is of very inferior

importance.
The laws of flexure constitute the chief guide in the construction of
buildings ; and the intention of these notes is to call the attention of experi-
mentalists to this part of the subject ; and as it is probable the ingenious
author of the experiments now before me may be tempted to resume his
labours, I feel certain that he will not feel displeased to have his attention
jcalled to some interesting points of inquiry, which he has either neglected
to notice, or has not given to the public. T. T.
 AND MACHINIST. 221
was admitted by Euler in his memoir of 1780, in his elaborate investigation
of the forms of columns. Mr. Coulomb had however shown before that
time, how inapplicable all these calculations were to columns under com-
mon circumstances ; and you, sir, have repeated' the observation in your
lectures on natural philosophy. The results of experiments have also been
equally discordant; since it is deduced from those of Reynolds, that the
power required to crush a cubic quarter of an inch of cast-iron is 448000
pounds avoirdupoise, or 200 tons ; whereas by the average of thirteen ex-
periments made by me on cubes of the same size, the amount never exceeded
10392-53 lbs. not quite five tons. This maybe seen by referring to the
tables. Tliere were four kinds of iron used, viz. 1. Iron taken from the
centre of a large block, whose crystals were similar in appearance and
magnitude to those evinced in the fracture of what is usually termed gun-
metal. 2. Iron taken from a small casting, close grained, and of a dull
grey colour. 3. Iron cast horizontally in bars of |th inch square, 8 inches
long. 4. Iron cast vertically, same size as last. These castings were re-
duced equally on every side to i of an inch square thus removing the hard:

external coat usually surrounding metal castings. They were all subjected
to a gauge. The bars were then presumed to be tolerably uniform. The
weights used were of the best kind that could be procured, and as the ex-
periment advanced, smaller weights were used.

Experiments on cast-iron in cubes of | of an inchy ^c.

Iron taken from the block whose specific gravity was 7-033.
Averages. lbs. avoirdupoise.
1454
14.39-66 1416
1449
On specimens of different lengths. Specific gravity of iron 6-977.

2116 >88 1922

2310
Ixf slipped with 1863 lbs. filed flat, and crushed
with 2363
1 X # ditto, . 149.5 ditto ,, 2005
i X 4 ditto ...... 1407
ditto 1743
ditto 1594
ixi ditto ...... 1439
/ipril 23, 1817. Experiments on cubes of | of an inch taken from the
block.
10561
9773.5
9596
9917
9020
Castings, horizontal. Specific gravity 7-113.
10432
10114 10720
10605
8699
Vertical castings. Specific gravity 7 '07 4..
bottom of vertical bar 12665
\i>^i 10950
11136-75^ 11088
) fxf 9844
l:|rx | full size. Scale broke with 10294 ;
tried
L again llOOS
 222 THE OPERATIVE MECHANIC
Averages. ^
lbs. avoifdup0)8e>
A prism, having a logarithmic curve for its limits, resembling a
column ; it was ^ of an inch diameter by one inch long, broke
with 6954

April 28i/[. Trials on prisms of different lengths.

horizontal 9455
ditto 9374
ditto, bad trial, 9006 lbs.
vertical 9938
9982-0 If ditto 10027

April 2dth. Horizontal castings.

9006
f x| 8845
ixf 8362
6430
^X or one inch long, 6321

Vertical castings.
ix i 9328
ix| 8385
TXI a small defect in the specimen 7896
7018
ixf or one inch. 6430

Experiments on different ynetals.

f x:|^ cast copper, crumbled with 7318

f fine yellow brass reduced with 3213- J with .... 10304
^xi wrought copper ^.... 3427's^ 6440
^X:J cast tin tV**** 552'^ 966
f x|^ cast lead f 483
The anomaly between the three experiments on f cubes, and the two
fii'st

second of a ditferent length, can only be accounted for, on the difficulty of re-
ducing such small specimens to an equality. The experiments on ^ inch prisms
of different lengths give no ratio. The experiments on f inch cubes, taking an
average of the three first in each, give a proportion between them and the three
on f cubes,
6*096 in the block castings
as 1 :

7-352 in the horizontal ditto

as 1 :

1 8 035 in the vertical ditto.

as :

In several cases the proportion is as the cubes.

The vertical cube castings are stronger than the horizontal cube castings.
The prisms usually assumed a curve similar to a curve of the third order,
previous to breaking.

The experiments on the different metals give no satis-

factory results. The consists in assigning a
difficulty
value to the different degrees of diminution.
,
When com-
pressed beyond a certain thickness^ the resistance becomes
enormous.
Experiments on the suspension of bars.
The lever was used as in the former case, but the metals Avere held by nippers.
They were made of wrought-iron, and their ends adapted to receive the bars,
which, by being tapered at both extremities, and increasing in diameter from
the actual section, (if I may so express it,) and the jaws of the nippers being
confined by a hoop, confined both. 'J'he bars, which Avere six inches long, and
i square, Avere thus fairly and firmly grasped.
 and machinist. 223
No. April 30. 1817.
45 f incli, castiron bar, horizontal }l}il3'5 los.
46 i do. do. vertical
47 I: do. cast steel previously tilted 8391
48 f do. blister steel, reduced per hammer .... 8322
49 f do. shear steel, do. do 7977
50 ^ do. Swedish iron, do. do 4504
51 j do. English iron, do. do 3492
52 f do. hard gmi'metal, mean of two trials .... 2273
53 f do. wrought copper, reduced per hammer 2J12 .

54 j do. cast copper 1192

55 f do. fine yellow brass 1123
56 f do. cast tin 296
57 ^ do. cast lead 114

Remarks on the last experiments.

The ratio of the repulsion of the horizontal cast cubes to the cohesion of
horizontal cast bars, is 8*65 1. :

The ratio of the vertical cast cubes to the cohesion of the vertical cast bars,
is as 9*14 ; 1.
The average of the bars, compared with the cube. No. 16, is as 10611 1. :

The other metals decrease in strength, from cast steel to cast lead.
The stretching of all the wrought bars indicated heat.
The fracture of the cast bars was attended with very little diminution of
section, scarcely sensible.

The experiment made by M. Prony (which asserts, that by

making a slight incision with the file, the resistance is
diminished one half) was tried on a J inch bar of English
iron the result was 2920 lbs., not a sixth part less.
;

This single experiment, however, does not sufficieiitly dis-

prove the authority of that able philosopher, for an incision is
but a vague term. The incision I made might be about the
fortieth part of an inch.

Experiments on the twist of i inch bars.

To operation of twisting oflF a bar, another apparatus was prepared:
effect the
it consisted of a wrought-iron lever two feet long, ha^iing an arched head about
l-6th of a circle, of four feet diameter, of which the lever represented the
radius ; the centre round which it moved had a square hole made to receive the
end of the bar to be twisted. The lever was balanced as before, and a scale
hung on the arched head the other end of the bar being fixed in a square hole
;

in a piece of iron, and that again in a vice. The undermentioned weights

represent the quantity of weight put into the scale.
May 30, 1817.
On twists close to the bearing, cast horizontal.
No. lbs, oz.
^

58 I: in bars, twisted as under with 10 14 in the scale,

59 ^ do. bad casting 8 4
60 i do. 10 11

Average 9 1

Cast vertical.
61 i 10 8
62 i 10 13
63 I 10 11

Average 10 Id
224 THE OPERATIVE MECHANIC
On different metals.
No. lbs. oz.
64 Cast steel 17 9 in the scale.
65 Shear steel 17 1
66 Blister steel 16 11
67 English iron, wrought 10 2
68 Swedish iron, wrought 9 8
69 Hard gun-inetal 5 0
70 Fine yellow brass. 4 11
71 Copper, cast 4 5
72 Tin 1 7
73 Lead 1 0
On twists of different lengths.
Horizontal. Vertica.
No. Weight in scale. No. Weight in scale.
74 f by ^ long 7 3 77 f by do 10 1
75 i by ^ do 8 1 78 i by I do 8 9
76 i by 1 inch do 8 8 79 i by 1 inch do 8 5
Horizontal twists at 6 from the bearing.
80 by 6 inches long 10 9
81 ^ by do. do 9 4
82 by do. do.. . * 9 7

Twists of ^ inch square bars, cast horizontally.

No. qrs. Ibs.oz.
83 ^ close to the bearing 3 9 12 end of the bar hard.
84 ^ do. 2 18 0 middle of the bar.
85 i at 10 inches from bearing, lever in the \
1 24 0
middle j
On tivists of different materials.
These experiments were made close to the bearing, and the weights were
accumulated in the scale until the substances were wrenched asunder.
No. Weight in scale. No. Weight in scale.
86 Cast steel 19 9 91 Hard gun-metal . 0
87 Shear steel 17 1 92 Fine yellow brass. 11
88 Blister steel 11 93 Copper 5
89 English iron. No. 1 .... 10 2 94 Tin 7
90 Swedish iron 8 95 Lead 0

Remarks.
Here the strength of the vertical bars still predominates.
The average of the two taken conjointly, and compared with a similar
case of i inch bars, gives the ratio as the cubes, as was anticipated.

In the horizontal castings of different lengths, the balance

is in favour of the increased lengths
;
but in the vertical cast-
ings, it is the reverse. In neither is there any apparent ratio.
In the horizontal castings at six inches from the bearing,
there is a visible increase, but not so great as when close to
the bearing.
June 4, 1817. Miscellaneous experiments on the crush of one cubic inch.
No. lbs. avoirdiipoise.
96 Elm 1284
97 American pine 1606
98 White deal 1928
99 English oak, mean of two trials 3860
100 Ditto, of 5 inches long, slipped with 2572
 AND MACHINIST- 225
)fc avoirdi.poiip.
101 English oak, of four indies long, slipped with 5147*
102 A prism of Portland stone 2 inches long 805
103 Ditto, statuary marble 3216
104 Craig Leith 8688
In the following experiments on stones, the pressure was communicated
through a kind of pyramid, the base of which rested on the hide leather, and
that on the stone. t The lever pressed upon the apex of the pyramid. Cubet.
of one and a half inch.
No. Spec. grav. ll>s. avoir.
105 Chalk 1127
106 Brick of a pale red colour 2 085 1265
107 Roe-stone, Gloucestershire 1449
108 Red brick, mean of two trials 2168 1817
109 Yellow face baked Hammersmith paviors, 3 times 2254
110 Burnt do. mean of two trials 324.3
111 Stourbridge or fire brick 3864
112 Derby grit, a red friable sand-stone 2 316 7070
113 Ditto, from another quarry 2-428 9776
114 Killaly white freestone, not stratified 2*423 10264
115 Portland 2-428 10284
116 Craig Leith, white freestone 2*452 12346
June 5, 6, and 7, 1817.
117 Yorkshire paving with the strata 1285o
2*507
118 Ditto, do. against the strata 12836
2*507
119 White statuary marble not veined 13632
2*760
120 Bramley Fall sandstone, near Leeds, with strata 13632
2*506
121 Ditto, against the strata 13632
2*506
122 Cornish granite 14302
2*662
123 Dundee sandstone or brescia, two kinds 2 530
14918
124 A two -inch cube of Portland 2*423
14918
125 Craig Leith with the strata 2*452
15560
126 Devonshire red marble, variegated 16712
127 Compact limestone 2*584 17354
128 Peterhead granite hard close grained 18636
129 Black compact limestone, Limerick 2*598 '19924
130 Purbeck 2*599 20610
131 Black Brabant marble 2*697 20742
132 Very hard freestone 2.528 21254
133 White Italian veined marble 2*726 21783
134 Aberdeen granite, blue kind 2*625 24556
N. B. The specific gravities w*ere taken with a delicate balance, made by
Creighton of Glasgow, all with the exception of two specimens, which were b)
accident omitted.
Remarks.
In observing the results presented by the preceding table,
it will be seen that little dependence can be placed on the
* The experiments on woodsare considerably below those of other writers
and appears singular that the four-inch specimen should be stronger than the
it
shorter length. According to Rondelets experiments, to crush a cubic inch of
oak it required from 5000 to 6000 lbs. avoirdupoise
of fir - from 6000 to 7000 lbs.
In the former the pieces Avere composed one-third of their length ; in the^latter
one-half of their length (Rondelets L'Art de Btdir, tom. iv. p. 67.) Mr. Rennie
has not stated the diminution of length.
t It certainly would have been preferable to have placed a hard and rigid
substance next the stone, in order to secure equality of pressure.
Q
226 THE OPERATIVE MECHANIC
specific gravities of stones, so far as regards their repulsive
powers, although the increase is certainly in favour of their

specific gravities. But there would appear to l)e some unde-

fined law in the connection of bodies, with which the specific
gravity has little to do. Thus, statuary marble has a specific
gravity above Aberdeen granite, yet a repulsive power not
much above half the latter. Again, hardness is not altogether
a characteristic of strength, inasmuch as the limestones, which
yield readily to the scratch, have nevertheless a repulsive
power approaching to granite itself.
It is a curious fact in the rupture of amorphous stones,
that ]>yramids are formed, having for their base the upper
side of the cube next the lever, the action of which displaces
the sides of the cubes, precisely as if a wedge had operated
lietween them. I have preserved a number of the specimens,
the sides of which, if continued, might cut the cubes in the
direction of their diagonals.

Experiments made on the transverse strain of cast bars, the ends loose,
June ^th, I 8 I 7 .*
Weight of the dist. of bearings, lbs.
bars, lbs. oz. ft. in. avoir.
135 Bar of inch square
1 12 6 3 0 897
136 /Do. of 1 inch do 9 8 2 8 1086
137 t Half the
above bar 1 4 2.520
2
138 / Bar of 1 inch square, through the diagonal 2 8 8 851
139 (
Half the above bar 1 4 1587
140 /Bar of 2 inches deep, by f inch thick 9 5 2 8 2185
141 i Half the above bar 1 4 4508

* A bar of cast-iron, from a Welsh foundry, which did not yield easily to
the file, was laid upon supports exactly three feet apart ; the bar was an inch
square, and when 308 pounds were put into a scale suspended from the middle,
of its length, the deflexion was found to be 3-16ths of an inch whence the ;

height of the modulus of elasticity is 6,386,688 feet. The experiment was

made by Mr. R. Ebbels, at Garnons, near Hereford. A joist of cast-iron, nine
inches deep, resembling in form the letter I, was laid upon supports 19 feet
apart, first on its edge, when the deflexion from its own weight was 3-40ths of
an inch. It was then laid flatwise, and the deflexion from its own weight was
3J inches. The castings were from Messrs. Dowsons foundry, Edgware-road.
The iron yielded easily to the file. The height of the modulus of elastifcity
according to the experiment on the
joist flatwise is 5,100,000 feet,
-on the edge is 5,700,000 feet.
The deflexion being very small when the joist was on its edge, perhaps it was
not measured with the necessary degree of accuracy, as a very small error
would cause the difference in the result. The following tablet contains the
value of the modulus for cast-iron, according to the experiments above stated.
Height of modulus in feet. Experimentalists.
Cast-iron (Welsh) 6,386,688 Ebbels.
Cast-iron 3,500,000 Banks.
Cast-iron, grey French 5,095,480 Rondelet.
Cast-iron, soft do 4,247,000 Rondelet.
Cast-iron 5,700,000 By my trial.
 AND MACHINIST, 227
1 of thadis. of bearings. lb.
bars, lbs. oz. ft. in. avoir.
142 fBar 3 inches deep, bv|- inch thick 9 15 2 8 3588
143 XHalfthebar .... 1 4 6854
r.
144 Bar 4 inches, by | inch thick . . . 9 7 8 3979
145 Equilateral triangles with the angle up and down.
146 r Edge
or angle up 9 11 2 8 1437
147 J angle down. ^
9 7 2 8 840
148 S Half the first bar .... 1 4 3059
149 (_Half the second bar 4 1656
150 A feather-edged or bar was cast whose dimensions IS were
151 f 2 inches deep by 2 wide 10 0 edge up 2 8 3105
152 t Half of ditto
N. B. All these bars contained the same area, though differently distributed as
to their forms.

Experiments made on the bar of 4 inches deep by f inch thick, by giving it

different forms, the bearings at 2 feet 8 inches, as before.

No. ^
lbs. lbs.
^
*
153 Bar formed into a semi-ellipse, weighed 7 4000
154 Ditto, parabolic on its lower edge 3860
Ditto, of 4 inches deep by ^ inch thick 3979
Experiments on the transverse strain of bars, one end made fast, the weight
being suspended at the other, at 2 feet 8 inches from the bearing.

155 An
inch square bar bore 280
156 A bar 2
inches deep by J an inch thick 539
157 An inch bar, the ends made fast 1 173

The paradoxical experiment of Emerson was tried, which states that by

cutting off a portion of an equilateral triangle (see page 114 of Emersons
Mechanics) the bar is stronger than before, that is, a part stronger than the
whole. The ends were loose at two feet eight inches apart as before. The edge
from which the part was intercepted Avas lowermost, the weight was applied on
the base aboA'e, it broke with 1129 pounds, whereas in the other case it bore
only 840 pounds.

Remarks on the transverse strain.

Banks makes his bar from the cupola, Avhen placed on bearings three feet
asunder , and the ends loose, to bear 864 lbs.
Now all my bars were cast from the cupola, the difference was therefore 33 lbs.
I adapted a space of two feet eight inches asunder, as being more convenient
for my apparatus. The strength of the different bars, all cases being the same,
approaches nearly to the theory, Avhich makes the comparative values as the
breadths multiplied into the squares of the depths. Tlie halves of the bars
were tried, merely to keep up the analogy. The bar of four inches deep, how-
ever, falls short of theor)"^ by 365 pounds. It is evident e cannot extend the
system of deepening the bar much further, nor does the theory exactly maintain
in the case of the equilateral triangle by 243 lbs.
Tlie diagonal position of the square bar, is actually worse than when laid on
itsside, contrary to many assertions.
The same quantity of metal in the feather-edged bar was not so strong as
in the four-inch bar.
The semi-elliptical bar, exceeded the four-inch bar, although taken out of it.

The parabolic bar came near it.

The bar made fast at both ends, I suspect must have yielded, although the
ends were made fast by iron straps. The experiments from Emerson, on solids
of different forms, might be made ; but the time and trouble these experiments
have already cost, have compelled me to relinquish further pursuits for the
present. If, however, in the absence of better, they are worthy of the indul-
gence of the Royal Society, it will not only be a consolation to me that my
228 THE OPERATIVE MECHANIC
labours merit their attention, but a further inducement to prosccut' the
investigation of useful facts, which, even in the present advanced state of
knowledge, will yet admit of addition.

The science of construction is yet in its infancy, and cer-

tainly requires many additions. The first experiments on
the strength of materials appear to have been made before
the Royal Society ; and there can be no doubt that a favour-
able reception will be given to any others that will tend to
elucidate a subject which is likely to form one of the prin-
cipal branches of an engineers education ; as he must either
proceed on the principle of science, or be directed by a
feeling of fitness, which is to be acquired only by devoting a
lifetime to the practice of his art.

HYDRAULIC ENGINES,
This term is applicable to all machines driven by the force
of water ; consequently we have, under the article Water-
mills, already treated of the most extensive branch of these
machines. Those which have now to claim our attention,
are such as could not with propriety be introduced under
that head, and which are, upon the whole, of too much im-
portance, both with respect to the conve}^ance of water, and
as accessions to mechanical combinations, to be entirely
omitted.
1. Of all the hydraulic machines invented by the ancients,
though Archimedes screw is the most curious, the tympanum
raises the greatest quantity of water at once.
It composed of several planks joined
consists of a great hollow wheel,
together,and well calked and pitched, forming, as its name imports, a
kind of barrel or drum, and having an horizontal axle on which it
turns. The interior is divided by eight partitions into as many equal
spaces or cells, each of which has an orifice of about half a foot in the rim
of the drum or wheel, shaped so as to facilitate the admission of the
water : there are, moreover, eight hollow channels running contiguous
to each other and
parallel to the axle of the wheel, each corresponding to
one of the eight large cells, through which the water passes from the cells
just mentioned, and after running along the channels to a convenient
d'.stance escapes through orifices into a reservoir placed just beneath the
axle of the wheel. Thus the water is elevated through a vertical space
equal to the radius of the hollow wheel. When the tympanum is used to
raise water from a running stream, it is moved by means of float-boards
impelled by the stre.rm; but when employed to raise stagnant water, it
receives motion from a foot-wheel placed on the same shaft, which is,
as we have alread v described under the article Foot-mill,' turned by men
walking inVide. The chief defect of this machine is, that it raises the water
 AND MACHINIST. 229
in the most disadvantageous situation possible ^ov the load being found
:

always towards the extremity of a radius of the wheel, the arm of the
effective lever which answers to it, increases through the whole quadrant the
water describes in passing from the bottom of the wheel to the altitude of
its centre ; so that the power must act in like manner as if it were applied

at a winch-handle, and, consequently, cannot act uniformly.

2. M, de la Faye, to remedy this defect^ devised a ma-

chine which may here be described, together with the process
of reasoning that led to it.
When we develope the circumference of a circle, a curve is described
(i. e.the involute) of which all the radii are so many tangents to the circle,
and are likewise all respectively perpendicular to the several points of the
curve described, which has for its greatest radius a line equal to the
periphery of the circle evolved. The truth of which is shown by geometri-
cians when treating of the genesis of evolute and involute curves.
Hence, having an axle whose circumference a little exceeds the height
which the water is proposed to be elevated, let the circumference of the
axle be evolved, and make a curved canal whose curvature shall coincide
throughout exactly with that of the involute just formed : if the further
extremity of this canal be made to enter the water that is to be elevated,
and the other extremity abut upon the shaft which is turned ; then in the
course of the rotation the water will rise in a vertical direction, tangential
to the shaft, and perpendicular to the canal in whatever position it may
be. Thus the action of the weight answering always to the extremity of a
horizontal radius will be as though it acted upon the invariable arm of a
lever, and the power which raises the w'eight will be always the same and :

if the radius of the wheel, of which this hollow canal serves as a bent spoke,
is equal to the height that the water is to be raised, and consequently equal

to the circumference of the axle or shaft, the power will be to the load of
water reciprocally as the radius of a circle to its circumference, or directly
as 1 to nearly.
In M. de Faye's opinion, the machine ought to be composed of four of
la
these canals but it has often been constructed with eight, as represented
:

in fig. 210. The wheel being turned by the impulsion of the stream upon
the float-boards, the orifices F, E, D, C, &c. of the curvilinear canals, dip one
after another into the water which runs into them ; and as the wheel revolves

/, e, d, c, &c. and runs out in a stream P froin

the fluid rises in the canals,
the holes at O ; it is received into the trough Q, and conveyed from thence
by pipes.
By this construction the weight to be raised offers always
the same resistance, and that the least possible, while the
power is applied in the most advantageous manner the cir-
cumstances will admit of these conditions both fulfilled at
:

the same time furnish the most desirable perfection in a

machine. Further, this machine raises the water by the
shortest way, namely, the perpendicular, or vertical ; in this
respect being preferable to Archimedes screw, where the
water is carried up an inclined path and besides this, each
:

curved channel in this wheel empties all the water it receives

in every revolution, while the screw of Archimedes delivers
only a small portion of the fluid it is charged with, being
230 THK OPERATIVK MECHANIC
often loaded with twenty times as much water as is discharged
in one rotation ;
and thus requiring an enormous increase of
labour when a large quantity is intended to be raised by it.
The nature and advantages of this wheel evince very forci-
bly how far the speculations of geometers are from being so
unfruitful in useful applications, is often insinuated by
practical men.
3. The wheel just described would, we think, be the most
perfect of any that could be employed for raising water, had
it not the disadvantage attending the tympanum, which is,

that it can only raise water to the height of its semidiameter.

As in many cases water is to be raised higher than the radius
of any wheel can well be made for practice, we shall next
describe a machine called the Noria, common in Spain,
which raises water nearly through a diameter.
Tliis Noria consists of a vertical wheel of 20 feet diameter, on the
circumference of which are fixed a number of little boxes or square buckets,
for the purpose of raising the water out of the well, communicating with
the canal below, and to empty it in a reservoir above, placed by the side
of the wheel. The buckets have a lateral orifice, to receive and to dis-
charge the water. The axis of this wheel is embraced by four small
beams, crossing each other at right angles, tapering at the extremities,
and forming eight little arms. This wheel is near the centre of the
horse-walk, contiguous to the vertical axis, into the top of which the horse-
beam is fixed ; but near the bottom it is embraced by four little beams,
forming eight arms similar to those above described, on the axis of the
water-wheel. As the mule which they use goes round, these horizontal
arms, supplying the place of cogs, take hold, each in succession, of those
arms which are fixed on the axis of the water-wheel, and keep it in
rotation.

This machine, than which nothing can be cheaper, throws

up a great quantity of water; yet undoubtedly it has two
defects : the that part of the water runs out of the
first is,
buckets and back into the well after it has been raised
falls
nearly to the level of the reservoir the second is, that a
:

considerable proportion of tlie water to be discharged is

raised higher than the reservoir, and falls into it only at the
moment when the bucket is at the highest point of the
circle, and ready to descend. These inconveniences are both
remedied by the contrivance mentioned in the next paragraph.
4. The Persian wheel is a name given to a machine for
raising water, which may be turned by means of a stream
A B acting upon the wheel C D E according to the order of
the letters ;
(fig, 210.)
Tlie buckets , , a, &c. instead of being firmly fastened, are hung upon the
wheel by strong pins, 6, 6, 6, 6, &c. fixed in the side of the rim ; which must
be made as high as the water is intended to be raised above the level of that
part of the stream in which the wheel is placed. As the wheel turns, the
 :LrYiD;RAi' i.:[r s PI. 2e.

From 20.9 to 213

BeP Phitc

r\S7
Plan of Lev^r

Hie hmfjth ofthe Lcverisiwt sho^Mi

O /IT
 AN1> MACHINIST. 231
buckets on the right hand go down into the water, where they are filled,
and return up fullon the left hand, till they come to the top at K where
;

they strike against the end n of the fixed trough M, by which they are
overset, and so empty the water into the trough ; from whence it is to be
conveyed in pipes to any place it is intended for and as each bucket gets
:

over the trough, it falls into a perpendicular position again, and so goes
down empty till it comes to the water at A, where it is filled as before. On
each bucket is a spring, r, which going over the top or crown of the bar m
(fixed to the trough M) raises the bottom of the bucket above the level of
its mouth, and so causes it to empty all its water into the trough.
To determine the due relation of the power and the weight so that this
wheel may be capable of prod ucing the greatest effect, the following may
be taken as a good approximation. After having fixed the diameter of the
wheel, which must be something greater than the altitude to which the
water is to be raised ; fix also upon an even number of buckets to be hung
at equal distances round the periphery of the wheel, and mark the position
of their centres of motion in such a manner that they will stand in corres-
ponding positions in every quarter of the circle conceive vertical lines
:

drawn through the centre of motion of each bucket in the rising part of the
wheel; they will intersect the horizontal diameter of the wheel in points at
which, if tire buckets were hung, they would furnish the same resistance to
the moving force as they do when hanging at their respective places on the
rim of the wheel. Thus, supposing there were 18 equidistant buckets;
then while eight hung on each side a vertical diameter of the wheel there
would be eight on the other side, and two would coincide with that diameter
in this case the resistance arising from all the full buckets would be the same
as if one bucket hung oji the prolongation of the horizontal diameter at the
distance of 2 sin. 20 I- 2 sin. 40 + 2 sin. 60 + 2 sin. 80, these being
the sines to the common radius of the wheel.
To know the quantity of water that each bucket should contain, take f of
the absolute force of the stream, that is, ^ of the weight of the prism of
water whose base is the surface of one of the float-boards, and whose
height is that through which water must fall to acquire the velocity of the
stream ; so have we the power that should be in equilibrio with the weight
of water in the buckets of the rising semicircle. Then say, as the sum of
the sines mentioned above is to radius, so is the power just found to a
fourth term, the half of which will be the weight of water that ought to be
contained in one bucket. Lastly, as the velocity of the wheel will be to
that of the stream nearly as 1 to 2|-, the quantity of revolutions it makes in
any determinate time becomes known, and, by consequence, the quantity
of water the wheel will raise in the same time ; since we know the capacity
of each bucket, and the number of them emptied in every revolution of the
wheel.
5. Another contrivance for raising water similar to the
chain-pump^ which is described in another part of the work,
is an endless rope with stuffed cushions hung upon it, which,
by means of two wheels or drums, are caused to rise in
succession in the same barrel, and to cai*ry water with them.
From the resemblance of this apparatus to a string of beads,
it is usually called paternoster-work. But in this, as well as
the chain-pump, the magnitude of the friction is a formidable
practical objection.
0. Jets and fountains are not now considered as conducive
 232 THii OPERATIVE MECHANIC
to picturesque beauty ;
nor can they be reckoned of much
except perhaps in hot climates; we have not there-
utility,
fore described any in this work. But in the fountain of Hiero
of Syracuse, a principle is introduced which has been found
of great utility in larger works ; for the head of water is
actually lower than the orifice, but the pressure is communi-
cated by the intervention of a column of air the construction
:

of this fountain is as follows :

It consists of two vessels K L M
N (fig. 212) and O P Q R, which are close
on all sides. A tube A B, having a funnel at the top, passes through the
uppermost vessel without communicating with it, being soldered into its top
and bottom. It also passes through the top of the under vessel, where it is
likewise soldered, and reaches almost to its bottom. This tube is open at
both ends. There is another open tube S T, which is soldered into the top
of the under vessel and the bottom of the upper vessel, and reaches almost
to its top. These two tubes serve also to support the upper vessel. A
third tube G F is soldered into the top of the upper vessel, and reaches
almost to its bottom. This tube is open at both ends, but the orifice G is
very small. Now suppose the uppermost vessel filled with water to the
height E N, E e being its surface a little below T. Stop the orifice G with
the finger, and pour in water at A. This will descend through A B, and
compress the air in OPQR into less room. Suppose the water in the
under vessel to have acquired the surface C c, the air which formerly
occupied the whole of the spaces OPQR
and K L e E will now be con-
tained in the spaces o P c C and K L e E ; and its elasticity will be in
equilibrio with the weight of the column of water, whose base is the surface
E, e, and whose height is A c. As this pressure is exerted in every part of
the air, it will be exerted on the surface E e of the water of the upper
vessel ;
and if the pipe F G were continued upwards, the water would be
supported in it to a height e H
above E e, equal to A c. Therefore, if the
finger be now taken from off the orifice G, the fluid will spout up through
it to the same height as if it had fallen through a tube whose altitude is

e H. So long as there is any water in the vessel KLN M

there vidll be a
discharge through the orifice therefore the play of the fountain will con-
:

tinue whilst the water contained in the upper vessel, having spouted out,
falls down through the pipe A B the height of the water measured from
:

the basin V AW
to the surface of the water in the lower vessel OPQR
is always equal to the height measured from the top of the jet to the

surface of the water in the vessel K LMN.

Now, since the surface Ee
is always falling, and the water in the lower vessel always rising, the
height of the jet must coniinually decrease, till it is shorter by the depth
of K L M
N, which is empty, added to the depth of O P Q R, which is
always filling ; and when the jet is fallen so low, it immediately ceases to
play.

7. A machine designed to raise water to a great height for

the irrigation of land, in such situations as have the advantage
of a small fall, is described in Dr. Darwin^s Phytologia: as
it depends on the principle of Hieros fountain, it may pro^

perly be inserted here.

I'lg. 211 a, b, is the stream of water.
,

b, c, c, represents the water-fall, supposed to be 10 feet.

 AND MACHINIST. 233
rf,
6f two leaden or iron vessels, containing a certain quantity of
are
water, which may be computed to be about four gallons each.
h, i, k, ly are leaden vessels, each holding about two quarts.
o, py two cocks, each of which passes through two pipes, opening the one
and closing the other.
q, r, is a water-balance, that moves on its centre s, and by which the
two cocks o and p are alternately turned.
t, u, and w, cc, are two air-pipes of lead, both internally inch in
diameter.
y, z; y, z z ; are water-pipes, each being one inch in diameter.
; y,
The pipe always full from the stream a, b
b,e, c, is the small cisterns
gy iy I, and the large one d, are supposed to have been previously filled with
water. The fluid may then be admitted by turning the cock o, through the
pipe c, e, into the large cistern e. This water will press the air confined in
the cistern e up the air-pipe w, x, and will force the fluid out of the cisterns
g, i, I, into those marked h, k, and C.
At the same time, by opening B, the
water and condensed air, which previously existed in the large cistern d,
and in the smaller ones marked /, h, k, will be discharged at B. After a
short time, the water-balance, q, r, s, will turn the cocks, and exclude the
water, while it opens the opposite ones the cisterns/, h, k, are emptied in
:

their turns by the condensed air from the cistern d, as the water progressively
enters the latter from the pipe b, c.

8. A very ingenious application of the same principle has

been made in the celebrated Hungarian machine^ at Chemnitz.
The best account we have been able to obtain of this is the
following
In 213,
fig. A
represents the source of water elevated 136 feet above the
mouth of the pit. From this there runs down a pipe D
of four inches
diameter, which enters the top of a copper cylinder B, feet high, 5 feet dia-
meter, and 2 inches thick, and reaches to within 4 inches of the bottom
it has a cock at I.

This cylinder has a cock at Q, and a very large one at N. From its
top proceeds a pipe V
E C, two inches in diameter, which goes 96 feet
down the pit, and is inserted into the top of another brass cylinder C, which
is 6^ feet high, four feet diameter, and two inches thick the latter contain-
:

ing about 83 cubic feet,' which is nearly one half of the capacity of the
former, viz. 170 cubic feet. There is another pipe F O
of four inches dia-
meter, which rises from within four inches of the bottom of this lower
cylinder, is soldered into its top, and rises to the trough Z which carries off
the water from the mouth of the pit. This lower cylinder communicates at
the bottom with the water O, which collects in the drains of the mines. A
large cock P serves to exclude or admit this water another cock
: M
at the
top of this cylinder communicates with the external air.
Now, suppose the cock I shut, and all the rest open the upper cylinder
;

will contain air, and the lower cylinder will be filled with water, because it
is sunk so deep that its top is below the usual surface of the mine-waters.

Shut the cocks Q, N, M, P, and open the cock I. The water of the source
A must run in by the orifice J, and rise in the upper cylinder, compressing
the air above it and along the pipe V E C, and thus acting on the surface
of the water in the lower cylinder. It will therefore cause it to rise gradually
in the pipe O F, where it will always be of such a height that its weight
balances the elasticity of the compressed air. Suppose no issue given to
the air from the upper cylinder, it would be compressed into one-fifth of its
bulk by the column of 136 feet high; for a column of 34 feet nearly
234 THE OPERATIVE MECHANIC
balances the ordinary elasticity of the 'air. Therefore, when there is an
issue given to it through the pipe VEC, it will drive the compressed air
along this pipe, and it will expel w'ater from the lower cylinder. When
the upper (cylinder is full of water, there will be 34 cubic feet of water
expelled from the lower cylinder. If the pipe O P had been more than
136 feet long, the water would have risen 136 feet, being then in equilibrio
with the water in the feeding pipe D by the intervention of the elastic air
but no more water w'ould have been expelled from the lower cylinder than
what fills this pipe. But the pipe being only 96 feet high, the water will
be thrown out at Z with a considerable velocity. If it were not for the
great obstructions which water and air must meet wdth in their passage
along pipes, it would issue at Z with a velocity of more than 50 feet per
second. It issues however much more slowly, and at last the upper
cylinder is full of water, and the water would enter the pipe V E and enter
the lower cylinder, and, without displacing the air in it, would rise through
the discharging pipe O P, and run off to waste. To prevent this there
hangs in the pipe V E a cork ball or double cone, by a brass wire which
is guided by holes in two cross pieces in that pipe. When the upper
cylinder is filled with w^ater, this cork plugs up the orifice V, and no water
is wasted; the influx at J now stops. Ikit the lower cylinder contains com-
pressed air, which would balance water in a discharging pipe 1 36 feet high,
whereas O P is only 96. Therefore the water will continue to flow at Z till
the air has so far expanded as to balance only 96 feet of water, that is, till
it occupies one-half of its ordinary bulk, that is, one-fourth of the capacity
of the upper cylinder, or 42 ^ cubic feet. Therefore 42 cubic feet will be
expelled, and the efflux at Z will cease ; and the lower cylinder is about
one-half full of water. When the attending workman observes this,
he shuts the cock I. He might have done this before, had he known
when the orifice V was stopped ; but no loss ensues from the delay. At
the same time the attendant opens the cock N the w^ater issues with great
violence, being pressed by the condensed air from the lower cylinder. It
therefore issues with the sum of its own weight and of this compression.
These gradually decrease together, by the efflux of the water and the expan-
sion of the air; but this efflux stops before all the water has flowed out; for
there is 42 ^ feet of the low^er cylinder occupied by air. This quantity of
water remains, therefore, in the upper cylinder nearly the workman knows
:

this, because the discharged water is received first of all into a vessel con-
taining three-fourths of the capacity of the upper cylinder. Whenever this
is filled, the attendant opens the cock P by a long rod which goes down

the shaft ; this allows the water of the mine to fill the lower cylinder, and
the air to get into the upper cylinder, which permits the remaining water to
run out of it. Thus every thing is brought into its first condition ; and
when the attendant sees no more water come out at N, he shuts the cocks
N and M, and opens the cock I, and the operation is repeated.
There is a very surprising appearance in the working of this engine.
When the efflux at Z has stopped, if the cock Q be opened, the water and
air rush out together with prodigious violence, and the drops of water are
changed into hail or lumps of ice. It is a sight usually shown to strangers,
who are desired to hold their hats to receive the blasts of air the ice comes
:

out with such violence as frequently to pierce the liat like a pistol bullet,
This rapid congelation is a remarkable instance of the general fact, that air
by suddenly expanding generates cold, its capacity for heat being increased.
Tlic above account of the procedure in working this engine shows that
the efflux both at Z and N becomes very slow near the end. It is found
convenient theiefore not to wait for the complete discharges, but to turn
 AND MACHINIST. 235
when about 30 cubic
the cocks feet of water have been discharged at Z
more work is done in this way. A gentleman of great accuracy and know-
ledge of these subjects took the trouble of noticing particularly the per-
formance of the machine. He observed that each stroke, as it may be
called, took up about three minutes and one-eighth ; and that 32 cubic feet
of water were discharged at Z, and 66 were expended at N. Tire expense
therefore is 66 feet of water falling 136 feet, and the performance is
32 raised 96, and they are in the proportion of 66 x 136 to 32 x 96, or of
1 to 0,3422, or nearly as 3 to 1. This is superior to the performance of the
most perfect undershot mill, even when all friction and irregular obstructions
are neglected ; and is not much inferior to any overshot pump-mill that
has yet been erected. When we reflect on the great obstructions which
water meets with in its passage through long pipes, we may be assured,
that, by doubling the size of the feeder and discharger, the performance of
the machine will be greatly improved ; we do not hesitate to say, that it
would be increased one-third : it is true that it will expend more water
but this will not be nearly in the same proportion, for most of the deficiency
of the machine arises from the needless velocity of tire first efflux at Z.
The discharging pipe ought to be 110 feet high, and not give sensibly less
water. Then it must be considered how inferior in original expense this
simple machine must be to a mill of any kind which would raise 10 cubic
feet 96 feet high in a minute; and how small the repairs on it need be,
when compared with a mill. And, lastly, let it be noticed, that such a
machine can be used where no mill whatever can be put in motion. A
small stream of water, which would not move any kind of wheel, will here
raise one-third of its own quantity to the same heigiit, working as fast as it
is supplied.

For these reasons, the Hungarian machine eminently

deserres the attention of mathematicians and engineers, to
bring it to its utmost perfection, and into general use.
There are situations where this kind of machine may be very
useful. Thus, where the tide rises 17 feet, it may be used
for compressing air to seven-eighths of its bulk ; and a pipe
leading from a very large vessel inverted in it may be used
for raising the water from a vessel of one-eighth of its
capacity 1/ feet high ; or if this vessel has only one-tenth of
the capacity of the large one set in the tide-wa}^, two pipes
may be led from it, one into the small vessel, and the other
into an equal vessel 16 feet higher, which receives the water
from the first. Thus one-sixteenth of the water may be raised
34 feet, and a smaller quantity to a still greater height ; and
this with a kind of power that can hardly be applied any
other way. Machines of this kind are described by Schottus,
bturmius, Leupold, and other old writers ; and they should
not be forgotten, because opportunities may olfer of making
them highly beneficial.
9. Mr. John Wliitley Boswell has devised an apparatus
which when attached to such a machine as that at Chemnitz
will enable it to work itself without attendance. The
236 THE OPERATIVE MECHANIC
description of this will be presented to the reader in Mr Bos-
wells own words.
Fig. 213. A
is the reservoir, or upper level of water.

B, a chamber made of sufficient strength to bear the internal pressure

of a column of water the height of A
above it, multiplied by its own base.
C, a chamber of the same strength as B, but of a smaller size ; it is placed
at the bottom of the pit from which the water is to be raised, and under the
level of the water.
These chambers would be stronger with the same materials, if of a
globular or cylindrical form ; but the square shape is used in the drawing
merely for the facility of representing the position of the parts.
D, a pipe from the reservoir A
which passes through the top of B and
ends near its bottom, to convey water from to B. A
E, a pipe from the top of B to the top of C, to convey air from B to C.
F, a pipe from the bottom of C to the level of the ground at the top of
the pit, to carry off the water from the pit.
G, a pipe from the bottom of B to carry off the water from it.
H, a vessel to contain the water used in working the cocks; it is
only placed on the top of B to save the construction of a stand on purpose
for it.

I, a cock, or movable valve, (worked by the lever there represented,) in

the large pipe D.
K, a stop-cock in the small pipe which conveys water from to H. Its D
use is to make
the engine work faster or slower, by letting water more or
less quick into II ; or to stop it altogether from working when required.
L, a movable valve, or cock in the small pipe L K. The lever which
works it is connected by a strong wire with the lever which works I,
and is balanced by a weight at its opposite extremity, sufficient to open
both these cocks and shut N, when not prevented by a counter weight,
N, a cock in the pipe G
to open and shut it as wanted.
O, a self-moving valve in the pipe F, wdrich permits the water to pass
upwards, but prevents its return.
P, a self-moving valve at the bottom of C, which permits the water to
pass into C, but prevents any from passing out of it; it is furnished with a
grating, to prevent dirt getting in.
R, a vessel suspended from the levers of I and L, capable of containing
a weight of water sufficient to shut them.
S, a vessel suspended from the lever of N
it must contain water enough
:

by its weight to open N : it is connected by a chain to 11, to keep it down

as long as N is open.-
T, a syphon passing from the bottom of H, near its upper edge, and
down again to the mouth of R.
V, a self-moving valve of a sufficient levity to rise, when the water in B
comes up to it, and close the pipe E ; into which no water would else pass
from B. A
ball-cock, such as used in common water cisterns, would do
here.
X, a syphon from the bottom of R
rising within an inch of its top, and
passing down again to the mouth of S.
Y, a small pipe at the bottom of S ; this may have a stop-cock to regulate
it, whicli, when stopped, will also stop the engine.

The mode of this engines working is as follows : suppose the vessels

V, II, R, and S empty of water, and the cocks and Y open, and theK
vessel C full of water. The weight on. the lever of L will then open the
cocks L and I, on which the water from A
will flow into B and li. As
 AND MACHINIST. 237
ihe water rises in B, it will force the air through E into C, which strongly
pressing on the water in C, will force it up through the pipe F, till the
water in B rises to the level of V and closes it, at which time H will be full
of water, (the quantity flowing in being so regulated by the cock K,) and
the water will flow from it through the syphon T into the vessel R, which
as it fills shuts the cock I and L, and prevents any more water coming into
B and H. When R is full, the water flows through its syphon X, which
fills S, and by it opens N, which empties B of water, and keeps N open as
long as there is any water in H.
H
When is empty, B will be so too, (being so regulated by the cock K,)
on which, in a moment or two, R and S will also be empty, which will
cause the cocks I and L to open, and all things will be again in the state
first supposed, for a repetition of the operations described.

To stop the engine, the cocks at K Y

and should be shut, while S is full
of water. To set it working, they should be open; and this is all the
attendance it will require. As no one but an engineer should attempt to
construct such an engine as this, it was useless to represent the manner of
connecting the pipes by flaches or otherwise, or the proper methods of
fastening and closing thp parts, which are all well known to such as have
made this art their study.
In No. 5, of the New Series of Nicholson's Journal, Mr.
Boswell has made some further improvements in the applica-
tion of the Hungarian machine.
10. The spiral pump is a very curious hydraulic engine,
which operates on nearly the same principle as the Hungarian
machine. The first engine of this kind, of which we have
seen any account, was invented and erected by H. Andreas
Wirtz, a tinplate-worker of Zurich, at a dye-house in Limmat,
in the vicinity of that city. It consists of a hollow cylinder,
like a very large grindstone, turning on a horizontal axis, and
partly plunged in a cistern of water. The axis is hollow at
one end, and communicates with a vertical pipe. This cylin-
der or drum is formed into a spiral canal, by a plate coiled
up within it like the main spring of a watch in its box; only
tlie spires at a distance from each other, so as to form a
conduit for the water of uniform width. This spiral partition
is well joined to the two ends of the cylinder, and no water
escapes between them. The outermost turn of the spiral
begins to widen about three-fourths of a circumference from
the end, and this gradual enlargement eontinues nearly a
semicircle, this part being called the horn it then widens
:

suddenly, forming a scoop or shovel. The cylinder is so

supported that this shovel may, in the course of a rotation,
dip several inehes into the water. As the cylinder turns
upon its axis, the scoop dips and takes up a certain quantity
of water before it emerges again. This quantity is sufficient
to fill the horn ; and this again is nearly equal in capacity to
the outermost uniform spiral round.
238 THE OPERATIVE MECHANIC
After scoop is einergedj the water passes along the
tlie
spiral by motion of it round the axis, and drives the air
the,
before it into the rising pipe, where it escapes. In the mean
time, air comes into the mouth of the scoop ; and w^hen the
scoop again dips into the water, it again takes in some of
that fluid. Thus there becomes a part filled with water, and
a part filled with air. Continuing this motion, a second round
of water will be received, and another of air. The water in
any turn of the spiral will have its two ends on a level; and
the air between the successive columns of water will be in its
natural state ; for since the passage into the rising pipe or
main is open, there is nothing to force the water and air into
any other position. But since the spires gradually diminish
in their length, it- is plain that the column of water will
gradually occupy more and more of the circumference of
each. At last it will occupy a complete turn of some spire
that is near the centre ; and when sent further in by the
continuance of the motion, some of it M^ill run back over the
top of the succeeding spire. Thus it will run over into the
right-hand side of the third spire, and consequently will
push the water of this spire backwai*ds, and raise its other
end, so that it will likewise run over backwards before the
next rotation be completed. At length this change of dis-
position will reach the outermost spire, and some water will
run over into the horn and scoop, and finally into the cistern.
But as soon as water gets into the rising pipe, and rises a
little into it, it stops the escape of the air when the next
scoop of w^ater is taken in. Hence there are then two columns
of water acting against each other by hydrostatic pressure,
and the intervening column of air: they must compress the
air between them, and the water and air columns will now
be unequal : this will have a general tendency to keep the
whole water back, and cause it to be higher on the left or
rising side of each spire than on the right or descending
side the excess of height being just such as produces the com-
;

pression of the air between that and the preceding column

of water. This will go on increasing as the water mounts
in the rising pipe ; for the air next to the rising pipe is com-
pressed at its inner eud with the weight of the whole column
in the main: and it must be as much compressed at its
outer end, w'hich must be done by the water column without
it; and this column exerts this pressure partly by reason
that its outer end is higher than its inner end, and partly by
the transmission of the pressure on its outer end by air,
which is similarly compressed from without. Thus it will
 A^D MACHINIST. 239

liappen that each column of water being higher at its outer

than at its inner end, compresses the air on the water
column beyond or within it, which transmits this pressure to
the air beyond ?V, adding to it the pressure arising from its
own want of level at the ends. Consequently, the greatest
compression, viz. that of the air next the main, is produced
by sum of
the all the transmitted pressures and these are
the sum of all the differences between the elevations of the
inner ends of the water columns above their outer ends and :

the height to wdiich the neater will rise in the main will be
just equal to this sum.
Suppose the left-hand spaces of each spire to be filled with water, and
the right-hand spaces filled with air, as is shown, in regard to one spire,
in fig. 214. There is a certain gradation of compression which will keep
things in this position for the spaces manifestly decrease in arithmetical
:

progression ; and so do the hydrostatic heights and pressures ; if, therefore,

the air be dense in the same progression all will be in hydrostatical equili-
brium. Now this may obviously be produced by the mere motion of the
machine ; for since the density and compression in each air column is
supposed inversely as the magnitude of the column, the quantity of air is
the same in all ; therefore the column first taken in will pass gradually
inwards, and the increasing compression will cause it to occupy precisely
the whole right-hand of every spire. The gradual diminution of the water
columns will be produced, during the motion, by the water running over
backwards at the top from spire to spire, and ultimately coming out by the
scoop. Since the hydrostatic height of each water column is now the
greatest possible, vix. the diameter of the spire, it is evident that this dis-
position of the air and water will raise the w^ater to the greatest height.
This disposition may be obtained thus let C B be a vertical radius of the
:

wheel, C being the centre, and B the highest point [the figure may easily be
drawn] upon C B, take C L to C B, as the density of the external air to its
density in the last column next the rising pipe or main ; that is, make C L
to C B as 34 feet (the height of the column of water w hich balances the
pressure of the atmosphere) to the sura of 34 feet, and the height of the
rising pipe then divide B L into such a number of turns that the sum of
:

their equal diameters shall be equal to the height of the main; lastly, bring
a pipe straight from L to the centre C. Such is the construction of the
spiral pump, as originally invented by Wirtz :it certainly indicates very

considerable mechanical knowledge and sagacity.

But when the main is very high this construction will require either an
enormous diameter of the drum, or many turns of a very narrow pipe. In
such cases it will be much better to make the spiral in the form of a cork-
screw, than of this flat form like a watch-spring. The pipe Vvhich forms
the spiral may be wrapped round the frustnim of a cone, whose greatest
diameter is to the least (which is next to the rising pipe) in the proportion
just assigned to C B and C L. By this construction the water will so
stand in every round as to have its upper and lower surfaces tangents to
the top and bottom of the spiral, and the water columns will occupy the
whole ascending side of the machine wdiile the air occupies the descending
side. This form is far preferable to the flat form : it will allow us to
employ many turns of a large pipe, and therefore produce a great elevation
of a large quantity of water.
240 THE OPERATIVE MECHANIC
Tiie same thing will be still better accomplished by wrapping the pipe on
a cylinder, and making it gradually tapering to the end, in such a manner
that the contents of each spire may be the same as when it is wrapped
round the cone. It will raise the water to a greater height (though certainly
with an increase of the impelling power) by the same number of spires,
because the vertical or pressing height of each column is greater.
In the preceding description of this machine, that construction has been
chosen which made its principle and manner of working most evident,
namely, that which contained the same material quantity of air in each
turn of the spiral, more and more compressed as it approaches to the rising
pipe. But this is not the best construction for we see that in order to raise
:

water to the height of a column of 34 feet, the air in the last spire is com-
pressed into half its space ; and the quantity of water delivered into the
main at each turn is but half what was received into the first spire, the rest
flowing back from spire to spire, and being discharged at the spout.
But the construction may be such that the quantity of water in each
spire may be the same that was received into the first ; by which means a
greater quantity (double in the instance now given) will be delivered into
the main, and raised to the same altitude by very nearly the same force.
This may be done by another proportion of the capacity of the spires;
either by a change of their calibre, or of the diameters of the solid on which
they are folded. Suppose the bore to be uniform throughout, the diameters
must so vary that the constant column of water and the column of air, com-
pressed to the proper degree, may occupy the whole circumference. Let
A be the column of water which balances the pressure, and the height to H
which the water is to be raised. Let be to + as 1 to m.A Then it A H
is plain that m will represent the density of the air in the last spire, if its

natural density be 1, because it is pressed by the column + \vhile the A H

common air is pressed by A. Let 1 represent the constant water column,
and consequently it will be nearly equal to the air column in the first spire

then the whole circumference of the last spire must be 1 +

^
m ,
in order to

hold the water 1 ,

and to compress the air into the space or , xhe
circumference of the first spire is 1 + 1 or 2 ; and if D and d be the dia-
meters of the first and last spires, we have 2:1 + m : :T) : d. or 2 m m
:

+ 1 : : D
; d If, therefore, a pipe of uniform bore be wrapped round a
conic frustrum, of which D
and d are the end diameters, the spirals will be
very nearly such as will answer the purpose'. It will not be quite exact,
for the intermediate spirals will be rather too large the conoidal frustrum :

should in strictness be formed by the revolution of a logarithmic curve.

With such a spiral the full quantity of water which was confined in the
first spire will find room in the last, and will be sent into the main at every
rotation. This is a very great advantage, especially when the water is to be
much raised. The saving of power by this change of construction is always
proportional to the greatest compression of the air.
The chief difficulty in any of these forms is in determining the form
and position of the horn and the scoop ; yet on this the performance of the
machine greatly depends. The following instructions will render this
tolerably easy. Let A
B E O (fig. 214) represent the first or outermost spire,
of which the axis is C. Suppose the machine immerged up to the axis in
the water whose surface is V
V' it has been seen that it is most effective
:

when the surfaces K O

B and w of the water columns are distant from each
M1T]D)]IL^FX,1C
lYotn Z14 to ZZO

NecU & Swckl^ sc 3SZ 3irmi2

 AND MACHINIST. 241
Other the whole diameter B O
of the spire. Let therefore tlie pipe be first
conceived of eqiral calibre to the very mouth E
e, which we suppose to be
just about to dip into the water : the surface O
n is kept there in opposition
to the pressure of the water column B
AO, by the compressed air contained
in the quadrant O E, and in the quadrant which lies behind E B and this :

compression is supported by the columns behind, between this spire and the
rising pipe. But the air in the outermost quadrant E B is in its natural
state, because it as yet communicates with the external air. When, how-
ever, the mouth E e has come round to A, it will not have the water-
standing in it in the same manner, leaving the half space B E O filled with
compressed air; for it took in and confined only what filled the quadrant
B E. It is obvious, therefore, that the quadrant B E must be so shaped
as to take in and confine a much greater quantity of air ; so that when it
has come to A, the space BED may contain air sufficiently dense to sup-
port the column A O. But this is not enough for when the wide mouth
:

now at A
a' rises up to the top, the surface of the water in it rises also,
because the part A O o a' is more capacious than the part of uniform bore
O E e 0 that succeeds it, and that cannot contain all the w^ater which it
previously held. Since then the water in the spire rises above A, it wall
press the water back from O n to some other position m n', and the pressing
height of the water column will be diminished by this rising on the other
side of O. Hence it will appear that the horn must begin to widen, not
from B, but from A, and must occupy the whole semicircle ABE;
while
its capacity must be to the capacity of the opposite side of uniform bore as

the sum of B O and the height of a column of water which balances the
atmosphere to the height of that column for then the air which filled it
:

when of the common density will fill the uniform side B E O, when com-
pressed so as to balance the vertical column B O. But even this is not
sufficient: for it has not taken w'ater enough. When it dipped into the
cistern at E it carried air down with it, and the pressure of the water in the
cistern caused that fluid to rise into it a little way; and some water must
have come over at B fi-om the other side, which was drawing narrow^er.
When, therefore, the horn is in the position EGA
it is not full of water:

consequently, when it comes into the situation O A B it cannot be full, nor

can it balance the air on the opposite side. Hence some will come out
at O, and rise up through the water. The horn must therefore extend at
least from O to B, or occupy half the circumference ; and it must contain at
least twice as much water as would fill the side BEG. Nay, if it be
much larger, there may be no disadvantage ; because the surplus of air
which it takes in at E will be discharged as the end E of the horn rises
from O to B, and it will leave the precise quantity that is wanted. The
overplus water will be discharged as the horn comes round to dip again
into the cistern.
We must also secure the proper quantity of water. When the machine
is so much immersed as to be up to its axis in water, the capacity which
thus secures the proper quantity of air will also take in the proper quantity
of water. But it may be erected so as that the spirals shall not even reach
the water and in this ease it will answer the purpose if a scoop or shovel
:

be joined to the horn, and so formed as to take in at least as much water as

will fill the horn. This is all that is wanted in the beginning of the motion
along the spiral, and more than is necessary when the water has advanced
to the succeeding spire
; but the overplus is discharged in the way just
mentioned. The scoop, it should be observed, must be very open on the
side next the axis, that it may not confine the air as it enters the water for
;
this would hinder it from receiving enough of that fluid.

R
242 THE OPERATIVE MECHANIC
11. Desaguiiers describes^ in the second volume of his
Experimental Philosophy, a very simple contrivance to raise
water, which is this to one end of a rope is fixed a large
:

bucket, having a valve at its bottom, opening upwards to ;

the other end is fastened a square frame, and the cord is

made to pass over two pulleys, each of about 15 inches
diameter, (and fixed in a horizontal plane,) in such a manner
that as the bucket descends the frame ascends with equal
velocity, and vice versa. The frame is made to run freely
upon four vertical iron guide-rods passing through holes at its
four corners ; and when the bucket is filling with water at the
well, the frame stands at the horizontal plane to which the
water is to be raised ; when the bucket is full, a man steps
upon the frame ; (his weight, together with that of the frame,
exceeding the weight of the vessel and its contained water ;)
this gives an ascending motion to the bucket, and causes the
valve in its bottom to close. When the bucket is raised to
the proper height, a hook fixed there catches into a hasp at the
side of the bucket, turns it over, and causes it to empty its
water into a trough which conveys it where it is required at :

this time the man and the descending-frame have arrived at a

platform which prevents their further descent, where the
man remains till he finds the bucket above is empty; when
he steps from the frame, and runs up a flight of stairs to
the place from which he descended : the bucket, in the mean
while, being somewhat heavier than the frame, descends to the
water, and raises the frame to its original position. Thustlie
work is continued, the man being at rest during his descent,
and labouring in the ascent.
Desaguiiers employed in this kind of work a tavern draiver,'^ who
weighed 160 lbs., whom he desired to go up and down forty steps of 6
inches each (in all about 22 feet) at the same rate he would go up and down
all day. He went up and down twice in a minute ; so that, allowing the
bucket with a quarter of a hogshead in it to weigh 140 lbs., he ia able to
raise it up through 22 feet twice in a minute : this Desaguiiers estimates
as equivalent to a whole hogshead raised 11 feet in a minute, and rather
exceeds what he has assigned as a maximum of human exertion.
This machine is in many cases not only the most simple, but the host
that can be devised ; yet it is one that, without due precautions, is likely to
be a very bad one. The frame on which the man steps must be brought up
to its place again by a preponderancy in the machine when unloaded ; it
should arrive precisely at the same time with the man ; but it may arrive
sooner or later. If sooner, it is of no use, and wastes power in raising a
counterpoise which is needlessly heavy, or in fact less water is elevated than
the man is able to elevate; if later there is a loss of time. Hence the per-
fection of this truly simple machine requires the judicious combination of
two maximums, each of which varies in a ratio compounded of two other
ratios. It will not be difficult, however, to adjust the proportions of the
 AND MACHINIST. 243
weight of the bucket and that of the frame: for B
denote the weight of
if
the bucket, F that of the frame, and (p the force necessary to overcome the
friction and the inertia of the pulleys, g denoting 32^ feet, t the time
occupied in walking up the steps, and the space ascended or descended,
then must B and F be sO adjusted as to satisfy the following equation,
viz. ry 0
s = B+F+ -I
2
o-
^
#9

(l>

If there be a spring affording but a small quantity of water, or having

but a small fall, it is possible by the loss of some of the water to raise the
rest to supply a gentleman's seat, or any place where it is wanted ; but in
a less quantity than what runs waste, if the place to which the water is to be
raised is higher than the spring or reservoir from which the water falls.
Schottus -long ago contrived an engine for this purpose: but the first who
put such a thing in execution was Gironimo Finugio, at Rome, in 1616 ;
and the first in this country was George Gerves, a carpenter, who, in the
year 1725, erected an engine called the Multiplying-wheel Bucket-engine,
at the seat of Sir John Chester, at Chichley, in Buckinghamshire. This
engine was much approved by Sir Isaac Newton, Dr. Desaguliers, and Mr.
Beighton, and was certainly very ingenious. The water from a spring-
descended in a large bucket hanging by a cord from an axle, while a smaller
quantity was raised from the same place by a cord hanging from a wheel on
the same axle a fly and other regulating apparatus were added, to make
:

the engine work itself, which it did for many years without being out of
order. As a whole, however, the contrivance is complex ; and we are not
aware that any other engines of the same kind have been erected. A
description, with a plate, may be seen in Desaguliers' second volume.

12. Mr. H. Sarjeant, of Whitehaven, contrived a very cheap

engine for raising water, for which the Society for the En-
couragement of Arts awarded him a silver medal in the year
1801. A sketch of this simple invention is given in fig. 215.
This engine was erected at Irton-hall, which is situated on an ascent of 60
or 61 feet perpendicular height : at the foot of this elevation, about 140
yards distant from the offices, there runs a small stream of water ; and, in
order to procure a constant supply of that necessary fluid, the object was to
raise such stream to the house for culinary or domestic uses. With this
view, a dam was formed at a short distance above the current, so as to
cause a fall of about four feet : the water was then conducted through a
wooden trough, into which a piece of leaden pipe, two inches in diameter,
was inserted, and part of which is delineated at A,
Tire stream of this pipe is directed in such a manner as to run into the
bucket B, when the latter is elevated ; but, as soon as it begins to descend,
the stream passes over it, and flows progressively to supply the wooden
trough or well, at the foot of which stands the forcing-pump C, being three
inches in diameter.
D is an iron cylinder attached to the pump-rod, which passes
through it: such cylinder is filled with lead, and weighs about 240
pounds. This power works the pump, and forces the water to ascend
to the house through a pipe one inch in diameter, and which is 420 feet in
length.
E
At is fixed a cord, which, when the bucket approaches to within four
or five inches of its lowest projection, extends, and opens a valve in the
bottom of the vessel through which the water is discharged.
An engine in a great degree similar to this was erected some years ago
R 2
244 THE OPERATIVE MECHANIC
by the late James SpedJing, Esq. for a lead mine near Keswick, with the
addition of a smaller bucket which emptied itself into the larger near the
beginning of its descent, without which addition it was found that the
beam only acquired a libratory motion, without making a full and effective
stroke.
To answer this purpose in a more simple way, Mr. Sarjeant constructed
the small engine in such manner as to finish its stroke (speaking of the
bucket end) when the beam comes into a horizontal position, or a little
below it. By this means the lever is virtually lengthened in its descent
in the proportion of the radius to the cosine, of about thirty degrees, or
as seven to six nearly, and consequently its power is increased in an equal
proportion.
It is evident that the opening of the valve might have been effected, per-
haps better, by a projecting pin at the bottom; but Mr. S. chose to give an
exact description of the engine as it stands. It has now been some years in
use, and completely answers the purpose intended.
The only artificers employed, except the plumber, were a country black-
smith and carpenter ; and the whole cost, exclusive of the pump and pipes,
did not amount to 51.
In a letter, dated Whitehaven, April 28, 1801, Mr. Sarjeant observes,
that the pump requires about 1 8 gallons of water in the bucket to raise the
counter-weight, and make a fresh stroke in the pump ; but it makes three
strokes in a minute, and gives about a half-gallon into the cistern at each
stroke. He adds, I speak of what it did in the driest part of last summer;
when it supplied a large family, together with work-people, &c. with water
for all purposes, in a situation where none was to be had before, except
some bad water from a common pump, which has been since removed. But
the above supply being more than sufficient, the machine is occasionally
stopped to prevent wear, which is done by merely casting off the string of
the bucket-valve.

13. Mr. Benjamin Dearborn has contrived an hydraulic

engine which may be conveniently added to a common pump,
and thereby renders it useful in further elevating tvatcr, and
particularly in extinguishing fires the following description
:

of his apparatus is extracted from the Memoirs of the Ama' lean

Academy,
Fig. 216. A, B, C, D, represents a pump, the form of which is similar
to that of the pumps commonly employed on sliip-board.
E, the spout.
F, a stopper.
D, d, a plank-cap, that is fitted to the pump, and provided with leather
on its lower surface, being secured by the screws a, b in the centre is a
hole, through which the spear of the pump passes, and round which a leather
collar is made, as represented at the letter c.
gy a nut for the screw b.
fy a square piece of wood that is nailed across one end of the plank-
cap, through both which the screw a is introduced :a hole is made
through such piece and the cap that communicates with the bore of the
pump.
G, G, a wooden tube, which may be of any requisite length, and consist
of any number of joints ; it is made sqirare at the lower extremity, and per-
forated for the reception of the cock ; the upper end being made with a nke
shoulder.
 AND MACHINIST. 245
a wooden cock that opens or shuts the communication between the
,
pump and the tube, being furnished on the opposite side with a handle and
with a lock, in case it should be found necessary.
h, h, are two ferules, the object of which is to prevent the tube from
splitting.
H, H, braces, each of which ought to be crossed over another, as nearly
at right angles as possible.
2 , iy are irons in form of a staple, which surround the tube, and pass
through the braces.; their ends being perforated with holes for fore-locks.
K, L, M, N, is a head made of five pieces of wood ; k, I, m, n, a square
piece, in the lower part of which is a hole for the reception of the extremity
of the tube, and which piece rests on the shoulder o, p ; totlie lower end of
this fiead is nailed a piece of leather, with a hole in its centre, similar to
that made in the wood. Another piece of leather of the same form is
placed on the top of the tube, and between both is a circle of thin plate-
brass ; the two pieces of leather and the brass being pressed between the
lower end of the head and the shoulder of the tube. Their edges are deli-
neated at 0 , p.
K, N, and L, M, are the edges of two pieces of plank, of a similar width
with the head, to which they are closely nailed, each being provided with a
tenon, that passes through a mortice in the end of the piece O, P both :

tenons have holes for a fore-lock at q.

O, P, a piece of plank of the same width as the sides ; the centre of
which is perforated, in order that the tube may pass through ; and in each
end of which is a mortice for the reception of the tenons.
N, M, a cap.
r, r, are two pieces nailed to the side of the tube ; the lower extremity of
each is provided with a truck, with a view to lessen the Iriction of the head
in its horizontal revolution.
design of which is to fasten down the head,
qy qy represent fore-locks, the
and prevent the water from escaping at the joint o, p.
Q, R, is a wooden conductor the extremity marked with the letter Q
:

being solid, while the opposite end, 11, is bored with a small auger.
s, a bolt that passes through the conductor and head, and being secured
on the back with a fore-lock or nut this bolt is rounded near the head, and
:

square in the middle.

ty Uy Wy Xy Teprcsents a piece of iron or brass, designed to prevent the head
ofthe bolt from wearing into the v/ood.
S, S, are ropes for the direction of the conductor.
Fig. 217 represents the head without such conductor.
a, hy Cy dy is a thick brass plate, the centre of which is perforated, so as to
admit a passage to impurities, that might otherwise obstruct the conductor :
for which purpose a piece of leather is nailed under it to the head. The
square hole in the centre is adapted to the size of the bolt, which it prevents
from turning. Tlie conductor has a hollow cut round the bolt on the inside,
of the same size as the circle of holes in the brass ; round such cavity is
nailed, on the face of the conductor, a piece of leather, that plays on the
margin of the brass plate when the conductor is in motion.
In the conclusion of his memoir, Mr. Dearborn observes, that he has
raised a tube of 30 feet on his pump; and, though the severity of the season
had prevented him from completing it, so that one person only could work

at the brake, yet he is enabled to throw water on a contiguous building, the

nearest part of which is 37 feet from the pump, and between 30 and 40
in height.
,/eet
246 THE OPERATIVE MECHANIC
14. Archimedes' Screw, or the Spiral Pump, or, as it is
called in Germany, the Water-snail, is a machine for the
raising of water, first invented by Archimedes.
Its structure and use will be understood by the following
description of it.
Fig. 218. A, B, C, D, is a wheel, which is turned round, according to

tlie order of the letters, by the fall of water E F, which need not be more
than three feet. The axle G of the wheel is elevated so as to make an
angle of about 44, or between 45 and 60, with the horizon : and on the
top of that axle is a wheel H, which turns such another wheel I of the same
number of teeth ; the axle K of this last wheel being parallel to the axleG
of the two former wheels. The axle G is cut into a double-threaded screw,
fig. 219, exactly resembling the screw on the axis of the fly of a common jack,
which must be what is called a right-handed screw, like the wood screws, if
the first wheel turns in the direction A D
B C ; but it must be a left-handed
screw, if the stream turns the wheel the contrary way ; and the screw on
the axle G
must be cut in a contrary way to that on the axle K, because
these axles turn in contrary directions.
These screws must be covered close over with boards, like those of a
cylindrical cask ; and then they will be spiral tubes. Or they may be made
of tubes of stiff leather, and wrapped round the axles in shallow grooves cut
therein, as fig. 220. The lower end of the axle G turns constantly in the
stream that turiis the wheel, and the lower ends of the spiral tubes are open
unto the water. So that, as the wheel and axle are turned round, the water
rises in the spiral tubes, and runs out at Q, through the holes M N, as they
come about below the axle. These holes, of which there may be any num-
ber, as four or six, in a broad close ring on the top of the axle, into which
ring the water is delivered from the upper open ends of the screw tubes,
and falls into the open box N. The lower end of the axle K turns on a
gudgeon, in the water N ;
and the spiral tubes in that axle take up the
water from N, and deliver it into another such a box under the top of K ; on

which there may be such another wheel as I, to turn a third axle by such a
wheel upon it. And in this manner water may be raised to any given
height,where there is a stream sufficient for that purpose to act on the broad
float-boards of the first wheel.

Another kind of engine, called the Pressure Engine,

15.
several of which have been lately erected in different parts of
the country, is used for raising water by the pressure and
descent of a column enclosed in a pipe. The principle was
first adopted in France, in some machinery erected about
1731 , and is described by Belidor, in his Arch, Hydraul, lib.
iv. ch. 1. But the engine we are now going to describe is the
invention of Mr. Trevitheck, who probably was not aware
that one of a similar nature had been before attempted. It
was erected about thirty years ago at the Druid Copper-mine,
in the parish of Illogan, near Truro.
A section of it is given in Fig. 221
AB represent a pipe six inches in diameter, through which water descends
from the head to the place of its delivery to run off by an adit at S, through
a fall of 34 fathoms in the whole ; that is to say, in a close pipe down the
felopc of a hill 200 fathoms long, with 26 fathoms fall, then perpendicularly
 AND MACHINIST. 247
six fathoms till it and thence through the engine from B to S
arrives at B,
tvro fathoms. At the turn B the water enters into a chamber C, the lower
part of which terminates in two brass cylinders, four inches in dianrieter ; in
which two plugs or pistons of lead, D
and E, are capable of moving up
and down by their piston-rods, which pass through a close packing above,
and are attached to the extremities of a chain leading over and properly
attached to the wheel Q, so that it cannot slip.
The leaden pipes D and E are cast in their places, and have no packing
whatever. They move very easily ; and if at any time they should become
loose, they may be spread out by a few blows with a proper instrument,
without taking them out of their place. On the sides of the two brass
cylinders in which D and E move, there are square holes communicating
towards F and G, which is a horizontal trunk or square pipe, four inches
wide and three inches deep. All the other pipes G, G, and R, are six
inches in diameter, except the principal cylinder wherein the piston H moves
and this cylinder is ten inches in diameter, and admits a nine-foot stroke,
though it is here delineated as if the stroke were only a three-foot.
The piston-rod works through a stuffing-box above, and is attached to
M N, which is the pit-rod, or a perpendicular piece divided into two, so as
to allow its alternate motion up and down, and leave a space between,
without touching the fixed apparatus or great cylinder. The pit-rod is
prolonged down into the mine, where it is employed to work the pumps
or if the engine were applied to mill-work, or any other use, this rod would
form the communication of the first mover.
K L is a tumbler, or turabling-bob, capable of being moved on the gud-
geon V, from its present position to another, in which the weight L shall
hang over the same inclination on the opposite side of the perpendicular,
and consequently the end K
will then be as much elevated as it is now
depressed.
The pipe RShas its lower end immersed in a cistern, by which means it
delivers its water without the possibility of the external air introducing
itself ; so that it constitutes a torrieellian column, or water barometer, and
renders the whole column from A
to S efiectual : as we shall see in our view
of the operation.
Let us suppose the lower bar K V of the tumbler to be horizontal, and
the rod P O so situated, as that the plugs or leaden pistons D and E shall
lie opposite to each other, and stop the water-ways G and F. In this state
of the engine, though each of these pistons is pressed by a force equivalent
to more than 1000 pounds, they will remain motionless, because these
actions being contrary to each other, they are constantly in equilibrio. The
great piston Hbeing here shown as at the bottom of its cylinder, the tum-
bler is to be thrown by hand into the position here delineated. Its action
upon O P, and consequently upon the wheel Q, draws up the plug D, and
depresses E, so that the water-way G becomes open from A B, and that of
F to tlie pipe : the water consequently descends from A to C ; thence to
R
G G G, until it acts beneath the piston H. Tliis pressure raises the piston,
and if there be any water above the piston, it causes it to rise and pass
through F into R. During the rise of the piston (which carries the pit-rod
M N along with it) a sliding block of wood I, fixed to this rod, is brought
into contact with the tail K of the tumbler, and raises it to the horizontal
position, beyond which it oversets by the acquired motion of the wheel L.
The mere rise of the piston, if there v^^ere no additional motion in the
tumbler, would only bring the two plugs D and E to the position of rest,
namely, to close G and F, and then the engine would stop ; but the fall of
the tumbler carries tire plug D
downwards quite clear of the hole F, and
 248 THE OPERATIVE MECHANIC
the other plug E upwards, quite clear of the hole G. These motions require
no consumption of power, because the plugs are in equilibrio, as was just
observed.
In this new situation the column A B no longer communicates with G,
but acts through F upon the.upper part of the piston H, and depresses it
while the contents of the great cylinder beneath that piston are driven out
through G G
G, and pass through the opening at E into R. It may be
observed, that the column which acts against the piston is assisted by the
pressure of the atmosphere, rendered active by the column of water hanging
in R, to which that assisting pressure is equivalent, as has already been
noticed.
When the piston has descended through a certain length, the slide or
block at T, upon the pit-rod, applies against the tail K of the tumbler,
which it depresses, and again Oversets ; producing once more the position
of ihe plugs D
E, here delineated, and the consequent ascent of the great
piston H, as before described. The ascent produces its former effect on the
tumbler and plugs ; and in this manner it is evident that the alterations will
go on without limit, or until the manager shall think fit to place the tumbler
and plugs D
E in the positions of rest ; namely, so as to stop the passages
F and G.
The length of the stroke may be varied by altering the positions of the
pieces T and I, which will shorten the stroke the nearer they are together
as in that case they will sooner alternate upon the tail K.
As the sudden stoppage of the descent of the column A B, at the instant
when the two plugs were both in the water-way, might jar and shake the
apparatus, those plugs are made half an inch shorter than, the depth of the
side holes ; so that in that case the water can escape directly through both
the small cylinders to R. This gives a moment of time for the generation
of the contrary motion in the piston and the water in GG G, and greatly
deadens the concussion which might else be produced.

Some former attempts to make pressure- engines upon the

principle of the steam-engine have failed ; because water, not
being elastic, could not be made to carry the piston onwards
a so as completely to shut one set of valves and open
little,
another. In the present judicious construction, the tumbler
performs the office of the expansive force of steam at the end
of the stroke.
Mr. Boswell suggests, as a considerable improvement, that
the action of this engine should be made elastic by the addi-
tion of an air-chamber, on the same principle as that used in
fire-engines ; this, he thinks, might be best effected by making
the piston hollow, with a small orifice in the bottom, and of
a larger size, to serve for this purpose, as the spring of the air
would then act both on the upward and downward pressure of
the water.
There are many other ingenious hydraulic engines of great
utility, which the limits of our work will not permit us to
describe ; in order, therefore, to supply the deficiency, we
shall add a catalbgue of the most important writings on this
kind of engine.
 JPUMS
Flzs
From 2ntoZ24-
222

222

&StoJdar s^c36zSfrond.
 AND MACHINIST. 249
Descriptio Machinse Hydraulicae curiosae constructse Joh. Geor. Faudieri.
Venet. 1607.
Nouvelle Invention de lever IEau plus haul que la Source, avec quelque
Machines Mouvantes par le Moyen de FEau, &c. par Isaac de Caus, 1657.
Josephi Gregorii a Monte Sacr. Principia Physico-mechanica diversarum
Machinarum sen Instrumentorum Pneunriatices ac Hydraulices. Venet. 1664.
Nouvelle Machine Hydraulique, par Francini. Journ. des S^av. 1669.
[An account of this machine is likewise given in the Architecture Hy-
draulique of Belidor, tom. 2. and in the 2d vol. of Desaguliers Experi-
mental Philosophy: in both which performances many other hydraulic
machines are described.]
An Undertaking for raising Water, by Sir Samuel Moreland. Phil. Trans.
1674, No. 102.
An Hydraulic Engine, by Phil. Trans. 1675, No. 128.
A cheap Pump, by Mr. Conyers. Phil. Trans. 1677, No. 136.
M. de Ilautefeuille, Reflexions sur quelques Machines a Clever les Eaux,
avec sa Description dune nouvelle Pompe, sans Frottement et sans Piston,
&c. 1682.
Elevation des Eaux par toute sorte de Machines, r^duite a la mesure, au
poids, a la balance, par le moyen dun nouveau piston et corps de pompe, et
dun nouveau mouvement cyclo-elliptique, et rejetant Iusage de toute sorte
de manivelles ordinaires, par le Chevalier Morland. 1685.
A new Way of raising Water, enigmatically proposed, by Dr. Papin.
Phil. Trans. 1685, No. 173. The solutions by Dr. Vincent and Mr. R. A.
in No. 177.
M. du Torax, Nouvelles Machines pour ^puiser IEau des Fondations,
.

/ qui, quoique trhs simples, font un effet surprenant. 1695. Journ. des Spav.
1695, p. 293.
An Engine for raising Water by the help of Fire, by Mr. Tho. Savery.
Phil. Trans. 1699, No. 253.
D. Papin, Nouvelle Manihre pour lever IEau par la Force du Feu :
a Cassel. 1707.
M^moire pour la Construction dune Pompe qui fournit continuellement
de IEau dans le Reservoir, par M. de la Hire, Mem. Acad. Sci. Paris. 1716.
Description dune Machine pour elever des Eaux, par M. de la Faye,
Mem. Acad. Sci. Paris. 1717.
Joh. Jac. Bruckmanns und Joh. Heinr. Webers Elementar-maschine,
Oder universal-mittel bey alien wasser-hebungen. Cassel. 1 720.
Jacob Leopold, Theatri Machinarum Hydraulicarum. 1724, 1725.
Joh. Frid. Weidleri Tractatus, de Machinis Hydraulicis toto terrarum
orbe maximis Marlyensi et Londinensi, &c. 1727. Vide Act. erudit.
Lips. 1728.
A Description of the Water-works at London-bridge, by H. Beighton,
F.R.S. Phil. Trans. 1731, No. 417.
An Account of a new Engine for raising Water, in which horses or other
animals draw without any loss of power (which has never yet been prac-
tised ;) and how the strokes of the piston may be made of any length, to
prevent the loss of water by the too frequent opening of valves, &c. by
Walter Churchman. Phil. Trans. 1734.
Sur IEflet dune Machine Hydraulique propos^e par M. Segner, par
M. Leon. Euler, Mem. Acad. Sci. Berlin. 1750.
Application de la Machine Hydraulique de M. Segner k toutes sortes
^
douvrages, et de ses avantages sur les autres Machines Hydrauliques, par
M. Leon. Euler, Mem. Acad. Sci. Berlin. 1751.
[M. Segners machine is no other than the simple yet truly ingenious
250 THE OPERATIVE MECHANIC
contrivance known by tlie name of Barkers miH, which had been described
in the 2d volume of Desaguliers' Philosophy, some years before the German
professor made any pretensions to the honour of the invention. The theory
of it is likewise treated by John Bernoulli at the end of his Hydraulics.]
Recherches sur une nouvelle manihre d clever de IEau proposee par
M. de Mour, par M. L. Euler, Mem. Acad. Berlin. 1751.
Discussion particulibre de diverses manibres delever de IEau par le
moyen des Pompes, par M. L. Euler, Mem. Acad. Ber. 1752.
Maximes pour arranger le plus avantageusement les Machines destinees
a blever de VEau par le moyen des Pompes, par M. L. Euler, Mem. Acad.
Ber. 1752.
Reflexions sur les Machines Hydrauliques, par M. le Chevalier D^Arcy,
Mem. Acad. Sci. Paris. 1754.
Memoire sur les Pompes, par M. le Chevalier de Borda, Mem. Acad.
Sci. Paris. 1768.
Dan. Bernoulli Expositio Theoretica singularis Machinae Hydraulicae.
Figuri helvetiorum, exstmctse. Nov. Com. Acad. Petrop. 1772.
Abhandlungen von der Wasserschraube, von D. Scherffer, Priester. Wien.
1774.
Recherches sur les Moyens dexecuter sous IEau toutes sortes de Travaux
Hydrauliques, sans employer aucun Epuisement, par M. Coulumb. 1 779.
Saemund Magnussen Holm, Efterretning om skye Pumpen. Kiobenhavn.
1779.
Moyen d'augmenter la Vitesse dans le Mouvement de la Vis dArchimbde
sur son Axe, tire des Memoir es Manuscrits de M. Pingeron, sur les Arts
utiles et agreables. Journ. dAgric. Juin, 1780.
The Theory of the Syphon, plainly and methodically illustrated. 1781.
(Richardson.)
Memoria sopra la nuova Tromba Funiculare Umiliata, dal Can. Carlo
Castelli. Milano. 1782.
Dissertation de M. de Parcieux, sur le moyen delever IEau par la rota-
tion d\me corde verticale sans fin. Amsterdam et Paris, 1792.
Theorie der Wirzischen Spiral Pumpe, erlautert von Heinr. Nicander.
Schwed. Abhandl. 1783.
Jac. Bernoulli, Essai sur une nouvelle Machine Hydraulique propre a
blever de IEau, et quon peut nommer Machine Pitotienne. Nov. Act.
Acad. Petrop. 1786.
K. Ch. Langsdorfs Berechnungen fiber die Vortheilhaeftere Benutzung
Angelegter Fammelteiche zur Betriebung der Maschinen. Act. Acad. Elect.
Mogunt. 1784, 1785.
Nicanders Theorie der Spiral Pumpe. 1789.
Nouvelle Architecture Hydraulique, par M. Prony. 1790, 1796.
A short Account of the Invention, Theory, and Practice of Fire Machinery;
or. Introduction to the Art of making Machines vulgarly called Steam-
ihigines, in order to extract water from mines, convey it to towns, and jets-
deaux in gardens ; to procure water-falls for fulling, hammering, stamping,
rolling, and cornr-mills; by W. Blakey. 1793.

PUMPS.
1 . The
construction of pumps is usually explained by glass
models, in which the action both of the pistons and valves
may be seen.
In order to understand the structure and operation of the common pump,
let themodel D
C B L, fig. 222, be placed upright in the vessel of water K,
the water being deep enough to rise at least as high as from A to L. The
 and machinist. 251

valve a on the movable bucket. G, and the valve b on the fixed box H,
(which box quite fills the bore of the pipe or barrel at H,) will each lie close
by its own weight, upon the hole in the bucket and box, until the engine
begins to w'ork. The valves are made of brass, and covered underneath
with leather, for closing the hole more exactly; and the bucket G
is raised

and depressed alternately by the handle E and rod D

d, the bucket being
supposed at B before the working begins.
Take hold of the handle E, and thereby draw up the bucket from B to C,
which will make room for the air in the pump all the way below the bucket
to dilate itself, by which its spring is weakened, and then its force is not
equivalent to the weight or pressure of the outward air upon the water in
the vessel K ;
and therefore, at the first stroke, the outward air will press
up the water through the notched foot A, into the lower pipe, as far as e
this will condense the rarefied air in the pipe between e and C to the same
state as it was in before ; and then, as its spring within the pipe is equal to
the force or pressure of the outward air, the water will rise no higher by the
first stroke ; and the valve b, which was raised a little by the dilatation of
the air in the pipe, will fall, and stop the hole in the box H ; and the surface

of the water will stand at e. Then depress the piston or bucket from C to
B, and as the air in the part B cannot get back again through the valve
it will (as the bucket descends) raise the valve a, and so make its way

through the upper part of the barrel d into the open air. But, upon raising
the bucket G a second time, the air between it and the water, in the lower
pipe at e, will be again left at liberty to fill a larger space ; and so its spring
being again weakened, the pressure of the outward air on the water in the
vessel K will force more water up into the lower pipe from e to f; and
when the bucket is at its greatest height C, the lower valve b will fall, and
stop the hole in the box H as before. At the next stroke of the bucket or
piston, the water will rise through the box H towards B, and then the valve
b, which was raised by it, will fall when the bucket G is at its greatest
height. Upon depressing the bucket again, the water cannot be pushed
back through the valve b, which keeps close upon the hole whilst the piston
descends. And upon raising the piston again, the outward pressure of the
air will force the water up through H, where it will raise the valve, and
follow the bucket to C. Upon the next depression of the bucket G, it will go
down into the water in the barrel B ; and as the water cannot be driven back
through the now close valve Z>, it will raise the valve a as the bucket descends,
and will be lifted up by the bucket when it is next raised. And now, the
whole space below the bucket being full, the water above it cannot sink
when it is depressed ; but upon its depression, the valve a will rise to let
the bucket go down ; and when it is quite down, the valve a will fall by its
own weight, and stop the hole in the bucket. When the bucket is next
raised, all the water above it will be lifted up, and begin to r un off by the
pipe F. And thus, by raising and depressing the bucket alternately, there
is still more water raised by it which getting above the pipe F, into the
;
wide top I, will supply the pipe, and make it run with a continued stream.
So, at every time the bucket is raised, the valve b rises, and the valve a
falls; and at every time the bucket is depressed, the valve b falls, and the
valve a rises.
As it is the pressure of the air or atmosphere which causes the water to rise,
and follow the piston or bucket G as it is drawn up ; and since a column of water
32 feet high is of equal weight with as thick a column of the atmosphere,
from the earth to the very top of the air; therefore the perpendicular height
the piston or bucket from the surface of the water in the well must always
2o2 THE OPERATIVE MECHANIC
be less than 32 feet ; otherwise the water will never get above the bucket.
Hut when the height is less, the pressure of the atmosphere will be greater
than the weight of the water in the pump, and will therefore raise it above
the bucket ; and when the water has once got above the bucket, it may be
lifted to any height, if the rod D be made long enough, and a sufficient
degree of strength be employed, to raise it with the weight of the water
above the bucket without ever lengthening the stroke.

The force required to work a pump will be as the height to

which the water is raised, and as the square of the diameter
of the pump-bore in that part where the piston works. So
that if two pumps be made of equal heights, and one of them
be twice as wide in the bore as the other, the widest will raise
four times as much water as the narrowest, and will require
therefore four times as much strength to work it.
The wideness or narrowness of the pump in any other part
besides that in which the piston works, does not make the
pump either more or less difficult to work, except what differ-
ence may arise from the friction of the water in the bore,
which is always greater in a narrow bore than in a wide one,
because of the great velocity of the water.
The pump-rod is never raised directly by such a handle as
E at the top, but by means of a lever, whose longer arm (at
the end of which the power is applied) generally exceeds the
length of the shorter arm five or six times, and by that means
gives five or six times as much advantage to the power. Upon
these principles, it will be easy to find the dimensions of a
pump that shall work with a given force, and draw water
from any given depth.
The quantity of water raised by each stroke of the pump-
handle is just as much as fills that part of the bore in which
the piston works, be the size of the rest of the bore ab(ve and
below the piston what it will. The pressure of the atmo-
sphere will raise the water 32 feet in a pipe exhausted of air
but it is advisable never to have the piston more than 20 or
24 feet above the level of the surface of the water in which
the lower end of the pump is placed ; and the power required
to w'ork the pump will be the same, whether the piston goes
down to lie on a level with the surface of the well, or whether
it works 30 feet above that surface, because the w^eight of the
column of air that the piston lifts is equal to the weight or
pressure of the column of water raised by the pressure of the
air to the piston. And although the pressure of the air on
the surface of the well will not raise or force up the water in
the pump-bore more than 32 feet, yet when the piston goes
4own into the column so raised, the water gets above it, and
 AND MACHINIST. 253
may then be raised to any height whatever above the piston,
according to the quantity of power applied to the handle of
the pump for that purpose.
Pumps ought to be made so (says Mr. Ferguson) as to work
with equal ease in raising the water to any given height above'
the surface of the well. And this may be done by duly jjro-
portioning the diameter of the bore (in that part where the
piston works) to the height the water is to be raised, as that
the column of water may be no heavier in a long j)ump than
in a short one, or indeed equally heavy in all pumps from the
shortest to the longest, on a supposition that the diameter of
the bore is the same size from top to bottom ; and whatever
size the bore be, above or below that part in which the piston
works, the power required to work the pump will be just the
same as if the bore was of the same size throughout.
In order that a man of common strength may raise water
by pumps with the same ease, to any height not less than
10 feet, or more than 100 feet, above the surface of the well,
Mr. Ferguson has calculated the annexed table, in which the
diameter of the bore is duly proportioned to the height ; and
in these calculations he supposes the pump-handle to be a
lever increasing the power five times.
Heigiit of the Diameter of the Water discharged i

pump, in feet, bore. a minute,

above tlie surface in wine measure.
100 parts of
of the well.
Inches, an inch. Gallons. Tints.
10 6 93 81 6
15 5 6G 54 4
20 4 90 40* 7
25 4 38 32 6
30 4 00 27 2
35 3 70 23 3
40 3 46 20 3
45 3 27 18 1
50 3 10 16 3
55 2 95 14 7
60 2 84 13 5
65 2 72 12 4
70 2 62 11 5
75 2 53 10 7
80 2 45 10 2
85 2 38 9 5
90 2 31 19 1
95 2 25 8 5
100 2 19 8 1

In the column look for the number of feet the water is

first
to be raised then, in the second column, you have the dia-
;

meter of that part of the bore in which the piston or bucket

works ; and in the third column, the quantity of water which
 254 THK OPERATIVE MECHANIC
a man of ordinary strength can raise in a minute by the pump
to the given height.
The quantity of water contained in a pipe of either of those
heights in the table, supposing the diameter of the bore to be
the same from top to bottom, is 4523*2 cubic inches, or 19*58
gallons in wine-measure, as near as the hundredth part of an
inch in the diameter of the bore can make it.
Mr. Ferguson has calculated the following table, by which
the quantity and weight of water in a cylindrical bore of any
given diameter and perpendicular height may be very readily
found.
Diameter of the cylindrical bore 1 inch.

Quantity of water, Weight of water,

Feet liigh. in cubic inches. in troy ounces. In avoirdupoise ounces.

1 9*4247781 4*9712340 5*4541539

2 18*8495562 9-9424680 10*9083078
3 28*2743343 14*9137020 16*3624617
4 37*6991124 19*8849360 21*8166156
5 47*1238905 24*8561700 27*2707695
6 56*5486686 29*8274040 32*7249234
7 65*9734467 34*7986380 38*1790773
8 75*3982248 39*7698720 43*6332312
9 84*8230029 44*7411060 49*0873851

For tens of remove the decimal points one place

feet high,
towards the right hand for hundreds of feet, two places ; for
;

thousands, three places ; and so on. Then multiply each

sum by the square of the diameter of the given bore, and the
products will be the answer.
Example :

Qu. What is the quantity and weight of water in an upright

pipe 85 feet high, and 10 inches in diameter of bore ? The
square of 10 is 100.

Feet high. Cubic inches. Troy ounces. Avoirdupoise ounces.

80 753* 982248 397* 698720 436* 332312

5 47*1238905 24*8561700 27*2707695

85 801*1061385 422*5548900 463*6030815

Multiply by 100 100 100

Answer . . ., 80110*6138500 42255*4890000 46360* 308150

Which number (80110'61) of cubic inches being divided by 231, the

number of cubic inches in a wine gallon, gives 342*6 for the number of
gallons in the pipe ; and 42255*489 troy ounces being divided by 12, gives
3521 *29 for the weight of the water in troy pounds ; and, lastly, 46360*3
avoirdupoise ounces being divided by 16, gives 2897*5 for the weight in
avoirdupoise pounds.
 AND MACHINIST. 255
The power required to work a pump^ or any other hydraulic
engine, must not only be equal to the whole column of water
in the pump-bore, but as much superior to it as will overcome
all the friction of the working parts of the engine.
2. In Dr. Gregorys Mechanics vol. ii. is the following
description of a pump, with little friction, which may be con-
structed in a variety of ways by any common carpenter,
without the assistance of the pump-maker, or plumber, and
which will be very effective for raising a great quantity of
water to small heights, as in draining marshes, marie pits,
quarries, &c., or even for the service of a house.
ABCD, fig. 223, is a square trunk of carpenters work open at both

ends, and having a little cistern and spout at top. Near the bottom there
is a partition made of board, perforated with a hole E, and covered with a
dock, ////represent a long cylindrical bag made of leather or of double
canvass, with a fold of thin leather, such as sheep skin, between the canvass
bags. This is firmly nailed to the board E with soft leather between. The
upper end of this bag is fixed on a round board having a hole and valve F.
This board may be turned in the lathe with a groove round its edge, and
the bag fastened to it by a cord bound tight round it. The fork of the
piston-rod F G is firmly fixed into this board ; the bag is kept distended by
a number of wooden hoops or rings of strong wire,//,//,// &c. put into
it at a few inches distance from each other. It will be proper to connect
these hoops, before putting them in, by three or four cords from top to bottom,
which will keep them at their proper distances. Tims will the bag have
the form of a barbers bellow's pow'der-puff. The distance between the
hoops should be about twice the breadth of the rim of the wooden ring to
which the upper valve and piston-rod are fixed.
Now let this trunk be immersed in the water. It is evident that if the
bag be stretched from the compressed form which its own weight will give
it by drawing up the piston-rod, its capacity will be enlarged, the valve F
will be shut by its own w'eight, the air in the bag will be rarefied, and the
atmosphere will press the water into the bag. When the rod is thrust
down again, this water will come out by the valve F, and fill part of the
trunk. A repetition of the operation will have a similar eftect ; the trunk
will be filled, and the water will at last be discharged by the spout.

Here is a pump almost divested of friction, and perfectly

light. For the leather between the folds of canvass renders
the bag impervious both to air and water. And the canvass
has very considerable strength. We know', from experience,
that a bag of six inches diameter, made of sail-cloth No. 3,
with a sheep-skin between, wdll bear a column of 15 feet of
W'ater, and six hours work per day for a month without
failure, and that the pump is considerably superior in eftect
to a common pump of the same dimensions. We must only
observe, that the length of the bag must be three times the
intended length of the stroke ; so that when the piston-rod is
in its highest position, the angles or ridges of the bag may
be pretty acute. If the bag be more stretched than this.
256 THE OPERATIVE MECHANIC
the force which must be exerted by the labourer becomes
much greater tlian the weight of the column of water which
he is raising. If the pump be laid aslope^ which is very usual
in these occasional and hasty drawings, it is necessary to
make a guide for the piston-rod within the trunk, that the
bag may play up and down without rubbing on the sides,
which would quickly wear it out.
The experienced reader will see that this pump is very
like that of Gosset and De la Deuille, described by Belidor,
vol. ii. and most writers on hydraulics. It would be
p. 120,
still more it, if the bag were on the under side of the
like
partition E, and a valve placed further down the trunk. But
we think that our form is greatly preferable in point of
strength. When in the other situation, the column of water
lifted by the piston tends to hurst the bag, and this with a
great force, as the intelligent reader well knows. But in the
form recommended here, the bag is compressed^ and the
strain on each part may be made much less than that which
tends to burst a bag of six inches diameter. The nearer the
rings are placed to each other the smaller will the strain be.
The same bag-piston may be employed for a forcing-pump,
by placing it below the partition, and inverting the valve
aiid it will then be equally strong, because the resistance in
this case too will act by compression.

3. An ingenious variation in the construction of the sucking-

pump, is two piston-rods, in the same
that with barrel, in-
vented by Mr. Walter Taylor, of Southampton. A vertical
section of this pump is given in fig. 224.
The piston-rods have racks at their upper parts working on the opposite
sides of a pinion, and kept to their proper positions by friction-rollers.
The valves used in this pump are of three kinds, as shown at a, b, and r.
The former is a spheric segment which slides up and down on the piston-
rod, and is brought down by its own weight; the second, b, is called the
pendulum-valve ; and the third, c, is a globe which is raised by the rising
water, and falls again by its own weight. Each of these valves will dis-
engage itself from chips, sand, gravel, &c. brought up by the water. In
this kind of pump the pistons may either be put in motion by a handle in
the usual way, or a rope may pass round the wheel rf e in a proper groove,
the two ends of which, after crossing at the lower part of the wheel, may
be pulled by one man or more on each side. A pump of this kind, with
seven inch bore, heaves a ton 24 feet high in a minute, with ten men, five
only working at a time on each side.

Another improvement of the common pump has been made

by Mr. Todd, of Hull. This invention in some particulars
bears a resemblance to the ordinary one, but he has con-
trived to double its powers by the following means
 AND MACHINIST* 25/

Having prepared the piston-cylinder, which may be 12 feet

high, he cuts from the bottom of it about three feet ; at
the end of the great cylinder he places an atmospheric-valve,
and to the top of the small cylinder a serving-valve. In the
bottom of the small cylinder, which contains the serving-
valve, is inserted an oblong elliptical curved tube, of equal
caliber w ith the principal cylinder, and the other end is again
inserted in the top of the great cylinder. This tube is divided
in the same manner as the first cylinder, with atmospheric
and serving valves, exactly parallel with the valves of the
first cylinder. The pump, thus having double valves, pro-
duces double effects, which effects maybe still further increased
by extending the dimensions.
The cylinder is screwed for service on a male tube screw^y
which projects from the side of a reservoir or water cistern,
and is worked by hand.
The piston-plunger is worked by a toothed segment- wheel,
similar to the principle of the one used in working the chain-
pumps of ships belonging to the royal navy and the wheel;

receives its motion from a hand-winch, which is considerably

accelerated by a fly-w^heel of variable dimensions, at the
opposite end.
This pump, in addition to its increased powers, possesses
another very great and prominent advantage. By screwing
to it the long leather tube and fire-pipe of the common engine,
it is in a few minutes converted into an effective fire-engine^

Hence, whoever possesses one may be said to have a con-

venient domestic apparatus against fire. Three men can
work it, one to turn the winch, another to direct the fire-
pipe, and a third to supply the water.

4. The Forcing-pum]} is represented in fig. 225^

It raises water through the box H, not in the same manner as the
sucking or lifting pump does, when the plunger or piston g is lifted up
by the rod Drf; but this plunger or forcer has no hole through it, to
let the water in the barrel B C get above it, when it is depressed to B ;

and the valve b (which rose by the ascent of the water through the box H
when the plunger g was drawn up) falls down and stops the hole in H
the moment that the plunger is raised to its greatest height. Therefore
as the water between the plunger g and the box H can neither get
through the plunger upon its descent, nor back again into the lower
part of the pump L e, but has a free passage by the cavity around H into
the pipe M M, which opens into the air-vessel K K at P, the water is
forced through the pipeMM by the descent of the plunger, and driven into
the air-vessel, and in running up through the pipe at P, it opens the valve
a, which shuts at the moment the plunger begins to be raised, because the
action of the water against the under side of the valve then ceases.
The water being thus forced into the air-vessel KK, by repeated strokes
s
2B8 THE OPERATIVE MECHANIC
ot the plunger, gets above the lower end of die pipe GH I, and then

begins to condense the air in the vessel K K. For as tlie pipe G II is fixed'
air-tight into the vessel below F, and the air has no way to get out of the
vessel out through the mouth of the pipe at I, and cannot get out when the
mouth I is covered with water, and is more and more condensed as the
water rises upon the pipe, the air then begins to act forcibly by its spring
against the surface of the water at H ;
and this action drives the water up
through the pipe I HG F,from whence it spouts in a jet S to a great height,
and is supplied by alternately raising and depressing the plunger which
constantly forces the water that it raises through the valve H, along the
pipe M K
M, into the air-vessel K.
The higher the surface of the water II is raised in the air-vessel, the less
space will the air be condensed into, which before filled that vessel; and
therefore the force of its spring will be so much the stronger upon the
water, and will drive it with the greater force through the pipe at F ; and as
the spring of the air continues whilst the plunger 5- is rising, the stream or
jet S will be uniform as long as the action of the plunger continues; and
when the valve b opens to let the water follow the plunger upward, the
valve a shuts, to hinder the water, which is forced into the air-vessel, from
running back by the pipe MM into the barrel of the pump.
If there was no air-vessel to this engine, the pipe GHI would be joined
to the pipe MM N at P: and then the jet S would stop every time the
plunger is raised, and run only when the plunger is depressed.

Mr. Newsham's Water-engine^ for extinguishing fire, (see

Fire-engine,) consists of two forcing-pumps, which alternatelv
drive water into a close vessel of air; and by forcing the
water into that vessel, the air in it is thereby condensed, and
compresses the water so strongly, that it rushes out with
great impetuosity and force through a pipe that comes down
into it; and makes a continued uniform stream, by the con*
densation of the air upon its surface in the vessel.
By means of forcing-pumps, water may be raised to anv
height above the level of a river or spring; and machines may
be contrived to work these pumps, either by a running stream,
a fall of water, by horses, or by steam.
The rod of the bucket in a sucking-pump is sometimes
made to work through a collar of oiled leathers and brass
plates, connected with the barrel of the pump by screws, and
kept moist by water contained in a vessel at the top it :

prevents the water issuing from the top of the pump, and
therefore by a pipe it will raise to any height. This is called
in the North a jaekhead.

llie Lifting-pump differs from the sucking-pump only

5.
in the disposition of its valves, and the form of its piston
frame. This pump is represented in fig. 226.
AUis a barrel fixed i-n a frame I K L M, which is immovable, with
its lower parts communicating with the water. G E Q H O is a frame
with two strong iron rods, movable through holes in the upper and
lower parts of the pumps I K and I. M in the bottom of this frame
;
 jPiTiYrps
From 225 to 2S1

toliliu
 AND MACHINIST. 259
G Q H, is fixed an inverted piston B bucket and valve upon
D, with its
the top at D. Upon the top of the barrel there goes off a part F R, either
fixed to the barrel, or movable by a ball and socket ; but in either case
water and air tight. In this part, at C, is a fixed valve opening upwards.
It is evident that when the piston frame is thrust down into the water, the
piston D descends, and the water below will rush up through the valve D,
and get above the piston ; and that, when the frame is lifted up, the piston
will force the water through the valve C up into the cistern P, there to run
off by the spout. The piston of this pump plays below the surface of the
water. Mr. Martin. has described a mercurial pump, which works by
quicksilver, invented by Mr. Hoskins, and perfected by Mr. Desaguliers
and another pump of the lifting sort, invented by Messrs. Gosset and De
la Deuille, and set up in the king of Frances garden at Paris, the piston
of which works without friction. Phil. Brit. vol. ii. p. 57, &c. ed. 3.

6. Ctesibius's 2mmp, the first of all the kinds, acts both by

suction and pulsion.
Its structure and action are as follows : A
brass cylinderA B C D, fig.
227, furnished with a valve in L, is placed in the water. In this is
fitted an embolus M
K, made of green wood, which will not swell in the
water, and adjusted to the aperture of the cylinder with a covering of
leather, but without any valve. In H
is fitted on another tube N H, with

a valve that opens upwards in I.

Now the embolus MK
being raised, the water opens the valve in L, and
rises into the cavity of the cylinder; and when the same embolus is again
depressed, the valve I is opened, and the water driven up through the
tube H N.
This is the pump used among the ancients, and that from
which both the others are deduced. Sir S. Morland has
endeavoured to increase its force by lessening the friction,
which he has done to good effect, insomuch as to make it
work without almost any friction at all.
7. In 1813, the Society for the Encouragement of Arts
conferred a silver medal on Mr. John Stevens, for an im-
provement in the construction of the forcing-pump, by which
he is enabled, at a comparatively trifling expense, to raise
water from a well 66 feet below the surface of the ground.
The whole expense of the pump and apparatus was 25/.
The lower part of the pump-tree is four inches in the bore.
The lower part of the rod which passes through the stuffing-
box is made of brass ; the elbow and upper pump-trees are
of a two-inch bore, and may be easily made of any kind of
wood. It may also be made to act as an engine to extin-
guish fires, by the addition of an air-tight vessel and pipe to
the upper part.
In the drawing is introduced a cap and screw, in preference
to screwing it to the nozle of the pump, as it is stronger
and more to be depended upon; and wffien the water is to be
raised a great height, a screw is also recommended to be
s2
26a THE OPERATIVE MECHANIC
made to fit tJie nozle, that every thing may be always ready
for immediate use. The work of this pump is not liable to be
injured by frost ; and when the well is of considerable depth
a brass or metal barrel for the piston to work in should be
adopted.

Fig. 228 is a section of a well, in which a pump of this kind is fixed j

AA represents the surface of the ground, and B B the brickwork of the
well, in which the water stands at the level C, and is, by the pump, to be
raised ta the surface A A.
D is the lever or handle of the pump, which has the rod a jointed to it,

and descending to the pump ; the rod is made of wood, in several lengths^
which are united by joints of iron, in the manner shown at fig. 229 ; the
wooden rods, a a, being capped with iron forks 6, which include the ends of
them and are nvetted fast; the ends of the forks are joined together to
connect the several lengths.
E is the working barrel, or chamber, of the pump, in which the bucket
works this part is formed of a tree, bored through and having a projecting
;

branch e, wliich is fikewise bored obliquely to the barrel, and forms the
forcing pipe in the bottom of the barrel the suction-valve is situated, being
;

at the top of the suction part of the pump, which is bored with a smaller
auger than the working chamber, which is also lined with a brass tube,
where the bucket works. The top of the barrel is covered by a metal lid,
,g, (see figs. 230 and 231,) which has a stufting-box in the centre to receive
the metal cylindrical part of the pump-rod h to the lower extremity of this
the bucket a is fixed. The metal lid consists of a ring, which is screwed to
tl'.e wooden barrel by five screw-bolts, passing through as many ears, pro

jecting from the circumference of the ring; they have eyes below to hook
upon pins, which are fixed in the wood, but project sufficiently for these
bolts to hold, and are formed into screws above, so as to hold the ring
firmly down, by means of nuts screwed upon them. Tlie movable lid of
the pump, w'hicli has the stuffing-box formed in the centre of it, is screwed
to the ring by five screws, and these can be taken out to remeve the lid,
and draw up the bucket, when it requires to be leathered.
F is the forcing pipe, formed of as many pieces of wooden pipes as are
re(|uired to make up the length; they are united together by making the
upper ends conical, to enter a similar cavity made in the lower end of the
next pipe the lowest piece fits upon the extremity of the projecting branch
;

e, and a valve is proposed to be put in the pipe at this joint, to prevent the

return of the water, and bear part of the weight of the column from the
lowest valve at f; the upper end of the pipe has a spout i, at which the
water is delivered.
M is a second spout, fixed into the pipe lower than the former ; it has a

screw by which it can be united to a hole, or leather pipe, to convey the

water to a distance, or by means of a jet, or branch-pipe, to throw it in the
manner of a tire-engine; in this case the upper spout i must be stopped up,
by a screw-plug or cap and there is a copper air-tight vessel II, situated
;

at the top of the pipe F, to equalize the pulsative motion of the water as
thrown by the pump.
K a bracket fixed to the pipe F, and projecting over the centre of the
is

ymmp, where it has a hole to receive the pump rod h, and guide it steadily

m its motion up and down, that it may not wear the stuffing-box away on.

one side. As the wooden tubes of which the forcing-pump F is composed

may be made from waste or crooked timber, it makes a great difference
 AND MACHJNIST. 2Gl
between the low price of such, and that of the stiaignt trees necessary for
common pumps. A wooden plug may be chained to the pump, betwixt
the spouts or nozlesM and so as be ready to stop that which is not wanted
in use.

Mr. Stephens is of opinion, that it is better to place the

valve / above the level of the water in the well.
8. Mr. William Tyror, of Liverpool, took out a patent in
March, 1819, for certain improvements in the construction
of pumps, and in the machinery for working the same.
This improvement consists in having four bmss chambers, marked P P P,
fig. 232, joined together by means of breech-pieces with screws, and
soldered across the joints ; these breech-pieces, marked Q, Q, being cast
of brass, or any other suitable metal. When these are complete, P P,
fig. 233, is placed upon the breech-piece Qq, fig. 234, and both of them are
fixed to or under a box or frame suitable for the purpose.
This box or frame, fig. 238, is furnished with eight brass grooves,
O OO, fastened to the sides with screws; and a crank, or four cranks in
one, that is, one crank out of each side of the same piece of square iron or
any other suitable metal, one up, one down, one in front, and one in back.
To one end of the crank, or cranks, is fixed two tooth and pinion wheels,
a sufficient distance apart to allow two wheels of the same diameter and
thickness to stand between them, so that the cranks may go round without
moving the other wheels, marked C and E. The wheels Dand F are
made fast on the cranks A, A, by means of a screw or pin, and the wheels
C and E, being fixed close together, slide to and fro upon the square end
of the axle U, by means of the guide or sliding geer V, which is fixed in
a groove turned out of the nave of the wheel C, by means of a clip and two
screws which fasten it underneath, and rests in the notches fixed at the
other end of the box or frame, for the end of the guide or geer to rest.
The notches are three in number on each side of the box or frame W.
The one farthest from the wheel has the guide V, drawn back, with the
wheel E upon the small wheel F. By moving the guide into the middle
notch, the w'heels C and E are kept between the wheels D
and F ; and the
notch nearest the wheels guides the wheel C on the large .wheel D, so that
the power is much greater when forcing or drawing water from a great
depth.
When the wheels C and E are placed in the space between the lower
wheels, the handle is moved from the upper axle U, and placed upon the
end of the crank A A, and the pump is worked without the assistance of
the Wheels as occasion may require. The machinery is furnished with four
key-bow rods, marked B B B, for the purpose of fixing to them the spear
boxes or plunging rods, by means of a joint and pin and bolt, the key-bow
being filed square across in the inside, so as to give the roller-step a fair
bearing.
Fig. 235 represents the rolling-step, which is formed of two pieces of
brass, the one half round, of a thickness according to the strength or size of
the machinery ; and the other round, like a wheel or sheave in form, and of
the same thickness as the other half. This round sheave or wheel is cut half
through the middle edgeways, and the piece is then cut off, and a dovetail
is cut down the width in proportion to the crank. Tlie other half is then
fitted into the place from whence the larger piece has been cut, and both of
them are held together by means of two screws ; and the sheave or wheel is
then in the form of its appearance before it was cut. A hole is now drilled
262 Till*: OPERATIVE MECHANIC
through tlie centre, and
is fixed upon the before mentioned crank or
it

cranks. Y, in fig. 236, represents the larger half of this step; and X, fig.
237, represents the smaller half, with the dove-tailed standing upon it,
which fills up the vacancy or room that is made in the large half for fixing
it upon the crank.

The ends of each key-bow is set in the grooves, 0 0 0 fig. 238, and the key-
,

bow rods, B B B B, work through holes in the bottom of the box, for which
purpose an iron-plate or base is formed with four holes, SS S, fig. 239,
and is fixed at the bottom of the box or frame with screw's. The rods, by
being fitted into the holes in this plate, keep the stroke of the. pump per-
pendicular, while the step rolls backwards and forwards in the key-bow, as
they are forced up and down by the cranks moving or turning alternately
round.
When this machinery is applied over a forcing-pump, or placed over a
fire-engine, it causes a greater quantity of v/ater to be discharged from the
cistern or engine, and as it is very powerful, it is highly necessary that it
should have a cock of a superior size, to let more water pass through in the
same time than ordinary ; for this purpose Mr. Tyror makes the barrel,
or that part of the cock where the key or stop goes in on one side, so that
there is but one stop to the plug or key, the stop, resting in that part that
overhangs the side, admits of room for a full sized water-way to be com-
pletely through it, without causing the water to have any bubble or curl
as it passes through the plug.
Reference to the figures :
Tig. 240 represents a side view of the cock.
' Fig. 241, a top view of the same.
Fig. 242, the plug, with the water-way cut out.
Fig. 243 represents the crank, with the tooth and pinion wheels, and the
rolling steps.
Fig. 244, the upper axle, with the improved plan of the sliding geer.
Fig. 245, the spear box and rod in the form of the fastening at the top of
the key-bow rod, when applied for shipping.
Fig. 246, a front view of the pump standing upon a ships deck.

9. Mr. Richard Franklin has been rewarded by the Society

of Arts for effecting certain improvements in the lifting and
forcing pump, by which water can be conveyed into a cistern
at the top of the house, to supply all the dressing-rooms,
water-closets, &c.
A section of this pump is given in fig. 247.
AA are two pistons ; on the upper face of each is a double valve, vvv v;
the upper piston-rod passes through the stuffing-box B, and the lower
through the stuffing-box C. S is the suction-pipe, and D
the discharging-
pipe.
Fig. 248 is an external view of the pump ; e ee the lever or handle; F
the fulcrum, on which the handle moves ; GG
is the pump-cylinder; ww
the wheels which revolve between the standards x oc xx, and which conduct
the piston-rods parallel to the cylinder ; ejt? the conducting-rod, which con-
veys the n:otion of the handle to the lower piston; eo the conducting-rod,
which gives motion to the upper piston. It is evident, when the handle or
lever is lifted, that the upper piston is pressed down, and the lower piston is
at the same time elevated, with its valves shut, w'hich forces the water
through the upper piston and the discharging-pipe at the same operation.
If p OYiF nr o'.iR

From 232 to 2 ^6 PI. 20.

j

j 2W P42 238

^erle SeStfichl^ se 3S 2 Stra^t^

 AND MACHINIST. 263
And when the handle is pn^ssed down, the upper piston rises w ith its valves
closed, and the water in its ascension is forced throvigh Ihe discharging-
pipe ; at the same time the lower piston descends, by which action its valves
are opened, and introduces a supply of water equal to the contents of the
cylinder, minus the capacity of both pistons. The peculiar advantages of
this pumpwith double pistons are, that with a six-inch stroke it discharges
a quantity of water equal to twelve inches of the cylinder and so, in this
:

proportion, by always doubling the quantity of the stroke, whatever it may

be ; and thus furnishing a product just equal to two common pumps of the
same stroke and capacity of cylinder, and certainly with less than a pro-
portionable friction and expense.

10. The pumps^?X are usually employed for araining mmes

have many iiiconveiiiencies, the principal of which we shall
here proceed to describe.
1st. As it is necessary for the pumps, whilst sinking, to keep the water
veiy low in the pit, the engine frequently goes too fast, in consequence of
the pump drawing up air, and carries up by the violence of the current
small pieces of stone, coal, or other substances, and lodges them above the
bucket upon the valves, which must considerably retard the working of the
pump, and wear the leather.
2dly. When the engine is set to work, (after having been stopped whilst
working upon air, and consequently a quantity of air remaining in the pump-
barrel, with the small stones, &c. deposited on the valves of the bucket,) it
often happens that the compressure of the air by the descent of the bucket,
is not sufficient to overcome the weight of the bucket-valves so loaded with
rubbish, and the column of water in the stand-pipes ; the pump is thereby
prevented from catching its water. The usual remedy for this is to draw
the bucket out of the working-barrel, until a quantity of water has escaped
by its sides to displace the air ; this evil often arises from the unnecessary
magnitude of the space between the bucket and the clack.
3dly. The pumps being suspended in the pit by capstan ropes, for the pur-
pose of readily lowering as the pit is sunk, the stretching of the ropes
(especially when sinking in soft strata) occasions much trouble, by suffering
the pumps to rest on the bottom and choke ; but the most serious evil is,
that the miners, in shifting the pump from one place to another, that they
may dig in all parts of the pit, throw' them very far out of the perpendicular,
thereby causing immense frictipn and wearing in all parts, besides endan-
gering the whole apparatus, by breaking the bolts and stays, and straining
the joints of the pipes.

These iiiconvemencies have been obviated by Mr. William

Brunton, of Butterley Iron-works, in Derbyshire, who, to
avoid the pump drawing air, has introduced a side pipe, con-
necting the parts of the working-barrel which are above and
below the bucket, which pipe has a stop-valve, that the
miners can regulate wdth the greatest ease, so as to keep
the engine to its full stroke without drawing air, by letting
<iown the water from the upper part of the barrel into the
lower, so that it is working again in its own water. Instead
of having the whole weight of the lower lift of pumps stand-
ing on the bottom, it is fixed in the pit by cross beams, and
264 THK OPERATIVE MECHANIC
the miner has only to lift and move an additional pipe or wind-
bore which slides upon the lower end of the pump like a
telescope, to lengthen down, and this additional wind-bore is
besides crooked, and turned aside like a short crank, which,
by the facility with which it turns ibund in the leather collar
about the nose of it, can easily be removed into every fresh
hole which is made in the bottom by the miners. The pumps
are supported in the pit by beams placed across at proper
distances, so as to suit the lengths of the pipes, or lengths of
the pump, which are nine feet. Short pieces are laid across
these, with half-circular holes in them, which being put round
the pump, just beneath the flanches, firmly support its weight,
but may quickly be removed, when it is required to lower the
pumps in the pit ; and as they are not fastened by any bolt
they do not prevent the pumps being drawn upwards, if it
becomes necessary to take out the pumps when the pit is full
of water.
The pumps by these means remain stationary, and the
suction-pipe lengthens as the pit is sunk, until it is drawn out
to its full extent ; the whole column is then lowered to the
next stanches, and another pipe is added to the top. The
pumps being thus kept stationary till nine feet are sunk, the
pipe at the top will of course deliver the water at the same
level at all times, and instead of being obliged to lengthen the
column at every yard sunk, it will only be necessary every
nine feet.
Fig. 249 explains the construction of Mr. Bruntons pump, being a sec-
tion through the centre of the working-barrel and suction piece. A is the
door which unscrews to get at the clack of the pump ; B is the working-
barrel with the bucket D working in it ; E is the clack, also shown in figs.
250 and 251 ; F is the suction-pipe, and G G a movable lengthening piece
this slides over and includes the other when the pump is first fixed ; but as
the pit is sunk, it slides down over the pipe, F, to reach the bottom. The
outside of the inner pipe F is turned truly cylindrical and smooth, and the
inside of the outer pipe G, at the upper end for about six inches down, is
made to fit it. The junction is made perfect by leathers being placed in
the bottom of the cup a a, which holds water and wet clay over them, to
keep them wet and pliable, and consequently air-tight. The lower ex-
tremity of the suction-pipe G terminates in a nose R, pierced with a number
of small holes that it may not take up dirt. This nose is not placed in a
line with the pipe, but curved to one side of it like a crank, so as to describe
a circle when turned round.
By this means the miners, by turning it round upon the pipe F, can
always place the nose R in the deepest part of the pit ; and when they dig
or blast a deeper part, they turn the nose about into it, the sliding lube
lengthening down to reach the bottom of the hole, as shown in the figure.
By this means there is never a necessity to set a shot for blasting so near
the pump foot as to put it in any danger of being injured by the explosion*
as IS the case of the common pump, in which this danger can only be
 I^FMIPS
Z47 Frorriy 24 7 to 251
 AXD MACHINIST. 265
avoided by moving the pump foot to one side of the pit, which necessarily
throws the whole column of pumps out of the perpendicular.
The construction of the clack is explained by figures 250 and 251, the
former being a section, and the latter a plan. L L is a cast-iron ring, fitting
into a conical seat in the bottom of the chamber of the pump, as shown in
fig. 249 ; it has two stems, I /, rising from it to support a second iron ring
MM ;
just beneath this a bar m extends across from one stem to another,
and has two screws tapped through it ; these press down a second cross
bar n, which holds the leather of the valves down upon the cross bar of the
ring L, and this makes it fast, forming the hinge on which the double valves
open, without the necessity of making any holes through, as is common but :

the chief advantage is, that by this means the clack can be repaired, and a
new leather put in, with far less loss of time than at present, an object of the
greatest importance ; for in many situations the water gathers so fast in the
pit, that if the clack fails, and cannot be quickly repaired, the water rises
above the clack door, so as to prevent any access to it, and there is no
remedy in the common pump but drawing up the whole pile of pumps,
which is a most tedious and expensive operation.
In Mr. Bruntons pump, the clack can at any time be drawm out of it, by
first drawing out the bucket, and letting down an iron prong Z, which has

hooks on the outside of its two points ; this, when dropped down, will fall
into the ring M, and its prongs, springing out, will catch the under side, and
hold it fast enough to draw it up. Another part of Mr. Bruntons improve-
ment consists in the addition of a pipe H, (fig. 249,) which is cast at the
same time with the barrel, and communicates with it at top and bottom,
just above the clack ; at the upper end the pipe is covered by a flat sliding
plate, which can be moved by a small rod 6, passing through a collar of
leather ; the rod has a communication by a lever, so that the valve can be
opened or shut by the men in the bottom of the pit.
The object of this side pipe is to let down such a propor-
tion of the water which the pump draws, as will prevent it
drawing air; though, of course, the motion of the engine will
be so adapted as not to require a great proportion of the
water to be thus returned through the side pipe ; yet it will
not be possible to work the engine so correctly as not to draw
some without this contrivance ; and if it does, it draws up
much dirt and pieces of stone into the pump, besides causing
the engine to work very irregularly, in consequence of partially
losing its load every time the air enters the pump. Another
service of the side pipe is, to let water down into the chamber
of the clack to fill it, when the engine is first set to work, after
the pumps have been standing still, and the lower part of the
barrel and chamber are empty.
1 1.Figures 252 and 253 are a section and elevation of
a three-barrel force-pump, of a very good construction, which
was used by Mr. Smeaton in the numerous water-engines
which he erected at London-bridge, Stratford, and other
places, for the supply of towns with water. It has the ad-
vantage^f the valves being very accessible, and the water-way
may be kept to the full size of the barrel without contractions.
266 tk;e operative mechanic
which, as they occasion great resistance to the motion of the
water, are a waste of power. It acts on the same principle
as the ordinary forcing-pump, only that three barrels are con-
nected together for the advantage of raising a constant stream
of water.
AA are the barrels, which are bored out truly cylindrical. If the pump
is small, the barrels are usually made of brass ; but for larger work, cast-iron
is used. From one side, near the bottom of each, proceeds a curved pipe B,
turning up, and ending with a flaunch, to screw to the under side of the forcing-
chamber L. There is also, near the bottom at the opposite side of the barrel,
a projecting neck or short pipe D, covered at the end by a door screwed on,
that it may be removed to give access to the valve i, in the bottom of
the barrel. The barrels have projecting rings or flaunches, by w'hich they
are screwed down uponthe suction-chamber H, which is common to all
three barrels ;
has a pipe from each of its rods terminating in a flaunch /i,
it

to screw on the pipes which bring the water to the pump. The upper
flaunch, or top of the suction-chamber II, has three holes in it, one under
each barrel, and each is covered by a valve shutting downwards, as is shown
in the section, fig. 252. These valves are made of iron, to shut down upon
hinges like a door, and are covered with leather at the lower side.

Mr. Smeaton made his valves with the centre-pin of the

hinge removed backwards from the hole which the valve
covers, and it is also raised above the surface of the under side
of the valve, by which means the valve opens in some degree
on that side where the hinge is, as well as on the other, and
any obstruction getting into the valve will be less liable
to be detained, and will not have such a great leverage to
break the hinge of the valve when the force of the water shuts
it down, as it would if the hinge was on a level, and close to
the edge of the hole, because the obstacle will not be so near
the centre.
The binge is fastened to the pump by the screw v), passing through the
metal, and screwing into the hinge ; this being withdrawn, and the door D
opened, the valve is quite loose, and may be taken out to renew the leather.
To give facility to this, the doors D
are made oval, as shown in fig. 253.
Another similar valve n is fitted at the top of each of the pipes B, to cover
their apertures ; they are all covered by a common forcing-chamber L,
which is exactly similar to the suction-chamber, except that it has nozles R,
in the top over each \alve, and covered with doors to give access to them.
The conducting-pipes are carried away from either end of the forcing-
chamber, flaunches being provided to unite them. Each barrel is fitted with
a piston or fcorcer M, which consists of three metallic plates, secured to the
rod the middle plate is turned true, and fitted as accurately as possible to
:

the barrel ; the upper and lower plates are somewhat smaller. Two round
pieces of leather, larger than the barrel, are placed above and below the
middle plate, being held fast between it and the upper and lower plates.
When forced into the barrels, these leathers turn up and down round the
tipper and lower plates, forming two cups of leather, which accurately fit
the barrel, and will not permit any fluid to pass by them.
The parts of the pump are fastened together by screws and nuts, as will
 AND MACHINIST. 267
be understood by inspection of the figures. The whole pump is supported
on two ground-sills, and by means of two uon branches of the suction-
chamber H, the whole pump is bolted down upon the ground-sills.
The action of this pump is simply this : when the piston or
forcer of one barrel is raised, it causes a vacuum in it, and
the pressure of the atmosphere forces the water up the suction-
pipe H, (if not more than 30 or 33 feet,) opens the valve m,
in the bottom of the barrel, and fills it with water ; on the
descent of the forcer, the lower valve shuts, and the forcing
valve n opens, by the water the barrel contained being driven
through it into the forcing-chamber L, and thence to any
place whither the forcing-pipe is carried. On the reascent
of the forcer, the lower valve m
opens, and the shutting of
the forcing-valve n prevents the water returning into the
barrel. Tlie three forcers wwk
up and down alternately, so
that while one barrel is sending water up the force-pipe, the
others are lifting it up the suction-pipe, and the third con-
tinues the action in the interval, when the change of motion
takes place between the two. In this manner the pump will
raise a very constant stream of water, if the forcers are
worked in a proper manner ; which is best done by means of
cranks, placed at such an angle to each other, upon the same
axis, that they will act in due succession.

12. English ships of war carry four chain-pumps and three

hand-pumps, all being fixed in the same well, which also
^
includes the mainmast.
The chain-pump (fig. 254) is no other than a long chain A, with a suffi-
cient number of pistons, a, called buckets or saucers, fixed \ipon it at proper
distances; it passes downwards through a wooden tube B, and returns
upwards in the same manner, on the other side D, the ends being united
together. The chain is extended over two wheels, E and F, called sprocket-
wheels one is placed over the tubes B and D of the pump, and the other
;

at the bottom in the space between the two tubes through which the chain
ascends and descends. By turning the upper wheel E, the chain of buckets
is put in motion, and the lower part of the wooden tube, in which the chain
ascends, is lined with a brass barrel, in which the saucers are fitted. As
they are continually ascending in this tube, they raise a constant stream of
water, which runs off from the top of the ascending trunk, and is carried by
a trunk through the ship's side into the sea. The pump is worked by a
crank or winch G, fixed on the axis of the upper wheel, whereon several men
may be employed at once ; and thus it discharges in a limited time a mucli
greater quantity of water than the common pump, and that with less incon-
venience to the labourers.
13. The chain-pump now in use in the navy is of a very
improved construction, compared with original chain-pumps.
It was introduced by Mr. Cole, under the direction of Capt.
Bentinck. The chain of this machine is simple, and not
much exposed to damage. U is exactly similar to that of the
268 THE OPERATIV'E MECHANIC
fire-engine, and appears to have been first applied to the
pump by Mr. Mylne, to exhaust the water from the caissons
at Blackfriars-bridge. It has thence been transferred to the
marine by Capt, Bentinck, after having received some material
additions to answer that service.
The links of the chain (fig. 255) are each formed of two long plates of
iron, e e,with a hole at each end, and fixed together by two bolts, serving
as pins for the joints. The buckets or saucers fixed upon it are two circular
plates of brass, g, with a piece of leather between them. The sprocket-
wheels for the chain are formed in the same manner as the trundles used in
mills, by two iron wheels fixed at eight inches distance upon the axles, and
united by several round iron bolts, forming a rest for the chain ;
and its
links have hooks, 6, which are taken by these bolts, and thus the chain is
secured upon the wheel, to prevent it from jerking back when charged with
a column of water.

This pump was

a great improvement upon the old chain-
pumps used which the chain was of too
in ships before, in
complicated a fabric, and the sprocket-wheels used to work
it were deficient, in wanting some contrivance to prevent the
chain from sliding or jerking back upon the surface of the
wheel, which frequently happened when the buckets were
charged with a considerable weight of water, or when the
pumps were violently worked. The links were too short, and
the awkward manner in which they were connected, exposed
them to a great friction in passing round the wheels hence :

they were sometimes apt to break or burst asunder in very

dangerous situations, when it was extremely difficult or im-
practicable to repair the chain.
Mr. Coles pump is so constructed, that the chain may
be easily taken up and repaired, when broken or choaked
with ballast ; and it discharges a much greater quantity of
water with an inferior number of men, as appears from a trial
of this machine with the old chain-pump, aboard the Seaford
frigate, where it was found that its effects, when compared

with the latter, were as follows : The new pump with four
men raised one ton of water in 43J seconds, while the old
pump required seven men to raise the same quantity of water
in 76 seconds.
In this experiment the chain of the new pump was pur-
posely broken, and dropped into the well, and afterwards
taken up and repaired, anid set to work again in two minutes
and a half ; then the lower wheel of the pump was taken out,
to show how readily it might be cleared and refitted for
action, after being choaked with sand or gravel, which could
be performed in four or five minutes. These are advantages
which, with a seaman, have a superior consideration to that
 JPFMJPS
FI.32
From 252 to 256
254

253

SiStoeMt^ *c36Z Strond

 AND MACHINIST. 269
of increasing the quantity of water which the machine will
raise, unless it was in a considerable degree ; and indeed the
very best pumps will not raise a much greater proportion
with the same power.
The only alteration which has been made on Mr. Coles
pump, since its first introduction, near thirty years ago, is,
that they now omit the lower sprocket-wheel altogether, the
ascending and descending pipes being so united by a curved
metal tube, that the chain passes better than if a wheel was
used. The cranks are made to take off, and apply, when
wanted, that they may not be in the way ; they are long
enough for thirty men to work at once ; of late it has been ,

proposed to add fly-wheels to them. This would be attended

with but slight advantage, and several inconveniences from
occupying that room where the men should stand to work, it
being an object to employ as many as possible ; but if they
are crowded, they only incommode each other instead of
assisting.
14. The following simple and ingenious method of working
a ships pump, when the crew are either too few in number,
or too much exhausted to attend to that duty when the per-
formance is most necessary, namely, in a heavy gale, was
put in practice with great success by Capt. Leslie, of the
ship George and Susan, on a late voyage from Stockholm to
North America. He fixed a spar aloft, one end of which
was ten or twelve feet above the top of his pumps, and the
other projected over the stern ; to each end he affixed a block
or pulley. He then fastened a rope to the spears of the
pump, and after passing it through both pullies along the
spar, dropped it into the sea astern. To the rope he fastened
a cask of 1 10 gallons measurement, and containing 60 or 70
gallons of water. This cask answered as a balance-weight,
and every motion of the ship from the roll of the sea made
the machinery work. When the stern descended, or when
a sea or any agitation of water raised the cask, the pump-
spears descended ; and the contrary motion of the ship raised
the spears, when the water flowed out. The ship was cleared
out in four hours, and the crew were of course greatly
relieved.
15. Hand-pumps have been constructed in great variety
for the use of ships ;
and as they are of great utility, w^e shall
describetwo or three of the best.
The ingenious Benjamin Martin invented a ships pumn
with two barrels drawing from one suction-pump, so as to
raise a constant stream.
270 THK OPERATIVE MECHANIC
This pump
has so much merit, that we have given a section of it, fig. 250.
Here A the suction-pipe, conducting the water from tlie ships hold up
is

to the pump, where it is enlarged to communicate with both barrels D, D

through the valves C C, in the bottom ; E E
are the pistons of the barrels,
with double valves in them; they are not, like other pistons, fitted to slide
in the barrels, but are simply brass rings, in which the valves are fitted, and
being smaller than the barrels, have large circular pieces of leather fixed on
them, the outside edges of wliich are attached to the insides of the pump-
barrels ;
hence, when the pistons are moved up and down, the leather folds
sufficiently toadmit the motion, as is shown in the figure ; but being close
all round, these pistons can have no leakage or friction, and only a s.nali
resistance from the stiffness of the leather.
To fasten the edges of the leather piston to the barrels, they are made in
two lengths, an upper and a lower, and the leather is introduced in the
joint between them, being half fast, and the pump kept together by bars 1 1,
fixed over the barrels, and bolts to press the upper length of the barrels
down upon the lower. Both the barrels are included within a box or cis-
tern B B, fixed upon the ships deck, with trunks L L, which carry off the
water as it runs over the tops of the barrels into the cistern. The pump is
worked by piston-rods II H, being united by chains to a wheel K, the axle
of which is supported by standards from the sides of the cistern B B, and
is put in motion by the double lever M, at the end of whicli cross handles
are fixed for several men to work at once. Mr. Martins pump acts ex-
tremely well; the constant stream raised by the alternate action of two
barrels upon one pipe, produces an advantage that was shown by experi-
ment, for the water not only rises while the piston rises, but continues to
do so even after the piston begins to descend ; and therefore the pump was
found to deliver more water than was expected from the calculation of the
contents of the barrel, and the number of strokes made.
To account must be considered, that as this
for this, it

pump has both large pistons working (alternately ascending

its
and descending) at the same time, there must be produced a
constant rising column of water in the pipe, whose velocity
through a bore of five inches, to supply the barrels of twelve
inches diameter each, must be so great, that it cannot be
checked or stopped at once, or upon the first descent of the
piston and therefore a surplus of water is produced. Not-
;

withstanding these advantages of Mr. Martins pump, it has

objections, which are serious obstacles to its use on board
ships, though in other situations it is a good machine these :

are, the shortness of its stroke, which renders it very fatiguing

for men to work for a long time ; but another more serious
objection is, that the leather would, in general, remain dry,
and thus become liable to harden and grow stiff, so as to
break into holes when used at first, before they become soaked,
and to fill the cistern first with water would be very trouble-
some.
16. The latest improvements in hand-pumps are hy Capt.
Jekyl, R. This gentleman has invented an addition to the
N.
pump of an air-vessel, and stuffing-box for the rod to pass
 AND MACHINIST. 271

through, by which it will raise the water to a greater height

than the head of the pump ; and a hose being attached I0 the
pump-spout, by very simple means, the water is conveyed to
any part of the ship, and thrown in a jet through a hose-pipe
with great force, to extinguish fire, if such a calamity should
befall a ship ; and thus the pump is rendered of twofold ser-
vice. The idea of converting the pump to a fire-engine is not
new, having been attempted in many ditferent ways by forcing-
pumps ; but these having pipes proceeding from the lower
parts of the barrels and valves, which are not very accessible,
are always liable to choke up by obstructions, and have not
succeeded in general use. The air-vessel has always been in
the way, if made of a sufficient size to answer the purpose of
equalizing the stream. Capt. Jekyl has obviated these objec-
tions, and without altering the material parts of the hand-
pump, has rendered it as complete a fire-engine as can be
wished.
explained by figure 257 which is a section of the pump through
Tliis is ,

its whole length. A B C is the iron brake or lever to work it it is branched

;

to the extreme end, and has a wooden pole C, fixed in it, for several men
to hold at once ; D is the iron stanchion or fulcrum of the brake ;
it is fixed

to the pump-head by means of strong iron hoops at E E and E F, which at

the same time strengthen the w'ork of the pump. Tlie centre-piu is to be
at the height of two feet six inches above the ships deck. II are the slings
of the pump, united by a forelock or pin to the end of the brake, and sus-
pending the pump-spear I, by means of the joint-piece I K is the pump-
spear, made of copper in the upper pait I, and the lower length K of iron ;
the latter has the bucket M attached to it. Tire valve of the bucket is made
in a very simple and effective manner, the valve being merely a round plate
of brass, with a hole through the centre, to receive the rod upon whicli it
rises and falls, and covers the aperture in the bucket. Tire bucket is a ring
of brass, with a cross bar to fix the rod in ; it is made in two thicknesses,
one above the other, and a cup of leather is held in between them, projecting
all round the upper part of the bucket, and turning up, to make a tight
fitting in the barrel. The two rings of the bucket are lield together by the
piston-rod passing through both, and a cross wedge beneath. L is the brass
chamber in which the bucket works ; it is well fitted into the wood of the
pump-tree, so that the water cannot leak by it, and is bored smooth within-
side,
N is the lower box, fitted into the lower part of the pump-tree, beneath
the chamber ; it has a groove round it, into which oakum is placed, and
when it is put down, makes a tight joint; its valve is of the same construc-
tion as that of the bucket, with the addition of a ring or eye on the top of
the pin, on which the valve rises and falls. By this eye the box can be
draw n up when it needs repair, by first draw ing up the bucket of the pump,
and putting an iron dow n into this eye. OO P is the air-vessel ; this is a
cylinder of sheet-copper, soldered to a cover of brass; witliin the centre of
it is a tube likewise soldered to the cover, through which the copper pump-

spear passes, and is fitted round at top with a collar of leather and stuffing.
To prevent the escape of the water, it is packed with hemp, and two rings
of leather. R sliows the place of two iron bars, fitted through the head ot
 272 THK OPERATIVE MECHANIC
the pump, and confining tiie cover () O, of the air-vessel they are fastened
;

by the wedges d; it is by these only that tlie air-vessel is held down; a circle
of leather is first put round the air-vessel, just beneath its lid, and this being-
pressed upon the recess in the wood, makes the joint tight. T is the pump-
nozle, which delivers the water. When it is used as a fire-engine, a hose
is fixedon by its link-joints, and keys or wedges; the nozle is fixed to the
pump by four screw-bolts going through the thickness of the pump, and it
is fixed in such a direction as will most conveniently lead to a receiver,
fig. 258, which unites the hose from all three of the ships pumps.'

Fig. 259 is the link-joint of the hose, T representing the pump-spout,

made of cast-iron, and screwed to the pump-tree ; e e is the collar or socket,
made of brass, with the hose X bound upon it this has two trunnions, on
;

which a link f is fitted, one on each side ; these links pass through grooves
in the cast-iron piece T, and a key g, put down through the link behind it,
draws the joint tight, without any screwing or further trouble. The socket
c e is fitted into the nozle, and has a leather ring to make it tight. The
outside of the pump is to be hooped at every three feet, to prevent it from
bursting by the pressure of the water. The disposition of the three hand-
pumps in a ships well, renders their connection with a common receiver
very convenient to bring all the water into one stream, which will then be
very powerful, and more capable of extinguishing a fire than any movable
engine.
Two hand-pumps are always placed on the starboard side of the main-
mast, in the well ; and one of them being the cistern-pump used for washing
decks, its foot stands in a small cistern fixed upon the step of the mainmast,
and supplied with water by a pipe through the ships side, with a cock to
admit it at pleasure ; there is one pump on the larboard side of the mast.
Three separate hoses being united with each of the pumps by a link-joint,
like fig. 259, at one end, and with three necks li of a receiver, fig. 258,
by similar joints at the other, brings all the water into one, and a hose being
joined by a link-joint, I, to the opposite end of the receiver, conveys the whole

water to any part of the ship. The receiver has three nozles, k k k, at one
end, made in a divergent direction, agreeable to the direction in -vsdiich the
hoses come from the three different pumps, and a valve is placed inside,
before each hose, to open inwards, in order that the receiver may be used
for one or two pumps, whilst the others are repairing or getting ready, or
that if any of the hoses burst, the water may not escape from the receiver at
the nozle. There are two handles fixed to the receiver, to lift and carry it,
as it is to be movable ; and when in use, is proposed to be laid upon the
grating of the main hatchway, as the most central situation, from whence
the hose may be carried in any direction. Z is a branch-pipe or jet, screwed
at the end of the great hose X ; and it also unscrews at the extreme end, to
fit on jets of different bores, in the same manner as all other fire-engines.

In working, the pressure of the water condenses the air contained within
the receiver, OOP, into a small space, and its reaction to resume its
former bulk equalizes the efflux of the water from the nozle of the pump.
In some experiments which we have witnessed upon this
pump, it performed as well as could be desired, a single pump
forming a very elective engine but when the three were
;

combined, it was superior in force to any we have ever seen,

and would throw a stream of an inch in diameter over the
maintopmast-head of a 74-gun ship.
Besides the length of the handle G admitting sever.al men to work at
once, an accession of force is gained by a rope % made fast to the brake A B,.
 AND MACHINIST. 273
and conducted through a single block hooked to the deck at w, and thence
along the ships deck; at this any number of men may be employed
very advantageously to produce the stroke, leaving those at the handle only
to return it by lifting the handle. If the ship proves leaky, and the stuffing-
box is thought to be an obstruction to the working of the pump, the air-
vessel may be taken out by drawing the wedge d, and taking out the bars R,
which confine it ; then after taking out the key which connects the joint-
piece g with the copper rod, also removing the brake, lift out the air-vessel
by the two screws of the stuffing-box, and fix on the joint-piece again, but
fix the guide-eye H in the lowest pair of holes, so that it will receive the top
of the copper rod, and prevent the pump-spear from having any play in the
slings.

In this state it acts as a common hand-pump ;

but the air-
vessel can be restored to its place, and be ready forwork, in
two minutes.
To prevent any of the work from being neglected from'
carelessness, the inventor proposes that one of the pumps
shall be always used to wash the ship by the hose and jet
every morning, which it would do much more effectually than
by the present mode of raising the wafer into buckets ; and
the force with which the jet of water is thrown would very
completely wash into every recess of the gun-carriages, and
other places where a brush cannot reach ; while by this con-
stant exercise the pumps would be always ready, at a mo-
ments notice, upon an alarm of fire.
17. Mr. Robert Clarke, of Sunderland, has proposed a great
improvement in the mode of applying mens force to pump-
ing, which is worthy the consideration of seamen. It is to
change the posture of standing to sitting, and making the
action the same as that of rowing, which, besides that it is
by philosophers considered as the most efficacious application
of a mans force, it is to seamen most particularly so from
their habitual practice of it. He objects to the ordinary
action of pumping with a brake, as the posture is weak, and
requires much force to preserve it. It oppresses the man by
overstretching his loins on one side, and incommodes respira-
tionby the flexure of the body on the other side. Too much
motion of the shoulder-joint is required, as the muscles which
act on the arm-bone at this joint are disproportionate to the
effort they must make when the arm vibrates on the shoulder-
joint as a centre, for the force to be communicated by the
hand. Besides this, the arms themselves are at one instant
enfeebled, by being thrown over the head, and requiring a
pull, and the next instant require a pushing effort, which
changes of direction in the exertion and restraining force are
too continual and rapid for long continuance ; in standing
the body is a continued dead weight upon the legs.
T
 271 THE OPERATIVE MECHANIC
The action of rowing is powerful to a surprising degree^
and so well adapted to a mans ease, that he can continue it
a greater length of time without fatigue than any other mode
of exertion ; for though the motion is large, it is made up of
easy motions in several joints, the velocity and resistance
of which suit the muscles employed. Very little sustaining
force is required, for the body is supported, and returns
unloaded to its charge ; the breathing is free. The manner
of carrying this into effect is very simple, the lever or brake
being bent at right angles at a certain pin, so that it hangs
straight down when it is at rest, instead of being horizontal
then to the lower extremity a rod is jointed, which is carried
rather in an inclined direction upwards to the seaman, w'ho is
seated before the pump with a rest for his feet. The rod has
a cross handle, to hold by both hands, and in some cases it
may be made long enough for two men to sit side by side on
the same seat; and by drawing and pushing it in the same
manner as rowing, the perpendicular lever is caused to vibrate,
and the horizontal arm or bended part, which suspends the
pump-spear, partakes of the motion sufficiently for pumping.

18. M. de Bonnard, speaking of the pistons of pumps, in

the Journal des Mines, states, that the leathers with which tlie
external circumference of the pistons of pumps are covered,
are quickly worn out by the continual friction which they
undergo, and the renewing of them is an object of considerable
expense in large mining undertakings.
They have therefore used in Saxony, ^for some years past,
pistons without these external leathers in sucking-pumps,
and to render the upper part of the piston elastic, by com-
posing it of pieces of wood, which expand or open when the
piston rises, and close when it descends.
To obtain this effect, the part of the piston which forms a bucket, is

composed of a system of small movable pieces of wood a a a, figures 260

and 261, cut obliquely, and disposed so as to cover each other nearly half
their breadth; a leather which covers the upper surface of each of these
pieces, serves to sustain them, and yet allow them sufficient play. To the
under part of the same, pieces of leather are attached, which aftbrd them all
the elasticity that is necessary. These leathers are received into slits that
are cut round the piston, and directed obliquely to its edges ; they are fixed
to the pieces of wood by nails, the extremities of which correspond with the
notches c cc, and to the edges of the solid part of the piston by the screws
ddd. By this disposition each piece of wood is movable upon a son of
horizontal hinge, and when the piston is raised, the weight of the water with
which it is charged, by opening all these pieces, causes them to press one
against the other, and against the sides r r of the barrel of the pump, so asl
not to let any of the water escape, and to produce completely the effect of
a pi.'.ton furnished with leather. The interior edges of each of the joints of
 AND MACHINIST. 2/5
themovable pieces are covered two by two with leather as at eee, fig, 261,
upon which the weight of the water acts as upon the pieces themselves.
All these leathers last a very long time, as well as those of
the suckers, because they are not exposed to any friction,
which only acts upon the movable pieces of wood. When
the piston descends, the water that raises the suckers finds
an easy passage, without filtering between the piston and the
interior of the barrel of the pump ; an effect which has this
additional convenience, that no dirt can be introduced into
the joints, which might afterwards prevent the perfect contact
of the different pieces.
In 1808, these pistons were tried in several mines in Saxony,
and were found very satisfactory. It was only observed that
there was some inconvenience attending the use of them w here
the wells w^ere much inclined ; as the pressure of the w'ater
above not being equal upon all the movable pieces of the
piston, those that were least pressed upon let some of the
water pass between them. These inconveniences however
exist only in the ordinary pistons.
In some departments pistons with springs are sometimes
used, which are composed of movable rubbing-pieces, that
are substituted for the leathers that are ordin'arily employed.
We know that these pistons are used with advantage in the
cylinders of some blowing-engines ; but in these pistons the
rubbing-pieces are constantly forced against the interior sur-
face of the cylinder by the springs
In the piston wdth the flexible crown of WDod, which
M. Bonnard has described, the movable pieces of wood that
compose it do not rub against the interior surface of tlie
barrel of the pump, except when the piston ascends, being
then pushed by the weight of the column of water that is
raised, and they scarcely rub at all against the surface when
the piston descends. This peculiar effect assimilates this
piston with those that have a flexible crown of leather, or
a bucket, and gives it a decided advantage over pistons with
springs and cushions. In other departments pistons with
springs are sometimes used, which move in cylinders of
cast-iron.
These pistons are composed of four pieces of brass, aaaa, figures 2fi2
and 263, which are each about three centimetres in height and thickness,
and are pushed horizontally by two springs, bbhb. Those pieces, which
we shall call quadrants, in order that none of the air may escape when they
play under the inequalities of the cylinder in which they rise and descend,
are each of them something longed than a quarter of the circumference of
the cylinder, and towards the extremities they are reduced to half the
thickness.
By this mean?, these quadrants are perfectly covered at the extremitie.s,

t2
27H THK OPERATIVE MKCIIANTC
and prevent the passage of the air in a horizontal direction, while the springs
li b b I) preverrt its passage vertically.

In conclusion we shall observe, that these pistons, perfectly

joined, have been proved to be proper for driving air with
great force. We
shall likewise observe, that the quadrants
aa a a being made of brass, and rubbing against cast-iron,
ought to last a very long time ; consequently, the blowing
here mentioned have the advantage of not requiring frequent
repairs.

19. The following piston, described and recommended by

Belidor, seems as perfect as the nature of things will allow.
We shall therefore describe it in the authors own words, as
a model which may be adopted with confidence in the greatest
works.
The body of the piston is a truncated metal cone, (fig. 264,) having
a small fillet at the greater end. Fig. 265 shows the profile, and fig. 266
the plan of its upper base, where appears a cross-bar D
D, pierced with an
oblong mortise E for receiving the tail of the piston-rod. A band of thick
and uniform leather A
A (figs. 265 and 267) is put round this cone, and
secured by a brass hoop B B, firmly driven on its smaller end, where it is
previously made thinner to give room for the hoop.
This piston is covered with a leather valve, fortified with metal plates G G
(fig. 268.) These plates are wider than the hole of the piston, so as to rest
on its rim. There are similar plates below the leathers, of a smaller size, that
they may go into the hollow of the piston ; and the leather is firmly held
between the metal plates by screws H
H, which go through all. TTiis is
represented by the dotted circle J K. Thus the pressure of the incumbent
column of water is supported by the plates G G, whose circular edges rest
on the brim of the water-way, and thus straight edges rest on the cross-bar
DD of figs. 265 and 266. This valve is laid on the top of the conical box
in such a manner that its middle F P rests on the cross-bar. To bind all
together, the end of the piston-rod is formed like a cross, and the arms N M
(fig. 269) are made to rest on the diameter F F of the valve, the tail E F
going through the hole E in the middle of the leather, and through the
mortise E of the cross-bar of the box, as well as through another bar, Q R,
(figs. 267 and 268,) which is notched into the lower brim of the box. A key
V is then driven into the hole I, in the piston-rod ; and this wedges all fast.
The bar QR
is made strong ; and its extremities project a little, so as to
support the brass hoop B B, which binds the leather band to the piston-box.'^

This piston has every advantage of strength, tightness, and

large water-way. The form of the valve (which has given it
the name of the butterfly-valve) is extremely favourable to
the passage of the water ; and as it has but half the motion
of a complete circular valve, less water goes back while it is
shutting.
 FL.34.
From 1*(U to FFF
I

ii
 AND MACHINIST.

FIRE-ENGINES.
When breaks out in a crowded neighbourhood, it car-
fire
ries with it such devastating effects, that any individual who
has seriously turned his attention to the constructing of an
engine that is in the least calculated to check its progress,
must ever be considered as deserving of our praise. Those
who have most beneficially directed their attention this way
are Messrs. Newsham and Rowntree, whose engines we shall
now proceed to describe.
1. A perspective view of Mr. Newshams fire-engine, ready
for working, is represented in fig. 270 .
It consists of a cisternA B, about three times as long as it is broad,
made of thick oaken planks, the joints of which are lined with sheet copper,
and easily movable by means of a pole and cross-bar C w, the fore part of
the engine, which is so contrived as to slip back under the cover of the
cistern and on four solid wheels, two of which are seen at D and E. The
hind axle-tree, to which the wheel E and its opposite are fixed, is fastened
across under the bottom of the cistern ; but the fore axle-tree, bearing the
wheel D, &c. is put on a strong pin or bolt, strongly fastened in a hori-
zontal situation in the middle of the front of the bottom of the cistera, by
which contrivance the two fore-wheels and tlie axle-tree have a circular
motion round the bolt, so that the engine may stand as firm on rough or
sloping ground as if it were level.
Upon the ground next to the hind part of the engine may be seen a
leather pipe F, one end of which may be screwed on and off upon occa-
sion to a brass cock at tlte lower end of the cistern ; the other end is
immersed in water, supplied by a pond, fire-plug, &c. and the pipe
becomes a sucking-pipe for furnishing the pump of the engine by its work-
ing, without pouring water into the cistern. To the hind part of the cistern
is furnished a wooden trough G, with a copper grate for keeping out

stones, sand, and dirt, through which the cistern is supplied with water
when the sucking- pipe cannot be used. The fore part of the cistern is
also separated from the rest of its cavity by another copper grate, through
which water may be poured into the cistern. Those that work the pumps
of this engine move the handles, visible at the long sides, up and down, and
are assisted by others who stand on two suspended treadles, throwing their
weight alternately upon each of them, and keeping themselves steady, by
taking hold of two round horizontal rails HI, framed into four vertici
stands which reach the bottom of the cistern, and are well secured to its sides.
Over the hind trough there is an iron handle or key K, serving to open
or shut a cock placed under it on the bottom of the cistern, the use of
which we shall explain in the sequel of this article. L is an inverted
pyramidal case which preserves the pumps and air-vessels from damage,
and also supports a wooden frame M, on which stands a man, who, by
raising or depressing, and turning about the spout N, directs the stream of
water as occasion requires. This spout is made of two pieces of brass pipe,
each of which has an elbow ; the lower is screwed over the upper end F,
(fig. 271,) of the pipe that goes through the air-vessel, and the upper part
screws on to the lower by a screw of several threads, so truly turned as to
be water-tight in every direction. The conic fonn of the spouting pipe
serves for wiredrawing the water in its passage through it, which occasions
a friction that produces such a velocity of the jet as to render it capable of
278 THE OIKIIaTIVE MECHANIC
breaking windows, 8cc. whilst the valves and leather pipes of the engine
have sufficient water-way to supply the jet in its greatest velocity. Leather
pipes of considerable length may be screwed at one end of the nozle of
the engine, and furnished at one end with a w'ooden or brass pipe for
guiding the water into the inner parts of houses.
Between the pyramid-box L, and the fore end of the engine, there is a
strong iron bar O, lying in a horizontal position over the middle of the
cistern, and playing in brasses supported by two wooden stands ; one of
which, P, is placed between the two fore stands of the upper rails, and the
other is hid in the enclosure ever the hind part. Upon proper squares of
this bar are fitted, one near each end, two strong brass bars, which take hold
of the long wooden cylindrical handles, by means of which the engine is
worked ; and the treadles by which they are assisted are suspended at each
end by chains in the form of a watch-chain, and receive their motion jointly
with the handles, that are on the same side, by means of two circular
sectors of iron fastened together, and fixed upon proper squares of the
middle horizontal bar; the two fore ones may be seen at Q; the two hind
ones, represented upon a large scale in fig. 272, differ from the former only
in thickness, for the fore sectors are made to carry only one chain each,
fastened by one end to their upper part, and by the lower end to the
treadles ; whereas the sole of the two hind sectors is wide enough to carry
two chains each ; one set fastened like those of the fore ones for the motion
,of the treadles ; and the other two chains are fastened by their lower ends
to the lower part of these sectors, and by their upper ends to the top of
the piston-bars, in order to give them motion. See fig. 271, in which the
hind sectors and their apparatus are represented as they would appear to a
person standing between the two fore wheels, and looking at the hind part
of the engine.
The square over the letterA is the section of the middle bar, on which,
right over the two barrels, are placed the two sectors B C A and D E A,
forged together. GHK
F and fghk are the two piston-rods ; and the
openings between the letters GH and g h, are the spaces through which
the hind parts of the two treadles pass. L andM represent two strong
studs, rivetted on the other side of the bars on which they are placed ; and
to each of these is fastened a chain like a watch-chain, and fixed by their
D
upper ends to the upper extremities and B of the iron sectors, by which
they are drawn up and down alternately. These sectors give also an alternate
motion up and down to the piston-rods, by means of two other chains less
white in the figure, in order to distinguish them from the others ; these are
fastened by their lower ends to the lower extremities of the sectors E and
C, and their upper ends, terminating in a male screw, are made tight to the
piston-rods at F and /, by two nuts.
The shape of the piston-rods, and the size and situation of the chains
that give them motion, are so contrived, that the vertical axis of the pistons
is exactly in the middle of the breadth of the perpendicular part of the
chains, and the upper part of the piston-rod taken together. PQ repre-
sents one of the two cross-bars through the ends of which pass the handles
to which the men apply their hands when they work the engine ; these
cross-bars are fitted on the middle bar at some distance from the sectors.
The other parts of this useful engine may be understood by the help of
fig. 271, which represents a vertical section taken through the middle line

of the hind part of the engine, as also the section of the air-vessel, and that
of one of the barrels, and likewise the profiles of the hind sectors, and
several other parts. A B is the section of the bottom of the cistern, and
C that of the hindmo:^ axle-tree. DE is the vertical section of a strong
 AND MACHINIST. 279
piece of cast brass or hard metal, so worked as to have a hollow in it,
represented by the white part, and fixed to the bottom of the cistern; tliis
reaches from the opening D, through the cock W, and afterwards divides
itself into two branches, so as to open under the two barrels ; one of these
branches is exhibited in the figure, and the other is exactly behind this.
Through this channel, which may be called the sucking-piece, water is con-
veyed to the pumps by the pressure of the atmosphere, either from the
cistern itself, or from any place at a distance, by means of the leather pipe
F, fig. 273, which screws on to the sucking-piece at D, fig. 271, under the
hind trough Z, the grate of which is represented by the horizontal strokes,
F G represents the vertical section of another piece of ca'A brass or hard
metal, that may be called the communication-piece, having two hollows for
conveying the water from under the pistons to the two openings of the
flanch of the air-vessel ; one of these hollows appears in the figure the other
;
lies exactly behind this, though not in a parallel direction. Between the
section of the sucking-piece D E, and that of the communication-piece F G,
may be observed the section of one of the plates of leather, which makes
all tight, and forms one of the two sucking-valves, of which there is another
just behind this, under the other barrel. R S T is the section of the copper
air-vessel, and TV that of the conduit-pipe; this vessel is screwed on to
the hind part of the communication-piece, and at fop is fastened by a collar
of iron to a cross piece of timber.
Between the flanch of the air-vessel and the communication-piece, may
be observed the section of one of the plates of leather, making all tight,
and sciewing one of the two forcing valves, of which there is another just
behind this, exactly over the other opening of- the communication from the
air-vessel. These valves are loaded with a lump of cast-iron or lead, having
a tail or teat let through the flap of the valve, and cross pinioned under it
and it is to be observed, that though both the valves are represented open
in the figure, they are never both open at the same time ; for when the
engine is not at work, they are closed dowm by the weights on their upper
surfaces ; and when the engine works, two are shut, and the other two are
alternately opened by the motion of the pistons and the action of the atmo-
sphere, together with the reaction of the air contained in the air-vessel.
H I is the section of one of the barrels of the two pumps, which are both
sucking and forcing ; as is evident from the position of the valves and the
structure of the pistons, each of which is composed of two iron plates, of
two wooden trenchers, and of two flat pieces of leather turning one up and
the other down. K
L represents one of the piston-rods edgewise, behind
which is one of the chains, the top screw of which, K, can only be seen.
M is the end of the middle bar, and N a section of the hindmost of the two

middle stands which support the middle bar. O represents the end of the
profile of one of the treadles, passing through the rectangular holes of the
piston-rods, as in fig. 272. The weight on these treadles brings them and
the piston-rods down alternately, and they are raised up again by the help
of the other set of chains, one of which may be seen edgewise in this figure,
placed on the sole of one of the sectors, &c. see fig. 272.
P Qis part of the cross-bars which carry the handles, seen edgewise,
and X Y represents an iron handle, by the help of which the cock W may be
placed in the several situations requisite for the use of the engine. The
mechanism may be understood by figs. 275, 276, and 277, which represent
the horizontal section of it, in three different situations. It has three holes,
which are left white in these figures. In fig. 275, the position of the cock
is represented when the handles X Y or K are in a direction parallel to D F>,
or to the middle bar, as in figs. 270 and 271. In this position the w-ater
supplied by the sucking-piece enters at D, and proceeds directly through
280 THE OPERATIVE MECHANIC
the cock W to the 'alve under the two pistons ; and there is now no cora-
municdtion from the barrel with the cavity of the cistern.
In tig. 276, we have the position of a cock when the handle X Y is turned
one quarter of a revolution towards the eye from the last-mentioned situa-
tion, in which case there is no communication from the barrels with the
outer extremity of the sucking-piece, but the water poured into the fore and
hind trough, and passing from thence into the cavity of the cistern, enters
the cock sideways at W, and turning at right angles through the cock
towards E, proceeds to the barrels of the pumps. Fig. 277*^ represents the
cock W when the handle is placed diametrically opposite to its last situa-
tion, in which case there is no communication from the under side of the
barrels with the cavity of the cistern or the outward end of the sucking-piece
but this situation affords a communication from the cavity of the cistern
with the outside of the engine, and the water left in the cavity of the
cistern may by this means be employed when the engine has done working.
These engines are made of five or six different sizes.
The principles on which this engine acts, so as to produce
a continued stream, are obvious the water being driven into
:

the air-vessel, as in the operation of common sucking and

forcing pumps, will compress the air contained in it, and
proportionably increase its spring, since the force of the
airs spring will be always inversely as the space which it
possesses 3 therefore when the air-vessel is half filled with
water, the spring of the included air, which in its original
state counterbalanced the pressure of the atmosphere, being
now compressed into half the space, will be equal to twice
the pressure of the atmosphere; and by its action on the
subjacent water will cause it to rise through the conduit-
pipe, and play a jet of 32 or 33 feet high, abating the effect
of friction. When the air-vessel is two-thirds full of water,
the space which the air occupies is only one-third of its first
space ; therefore its spring being three times as great as that
of the common air, will project the water with twice the
force of the atmosphere, or to the height of 64 or 66 feet.
In the same manner when the air-vessel is three-fourths full
of water the air will be compressed into one-fourth of its
original space, and cause the water to ascend in air with the
force of three atmospheres, or to the height of 96 or 99 feet,
&c. as in the following table
Height Height Proportion Height
of the of the of the to which the
water. compressed air. air.s spring. water will rife.

i 2 33 feet.

h 3 66
i 4 99
1
5 5 132
6 165
f 7 198
T
8 231
9 264
I V5 10 297
 AND MACHINIST. 281

2. The fire-engine by Rowntree a double force-pump,

is

of a peculiar construction, similar in its action to the beer-

engine, but as it is on a much larger scale, its constructions
are of course varied.
In this engine, figs. 278 and 279 are two elevations at right angles to
each other, of the external part of the engine, mounted on four W'heels.
Figs. 280 and 281 are two sections perpendicular to each other of the body
of the engine or pump ; figs. 282 and 283 are parts of the engine. The
same letters are used as far as they apply in all the figures ; A AA
figs. 280 and 281, is a cast-iron cylinder truly bored, 10 inches diameter
and 15 long, and having a flanch at each end whereon to screw two covers,
with stuffing-boxes a a, in their centres, through which the spindle, B B, of
the engine passes, and being tight packed with hemp round the collar,
makes a tight joint; the piston D is affixed to the spindle within the

cylinder, and fits it tight all round by means of leathers; at E, fig. 281, a
partition, called a saddle, is fixed in the cylinder, and fits against the back
of the spindle tight by a leather.
We have now a cylinder, divided by the saddle E and piston into
two parts, whose capacity can be increased and diminished by moving the
piston, with proper passages and valves to bring and convey the water
this will form a pump. These passages are cast in one piece with the
cylinder ; one, d, for bringing the water, is square, and extends about
one-third round the cylinder ; it connects at bottom with a pipe e ; at its
two upper ends it opens into two large chambers fg, extending near the
whole length of the cylinder, and closed by covers, h h, screwed on ; ik are
square openings (shown by dotted squares in fig. 280) in the cylinder
communicating with the chambers ; I m in f g are two valves closing the
ends of the curved passage rf, and preventing any water returning down
the passage d ; no are two passages from the top of the cylinder to convey
away the water ; they come out in the top of the cylinder, which, together
with the top of the chambers f g^ form a flat surface, and are covered by
two valves, p q, to retain the water which has passed through them. A
chamber, K, is screwed over these valves, and has the air-vessel k, figs. 278
and 279, screwed into its top ; from each side of the chamber a pipe, wwj
proceeds, to which a hose is screwed, as shown in fig. 280. Levers,
are fixed to the spindle at each end, as shown in fig. 279, and carry the
handles H H, by which men work the engine. When the piston moves,
as shown by the arrow in fig. 281, it produces a vacuum in the chamber
and that part of the cylinder contiguous to it, the water in the pipe e then
opens the valve m, and fills the cylinder.
The same motion forces the water contained in the other part of the
cylinder through the valve into the chamber K, and thence to the hose
though the pipe w the piston being turned the other way reverses the
operation with respect to the valves, though it continues the same in itself.
The pipe e is screwed by a flanch to an upright pipe P, fig. 282, con-
nected with another square iron pipe, fastened along the bottom of the
chest of the engine; a curved brass tube, G, comes from this pipe through
the end of the chest, and is cut into a screw to fit on the suction-hose
when it can be used ; at other times a close cap is screwed on, and another
brass cap at H, within the chest, is screwed upwards on its socket, to open
several small holes in it, and allow the water to enter into the pipe ; in this
case the engine-chest must be kept full of water by buckets. The valves
aie made of brass and turn upon hinges. Tlie principal advantage of
Ahe engine is the facility with which it is cleared from any sand, gravel.
 282 THE OPERATIVE MECHANIC
or otlier obstructions, wliich a fire-engine will always gather when at
work.
The chambers being so large, allow sufficient room to lodge a greater
quantity of dirt than islikely to be accumulated in the use of the engine at
any one fire, and if any of it accidentally falls into the cylinder, it is gently
lifted out again into the chambers, by the piston, without being any obstruc-
tion to its motion ; to clear the engine from the dirt, two circular plates of
five inches diameter, are unscrewed from the lids k k, of the chambers f
and when cleaned are screwed on again; these screw-covers fit perfectly
tight without leather, and can be taken out, the engine cleared, and enclosed
again in a very short time, even when the engine is in use, if found
necessary.
The two upper valves p 7, and chamber K, can also be cleaned with
equal ease, by screwing out the air-vessel kky fig. 278, which opens an
^erture of five inches, and fits air-tight, without leather, when closed.
Ine valve may be repaired through the same openings. The use of the
air-vessel, k k, figs. 278 and 279, is to equalize the jet from the engine
during the short interm ittance of motion at the return of the piston-stroke
this it does by the elasticity of the compressed air within it, which forces
the water out continually, though not supplied quite regularly from the
engine.

The engine from which the drawing was taken, was con-
Sun Fire Insurance Company, in London, and
structed for the
from some experiments made by their agent, Mr. Samuel
Hubert, appears to answer every purpose.

JACKS.
The jacks wdiich we purpose here to describe are simple
machines used for raising heavy weights.
Fig. 341 represents the common or simple hand jack ; a block of wood
about two feet six inches long, 10 inches broad, and six inches wide, is per-
forated with a square hole or mortise through it lengthwise for the recep-
tion of an iron rack B. This rack is formed with a double claw or horn at
its upper end. A small pinion C is made to engage in the teeth of the rack.
The axis of the pinion is supported in iron plates bolted to each side of the
block, and one end of the axis projects through the side plate, with a square
to receive a winch or handle, which, being turned round, the pinion ele-
vates the rack B in the mortise, and raises the claw or horns up to the load
to which it is applied. To prevent the weight of the load running the pinion
back, the handle is detained by a hook or link a, fastened to the outside of
the block.
When a greater power is required than the simple rack and pinion are
capable of exerting, a combination of wheel-work is used, as shown in the
same figure, where AA is the block of wood, which in this case is made
sufficiently wide to contain the cog-wheel F, fixed to the pinion C, which
acts in the teeth of the rack B. G
is a second pinion of four leaves, work-
ing in the wheel F ; and the axis of this pinion projects through the side of
the block for the winch H
to be fixed on it. The block AA is made in two
halves, and the recess for the wheel F, and the pinion G, is cut out in one
of the halves ; the other, being laid fiat against it, supports the front pivots
, TMTE JFmE FI. 36 .
 AND MACHINIST. 283
of the wheel and pinions. The two halves are bound together by strong
iron hoops b b, driven over the outside. The rack has a claw N, at its lower
end, projecting out sideways through an opening or slit cut through in the
front half of the block. This claw can be introduced beneath a stone which
lies nearly flat upon the ground, and which consequently could not be acted
upon by the claw on the top of the rack. To prevent the rack descending
when it has a load upon it, the small click a drops into its teeth, but clears
it in going up ; when it is not required to detain the rack, this click can be

turned out of the way sideways.

Fig. 342 is a screw jack. The block of wood AA is perforated nearly

its whole length with a hole sufficiently large to allow the screw B to move
up and down without touching. The screw passes through a nut n, fixed into
the top of the blockA ;
and if the screw is turned round, it must rise up through
the nut, and elevate the claw F. This claw is fitted on the top of the screw
with a round collai, which allows the screw to turn round without turning
the claw ; and the claw N, which projects through a groove or opening
made in the side of the block, is fitted to the screw with a smaller collar.
The bottom of the block has four short points to prevent the machine slip-
ping when used upon hard ground. To give motion to the screw, the
lower half of it is formed into a square, and a worm-wheel C is fitted upon
the square. The teeth of this wheel are engaged by a worm on the axis of
the winch H, and plates of iron, a b, are bolted on each side of the block,
near the middle of its height, to carry the ends of the axis of the winch and
of the worm which is concealed by the worm-wheel C. When the winch is
turned round, it causes the wheel C to revolve by the action of the worm in its
teeth ; and as the wheel is fitted on the square part of the screw, it compels
it to turn v/ith it, but at the same time allows the screw to move up and down.

Jacks have been also constructed upon the hydrostatic

principle discovered by Pascal, and which has been applied
to practice by the late Mr. Bramah, in this and various
other useful machines.

CRANES.
Cranes are certain simple machines in which either the
wheel and wheel and pinion, are introduced, to effect
axle, or
the raising of heavy loads, such as the loading or unloading
of shipping at the quays or wharfs, or the raising or lowering
goods to and from chambers or warehouses.
Various modes have been adopted to turn the wheel, or
that part of the machine which is applied to the same pur-
pose, by introducing long staves into the axle, by which
it acquires the name of a capstan, or windlass ; or by a rope
passing over the wheel, and putting it and the axle in motion
by friction. Other methods have been adopted, such as form-
ing the wheel hollow, and causing it to revolve by means of
labourers inside of it, walking up its sides, which consequently
descends beneath their weight ; or by forming it into a plat-
form, lying in a slanting direction, and the labourers pushing
 284 THE OPERATIVE MECHANIC
against a fixed arm, which forces the platform or wheel roiind
under their feet.
Most of the cranes constructed with the wheel and axle
occupy too ^uch space, which is of importance, and conse-
quently, where cranes are in general use, have been super-
seded by the wheel and pinion, which is of a more compact and
convenient construction. The wheel and pinion is generally
accompanied with a ratchet-wheel and pall, or some other me-
thod of locking the handle, so that should the labourer desist
from his exertion, the load may not return to the place
whence it has been raised.
The frame-work, or that part of the crane which does not
immediately operate to raise the load, is divided into three
part,s, the post, the jib, and the stay. The post is the upright
piece, almost universally made to turn on a centre ; the jib is
the arm extending from the upper part of the post, and in
some cases is horizontal, but more frequently at an angle to
the horizon ; and the stay is that piece which supports the
jib, reaching from the lower part of the post to nearly the
extremity of the jib.
The most simple form of the crane is that commonly used
in stone and timber wharfs for unloading vessels, for which
purpose it is well adapted, its power being very great. It
has a frame consisting of a strong beam supported hori-
zontally at 10 or 12 feet from the ground, on the top of
several vertical posts very firmly fixed in the ground, and
securely braced with stays in every direction. At the ex-
tremity of the horizontal beam the upper part of the jib is
supported, the lower pivot resting on a post in the ground.
The jib, or gibbet, as it is called, from a resemblance to that
machine, is a triangular frame of wood, one side being per-
pendicular, and supported on pivots at the top and bottom,
so that the whole moves round on these as a vertical axis of
motion. Near the upper end of the perpendicular post, a
beam proceeds, forming the upper side of a triangle, while
the third side is a brace, extended from the foot of the per-
pendicular, to support the upper piece. From the extremity
of the latter, the burden is suspended by a rope passing over
a pulley ; the other end of the rope is coiled round a vertical
roller, or capstan, turning on pivots, one supported by the
horizontal beam first mentioned, and the other on a post in
the ground. The capstan is turned round by means of long
horizontal levers fixed to it, at which a great number of men
may be employed to push them round, or in some cases they
are drawn by horses. As the levers admit of a very great
 AND MACHINIST, 285

length in proportion to the diameter of the windlass on which

the rope coils, the power of this simple crane is very con-
siderable, and may be doubled by a pair of blocks or pullies
at the jib. When the burden is raised to a sufficient height,
by turning the capstan, the jib, being swung round on its
pivots, will convey the load into a cart or waggon placed on
shore by the side of the crane.
Another kind of crane, which is equally common with the
above, but used for lighter burdens, has tlie same jibs, as
indeed most cranes have ; but the windlass, or barrel for the
rope, is placed horizontally, and has a large vertical wheel
fixed upon it. This is made of two wheels fixed on an axis
at a distance apart, and united by boards, so as to form
a large hollow cylinder or drum. Several men get into this
wheel, and by constantly walking upwards on the inside,
give it a tendency to revolve, and wind up the rope on the
barrel. It is surprising, that so imperfect, this should have
been so universally adopted as it was, till within these few
years. Even when the wheel is sixteen feet in diameter, the
labourers within cannot walk so far up it, from the perpen-
dicular, as to have any effective leverage to turn it round
though they are always exposed to danger, and frequently
meet with most shocking and fatal accidents, from slipping
down in the wheel, or from being overpowered by the load ;
in this case, the wheel runs back with an accelerating velocity,
and the people are thrown about it in a most dreadful manner.
From these defects of the common construction, skilful me-
chanicians have devised cranes that are not only more safe,
but more powerful in their operation, than the common
walking-crane. Some of the best of these will be described
in the present article.
Mr. Padmore, many years ago, contrived to prevent the
danger attending the use of the construction last described,
by putting a ring of cogs all round the outside of the great
wheel, and applying a trundle provided with winches to turn
it. By this addition, the power was increased in proportion
to the number of cogs in the wheel to the number of staves
in the trundle ; and in order to prevent the wheel from run-
ning back by the force of the weight, should the man within
it slip, or leave off walking, he added a ratchet-wheel to the
end of the trundle. Tv/o winches being fixed to the ends of
the axis of the trundle, gave the people attending the crane
the means of assisting the man in the -wheel, when the load
rendered it necessary. On the axis of the trundle is likewise
fixed a wooden wheel provided with a brake or gripe, which
 286 THE OPERATIVE MECHANIC
could be forcibly pressed on the circumference of the wheel
by a lever, to cause such a friction as would prevent the
weight from descending too rapidly. By this means, heavy
goods may be raised or let down at pleasure, without any
danger of injuring the men in the crane. This contrivance is
ingenious ; but the rapid motion of the circumference of the
large walking wheels, in most cases, rendered it inapplicable,
unless a smaller cog-wheel was fixed upon the same axis with
the walking-wheel.
A crane to be turned by winches, was contrived by the
late Mr. Ferguson, which has three trundles, with different
numbers of staves. Any one of these may be applied to the
cogs of a liorizontal wheel, mounted on an upright axle, round
which is coiled the rope for drawing the weight. This wheel
has 96 cogs ; the largest trundle 24 staves, the next 12, and
the smallest six ; so that the largest revolves four times for
one revolution of the wheel, the next eight, and the smallest
sixteen. The winch is occasionally fixed on the axis of
either of these trundles for turning it, and is applied to one
or the other, according as the weight to be raised is smaller
or larger. There is also a fourth trundle acting in the teeth
of the great wheel, and on its axis is a brake and ratchet-
wheel. While the load is drawing up, the teeth of the
ratchet-wheel slip round below a catch which falls into them,
and prevents the crane from turning backward, thus detaining
the weight in any part of its ascent, if the man who works at
the winch should accidentally quit his hold, or wish to rest
himself before the weight is completely raised. Making
a due allowance for friction, a man may raise, by such a crane,
from three to twelve times as much in weight as would
balance his effort at the winch, viz. from 90 to 360 lbs.,
taking the average labour.
Many other constructions of wheel-work are in common
use for cranes. When they are turned by a winch, it is
proper to apply a fly-wheel to the axis of it, both to equalize
the efforts of the labourer who turns it, and in case he acci-
dentally lets go the handle, to prevent the load from running
down so quickly as to endanger any thing. It is convenient
to have several different powers to a crane of this kind, to
adapt it for the different burdens to be raised ; this is best
done by employing a train of several wheels, each turned by
a pinion smaller than itself. Thus, suppose the barrel on
which the rope or chain winds to be 12 inches in diameter,
and has a cog-wheel of 96 teeth fixed on the end of it ; this
is turned by a pinion of 12 leaves; on the same axis with
 AND MACHINIST. 287
this is a wheel of 3*2 teeth, moved by a pinion of eight,
actuated on a third axis, which should carry the fly-wheel.
A winch of one foot radius can be applied to any of these
three axes in the crane, and will give three different powers.
Thus, if it is applied to the gudgeon of the barrel, it will
double the power of the balance, because the winch describes
a circle which is twice as large as the barrel on which the
chain winds ; if the winch is fixed on the end of the axis
which carries the pinion of 12, and the wheel of 32, it
will give the labourer a purchase of 16 times ; and lastly,
when the winch is applied to the pinion of eight, his efforts
will be multiplied 64 times. This simple mechanism is ren-
dered very complete by fixing a fly-wheel upon the axis of
the pinion of eight, to prevent all accidents ; for which pur-
pose it is more effective than a ratchet-wheel, and requires no
attention. The spindles of all the pinions are made capable
of sliding endwise, for the purpose of disengaging the wheels
from each other at pleasure, that when the wheels are not
employed, there may be no unnecessary friction in turning
them round.
The gibbet of a crane is a very principal member, as we
have before explained ; but in its common construction, it
has some defects. The rope by which the burden is raised,
passes exactly over the gudgeon of the vertical beam of the
jib, and is confined between two small vertical rollers, in order
that it may always lead fair wdth the pulley or sheave at the
extremity of the jib. According to this construction, when-
ever the jib turns round its axis, the rope is bent so as to
form an angle more or less acute, which causes a great in-
crease of friction, and produces a continual effort to bring
the arm of the jib into a parallel position to the inner part of
the ropes. These inconveniences may appear to be trifling,
but, in actual practice, they are of no small importance ; for
they necessarily require a much greater degree of power in
raising goods, and the application of a constant force to keep
the jib in the position that may be requisite ; while the par-
tial stress which is exerted on only a few strands of the rope,
whilst bent into an acute angle, destroys it in a very short
time.
A simple construction of the jib, invented by Mr. Bramah,
obviates all these defects, and at the same time possesses the
very desirable property of permitting the jib, of what is termed
a wharf or landing crane, to revolve wholly round its axis,
and to land goods at any point of the circle described by the
arm of the jib.
288 THE OPERATIVE MECHANIC
The simplest form of this contrivance is shown in fig. 343, in which AA
represents (the jib of a warehouse-crane projecting from a wall. It has, as
usual, a pulley at the extremity, from which the goods are suspended. The
improvement consists in placing a pulley at S, to conduct the rope down
through the axis of motion of the jib, the collars or rings a a, on which it
swings, being perforated for the purpose. The rope afterwards passes unaer
a pulley 6, which conducts it into the house to the crane or machine by
which the weight is elevated. The pulley b may be placed between the
collars a a, and then there will be no necessity for a perforation of the lower
pivot of the jib. When the jib is required to describe a complete circle,
instead of the two brackets at a a, fixed to the wall, a cast-iron pillar is used
to support the jib, the collars a a fitting upon it; the pillar is hollow, to
admit the rope through it, and is firmly fixed in a vertical position, by a
plate cast on the lower end of it, and screwed down on the timber of the
wharf. Beneath these beams, there is another pulley in place of 6, to con-
duct the rope to the crane.
Fig. 344 represents a crane mounted on four trucks, to be capable of
removal from place to place. It was employed on Ramsgate-pier, for lifting
stones used in the building, and is extremely well adapted for such a situ-
ation, as it requires no fixture, and will lake up a weight of four tons with
four men, which is sufficient power for such purposes. It was designed and
executed by Mr. Peter Kier, by order of the trustees for the management
of the harbour at Ramsgate. Its base consists of a cast-iron frame marked
A B, nine feet seven inches square, and two tons weight, supported on four
cast-iron wheels b 6, one pair of which is fixed on a common axle, which
moves round on a centre fixed to one side of the frame. This axle has an
arm projecting across beneath the frame to the opposite side, where a rack,
or segment of a wheel, is fixed on it, as shown at c, engaging a pinion r,
shown before the rack, on the top of whose axis a winch is applied at d.
Now, by turning this pinion, it twists the wheels round upon the centre, to
steer the crane when moving from place to place. A vertical cast-iron shaft
marked D F, weighing 23 cwt., is erected on the centre of the iron frame,
and is supported by oak braces E E, stepped into boxes cast out of the iron
frame A B, at its angles, so as to form a very strong perpendicular column,
round which axis the whole crane traverses. The weight of the framing and
wheel-work is supported by a steel pivot, or gudgeon, on the top of the
shaft F, and is guided by a collar embracing the shaft at I. The framing
of the jib, or movable part of the crane, consists of a long beam G H, bearing
the pulley G at the extremity, resting on the pivot of the upright pillar in
the middle, and the other end supporting the frame for the wheel-work
M
L N ; into this beam are framed two uprights Q Q, suspending the plat-
form I K, on which men \^^ho work the crane stand. It is braced by a
diagonal stay J P, and a cross piece R, to prevent its bending.

Mr. Bramah's ingenious hydrostatic principle of gaining

a great power is applicable in several ways to the raising of
heavy weights, and has been frequently employed in powerful
cranes. In these the power is not obtained by wheel-work,
pullies, or any other ordinary mechanical powers, but on the
principle of the experiment called the hydrostatic paradox,
which has been known for ages ; but the application of its
powers to useful purposes is due to Mr. Bramah.
The simplest form is, for a machine to raise a heavy weight
JA:K &C. (C .RASHES Fl.46.

From 341 to 3 to

9 -
 AND MACHINIST.
to a small height. A metallic cylinder, sufficiently strong,
and bored truly cylindrical within, has a solid piston fitted
into it, which is made perfectly water-tight, by leather pack-
ing round its edge, or other means used in hydraulic engines.
The bottom of the cylinder must be made sufficiently strong
with the other parts of the surface, to resist the greatest
strain which can ever be applied to it. In the bottom of the
cylinder is inserted the end of the small tube, the aperture of
which communicates with the inside of the cylinder, and
introduces water or fluids into it ; the other end of the pipe
communicates with a small forcing-pump, by which the
water can be injected into the cylinder beneath its piston
the pump has of course valves to prevent the return of the
water. Now, suppose the diameter of the cylinder to be six
inches, and the diameter of the piston of the small pump, or
injector, only one-quarter of an inch ; the proportions between
the two surfaces or ends of the said pistons will be as the
squares of their diameters, which are as 1 to 24 ; therefore the
areas will be as 1 to 6/6 ; and supposing the intermediate
space between them to be filled with water, or any other
dense and incompressible fluid, any force applied to the small
piston will operate on the other in the above proportion of
1 to 576 Suppose the small piston, or injector, to be forced
.

down, when in the act of forcing or injecting, with a weight

of 20 cwt., which can easily be done by means of a long
lever, the piston of the great cylinder would then be moved
up with a force equal to 1 ton multiplied by 576.
Fig. 343 represents a crane constructed upon the hydro-
statical principle, that is, by the injection of water from a
small pump into a large cylinder, which is fitted with a piston,
having a rack attached to it for the purpose of turning a pinion
upon the axis of a large drum- wheel or barrel, round which
the rope is coiled, and from thence passes to the jib.

Tlie figure AA
represents the jib, made of iron, and supported upon two
brackets a projecting from the wall of the warehouse in which the crane is
a,
supposed to be erected. The rope passes over the pulley S, and down through
holes in the brackets a a, then turns under the pulley b, and comes to the lower
side of the great drum-wheel B. Tire pinion C is fixed on the same axis with
this, and its gudgeons turn in small iron frames d, bolted down to the floor of
the warehouse. The pinion C is actuated by the teeth of the rack D, and a
small roller,whose pivot is shown at e, presses against the back of the rack,
to keep its teeth up to the pinion. The rack is attached to the piston D
of the cylinder L, in which the power for working the crane is obtained.
The piston passes through a tight collar of leather on the top of the cylinder
at E, which does not admit of any leakage by the side of it, and therefore if
any water is forced into the cylinder it must protrude the piston from it.
The cylinder is supported in a wooden frame F F, and has a small copper
U
290 THE OPERATIVE MECHANIC
pipe g proceeding from the lower end of it, communicating with a small
forcing-pump at h ; this stands in an iron cistern H, which contains tlie
water, and sustains the standard i i, for the centre of the handle G, with
which the pump is worked by one or two men. The upper extremity of the
standard i i guides the piston-rod of the pump, to confine it to a vertical
motion ; Z is a weight for counterbalancing the handle G of the pump.
From what we have said before, the operation of this machine is evident;
the power of the cylinder D is in proportion to its size compared with the
size of the pump ; but as it only acts through short limits, the pinion and
drum B are necessary to raise the weight a sufficient height. The operation
of lowering goods by this crane is extremely simple, as it is only necessary
to open a cock at wi, which suffers the water to escape from the cylinder into
the cistern H, and the weight descends, but under the most perfect command
of the person who regulates the opening of the cock ; for by diminishing
the aperture, he can increase the resistance at pleasure, or stop it altogether.
Fig. 345 is a side elevation of a crane. The post is immovable, and is
fixed on an iron frame, with arms extending in the form of a cross, the
extremities of which are bolted down by strong screws to large blocks of
stone sufficiently heavy to more than counterpoise the weight to be raised
by the crane. In the top of the post is fixed a wrought-iron pivot, by which
the weight is supported, and a strong cast-iron cap bears on the pivot, and
has attached to it two iron frames, one on each side, that receive the pres-
sure from the stay, as well as support the pull of the jib, which is formed of
two bars of wrought-iron ; the lateral pressure is borne by the bottom of the
post, round which two friction-rollers turn to facilitate its motion. This
crane will carry five tons with safety.
 4.ND MACHINIST. 291

PRESSES.
The pressa machine in most extensive use in the
is
mechanic arts.is usually made of wood, or iron, and
It
serves to squeeze or compress any body very close.
Screw-presses generally consist of six members, or pieces ;
viz. two flat smooth tables of wood or metal, between which
the substance to be pressed is placed ; two screws, or worms,
fastened to the lower plank, and passing through two holes
in the upper ; and two nuts, in form of an S, serving to drive
the upper plank, which is movable, against the lower which
is stable and without motion.
Presses used for expressing liquors, are of various kinds
some, in most respects, the same as the common presses,
excepting that the under plank is perforated with a great
number of holes, to let the juice run through into a tub or
receiver underneath.
1. An improved cider-press, turned by a windlass, is shown
in fig. 284.
A A is the base or foundation with supporting parts ; B B the cheeks or
its
sisters D D the cross-piece at top,
;
through which the screw passes, and
which consequently contains the female screw ; E the screw with its
appendages ; F F the bridge or cross-piece which acts on the pommage j
G
G is the wide plank or vat on which the pulp rests in the hair bags, in
which the mode of the liquors passing off is seen.
This kind of press may be advantageously employed for packing cloth,
paper, and other goods ; as also in paper-mills, for flattening and rendering
paper solid ; and in the manufacture of woollen cloth, for glazing and setting
a linish upon the article in its last stage.

2. Two elevations of a very good screw-press for a paper-

mill are given in figs. 285 and 286.
A A is the bed, formed of an immense beam of oak ; and each of the
cheeks, B, consists of a long iron bar b b, fig. 286, the ends of which are
welded together, so that it forms a long sink, one end of which receives the
end of the bed A, and the other the end of a massive cast-iron bar D,
through which the screw E is received, and its nut fixed fast therein.
The open spaces of the long links or cheeks, 6, h, are filled up by rails of
wood C, which support the weight of parts of the press when it is not in
action, but these bear nothing when the press has any articles under
pressure in it ; these articles are laid at H, on the bed, and the follower, G,
is pressed upon them by the screw, when it is turned by a long lever put

through the holes in the screw-head F.

The screws employed for paper-presses are generally formed with such
coarse threads, and so rapid a spiral, that the elasticity of the paper is suffi-
cient to force it to run back. To these a ratchet-wheel, a, is fixed, and a
click e, fig. 287, is applied to its teeth
;
to prevent its return, the click is
supported on a bar b rf, which moves on a centre at B, but the other end is
retained by a catch or lever /^. When the press is to be relieved, the
u 2
 292 THE OPERATIVE MECHANIC
end /, of the catch, is driven back ; this relieves the bar d b, and the click
no longer detaining the ratchet-wheel, the screw runs back.
'S. A very ingenious and useful 2)acking-press has been
invented by Mr. John Peek. It is represented in fig. 288.
A A, the frame of the press ; B B, the large screws, which, in this press,
contrary to those in common use, is fixd and immovable ; C, a circular
iron bar, extending beyond the sides of the press, and having thereon two
worms, or endless screws E E, which work in two toothed wheels fixed
to the nuts, and, by turning the winch D, drive the nuts and bed up and
down the screws as may be found necessary ; F, a stage, suspended from
the bed, and on which the men stand who work the press ; such a stage
may, if found necessary, be fixed at the other end of the bar, as shown by
the square shoulder G. The bed of this press must be formed of two
pieces of strong wood, which are held together by screws and nuts, passed
through them^ as shown at 4 A A k. The great utility of this press consists in
its' being capable of packing two sets of bales at once ; thus answering the

purpose of two presses, with more expedition.

4. The hydrostatic or water-press, or as it is sometimes
called Bramah's Press, has, for a great number of purposes,
superseded the use of the screw-press, over which it possesses
great advantages, in all cases where a strong pressure is
required. It is one among the many useful inventions of the
late Mr. Joseph Bramah, of Piccadilly; and is ingeniously
contrived for applying the quaqua versum pressure of fluids
as a powerful agent in many kinds of machinery.
These contrivances consist in the application of water, or
other dense fluids, to various engines, so as, in some instances,
to cause them to act with immense force ; in others, to com-
municate the motion and powers of one part of a machine to
some other part of the same machine ; and, lastly, to com-
municate the motion and force of one machine to another,
where their local situations preclude the application of all
other methods of connection.
Tbe first and most material part of this invention will be clearly under-
stood by an inspection of fig. 289, where A
is a cylinder of iron, or other
materials, sufficiently strong, and bored perfectly smooth and cylindrical ;
into which is fitted the piston B, which must be made perfectly water-tight,
by leather or other materials, as used in pump-making. The bottom of the
cylinder must also be made sufficiently strong with the other part of the
surface, to be capable of resisting the greatest force or strain that may at
any time be required. In the bottom of the cylinder is inserted the end of
the tube C ; the aperture of which communicates with the inside of the
cylinder, under the piston B, where it is shut with the small valve D, the
same as the suction-pipe of a common pump. The other end of the tube
C communicates with the smaH forcing-pump or injector E, by means of
which water or other dense fluids can be forced or injected into the cylinder
A, under Now, suppose the diameter of the cylinder A be
the piston B.
1 and the diameter of the piston of the small pump or injector E
2 inches,
only one quarter of an inch, the proportion between the two surfaces or ends
of the said piston will be as 1 to 2304 ; and supposing the intermediate
 .

Jfe^ tc SiscM^, SCJS Strimd.

 AND MACHINIST. 293
space between them to be with water or other dense fluid capable of
filled
sufficient resistance, the force of one piston will act on the other just in the
above proportion, viz. as 1 is to 2304. Suppose the small piston in the
injector to be forced down when in the act of pumping or injecting water
into the cylinder A, with the power of 20 cwt. which could easily be done
by the lever ;
H
the piston B would then be tnoved up with a force equal
to 20 cwt. multiplied by 2304.
Thus is constructed a hydro-mechanical engine, whereby a weight
amounting to 2304 tons can be raised by a simple lever, through equal
space, in much less time than could be done by any apparatus con-
structed on the known principles of mechanics; and it may be proper
to observe, that the effect of all other mechanical combinations is coun-
teracted by an accumulated complication of parts, which renders them
incapabl-e >of being usefully extended beyond a certain degree ; but in
machines acted upon or constructed on this principle every difficulty of
this kind is obviated, and their power subject to no finite restraint. To
prove this, it will be only necessary to remark, that the force of any machine
acting upon this principle can be increased ad infinitum, either by extending
the proportion between the diameter of the cylinder A, or by applying
greater power to the lever H.
Fig. 290 represents the section of an engine, by which very wonderful
effects may be produced instantaneously by means of compressed air.
AA is a cylinder with the piston B fitting air-tight, in the same manner as
described in fig. 289. C is a globular vessel made of copper, iron, or other
strong materials, capable of resisting immense force, similar to those of
air-guns ; D
is a strong tube of small bore, in which is the stop-cock E.
One of the ends of this tube communicates with the cylinder under the
piston B, and the other with the globe C. Now, suppose the cylinder A
to be the same diameter as that in fig. 289, and the tube D
equal to one
quarter of an inch diameter, which is the same as the injector, fig. 289;
then, suppose that air is injected into the globe C (by the common method)
till it presses against the cock E with a force equal to 20 cwt. which can

easily be done the consequence will be, that when the cock
;
E is opened,
the piston B be moved in the cylinder
will AA with a power or force equal
to 2304 tons ; and it is obvious, as in the case fig. 289, that any other unlimited
degree of force may be acquired by machines or engines thus constructed.
Fig. 291 is a section, merely to show how the power and motion of one ma-
chine may, by means of fluids, be transferred or communicated to another,
let their distance and local situation be what they may. A and B are two
small tubes, smooth and cylindrical, in the inside of each of which is a
piston, made water and air tight, as in figs. 288 and 289. C C is a tube
conveyed under ground, or otherwise, from the bottom of one cylinder to the
other, to form a communication between them, notwithstanding their dis-
tance be never so great, this tube being filled with water or other fluid,
until it touch the bottom of the piston ; then, by depressing the piston A,
the piston B will be raised. The same effect will be produced vice versa :
thus bells may be rung, v/heels turned, or other machinery put invisibly
jn motion, by a power being applied to either.
Fig. 292 is a section, showing another instance of communicating the
action and force of one machine to another ; and how water may be raised
cut of wells of any depth, and at any distance from the place where the
operating power is applied. A
is a cylinder of any required dimensions,
in which is the working piston B, as in the foregoing examples ; into the
bottom of this cylinder is inserted the tube C, which may be of less bore
4h?.n the cylinder A, This tube is continued, in any required direction^
 204 THE OPERATIVE MECHANIC
down to the cylinder D, supposed to be fixed in the deep well E B,
pump
and forms a junction therewith above the piston E ; which piston has a rod
G, working through the stuffing-box, as is usual in the common pump. To
this rod Gis connected, over a pulley or otherwise, a weight II, sufficient
to overbalance the weight of water in the tube C, and to raise the piston F,
iwhen the piston B is lifted ; thus, suppose the piston B is drawn up by its
rod, there will be a vacuum made in the pump cylinder D, below the piston
F ; the vacuum will be filled with water through the suction pipe, by the
pressure of the atmosphere, as in all pumps fixed in air. The return of the
piston B, by being pressed downwards in the cylinder A, will make a
stroke of the piston in the pump cylinder D, which may be repeated in the
usual way by the motion of the piston B, and the action of the water in the
tube C. The rod G of the piston F, and the weight H, are not necessary
in wells of a depth where the atmosphere will overbalance the water in the
suction of the pump cylinder D, and that in the tube C. The small tube
and cock in the cistern I, are for the purpose of charging the tube C.
By these means it is obvious that the most commodious
machines, of prodigious power, and susceptible of the greatest
strength, may readily be formed. If the same multiplication of
power be attempted by toothed wheels, pinions, and racks, it
is scarcely possible to give strength enough to the teeth of
the racks, and the machine becomes very cumbersome and of
great expense. But Mr. Bramahs machine may be made to
possess great strength in very small compass. It only requires
very accurate execution. Mr. Bramah, however, was greatly
mistaken when he published it as the discovery of a new
mechanic power. The principle on which it depends has
been well known for nearly two centuries ; and it is matter
of surprise that it has never before been applied to any useful
practical purpose.
5. The Stanhope printing-press is delineated in figs. 293
and 294, being elevations, and fig. 295, a plan.
AA a massive frame of cast-iron formed in one piece ; this is the
is

body of the press, in the upper part of which a nut is fixed for the reception
of the screw 6, and its point operates upon the upper end of a slider rf,
which is fitted into a dove-tail groove formed between two vertical bars e c,
,of the frame. The slider has the platen DD firmly attached to the lower
end of it ; and being accurately fitted between the guides e e, the platen
must rise and fall parallel to itself when the screw b is turned. The weight
of the platen and the slider are counterbalanced by a heavy weight E, behind
the press, which is suspended from the lever F, and this acts upon the slider
to lift it up, and keep it always bearing against the point of the screw.
At G are two projecting pieces, cast all in one with the main frame, to
support the carriage when the pull is made ; to these the rails H are
screwed, and placed truly horizontal, for the carriage I to run upon them,
when it is carried under the press to receive the impression, or drawn out
to remove the printed sheet. The carriage is moved by the rounce or
handle K, with a spit and leather girts very similar to the wooden press.
Upon the spit or axle, a wheel, L, is fixed, and round this leather belts are
passed, one extending to the back of the carriage to draw it in, and two
others, which pass round the wheel in an opposite direction, to draw it cut.
 AND MACHINIST. 295
By thismeans, when the handle is turned one way it draws out the car-
riage, and by reversing the motion it is carried in. There is likewise a
check strap /, from the wheel down to the wooden base M, of the frames,
and this limits the motion of the wheel, and consequently the excursion of
the carriage.
The improvement of Earl Stanhopes press con-
principal
sists in manner of giving motion to the screw, b, of it,
the
which is not done simply by a bar or lever attached to the
screw, but by a second lever e, g; the screw, b, has a short
lever, g, fixed upon the upper end of it^ and this communi-
cates by an iron bar, or link. A, to another lever, of rather
shorter radius, which is fixed upon the upper end of the
second spindle I, and to this the bar or handle, A, is fixed.
Now when the workman pulls this handle, he turns round
the spindle Z, and by the connection of the rod, A, the screw, A,
turns with it, and causes the platen to descend and produce
the pressure. But it is not simply this alone, for the power
of the lever. A, is transmitted to the screw, in a ratio propor-
tioned to the effect required at the different parts of the pull
thus at first, when the pressman takes the bar K, it lies in a
direction parallel to the frame, or across the press, and the
short lever i (being nearly iierpendicular thereto) is also
nearly at right angles to the connecting rod A ; but the lever,
g, of the screw, makes a considerable angle with the rod,
which therefore acts upon a shorter radius to turn the screw
because the real power exerted by any action upon a lever,
is not to be considered as acting with the full length of the
lever between its centres, but with the distance in a perpen-
dicular drawn line, in which the action is applied to the
centre of the lever. Therefore when the pressman first takes
the handle K, the lever i acts with its full length upon a
shorter length of leverage, g^ on the screw, which will con-
sequently be turned more rapidly than if the bar itself was
attached to it ; but on continuing the pull, the situation of
the levers change, that of the screw, g, continually increasing
its acting length, because it comes nearer to a perpendicular
with the connecting rod, and at the same time the lever
diminishing its acting length, because, by the obliquity of
the lever, the rod. A, approaches the centre, and the perpen-
dicular distance diminishes ; the bar or handle also comes to
a more favourable position for the man to pull, because he
draws nearly at right angles to its lengths
All these causes combined have the best effect in producing
an immense pressure, without loss of time ; because in the
first instance the lever acts with an increased motion upon
the screw, and brings the platen down very quickly upon the
 296 THE OPERATIVE MECHANIC
paper, but by that time the levers have assumed such a
position as to exert a more powerful action upon each
other, and this action continues to increase as the bar is
drawn forwards, until the lever, ^, and the connecting rod are
brought nearly into a straight line, and then the power is
immensely great, and capable of producing any requisite
pressure which the parts of the press will sustain without
yielding. The handle is sometimes made to come to rest
against a stop, which prevents it moving further, and there-
fore regulates the degree of pressure given upon the work
but to give the means of increasing or diminishing this
pressure, for different kinds of work, the stop is made mov-
able to a small extent. A
better plan is adopted by some
makers of the Stanhope press, viz. to have a screw adjust-
ment at the end of the connecting rod A, by which it can be
shortened ; it is done by fitting the centre pin which unites
it to the lever g, in a bearing piece, which slides in a groove
formed in the rod, and is regulated by the screw. This
shortening of the connecting rod produces a greater or less
descent of the platen, when the handle is brought to the stop.
The carriage of the press represented with wheels, m m, beneath, to take
is
.off the friction of moving uponthe ribs H. These wheels are shown at
fig. 296, which is a section of the screw and the platen, with the carriage
beneath it ; and fig. 297 is a plan answering to it. Fig. 298 is a figure of
a carriage inverted to show the wheels ; then axles n are fitted to springs jo,
and these are adjustable by means of screws r, so that the carriage will be
borne up to any required height. This is so regulated, that when the car-
riage is run into the press, its lower surface shall bear lightly upon the solid
cheeks G, which are part of the body of the press, and these support it when
the pressure is applied, the same as the winter of the old press ; but the
wheels by their springs act to bear up great part of the carriage with the
types upon it, and diminish the friction, yet do not destroy the contact of
the carriage upon the ribs, because this would not give the carriage that
solidity of bearing which is requisite for resisting the pull. This is only at
the time when the carriage is run into the press ; because as it runs out, the
ribs on which the wheels run rise higher, and therefore the wheels support
the whole weight.
The manner in which the wheels run in rebates or recesses in the edges
of the ribs, is shown at fig. 294. Tlie carriage is made of cast-iron, in the
form of a box, with several cross partitions, which are all cast in one piece,
and thougk njade of thin metal, are exceedingly strong ; the upper surface
is made truly flat, by turning it in a lathe. The same of the platen, which
is likewise a shallow box ; the slider d has a plate formed on the lower end
of it, which is fixed by four screws upon the top of the platen, and thug
they are united.
At the four angles of the carriage, pieces of iron, r, fig. 297, are screwed
on, to form bearings for the quoins or wedges which are driven in to fasten
the form of types upon it in the true position for printing. The tympan P,
fig. 293, is attached to the carriage by hinges, with an iron bracket or stop
jto catch it when it is thrown back the frisket, R, is joined to the tympan.
;
STAI^MOFIE JPFIIYTII^(C^ JPmiESS,&e.
I'rorn 293 to 299. :ei-3e. *

299

Mss

yetle ie Stcck2c^ Str-:tnd,.

 AND MACHINIST. 297
and when opened out, rests against a frame suspended from the ceiling.
The iron frame, A, of the press is screwed down upon the wooden base M,
by bolts, which pass through feet, s, projecting from the lower parts of the iron
frame. Another wooden beam is fixed into the former at right angles, so as
to form a cross, which lies upon the floor. The ribs H, for the carriage to
run upon, are supported from the wooden base by an iron bracket T.
The advantages of the iron presses in working are very
considerable, both in saving labour and time. The first arises
from the beautiful contrivance of the levers, the power of the
press being almost incalculable at the moment of producing
the impression ; and this is not attended with a correspondent
loss of time, as is the case in all other mechanical powers,
because the power is only exerted at the moment of pres-
sure, being before adapted to bring down the platen as
quickly as possible. This great power of the press admits of
a saving of time, by printing the whole sheet of paper at one
pull, the platen being made sufficiently large for that pur-
pose ; whereas, in the press formerly used, the platen is only
half of the size of the sheet. In the Stanhope press, the
whole surface is printed at once, with far less power upon
the handle than the old press, when printing but half the
surface. This arises not only from the levers, but from the
iron framing of the press, which will not admit of any yield-
ing, as the wood always yields, and indeed is intended to do,
the head being often packed up with elastic substances, such
as pasteboard, or even cork. In this case much power is lost,
for in an elastic press the pressure is gained by screwing or
straining the parts up to a certain degree of tension, and the
effort to return, produces the pressure. Now, in this case,
the handle will make a considerable effort to return, which,
though it is in reality giving back to the workman a portion
of the power he exerted on the press, is only an additional
labour, as it obliges him to bear the strain a longer time than
he otherwise would.
The iron presses have very little elasticity, and those wlo
use them find it advantageous to diminish the thickness of the
blankets in the tympan to one very thin piece of fine cloth ; the
lever has then very little tendency to return, and the pull is
easy in the extreme, requiring very little more force to remove
it at the latter than at the first part; indeed, the iron press is so

different from the other press, that when an experienced press-

man first tries it, he cannot feel any of that reaction which he
has been accustomed to, and will not believe, till he sees the
sheet, that he has produced any impression at all ; and for many
days after he begins to work at an iron press, he by habit
throws back all the weight of his body in such a maimer as to
298 THE OFERATIVK MECHANIC
bring the handle up to its stop with a concussion that shakes
his arm very much, and in consequence most pressmen, after
a few hours^ work, feel inclined to give up the iron press ;
but when they have once acquired a new habit of standing more
upright, and applying only as much force as it requires, the
labour of the pull becomes less than that of running the car-
riage in and out ; and men who are accustomed to the iron
presses only, would be scarcely able to go through the work
of the old press.
Mr. De la Haine has a patent for a Stanhope press, which
answers extremely well ; the only material alteration is, that
he has substituted a spiral or curved inclined plane in place
of the screw, which is fixed to the head of the press ; and
a cross-arm properly formed, and fixed on the upper end of
the spindle, which, standing in place of the screw, acts against
the fixed inclined plane. The action is very nearly the same
as the screw, except that the surfaces admit of being made
of hardened steel, and thus diminish the friction very much.
The inventor of this for the common press was Mr. Roworth
but Mr. De la Haine has combined it with the levers and iron
frame of the Stanhope press.
A common press, of great simplicity, and possessing the
same advantage in point of power as Lord Stanhope gains by
the compound levers, has been produced by Mr. Medhurst,
of Denmark-street, Soho.
6. In November 1813, Mr. John Ruthven, of Edinburgh,
took out a patent for an improvement in the printing-press,
which differs from those heretofore used in the following
particulars
First, The types, plates, blocks, or other surfaces from
which the impression is to be taken, instead of being situated
upon a running carriage, as was formerly the practice, are
placed upon a stationary platform or tablet, which is provided
with the usual apparatus known to printers by the names of
tympan and frisket, with points, &c. to receive the sheet
of paper and convey it to its proper situation on the types
after they had been inked.
Secondly, The machinery by which the power for the
pressure is produced, is situated immediately beneath this
platform or tablet ; and the platen or surface which is op-
posed to the face of the types, to press the sheet of paper
against them, can be brought over the types, and connected
at two opposite sides or ends with the machinery beneath the
tablet ; by this machinery it is so forcibly pressed or drawn
down upon the paper, which lays upon the types, as to give
 AND MACHINIST. 299
the impression ; which being thus made, the platen can lie
disunited from the machinery, and removed from oif the types
by the foot^ or otherwise, to take out the paper, and introduce
a fresh sheet.
Thirdly, The said machinery for producing the pressure is
a combination of levers, actuated by a crank, or short lever,
turned by a winch, or handle, to which the pressman applies
by his hand ; or the pressure may be produced by the tread
of the foot.
Fig. 299 is a horizontal plane ; fig. 300, a vertical section
taken through the middle ; and fig. 301, an end view 3 the
same letters of reference being used in each.
AA upon which the types, &c. are laid, its
represent the tablet or surface
surface truly and may be made of wood, stone, or metal, or any other
flat,

substance used for the carriage of printing-presses. This tablet is mounted

upon a frame of wood or metal, consisting of legs B B, and cross braces
C C, or any other kind of support may be used which will firmly sustain
the tablet at a proper height from the ground. The tablet has a tympan,
8 and 0, joined to it at the end, 9, in the usual manner, and open into the
position of the dotted lines 1 0, to take off or put on the sheet of paper,
which is confined by the frisket, 11, in the usual manner ; the dotted lines,
12, represent the gallows or support for the tympan and frisket when
opened.
For fastening the types upon the tablet, or what the printers call making
register,quoins or w^edges may be introduced at the angles, in the usual
manner; but a preferable method is to have screws 13, 13, fitted through
pieces which are made fast to the sides of the tablet, and between the points
of these screws the chase, or frame of types, is held steady upon the tablet,
and may be adjusted.
Beneath the tablet are the levers marked DE, D
E, their fulcrums, or
fixed centre-pins, being at D, and they act upon double hooks or clutches,
F F. When the ends E are depressed by means of the third lever I G,
situated beneath and common to both, the connection being made with the
link a, the fulcrum of the lever is at G ; and H
is a third point to which
the power to actuate it is applied by a connecting rod K, the opposite end
of which is joined to a crank or short lever L M, situated upon an axis or
spindle L, which extends to the front of the machine, and has a winch or
handle N, fig. 299, upon it, for the pressman to turn it by.
The platen of the press is shown at O O ; it may be made of wood or
iron, as usual, but must be exactly true on the low'er surface, which applies
to the face of the types bb, upon the tablet AA. On the top of the platen
isa strong metal bar P, which may be either cast in one piece with it, or
united to it by screws at r r at its extremities it has bolts d d, fixed to it
,

by screws or otherwise ; and at their lower ends they must have heads
which are exactly fitted to the clutches or double hooks F F, before de-
scribed. By means of these the platen is connected with the lever D
E, DE,
so that a pressure may be produced when the handle N
is turned in the

direction shown by the arrow in fig. 300. This, by turning the lever M
about upon its centre L, pushes the rod K, which acting upon the point H
of the lever GH I, moves it upon its centre G, and depresses the point I,
which being connected with the extremities E of the levers DE, by the
link fl, they are made to partake of its motion, and draw down the platen
 300 THE OPEilATIVE MECHANIC
upon the types by the clutches F F, and hooks dd. By returning the winch
N to its original position, the pressure is relieved, and the platen may be
removed from the types thus ;
At the end of the bar P, two springs, e e,
figs. 299 and 301, are fixed; and in the ends of these rollers or wheels,
marked/, are fitted to revolve freely upon their centre-pins. These wheels,
having grooves in their edges, run upon sharp angles, formed upon the
upper edge of the two rails R R, which are extended across the frame of the
press,and project sufficiently behind, as in figs. 299 and 301, being supported
by brackets g, of fig. 301, if necessary. Upon these bars and wheels (or
sliders may be used instead of wheels) the platen will run freely, to remove
it backwards and forwards off the types, but when brought over them the

bolts d d will enter the clutches F F, ready to receive the action of the levers,
and give the pressure upon the tympan.
The springs e are so adjusted, that when the platen runs backwards or
forwards upon the rails R, the under surface of it will be sufficiently raised
above the tympan to run clear of it; but when the hooks dd and F P are
united, and the pressure given by turning the handle N, these springs yield,
though they have sufficient strength to raise up the platen clear of the
tympan, the instant the pressure is relieved.
To draw the platen forward over the types, a handle h is fixed upon it,
for the pressman to take hold by ; but it may be brought by the foot, in the
following manner : the two foremost wheels, f, have links, k k, jointed
f
to their centre-pins, to connect them with the upper ends of the two long
levers m m, which are fixed to one common axis n, fig. 300, extending across
the whole machine, near the ground ; upon the axis a short lever o, fig. 301,
is fixed, and a rod
q unites it to the end of the bent lever r the arm i of
which is made broad, to serve as a paddle for the foot; by depressing this,
the arm r draws the short lever o, and the long lever mm causes the platen
to advance truly parallel, and come up to the clutches F F.
To make all the work compact, the centres DD of the great levers, and
of the lower lever G, as well as the pivots L of the winch N, are all sup-
ported in one frame composed of two metal cheeks S S, which are situated
beneath the table, and united thereto by screws, or otherwise, as shown by
the dotted line in the plan, fig. 299.
The power of the press will depend upon the proportion of the different
levers, and the relation between the space described by the motion of the
handle N, and the descent of the platen O ; but it should be observed, that
the power of this press increases as the handle descends to the horizontal
position shown in fig. 300 ; first, because the handle is then in the most
favourable position to receive the workmans body ; secondly, the lever L M
comes to a position which gives it a great power to force the rod K, viz. as
is shown by the dotted line L 2, for when the lever and rod come to one
straight line, its power to force the rod K may be considered as infinitely
GH
great ; thirdly, the lever is in the most favourable position, marked G 2, to
receive the action of the rod K, viz. perpendicular to it; fourthly, the lever
G I is in a position to have greater power on the links a and the levers DE,
than when it is in a horizontal position. All these sources combined have
the best effect in saving time, and at the same time producing immense
pressure ; for when the pressure first takes hold of the handle N, it acts but
with little advantage with respect to power on the levers, and therefore
brings the platen down very quickly upon the tympans, with little loss of
time or motion, till they have assumed positions in which they exert more
powerful action upon each other, as above stated ; and this action continues
to increase until the lever L M and rodK come nearly into a line, when the
power is immensely great, and cax>able of producing any required pressure,
JRUT.KiyOT^S TJKJlTlTOir JPiEI':SS
J^L3 7.
/r'/vm ,mto3t>2y

Jl^v92ff Sc Str^and-
 AND MACHINIST. 301
t^hich the parts of the press will withstand without yielding. The handle isN
made to come to a stop, or rest, which prevents its moving farther than the
position of the dotted lines, and therefore regulates the degree of pressure
given upon the work. But to give the means of increasing or diminishing
the pressure at pleasure for different kinds of work, the centre hole of the
pinH is made in a piece, which is fitted in a groove in the rod K; therefore

by sliding it in the groove, it has the same effect as lengthening the rod,
which produces a greater descent of the platen when the handle is brought to
a stop ; a screw, s, is fitted into the end of the groove, to screw the packing
tight in the groove, and prevent it getting loose in working.
Another method of producing the same effect is to adjust the nuts which
are fitted on the screws at the top of the bolts dd or it may be done by
loosening the screws at r, and fitting packing between the fitting of the
platen and the bar P ; the same may be done to adjust the platen parallel, if
it prints more at one part than another.

Springs may be applied to take off all shake or loosenesses in the joints
it may be done in different ways : a strong spring may be fixed beneath the
tablet, and act upon the clutch F, to lift it up, and keep the joint tight ; or
one small spring may be fixed on the lever D E, (as shown on the opposite
side,) to lift the clutch F, and another being fixed to the lever beneath, and
resting at the end upon a pin in the frame, will lift up the lever and link c,
to keep them all tight for working. If it be thought objectionable for the
rod K to push endways on the levers, it may be contrived to draw or pull,
by placing the lever M above the spindle L, instead of beneath it, and also
reversing the form of the lever GH I ; the pointsG H
and to remain as they
are, but the point I to be on the opposite side of the centre, viz. above it
and with this alteration the drawing of the rod K will produce the pressure,
instead of pushing it, as in the figure.
Fig. 302 shows another arrangement of the lever for a press. In this
figure the same letters are used to denote the same parts, thus : A is the
tablet, D E the levers, F the clutches, O the platen, P the cross-bar ; the
ends E of the levers are connected by a link a, with a third lever T W, w'hose
centre or fulcrum is at V ;
the powder is applied to the long end by a chain t,
which is conducted over a pulley or roller v, and wound upon a wheel w,
which is fixed upon the axle of the handle to work the press. To give
greater power, the wheel may be formed like a spiral, instead of circular,
that the chain may lay upon a shorter radius when the pressure is produced.

7. Within these few years, numerous and great improve-

ments have been made in printing-presses ; but the best that
we have seen is the invention of Messrs. Bacon and Donkin,
who exhibited it before the university of Cambridge, by whom
it is now employed in the printing of bibles and prayer-books,

Jlessrs. Bacon and Donkin^s press consists in adapting

the types to be fitted upon, and form the surface of a prismatic
roller, such as a square, pentagon, hexagon, octagon, or other
figure, and mounting this in a frame, with the means of turn-
ing it round upon its centres ; a second roller is applied in
such a manner, that its surface will keep in contact with the
surface of the types, which are inked, and the machine being
put in motion, the paper which is to be printed is passed
through and receives the impression. The types are inked
302 TKie OPERATIVE MECHANIC

by a cylinder which is applied to revolve with its surface in

contact with them. By this invention, the advantages of

types between rollers are obtained, although the types are
imposed upon plain surfaces.
Fig. 303 contains a perspective view of a machine, the prism A of which is
square in its section, and has the ordinary types or letter-press applied upon

its four sides, and firmly attached to it. The pivots at the end of the axis of
this prism are supported in the frame B B, and it is caused to revolve by a
connection of wheel- work DE and F G, from the winch and fly-wheel at H,
The types upon its surface are caused to print upon the paper by means of
a second roller I i, called the platen, placed immediately beneath the
former, and its surface being formed to a particular curvature, produced by
four segments of cylinders, its circumference, when it turns round, will always
apply to the surface of the types, and thus a sheet of paper being introduced
between them, will receive the impression. The ink is applied to the types
by means of a cylinder K K, placed above the prism ; it is composed of a
soft elastic substance ; and that its surface may always apply to the types,
its spindle is fitted in pieces L L, which moving upon an axis n, permit the
cylinder to rise and fall, to accommodate itself to the motion of the types.
The ink-cylinder receives its ink from a second cylinder M M, which is
called the distributing-roller, also composed of a soft substance, and is sup-
plied with ink by a third ink-roller N N, which is made of metal, and
extremely true. The ink is lodged in quantity against this roller upon a
steel plate O O, the edge of which being placed at a very small distance
from the circumference, permits the roller, as it revolves, to carry down
a very thin film of ink upon its surface, and this being taken ofl by the
distributing-roller, is applied to the surface of the inking-cylinder, which, as
before mentioned, inks the types.
The sheet of paper is introduced, as shown in the figure, by placing it
upon a blanket, which is extended upon a feeding-board P P, and drawn
into the machine at a proper time, by having a small ruler, 2, fixed to it.
The ends of this are taken forward by two studs b, attached to endless chains,
which are extended from the wheels <?, e, at the end of the platen, to other
wheels d, rf, which are supported in the frame of the feeding-board. The
wheels e, e, having teeth entering the links of the chains, cause them to
traverse when the machine is turned round, and at the proper time the pins,
6, draw the ruler, 2, and blanket forward, and introduce the paper into
the machine, and by passing between the prism and platen it is printed, as
before mentioned. This is the general action of the machine ; and we shall
proceed to detail the structure of the several parts.
The type is composed, and made up into pages, in the usual manner ; the
pages are then placed in frames or gallies a, a, and fastened by the screws
at the ends, the shape and size of the gallies being adapted to the size of the
page it is intended to print. These gallies are attached to the four sides of
the central axis of the prism by the screw-clamps 1, the edges of the gallies
being mitred together. By relieving the clamps, the gallies can quickly be
removed, and others put in their places. The platen I i is composed of
four segments of cylinders, i i, which are attached to the different sides of the
central axis I, by means of screws, and these segments being proportioned
to the prism, will be the true figure for the platen to produce the required
motion, so that the surface, when it revolves, will, in all positions, preserve
an accurate contact with the surface of the types. The two wheels D, E,
which cause the prism and platen to accompany each other, are formed to
correspond with the two. Thus the upper wheel D is square, with its
 se,gj2.Strand

JYrt'klgy,

&
yefle

Al
 AND MACHINIST. 303
angles rounded off, and the pitch or geometrical outline is exactly of the
same size as the square formed by the surfaces of the types. Tlie lower
wheel E is of the same shape as the platen, and its pitch-line the exact
size of the surface thereof. These wheels being cut into teeth, as the figure
shows, will turn each other round, and make their surfaces at the point of
contact exactly correspond in their motions, so as to have no sliding Or
slipping upon each other. To regulate the pressure upon the paper, the
bearings, in which the pivots of the platen are supported, can be elevated
by screws, 3, and its surface will press with more force upon the types ; but
that this may not derange the action of the wheels Dand E, universal joints
are applied in their axles, at R. The inking-cylinder Kis caused to pre-
serve its proper distance from the centre of the prism by wheels S, fixed
upon its axis, and resting upon shapes T, fixed upon the axis of the prism.
Each of the shapes, like the wheel D, has four flat sides, corresponding in
size with the surfaces of the types ; the angles are rounded to segments of
a circle from the centre ; the wheels S are of the same size as the inking-
cylinder, therefore, as they rest upon the shapes T, they prevent the ink-
cylinder passing upon the types with any more than a sufficient force to
communicate the ink without blotting. The inking-cylinder is turned round
by a cog-wheel N, upon the extremity of the axis of the prism, which is of
the same shape as the wheel D, and engages another wheel, W, upon the
end of the spindle of the inking-cylinder ; the latter wheel likewise gives
motion to the distributing-roller by a pinion/, and this again turns the ink-
roller by a third pinion g, fixed upon the end of its axis n, which is sup-
ported upon bearings B, B, in the frame. The pieces L, L, which support
the pivots of the distributing-roller and inking-cylinder, are fitted upon the
axis n of the inking-cylinder, so as to rise and fall upon its centre ; and the
distances of the rollers being thus kept invariably the same, their circum-
ferences are kept accurately in contact, to communicate the ink to each
other. The steel plate O, w'hich, as before mentioned, regulates the quantity
of ink that the roller N shall take round with it, is supported by a piece
extended across the fix6d frame B B. Tliere are pieces of metal fixed upon
this plate by thumb-nuts, which prevent the ink flowing off at the ends, and
they enter into grooves formed round the ink-roller N, near its ends. The
machine is put in motion by the handle with the fly-wheel H, and this has
a small wheel G, turning a large one F, upon the end of the axis b.
Tlie frame supporting the feeding-board P consists of two rails, X, fitted
upon the axis of the platen, and supported at the opposite ends by a brace
from the framing ; they sustain the pivots of the wheels d, d, for the chains
a: are tw-o rulers fixed at each side of the feeding-board, and forming
a
lodgment for the ends of the ruler 2, which is attached to the blanket, and
it slides upon these when it is advanced by the chains. The spaces on the
platen between the segments i, i, are all filled up by pieces of wood,
except one, and in this space the ruler is received when it passes through
the machine. In the interval when the spaces between the types are passing
over the sheet, and therefore leave the margin between the pages of printing,
the paper is not held between the rollers; but to prevent it from slipping
during this interval, the blanket and paper are pressed down upon the
pieces of wood which fill up in the platen between the segments i, i, by the
weight of small rollers or wires 4, supported by cocks 5, projecting from
the axis of the prism, and being fitted into the slits at the end of these cocks.
Tiie wires are at liberty to rise and fall by their own weight thus, when
;
they are at the upper part of the revolution, they fall into the spaces at the
angle of the prism, between the pages of the types, and thus escape the ink-
cylinder ; but when they are at the lower part of their revolution, they fell
 304 THE OPERATIVE MECHANIC
upon the paper, and press it with sufficient force upon the pieces of wood

in platen to carry the paper forward at the interval when the types do
tile

not act upon it, and of course while the space between the pages of the
printing is passing through.

The operation of printing being very delicate, and requiring

great accuracy, the machine is provided with many adjust-
ments to make it act correctly, which are as follows The :
segments ^, 2 , upon the platen -roller, are attached to the
central axis I, by three screws at each end ; the two middle
ones of these (represented with square heads) draw the seg-
ments down upon the central axis, whilst the others (which
are turned by a screw-driver) bear them off ; therefore, by
means of these screws, the segments can be accurately ad-
justed, till they are found by experiment to apply correctly
to the types, and make an equal impression on all parts of
the sheet. To render the whole impression greater or less,
the screws, 3, beneath the bearings of the platen- roller, are
turned as before mentioned. The degree of pressure with
which the ink-roller bears upon the types is regulated by
increasing or diminishing the size of the shapes T, which
support its weight. And to render these capable of adjust-
ment, each is composed of four pieces, marked 6, attached by
screws, J, to a central piece, or wheel, which is fixed upon
the axis ; and as the edges of these pieces form the outline
of the shape, they admit of being adjusted by other screws to
a greater or less distance from the centre, and of course may
be made to bear up the ink-cylinder till the pressure on the
types is equal throughout the whole surface, and sufficient
to supply the ink properly. The ink-cylinder is adjustable
as to its pressure against the distributing-roller, and for this
purpose the bearings /c, which support the cylinder, are fitted
upon the pieces L, to slide, being capable of regulation by
means of screws. In a similar manner, the distributing-
roller can be adjusted to a proper distance from the inking-
cylinder. The plate o can be adjusted for the distance from
the ink-roller N, by screws p, fastened by thumb-nuts ; this
regulates the degree of colour the impression will have, by
permitting the roller N
to take more or less ink ; behind the
inking- cylinder K, a rubber, or scraper, is placed, to press
very lightly against the cylinder, and to prevent the ink
accumulating in rings round the cylinder, it is fitted upon
centres, and held up by a lever which is suspended by a
catch y, at the end of the piece L. This catch is withdrawn
when the machine is not at work, and then the scraper falling
dowui upon its centre, does not touch the cylinder. It is
 AND MACHINIST. >05

necessary that the wheels D and E should be placed upon

their axis, in such a position that their curvature will cor-
respond with the curvature of the prism and platen. For
this purpose the universal-joint R is fitted upon the axis I,
of the wheel, with a round part, that it may turn on it. A
piece of metal, r, is fixed fast upon the spindle /, and has
a hole in it for the reception of a tooth 5, which is screwed
fast upon the universal -joint ; then two screws being tapped
through the sides of the piece r, press upon the end of a, and
by forcing it either way, will adjust the wheel with respect
to the platen till they exactly correspond ; another similar
adjustment may be applied to the upper axis.
The manner of forming the ink and distributing rollers
with an elastic substance is worthy of particular notice.
Leather stuffed in the manner of a cushion was first used, but
did not succeed, because it became indented with the types ;
but after many trials, a composition of glue, mixed with
treacle,was found to answer perfectly. The roller is made
of a copper tube, covered with canvass, and placed in a
mould, which is a cylindrical metal tube, accurately bored,
and oiled withinside ; the melted composition is then poured
out into the space of the mould, and when cold, the whole is
drawn out of it, with the glue adhering to the copper tube,
and forming an accurate cylinder without any further trouble.
The composition will not haiden niaterially by the exposure
to air, nor does it dissolve by the oil contained in the ink.
This machine is well adapted to print from stereotype plates,
which the universities have adopted for their bibles and prayer-
books.
Bramahs bank-note press.
8. It w'as formerly thecustom in the Bank of England to
up the number and dates of their notes in writing, till the
fill

year 1809, w'hen the machine invented by Mr. Bramah was

adopted for this purpose. By this contrivance, the nmnbers
and dates were inserted not only in a more uniform and
elegant manner, but the labour was diminished to less than
one-sixth of what it was before.
The copper-plates from which the words of the notes are
printed, are double; that is, they tlirow off two notes at
a time upon one long piece of paper. This piece of paper,
containing two notes, is then put into the machine, which
prints upon them the number and dates in such a manner, that
the types change to the succeeding number, and that the
whole operation is performed without any attention on the
X
306 THE OPERATIVE M^ECHANIC

part of the clerk. If one of the notes, for example, is N 1,-

N 1, and the other on the same paper N 201 , N 201, when
these are printed the machine alters itself to N 2, N 2, and
N 202, N 202 ; and in printing these, the types again change
to N 3, N 3, and N 203, N 203. The date and the word
London are cast in stereotype, and each machine is furnished
wicli one of these for every day in the year, and they of course
are changed every day.
The Bank of England has upwards of forty of these ma-
chines, the greater part of which are in constant use. It was
formerly considered sufficient labour for each clerk to fill up
the number twice repeated, and date twice repeated, 400 notes
per day ; but since the introduction of the machine, one clerk
has printed 1,300 double notes, which are equal to 2,600
single ones ; for though in the machine the double notes do
not require more labour than single ones, yet to fill up the
blanks by writing would occupy twice the time.
The mechanism by which this is effected is extremely
ingenious, and the principle is not limited to the numbering
of notes, but is equally applicable to the purpose of printing
any series of numbers which require continual alteration. We
have represented one of these machines, which is not, how-
ever, precisely the same as those in use, being only a single
one, and adapted for printing one note at once ; but we have
only to suppose it extended to twice the length, and furnished
with a double set of types, in order to fit it for printing two
notes at the same time.
In 305, a perspective view of this machine will be found, and a section
fig.
of its fig. 304, in both of which the same letters of reference are
parts at
employed. A
solid piece of mahogany, A A, forms the base of the ma-
chine, and to this two iron plates, B B, are screwed, forming the sides of a
box, the front of which is removed in fig. 305, to exhibit the interior, and
the back is concealed between the mechanism. Across this box an axis, D,
is placed, having its pivots fixed into sockets which are fastened in the sides
of the frame, as is evident from' the figure. This axis carries the tympan E,
which gives the pressure to print off the note attached to it by screws ; and
a lever, F, is also fixed to the axis, by which the operator forces down the
tympan. The movable types, in which the principal novelty of the inven-
tion consists, are fitted into a series of brass circles, mounted upon an axis
G, extending across the centre of the frame. These circles are sufficiently
pointed out in the perspective view, by the numerals on the types fixed in
them ; they are ten in number, arranged in two lots of five each.
Each circle (shown more plainly at I, fig. 304) is divided into eleven
parts, and at each a rectangular notch is cut, to receive the types 1, 2, 3,
4 , 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 0 and a blank type. Five of the circles, thus prepared,
being placed side by side, upon a fixed axis, G, on which they revolve
freely, are sufficient for printing any number less than 100,000 ; because, as
the circles can be turned about On their axis independent of each other.
 AND MACHINIST. 307
it isobvious that any combination of the above figures may be produced,
by bringing them to the highest point of the circle, which is the situation in
which they are to be placed when an impression is to be taken. This will
he more easily understood, if we consider that the brass plate which covers
the circles is put on its place, as represented in fig. 304, at a. This brass
plate has two apertures through it, to receive the two series of types
which project up a little above its surface when at the highest. In fig 305,
this plate is removed mechanism.
to exhibit the interior
The circles are made by means of wheels, H, upon an axis
to revolve
called the back axis, parallel to the axis of the circles. Tire end of it is seen
at I, fig. 305, projecting through the frame, and it carries three of the wheels
H, two of which are at the same distance apart as the two series of figure
circles to which they apply ; the third wheel is placed at an intermediate
distance between the other tw^o, and is acted upon by a catch or pallet 5,
fig. 304, attached to the axis of the tympan, by means of a joint, in such a
manner that it will strike against the highest tooth of the wheel H, and turn
it round one tooth. When the handle is lifted up rather beyond the
perpendicular, a stop a, fig. 305, upon the axis, meeting a projection a,
fig. 304, on the cover of the box, prevents it from moving farther; but
when the handle is returned down the position of the fig. 304, the pallet,
though it again meets the tooth of the wheel, gives way upon its joint, and
passes by without moving the wheel. In this manner it will be seen, that
every time the handle is pressed down to take an impression, in raising it up
again to place a fresh paper upon the tympan, the pallet moves the wheels II
one tooth, and as the teeth of these wheels engage the teeth of the figure
circles, a similar motion is communicated to them, bringing a fresh number
beneath the tympan, ready for printing.
It is to be observed, that the wheels H
are of such a thickness, as to en-
gage only one of the five type circles at once, and their distance from each
other is such, that they take the same circle in the one series as they do in
the other. Now, by moving the back axis a small quantity endwise, it is
obvious that the wheel Hcan be brought to act upon any of the five circles,
or be placed in such a position as to be clear of them all. It is for this pur-
pose that the head I, fig. 305, comes through the frame of the machine;
for by means of this the axis can be moved on end, and by proper marks
upon it, it may be set to any of the five circles. In these positions it is con-
fined by a semicircular clip, which enters grooves turned round on the axis,
and deprives it of longitudinal motion, unless when the clip is raised.
This can be done by a nut coming through the back of the frame at K,
fig. 304. It has a short lever on the inside of it, which, when the nut is turned

round, raises up the clip, and releases the axis while it is set to the required
circle, and the clip being let fall into the proper groove, confines it from any
farther motion.
In order that all the circles may stop at the exact point, when the figure
is at the highest, and consequently when the surface of the figure will be

horizontal, an angular notch is made on the inside of the figure circles,

in the intermediate spaces betw'een each figure ; and at the lowest points of
the circle c, fig. 304, a movable pin is fitted into the fixed axis, with a
spring, which gives it a continual pressure downwards. The end of the pin
is formed spherical, and well polished, so that when the circle is turned
round it is forced into its hole in the axis ; but when another notch in the
circle presents itself, the pin presses out into it, and retains the circle with
a moderate force in its proper position, until the raising of the tympan, as
before described, overcomes the resistance of the pin, and turns the circle
round. By this contrivance the types always arrange themselves into a
308 THE OPERATIVE MECHANIC
Straight line, after being turned round, without which the impression would
have a very disagreeable and irregular appearance. The tympan E, fig.
304, composed of two parts ; a solid brass plate, against which a few
is

folds of cloth are placed and secured by the second part, which is a brass
traine covered with parchment, and attached to the former by four screws,
two of which appear at//, in fig. 305.
The bra;ss plate of the tympan is fastened to the leaf L, fig. 304, project-
ing from the axis by means of six screws. Two of these, only one of which,
A, can be seen in the figure, tend to throw the tympan from* the leaf ;
while
the other four, which are arranged one on each side as the two former,
draw the tympan in and leaf together. By means of these screws thus act-
ing in opposition, the tympan can be adjusted so as to fall exactly parallel
upon the type, and communicate an equal pressure to all parts of the paper,
which is held against the tympan by means of a frisket of parchment
stretched on a frame which surrounds the tympan, and is movable on
joints at k k, fig. 305. The frisket is cut through as is represented by the
shaded parts in fig. 305, in order to expose the paper where it is to receive
the impression of the figures, and the No. before the figures, and also the ira-
pression of the date, year, and place. The type for these are formed in
stereotype, and fastened dowm upon the surface of the brass cover a, the
piece containing the day and month being changed every day. In order to
find the proper position which the paper should occupy upon the tympan,
two fine pins are fixed to project from it, and are received into holes made
in the brass cover; two dots are printed upon the note from the copper-
plates,and the pins being put through at these dots, ensure the figures, &c.
corning on their proper places.
The manner of using the machine is as follows t suppose the back axis
put so far on end as to be detached from all the circles ; the figure circles
arranged by hand, so that the blanks are all uppermost ; and the proper
stereotypes put in for the date. The back axis is then first set, so that its
wheels II may take the first five circles tow^ards the right hand, and by
moving the handle down almost to touch the type, and returning it up
again, the pallet moves the wheels H, and turns the two right-hand circles,
bringing up figure 1. The clerk now inks the type with a printers ball,
opens the frisket sheet L, fig. 305, on its hinges, and places the note
(already printed on the copper-plate press) against the tympan, the proper
place being determined by the two pins, and the dots printed on the note,
as before mentioned. He now shuts up the frisket sheet, in order to con-
fine the paper and keep it clean, except in the places where it is to be
printed ; then by pressing down the handle F, the impression is given ; and
on lifting it up again it moves the circles and brings up figure 2. The note
is now removed, a fresh one put in, and so on, the figure always changing
every time.
During this operation tlie twm right-hand circles act as units, and advance
one each time ; when 9 are printed in this manner and 0 comes up, the handle
is moved twice successively wuthout printing, which brings up a blank and

then a 1. Tlie back axis is moved, to act upon the second circle upon the
liglit hand, which now becomes the units, the first circle representing tens
by moving the handle , without printing, figure 1 in the second circle
comes up, making 11, the next time 12, and so on to 19. The first circle
is now put forwards by hand, bringing up 2 and
0, on the second 20, then
moving the handle to pass the blank, produces 21, 22, &c. to 30, when the
first circle is again advanced, bringing up in this manner the business
4 ;

proceeds to 99. The back axis is now shifted to the third circle, which be-
comes units, the second tens,, and the third hundreds; the 0 and blank ot'
I.

J5ANK KO TE jPKESS Pl.39

From u04 tu 305

304-

3 05

2Tedc & Stodd^ se SSt JtnvU.

 AND MACHINIST. 309
'which are advanced to bring up 1, 0 is brought up in the second ; and the
machine itself brings up 0 in the third ; after printing this it changes to 101.
The process now continues through the successive hundreds in the same
manner as before till 999. The back axis is now shifted to the fourth circle,
and the three first must be advanced by hand when they require it. At
9999 the back axis is shifted to the fifth circle, and it will serve to 999,999,
beyond which it is not required to print.

PILE-ENGINE.
The pile-engine is a machine by which piles are driven
into the ground for the foundation of the piers of bridges, and
various other structures.
The method of driving a pile consists in drawing up a very
heavy weight, called a ram or hammer, and by disengaging it
from the machinery by which it was raised, letting it fall, by
the force of gravity, upon the head of the pile. In the most
simple machines the weight is drawn up by men pulling a
cord over a fixed pulley, and when it has attained a sufficient
height allowing the cord to slip from their hands, which per-
mits the weight to descend with considerable force. The two
best pile-engines that we have seen are those invented by
Mr. Vauloue and Mr. S. Bunce.
Mr. Vauloues pile-engine may be thus described. A, fig. 306, is a great
upright shaft or axle, on which are the great wheel B, and the drum C,
turned by horses joined to the bars S S. The wheel B turns the trundle X,
on the top of whose axis is the fly O, which serves to regulate the motion, as
well as to act against the horses, and to keep them from falling, when the
heavy ram Q is discharged to drive the pile P down into the mud in the
bottom of the river. The drum C is loose upon the shaft A, but is locked
to the wheel, B, by the bolt Y. On this drum the great rope, II H, is
wound ; one end of the rope being fixed to the drum, and the other to the
follower G, to which it is conveyed by the pulleys I and K. In the fol-
lower G is contained the tongs F, that take hold of the ram Q, by the
staple R, for drawing it up. D is a spiral or fusee fixed to the drum, on
which is wound the small rope, T, that goes over the pulley U, under the
pulley V, and is fastened to the top of the frame at 7. To the pulley block
V is hung the counterpoise W, which hinders the follower G from ac-
celerating as it goes down to take hold of the ram ; for, as the follower tends
to acquire velocity in its descent, the line T winds downwards upon the
fusee upon a larger and larger radius, by which means the counterpoise, W,
acts stronger and stronger against it; and so allows it to come down with only
a moderate and uniform velocity. The bolt Y locks the drum to the great
wheel, being pushed upward by the small lever 2, which goes through a
mortise in the shaft A, turns upon a pin in the bar 3, fixed to the great
wheel B, and has a w^eight 4, v/hich always tends to push up the bolt Y,
through the wheel into the drum. Lis the great lever turning on the axis i,
and resting on the forcing bar 5, 5, which goes through a hollow in the shaft
A, and bears up the little lever 2.
H
By die horses going round, the great rope is wound about the drum Cy
310 THE OPERATIVE MECHANIC
and the ram Q is drawn up by the tongs F, in the follower G, until the
tongs come between the inclined planes E, which, by shutting the tongs at
the top, opens it at the foot, and discharges the rara, which falls down be-
tiyeen the guides b b, upon the pile P, and drives it by a few strokes as far
into the mud as it will go, after which the top part is sawed off close to the
mud by an engine for that purpose. Immediately after the ram is discharged,
the piece 6, upon the follower G, takes hold of the ropes a a, which raises
the end of the lever L, and causes its end, N, to descend and press down the
forcing bar 5, upon the little lever 2, which, by pulling down the bolt Y,
unlocks the drum C from the great wheel B, and then the follower being at
liberty comes down by its own weight to the ram, and the lower ends of
the tongs slip over the staple R, and the weight of their heads causes them
to fall outward and shut upon it. Then the weight 4 pushes up the bolt
Y into the drum, which locks it to the great wheel, and so the ram is
drawn up as before.
As the follower comes down, it causes the drum to turn backward, and
unwinds the rope from it, whilst the horses, great wheel, trundle, and fly, go
on with an uninterrupted motion ; and as the drum is turning backward, the
counterpoise, W, is drawn up, and its rope T, wound upon the spiral
fusee D.
There are several holes in the under side of the drum, and the bolt Y,
always takes the first of them that it finds, when the drum stops by the falling
of the follower upon the ram ; until which stoppage the bolt has not time to
slip into any of the holes.

The peculiar advantages of this engine are, that the weight

called the ram, or hammer, may be raised with the least
force ; that when it is raised to a proper height, it readily
disengages itself and falls with the utmost freedom ; that the
forceps or tongs are lowered down speedily, and instantly of
themselves again lay hold of the ram and lift it up.
This engine was placed upon a barge on the water, and so
was easily conveyed to any place desired. The ram was a
ton weight ; and the guides b b, by which it was let fall were
30 feet high.
Figs. 307 and 308 represent a side and front section of
Sunces pile-engine.
The chief parts are A, fig. 307, which are two endless ropes or chains,
(Connected by cross pieces of iron, B, (fig, 308,) corresponding with two
cross grooves diametrically opposite in the wheel C, (fig. 307,) into which
they are received, and by which means the rope or chain A is carried
round. F, II, K, is a side view of a strong wooden frame movable on the
axis H. D is awheel, over which the chain passes and turns within at the
top of the frame. It moves occasionally from F to G, upon the centre H, and is
kept in the position F, by the weight I, fixed to the end K. In fig. 309, L
is the iron ram, which is connected with the cross pieces by the hook m.
N is a cylindrical piece of wood suspended at the hook at O, which by
sliding freely up the bar that connects the hook to the ram, always brings
the hook upright upon the chain when at the bottom of the machine, in the
position of G P : see fig. 307.
When the man at S turns the usual crane- work, the ram being connected to
the chain and passing between the guides, is drawn up in a perpendicular
direction, and when it is near the top of the machine, the projecting bar Q,
J
Sti-aji

3jZ

sc

&
rrie

Jf

ry
 AND MACHINIST. 311
of the hook, strikes against a cross piece of wood at R, fig. 307, and con-
sequently discharges the ram ; while the weight I of the movable frame
instantly draws the upper wheels into the position shown at F, and keeps
the chain free of the ram in its descent. The hook, while descending, is
prevented from catching the chain by the wooden piece R;
for that piece
being specifically lighter than the iron w'eight below, and moving with a
less degree of velocity, cannot come into contact with the iron till it is at the
bottom and the ram stops. It then falls, and again connects the hook with
the chain, which draws up the ram as before.

In this machine, as well as Vauloues, the motion of the

wheel is interrupted, so that very little time is lost in
fii'st

the operation; with a .slight alteration it might be made to

work with horses. It has the advantage over Vauloues en-
gine in point of simplicity ; it may be originally constructed
at less expense, and is not so liable to be deranged. Both,
however, are ingenious performances, and part of their con-
struction might be advantageously introduced into other
machines.

BORING MACHINE.
The boring machine is employed for boring wooden
pipes for the conveyance of water, and for boring out the
metalline cylinders used in hydraubcs, and in pneumatic
engines.
The old and common method of boring, is to have a
horizontal axis turned round by a mill, at the end of which
a borer is fixed, and the cylinder is fastened down upon a
carriage, sliding in a direction parallel to its axis, and drawn
forwards to the borer by the descent of a weight. The ob-
jection to this method is, that any deviation from a rectilineal
motion in the carriage, will be transferred to the cylinder,
and cause it to be crooked ; and that the weight of the borer
and its axis acting on the lower side only of tlie cylinder,
causes it to cut away more at that part, and render the metal
of the cylinder of unequal thickness. This evil, however,
was, in some measure, obviated by a contrivance of Mr.
John Smeaton, which was a steel-yard mounted upon a mova-
ble wheel carriage, running within the cylinder. By suspend-
ing the weight of the cutter and boring-bar from it, the
machine was much improved, though still very imperfect.
A boring machine, for metal cylinders, which is not liable to any of
these sources of error, is constructed in the manner shown. Fig. 314 is a
perspective view of the machine in the action of boring out a cylinder for
a steam-engine, the other figures .explain the construction of its parts, and
 312 THE OPERATIVE MECHANIC
are drawn to a scale. In fig. 314, A A denote two oak ground sills,
which are firmly bolted down, parallel to each other, upon sleepers let into
.
Ihe ground. At each end of these a vertical iron frame, B B, is erected, to
support the gudgeons at the end of a long cylindrical axis, D D, which is
turned round by the mill. The cylinder L L, which is to be bored, is fixed
immovable over tlie bar, and exactly concentric with it, A piece of cast-
iron KK, X-L, (figs. 310, 312, and 313,) called a cutter-head, slides upon
.the axis, and has fixed into it the knives or steelings ///, which perform
the boring. This cutter-head is moved along the bar by machinery, to be
hereafter described ; by means of which it is drawn or forced through the
cylinder, at the same time that it turns round with the axis D. The steel
cutters will necessarily cut away any protuberant metal which projects
within the cylinder, in the circle which they describe by their motion, but
cannot possibly take any more.
The cylinder is held down upon an adjustable framing, which is ready
adapted to receive a cylinder of any size within certain limits. Pieces of
iron, E E, are bolted down to the ground sills, having grooves through
them to receive bolts, which fasten down two horizontal pieces of cast-iron
I' F, at right angles to them. These horizontal pieces support four movable
upright standards GG, which include the diameter of the cylinder L L,
which is supported upon blocks, b b, below, and held fast by iron bands a a,
drawn by screws in the top of the standards G G. The cylinder is adjusted,
to be concentric with the axis D D, and held firmly in its place by
means of wedges driven under the blocks and the standards.
To explain the mechanism by which the cutters are advanced, we
must refer to figs. 311, 312, and 313, by the inspection of which it will
be seen that the axis D D is, in fact, a tube of cast-iron, hollow throughout.
Jt is divided by a longitudinal aperture cc, fig. 310, on each side. At the
ends of it is left a complete tube, to keep the two valves together. The
eutter-head K K, L L, consists of two parts ; of a tube K fitted upon the
axis D with the greatest accuracy, and of a cast-iron ring L L, fixed upon
K K by four wedges. On its circumference are eight notches, to receive
ihe cutters or steelings //, which are held in and adjusted by wedges.
The slider K is kept from slipping round with the axis, by means of two
short iron bars e e, which are put through to the axis, and received into
notches cut in the ends of the sliders K K. These bars have holes in the
middle of them to permit a bolt at the end of the toothed rack L to
pass through. A key is put through the end of the bolt, which, at the
same time, prevents the rack being drawn back, and holds the cross bars
e e in their places. The rack is moved by the teeth of a pinion N, and is
kept to its place by the roller O ; the axis of the pinion and roller being
.supported in a framing attached to the standard B B, as shown in a per-
spective view of the machine in fig. 314. The pinion is turned round by
a lever, put upon the square end of the axis, and loaded with the weight
P, that it may have a constant tendency to draw the cutter through the
cylinder. This lever is capable of being put on the square end of the
gxis either way, so as to force the rack back into the cylinder jf neces-
.sary.
In some boring machines, another contrivance, superior perhaps to what
we have now described, is employed to draw the cutter through the
rylinder. It consists of four small wheels, one of which is fixed at the
right-hand extremity, D, of the bar DD, fig. 314- Another pinion is
fastened on the extremity of an axis, analogous to the rack M, having at
its other extremity a small screw, which works in a female screw, fixed to

the cutter KK at #, fig. 310. Below the second pdnion is another, con-
 ri.4i
Frorrc <3/0 to 314.
 AND MACHINIST. 313
taining the same number of teeth, and fixed on a horizontal axis pa-
rallel to D D. At the other end of this axis is a fourth pinion, which is
drawn by the first pinion at the end of the hollow axis D
D. The first
pinion has twenty-six teeth, the fourth thirty, and the second and third
may have any number, provided they are equal. As the axis D
revolves,
the first pinion fixed on its extremity draws the fourth, which by means of
the third, fixed on the same axis with it, gives motion to the second. The
second pinion being fixed to an axis within D D, unscrews the screw at its
other extremity, and of course makes the cutter advance along the cylinder.
This screw has eight threads in an inch, and sixty turns of the axis are
requiied to cut one inch.
To introduce a cylinder into its place in the machine, it is necessary to
remove the upper braces, 1 1, of the bearings upon the standards B B
and by supporting the axis upon blocks placed under the middle of it, the
standard, with the pinion N, and roller frame, is removed by taking up the
nuts which fasten it to the ground sills A A, the rack M being supposed
previously withdrawn. A cutter-block L, of a proper size to bore out the
intended cylinder, is now placed upon the slider K, fig. 313, and wedged
fast. The cutter-head is then moved to the farther end of the axis, and
the cylinder lifted into its place. The standard B is returned, and the
whole machine brought to the state of fig. 314, the cylinder being, by
estimation, adjudged concentric with the axis D. Two bars of iron are
now wedged into the c c in the axis, and applied to the ends of the
cylinder; while the axis is turned round they act as compasses to prove
the concentricity of the cylinder. Small iron wedges are drawn round its
cylinder to adjust it with the utmost accuracy; and in this state the
cylinder is ready for boring.

The next operation is felling the cutters, which are

fastened into the block L by wedges, and adjusted by turn-
ing the axis round, to ascertain that they all describe the
same circle. The boring now commences by putting the
mill and axis in motion, and the machine requires no atten-
tion, except that the weight P is lifted up as often as it
descends by the motion of the cutters or steelings. When
the cutters are drawn down through the cylinder, they are
set to a circle a small quantity larger, and returned through the
cylinder a second time. For common work these operations
are sufficient ; but the best cylinders are bored many times,
in order to bring them to a proper cylindrical surface. The
last operation is turning the flanch n of the cylinder per-
fectly flat, by wedging a proper cutter into the head. This
is of great importance to ensure that the lid will fit perpen-
dicular to the axis of the cylinder. The cylinder is now
finished and removed.
The accuracy of this machine depends on the boring bar,
D D, being turned upon its ovm gudgeons ;
and if it isturned
to the same diameter throughout, it will certainly be per-
fectly straight. While the axis is in the operation of turn -
ing, a piece of hard wood should be fitted into the grooves
of the cylinder. The slider K
is first bored out, and
314 THE OPERATIVE MECHANIC
afterwards ground upon the axis with emer}" to fit as true as
possible.
The elevation of a mill proper for moving two of these machines, is
represented in fig. 310. The pinion 30 is supposed to be on the axis of
a water-wheel, and turns the two wheels 60, 60, which have projecting
axes, with a cross-cut similar to the head of a screw, as is shown in the
figure.

The ends of the boring axes have similar notches, and by-
putting keys in between them, the motion may be commu-
nicated or discontinued at pleasure, by the removal of the
key.

FILE-CUTTING MACHINE.
There have been various contrivances for this purpose;
but the best we are acquainted with is described in the
Transactions of the American Philosophical Society y and is
as follows :

AAA A, fig. 315, is a bench of seasoned oak, the face of which

is planed very smooth. BBBB the feet of the bench, which should
be substantial. C C C C the carriage on which the files are laid, which
moves along the face of the bench AAA A, parallel to its sides, and
carries the files gradually under the edge of the cutter or chisel H H,
while the teeth are cut: this carriage is made to move by a contri-
vance somewhat similar to that which carries the log against the saw
of a saw-mill, as will be more particularly described. DD D are three
iron rods inserted into the ends of the carriage C C C C, and passing through
the holes in the studs E E E, which are screwed firmly against the ends of
the bench A A A A, for directing the course of the carriage C C C C, pa-
rallel to the sides of the bench. F F two upright pillars, mortised firmly
into the bench AAA A, nearly equidistant from each end of it, near the
edge, and directly opposite to each other. G the lever or arm which
carries the cutter H H, (fixed by the screw I,) and works on the centres of
two screws K K, which are fixed into the two pillars F F, in a direction
right across the bench A A A A. By tightening or loosening these screws,
the arm which carries the chisel may be made to work more or less steadily.
L is the regulating screw, by means of which the files may be made coarser
or finer ; this screw works in a stud M, which is screwed firmly upon the
top of the stud F ; the lower end of the screw L bears against the upper
part of the arm G, and limits the height to which it can rise. N is a steel
spring, one end of which is screwed to the other pillar F, and the other end
presses against the pillar O, which is fixed upon the arm G ; by its pressure
it forces the said arm upwards until it meets with the regulating screw L.

P is an arm with a claw at one end marked 6, the other end is fixed by a
joint into the end of the stud or pillar O, and, by the motion of the arm
G, is made to move the ratch-wheel Q. This ratch-wheel is fixed upon an
axis, which carries a small trundle-head or pinion R, on the opposite end
this takes into a piece S S, which is indented with teeth, and screwed firmly
against one side of the carriag'e C C C C ; by means of this piece motion
is communicated to the carriage. F is a clamp for fastening one end of
the file ZZ in the place or bed on which it is to be cut. V is another
 AND MACHINIST. 315
clamp or dog at the opposite end, which works by a joint W, firnily fixed
into the carriage C C C C. Y is a bridge, likewise screwed into the car-
riage, through which the screw X passes, and presses with its lower end
against the upper side of the damp V ; under which clamp the other end
of the file Z Z is placed, and held firmly in its situation while it is cutting
by the pressure of the said clamp V. 7 7 7 7 is a bed of lead, which is let
into a cavity formed in the body of the carriage, something broader and
longer than the largest size files ; the upper face of this bed of lead is
formed variously, so as to fit the different kinds of files which may be re-
quired. At the figures 2 2 are two catches, which take into the teeth of the
ratch-wheel Q, to prevent a recoil of its motion ; 3 3 is a bridge to support
one end, 4, of the axis of the ratch-wheel Q ; 5 a stud to support the other
end of the axis of that wheel.
When the file or files are laid in their place, the machine must be regu-
lated to cut them of the due degree of fineness, by means of the regulating
screw L ; which, by screwing farther through the arm M, wall make the
files finer, and, vice versa, by unscrewing it a little, will make them
coarser; for the arm G w'ill, by that means, have liberty to rise the higher,
which will occasion the arm P, with the claws, to move further along the
periphery of the ratch-wheel, and consequently communicate a more
extensive motion to the carriage C C C C, and make the files coarser.

When the machine is thus adjusted, a blind man may

cut a with more exactness than can be done in the usual
file

method by the keenest sight j for by striking with a hammer

on the head of the cutter or chisel H
H, all the movements
are set at work ; and by repeating the stroke with the ham-
mer, the files on one side will at length be cut ; then they
must be turned, and the operation repeated for cutting on
the other side. It is needless to enlarge much on the utility
or extent of this machine; for, on an examination, it will
appear to persons of but indifferent mechanical skill, that
it may be made to work by water as well as by hand, to cut

coarse or fine, large or small, files, or any number at a time

but it may be more particularly useful for cutting very fine
small files for watchmakers ; as they may be executed by
this machine with the greatest equality and nicety imagin-
able. As to the materials and dimensions of the several parts
of this machine, they are left to the judgment and skill of
the artist who may have occasion to make one ; only ob-
serving, that the whole should be capable of bearing a good
deal of violence.

RAMSDEN^S DIVIDING MACHINE.

This valuable instrument is the invention of Mr. Jesse
Ramsden, to whom the Commissioners of Longitude gave
the sum of 615 /., upon his entering into an engagement to
instruct a certain number of persons, not exceeding ten, in
316 THE OPERATIVE MECHANIC
the method of making and using this machine, in the space
of two years, say, from the 28th October, 177*^? to 28th Oc-
tober, 1777 ; also binding himself to divide all sectants and
octants by the same engine, at the rate of three shillings for
each octant, and six shillings for each brass sectant, with
Noniuss divisions to half minutes, for as long time as the
Commissioners should think proper to let the engine remain
in his possession. Of this sum 300/. were given to Mr. Rams-
den, as a reward for the usefulness of his invention; and 315/.
for his giving up the property of it to the Commissioners.
The following is the description of the engine given by
Mr. Ramsden, upon oath :

This engine consists of a large wheel of bell-metal, sup-

ported on a mahogany stand, having three legs, which are
strongly connected together by braces, so as to make it per-
fectly steady. On each leg of the stand is placed a conical
friction-pulley, whereon the dividing wheel rests ;
to prevent
the wheel from sliding off the friction-pullies, the bell-metal
centre under it turns in a socket on the top of the stand.
The circumference of the wheel is ratched or cut (by a
method which will be described hereafter) into 2160 teeth,
in which an endless screw acts. Six revolutions of the screw
will move the wheel a space equal to one degree.
Now a circle of brass being fixed on the screw-arbor,
having its circumference divided into sixty parts, each divi-
sion will, consequently, answer to a motion of the wheel of
ten seconds, six of them will be equal to a minute, &c.
Several different arbors of tempered steel are truly
ground into the socket in the centre of the wdieel. The
upper parts of the arbors, that stand upon the plane, are
turned of various sizes, to suit the centres of different pieces
of work to be divided.
When any instrument is to be divided, the centre of it is
very exactly fitted on one of these arbors ; and the instru-
ment is fixed down to the plane of the dividing wheel, by
means of screws, which fit into holes made in the radii of
the wheel for that purpose.
The instrument being thus fitted on the plane of the wheel,
the frame which carries the dividing point is connected at
one end by finger-screw^s, with the frame which carries the
endless-screw; while the other end embraces that part of
the steel arbor which stands above the instrument to be
divided, by an angular notch in a piece of hardened steel
by this means both ends of the frame are kept perfectly
steady and free from any shake.
 AT^U MACHINIST. 317
The frrane carrying the dividing-point or tracer, is made
to slide on the frame which carries the endless-screw to any
distance from the centre of the wheel, as the radius of the
instrument to be divided may require, and may be there
fastened by^ tightening two clumps 5 and the dividing-point
or tracer, being connected with the clumps by the double-
jointed frame, admits a free and easy motion towards or
from the centre for cutting the divisions, without any lateral
shake.
From what has been said, it appears that an instrument
thus fitted on the dividing-wheel, may be moved to any angle
by the screw and divided circle on its arbor ; and that this
angle may^ be marked on the limb of the instrument with the
greatest exactness by the dividing-point or tracer, which can
only move in a direct line tending to the centre, and is alto-
gether freed from those inconveniences that attend cutting
by means of a straight edge. This method of drawing lines
'will also prevent any error that might arise from an expan-

sion or contraction of the metal during tfie time of dividing.

The screw- frame is fixed on the top of a conical pillar,
which turns freely round its axis, and also moves freely
towards or from the centre of the w'heel, so that the screw-
frame may be entirely guided by the frame wdiich connects it
with the centre: by this means any eccentricity of the wheel
and the arbor would not produce any error in the dividing
and by a particular contrivance, (which will be described
hereafter,) the screw when pressed against the teeth of the
'wheel always moves parallel to itself ^ so that a line joining
the centre of the arbor and the tracer continued will always
make equal angles with the screw.
Fig. 316 represents a perspective view of the engine.
Fig. 317 is a plan of which fig. 318 represents a section on the line IIA.
The large wheel A is 45 inches in diameter, and has 10 radii, each being

supported by edge-bars, as represented in fig. 318. These bats and radii

are connected by a circular ring B, 24 inches in diameter and 3 inches deep
and, for greater strength, the whole is cast in one piece in bell-metal.
As the whole weight of the wheel A rests on its ring B, the edge-bars
are deepest where they join it ; and from thence their depth diminishes,
both towards the centre and circumference, as represented in fig. 318
The surface of the wheel A was worked very even and fiat, and its cir-
cumference turned true. The ring C, of fine brass, was fitted very exactly
on the circumference of the wheel ; and was fastened thereon witli screws,
which, after being screwed as tight as possible, were well rivetted. The
face of a large chuck being turned very true and flat in the lathe, the flat-
tened surface A, fig. 318, of the wheel, was fastened against it with hold-
fasts ; and the two surfaces and circumference of the ring C, a hole through
the centre and the plane part round 6, and the lower edge of the ring B,
were turned at the same time.
D is a piece of hard bell-metal, having a hole, which receives the steel
 318 THE OPERATIVE MECHANIC
arbor /, made and true. This bell-metal was turned very true
very straight
on an arbor ;
and the which rests on a wheel at 6, was turned very
face,
flat, so that the steel arbor d might stand perpendicular to the plane of the

wheel; this bell-metal was fastened to the wheel by six steel screws,
A brass socket Z is fastened on the centre of the mahogany stand, and
receives the lower part of the bell-metal piece D, being made to touch the
bell-metal in a narrow part near the mouth, to prevent any obliquity of the
wheel from bending the arbor good fitting is by no means necessary here
;

since any shake in this socket will produce no bad effect, as will appear
hereafter when we describe the cutting-fi-ame.
The wheel was then put on its stand, the lower edge of the ring B,
figs.316, 317, and 318, resting on the circumference of three conical friction
pulleys W, to facilitate its motion round its centre. The axis of one of
these pulleys is in a line joining the centre of the wheel and the middle of
the endless-screw, and the other two placed so as to be at equal distances
from each other.
Fig. 316 is a block of wood strongly fastened to one of the legs of the
stand ; the piece g is screwed to the upper side of the block, and has half-
holes, in which the transverse axis A, fig. 319, turns; the half-holes are kept
together by the screws i.
The lower extremity of the conical pillar P, figs. 316 and 319, terminates
in a cylindrical steel pin k, fig. 319, which passes through and turns in the
transverse axis /^, and is confined by a check and screw.
To the upper end of the conical pillar is fastened the frame G, fig. 319,
in which the endless-screw turns; the pivots of the screw are formed in the
manner of two frustrums of cones joined by a cylinder, as represented at X,

fig. 320. These pivots are confined between half-holes, which press only
on the conical parts, and do not touch the cylindric parts ; the half-holes
are kept together by screws a, which may be tightened at any time, to
prevent the screw from shaking in the frame.
On the screw-arbor is a small wheel of brass K, figs. 316, 317, 319, and
320, having its outside edge divided into 60 parts, and numbered at every
sixth division with 1, 2, &c. to 10. The motion of this wheel is shown by
the index figs. 319 and 320, on the screw-frame G.
H, fig. 316, represents a part of the stand, having a parallel slit in the
direction towards the centre of the wheel, large enough to receive the upper
part of the conical brass pillar P, which carries the screw' and its frame
and as the resistance, when the wheel is moved by the endless-screw, is
against the side of the slit H
which is towards the left hand, that side of
the slit is faced with brass, and the pillar is pressed against it by a steel
spring on the opposite side ; by this means the pillar is strongly supported
laterally, and yet the screws may be easily pressed from or against the
circumference of the wheel, and the pillar will turn freely on its axis to take
any direction given it by the frame L.
At each corner of the piece I, fig. 319, are screw's , of tempered steel,
having polished conical points ; two of them turn in conical holes in the
screw-frame near o, and the points of the other tw'o screws turn in the
boles in the piece Q; the screws p are of steel, which being tightened,
prevent the conical pointed screws from unturning when the frame is
moved.
L, figs. 316, 317, and 321, is a brass frame, which serves to connect the
endless-screw, its frame, &c. with the centre of the wheel ; each arm of this
frame is terminated by a steel screw, that may be passed through any of
the holes g, in the piece Q, fig. 319, as the thickness of the work to be
divided on the wheel may require, and are fastened by the finger-nuts
figs. 316 and 317.
 AND MACHINIST. 319
At the end of this frame is a flat piece of tempered steel h, fig. 321^
wherein is an angular notch ; when the endless-screw is pressed against the
teeth of the circumference of the wheel, which may be done by turning the
finger-screw S, figs. 316 and 317, to press against the spring t, this notch
embraces and presses against the steel arbor d. This end of the frame may
be raised or depressed by moving the prismatic slide fig. 317, whicli may

be fixed at any height by the four steel screws o, figs. 316, 317, and 321.
The bottom of this slide has a notch K, figs. 316 and 321, whose plane is
parallel to the endless-screw, and by the point of the arbor </, fig. 318,
resting in this notch, this end of the frame is prevented from tilting. The
screw S, figs. 316 and 317, is prevented from unturning, by tightening tlie
finger-nut w.

The teeth on the circumference of the wheel were cut by

the following method
Having considered what number of teeth on the circum-
ference would be most convenient, which in this engine is
2160, or 360 multiplied by 6, 1 made two screws of the same
dimension of tempered steel, in the manner hereafter de-
scribed, the interval between the threads being such as I
knew by calculation would come within the limits of what
might be turned of the circumference of the wheel one of :

these screws, which was intended for ratching or cutting the

teeth, was notched across the threads, so that the screw,
when pressed against the edge of the wheel and turned
round, cut in the manner of a saw. Then having a segment
of a circle a little greater than 60 degrees, of about the same
radius with the wheel, and the circumference made true,
from a very fine centre, I described an arch near the edge,
and set off the chord of 60 degrees on this arch. This seg-
ment was put in the place of the wheel, the edge of it was
ratched, and the number of revolutions and parts of the
screw contained between the interval of the 60 degrees were
counted. The radius was corrected in the proportion of
360 revolutions, which ought to have been in 60 degrees, to
the number actually found ; and the radius, so corrected, was
taken in a pair of beam-compasses ; while the wheel was on
the lathe, one foot of the compasses was put in the centre,
and with the other a circle was described on the ring; then
half the depth of the threads of the screw being taken in
dividers, vras set from this circle outwards, and another
circle was described cutting this point; a hollow was then
turned on the edge of the wheel, of the same curvature as
that of the screw at the bottom of the threads, the bottom
of tliis hollow was turned to the same radius or distance from
the centre of the wheel, as the outward of the two circles
before-mentioned.
The wheel was now taken off the lathe, and the bell-metal
320 THE OPERATIVE MECHANIC
piece D, fig. 318, was screwed on as before directed, whicli
after this ought not to be removed.
From a very exact centre a circle was described on the ring C, figs. 3i6,
317, and 318, about four-tenths of an inch within where the bottom of tlia
teeth would come. This circle was divided with the greatest exactness I
was capable of, first into five parts, and each of these into three. These
parts were then bisected four times, (that is to say,) supposing the w'hole
circumference of the wheel to contain 2160 teeth, this being divided into
five parts, each would contain 432 teeth ; which being divided into three
parts, each of them would contain 144; and this space bisected four times
would give 72, 36, 18, and 9 ; therefore each of the last divisions would
contain nine teeth. But, as I was apprehensive some error might arise
from quinquesection and trisection, in order to examine the accuracy of the
divisions, I described another circle on the ring C, (fig. 322,) one-tenth of
an inch within the former, and divided it by continual bisections, as 2160,
1080, 540, 270, 135, 67^, and 33^; and as the fixed wire (to be described
presently) crossed both the circles, I could examine their agreement at
every 135 revolutions; (after ratcliing, could examine it at every 334 ;) but
not finding any sensible difference between the two sets of divisions, I, for
ratching, made choice of the former ; and, as the coincidence of the fixed wire
with an intersection could be more exactly determined than with a dot or
division, I therefore made use of intersections in both circles before described.
The arms of the frame L, fig. 322, were connected by a thin piece of brass
of three-fourths of an inch broad, having a hole in the middle of four-tenths
of an inch in diameter ; across this hole a silver wire was fixed exactly in a
line to the centre of the wheel ; the coincidence of this wire with the inter-
sections was examined by a lens seven-tenths of an inch focus, fixed in a tube
which was attached to one of the arms L* Now a handle or winch being
fixed on the end of the screw, the division marked 10, on the circle K,was
set to its index, and, by means of a clamp and adjusting-screw for that pur-
pose, the intersection marked 1 on the circle C was set exactly to coincide
with the fixed wire; the screw was then carefully pressed against the
circumference of the wheel, by turning the finger-screw S, then, removing
the clamp, I turned the screw by its handle nine revolutions, till the inter-
section marked 240 came nearly to tlie wire ; then, unturning the finger-
screw S, 1 released the screw from the wheel, and turned the wheel back
till the intersection marked 2 exactly coincided with the wire; and, by
means of the clamp before-mentioned, the division 10 on the circle being
set to its index, the screw was pressed against the edge of the w heel by the
finger-screw S; the clamp wire removed, and the screw turned nine revolu-
tions till the intersection marked 1 nearly coincided with the fixed wire ; the
screw was released from the wheel by unturning the finger-screw S as
before ; the wheel was turned back till the intersection 3 coincided with
the fixed wire; the division 10 on the circle being set to its index, the
screw was pressed against the wheel as before, and the screw w'as turned
nine revolutions, till the intersection 2 nearly coincided with the fixed wire,
and the screw was released ; and I proceeded in this manner till the teeth
were marked round the whole circumference of the wheel. This was
repeated three times round, to make the impression of the screw deeper.
I then ratched the wheel round continually in the same direction without
ever disengaging the screw ; and, in ratching the wheel about 300 times
round, the teeth were finished.

* The intersections are marked for the sake of illustration, thouc'h properly
invisible, they lying
under the brass plate.
 BlVIBmG MAC Mm fl4Z
From. 315 to 319
 AND MACHINIST. 321
evident if the circumference of the wheel were even
It is
one tooUi or ten minutes greater than the screw would
require, 'this error would in the first instance be reduced to
-rVv part of a revolution, or two seconds and a half ; and these
errors or inequalities of the teeth be equally distributed
round the wheel at the distance of nine teeth from each
other. Now, as the screw in ratchiiig had continually hold
of several teeth at the same time, and these constantly
changing, the above-mentioned inequalities soon corrected
themselves, and the teeth were reduced to a perfect equality.
The piece of brass which carries the wire w'as now taken
away, and the cutting-screw w^as also removed, and a plain
one (hereafter described) put in its place ; on one end of the
screw is a small brass circle, having its edge divided into
sixty equal parts, and numbered at every sixth division, as
before mentioned.
On the other end of the screw is a ratchet-wheel c, having sixty teeth,
covered by the hollowed circle d, fig. 320, which carries two clicks that
catch upon the opposite sides of the ratchet when the screw is to be moved
forwards. The cylinder S turns on a strong steel arbor F, which passes
through and is firndy screwed to the piece Y ; this piece, for greater firm-
ness, is attached to the screw-frame G, fig. 319, by tne braces v ; a spiral
groove or thread is cut on the outside of the cylinder S, which serves both
for holding the string, and also giving motion to the lever J on its centre,
by means of a steel tooth n, that works between the threads of the spiral.
To the lever is attached a strong steel pin w, on which a brass socket, r,
turns; this socket passes through a slit in the piece p, and maybe tightened
in any part of the slit by the finger-nut/; this piece serves to regulate the
number of revolutions of the screw for each tread of the treadle R.
T, fig. 316, is a brass box containing a spiral spring; a strong gut is
fastened and turned three or four times round the circumference of this box;
the gut then passes several times round the cylinder S, and from thenca
down to the treadle R, fig. 316. Now, when the treadle is pressed down,
the string pulls the cylinder S round its axis, and the clicks catching hold
of the teeth on the ratchet carry the screw round with it, till, by the tooth n
working in the spiral groove, the lever J, fig. 319, is brought near the
wheel ft, and the cylinder stopped by the screw-head, a, striking on the top
of the .ever J ; at the same time the spring is wound up by the other end of
the girt passing round the box T, fig. 316. Now, when the foot is taken
oft the treadle, the spring, unbending itself, pulls back the cylinder, the
clicks leaving the ratchet and screw at rest till the piece t strikes on the end
of the piece p, fig. 316; the number of revolutions of the screw at each
tread is limited by the number of revolutions the cylinder is allow'ed to
turn back before the stop strikes on the piece
When moved round its axis with a considerable
the endjess-screw was
velocity, would continue that motion a little after the cylinder, figs. .316
it
and 319, was stopped; to prevent this, the angular lever 77 was made,
that when the lever J comes near to stop the screw a:, it, by a small cham-
fer, presses dowm the piece k of the angular lever ;
this brings the other
end, 7j, of the same lever forwards, and stops the endless-screw by the steel
pm, iM, striking upon the top of it the foot of the lever is raised again by
:

small spting pressing on the brace v

Y
 322 THE OPERATIVE MECHANIC
D, two clamps, connected by the piece a, slide one on each arm of the frame
L, figs. 316, 317, and 321, and may be fixed at pleasure by the four finger-
screws f, which press against the steel springs to avoid spoiling the arms ;
the piece q is made to turn without shake between two conical pointed
screws /, which are prevented from unturning by tightening the finger-
nuts N.
The piece fig. 321, is made to turn on the piece by the conical
pointed screws, a, resting in the hollow centres e.
As there is frequent occasion to cut divisions on inclined planes, for that
purpose the piece, 7, in which the tracer is fixed, has a conical axis at each
end, which turn in half-holes ; when the tracer is set to any inclination, it
may be fixed there by tightening the steel screws /3.
Description of the engine by which the endless-screw of the dividing-engine
was cut.

Fig. 324 represents this engine of its full dimensions, seen from one side.
Fig. 323, the upper side of the same, as seen from above.
A, represents a triangular bar of steel, to which the triangular holes in
the pieces B and C are accurately fitted, and may be fixed on any part of
the bar by the screws D.
E is a piece of steel whereon the screw is intended to be cut ; which,
after being hardened and tempered, has its pivots turned in the form of two
frustrums of cones, as represented in the drawings of the dividing-engine,
fig. 320. These pivots were exactly fitted to the half-holes F and T, which
were kept together by the screws z.
H represents a screw of untempered steel, having a pivot I, which turns in
the hole h ; at the other end of the screw is a hollow centre, which receives
the hardened conical point of the steel pin m. When this point is sufficiently
pressed against the screw, to prevent its shaking, the steel pin may be fixed
by tightening the screws Y.
H
N IS a cylindric nut movable on the screw ; which, to prevent any
shakes, may be tightened by the screws O. This nut is connected with the
saddle-piece P, by means of the intermediate universal joint W, through
which the arbor of the screw H passes. A front view of this piece, with a
section across the screw-arbor, is represented at X. This joint is connected
with the nut by means of two steel slips S, which turn on pins between the
cheeks T, on the nut N. Tlie other ends of these slips, S, turn in like man-
ner on pins a ; one axis of this joint turns in a hole in the cock b, which is
fixed to the saddle-piece ; and the other turns in a hole d, made for that
purpose in the same piece on which the cock b is fixed By this means, when
.

the screw is turned round, the saddle-piece will slide uniformly along the
triangular bar A.
K is a small triangular oar of well-tempered steel, which slides in a groove
of the same form on the saddle-piece P. The point of this bar or cutter is
formed to the shape of the thread intended to be cut on the endless-screw.
When the cutter is set to take proper hold of the intended screw, it may 'be
fixedby tightening the screws c, which press the two pieces of brass upon it.
Having measured the circumference of the dividing-wheel, I found it
would require a screw about one thread in a hundred coarser than the guide-
screw arbor H, and tliat on the stub E, on which the screw was to be cut,,
were proportioned to each other to produce that effect, by giving the wheel
L 198 teeth, and the wheel Q 200. These wheels communicated with each
other by means of the intermediate wheel R, which also served to give the
threads on the two screws the same direction.
The saddle-piece P js confined on the bar A by means of the pieces gf
and may be made to slide with a proper degree of tightness by the screv/s n
 Fj'om 920 to 330

3 2S

329 f'm
f

y
319

319
319,

319

X
3 20
y

yc^t StDcklen^ Svtmd

 AND MACHINIST. S23

LATHES AND TURNING APPARATUS.

The lathe is a very useful engine for turning wood^ ivory,
metals, and other materials.
The common lathe is composed of two wooden cheeks or
sides, parallel to the horizon, having a groove or opening be-
tween ; perpendicular to these are two other pieces, called
puppets^ made to slide between the cheeks, and to be fixed
down at any point at pleasure. These have two points, be-
tween which the piece to be turned is sustained ; the piece is
turned round backwards and forwards by means of a string
put round it and fastened above to the end of a pliable pole,
and underneath to a treadle or board moved with the foot.
There is also a rest which bears up the tool, and keeps it
steady.
We shall now proceed to give Mr. J. Fareys description of
the improved lathes manufactured by Mr, Hem'll Maudslay,
of Margaret- street. Cavendish-square.

A, fig. 325, the great wheel, with four grooves on the rim ; it is worked
is

by a crank B, and treadle C, in the common way ; the catgut which goes
round this wheel passes also round a smaller wheel D, called the mandrel,
which has four grooves on its circumference, of different diameters, forgiving
it different velocities, corresponding with the four grooves on the great

wheel A. In order to make the same band suit, when applied to all the
different grooves on the mandrel D, the wheel A can be elevated or depressed
by a screw, a, and another at the other end of the axle ; and the connecting
rod, C, can be lengthened or shortened by screwing the hooks at each end of
it further out of, or into it. The end M, fig. 326, of the spindle of the
mandrel D, is pointed, and works in a hole in the end of a screws, put
through the standard E, fig. 325 ; the other end of the bearing F, fig. 326,
is conical, and works in a conical socket in the standard F, fig. 325, so that,
by tightening up the screw in E, the conical end, F, may at any time be
made to fit its socket; the puppet G has a cylindric hole through its top to
receive the polished pointed rod c?, which is moved by the screw e, and
fixed by the screw /; the whole puppet is fixed on the triangular prismatic
bar H, by a clamp, fig. 332, the two ends of which, a, b, are put through
holes, bj in the bottom of the puppet under the bar, and the w'hole is fixed
by the screw c pressing against it ; by this means the puppet can be taken
off the bar without first taking off the standard I, as in the common lathes
and the triangular bar is found to be far preferable to the double rectangular
one in common use. The resty is a similar contrivance; it is in three
pieces ; see figs. 327, 328, and 329. Fig. 328 is a piece, the opening, , b, c, in
which, is laid upon the bar H, fig. 325 ; the four legs, dddd, of fig. 329, are
then put up under the bar (into the recesses in fig. 328, which are made to
receive them) so that the notches 'm d d d d may be level with the top of fig.
328 ; the two beads, ef, in fig. 327, are then slid into the notches in the top
oi dd d d, fig. 328, to keep the whole together; the groove i is to receive a
corresponding piece on e/, fig. 327, to steady it; the whole of fig 327 has
metallic cover, to keep the chips out of the grooves. It is plain that, by tighW
 :)2i THE OPERA nVK MECHANIC
caing th^ screw h, in the bottom of fig. 329, the whole will be fixed and pre-
vented from sliding along the bar H, and fig. 327 from sliding in a direction
perpendicular to the bar; the piece /, fig. 327, on which the tool is laid, can
be raised or lowered at pleasure, and fixed by a screw, m. On the end, n, of
the spindle P, figs. 325 and 326, is screwed occasionally an universal chuck
for holding any kind of work which is to be turned. (See fig. 330.) is the A
female screw to receive the screw n, fig. 325 ; near the bottom of the screw
A is another screw, B B, which is prevented from moving endways by a col-
lar in the middle of it fixed to the screw ;
A
one end of the screw B B is
cut right-handed, and the other left-handed ; so that by turning the screw
one way, the two nuts, E F, will recede from each other, or by turning it the
contrary way, they will advance towards each other ; the two nuts, E F,
pass through an opening in the plate C, and project beyond the same, carrying
jaws, like those of a vice, by which the subject to be turned is to be held.
For turning faces of wheels, hollow work, &c. where great accuracy is
wanted, Mr. Maudslay has contrived a curious apparatus, which he calls a
slide-tool, represented by fig. 331, where E E E is the opening to receive
the bar H, fig. 325, and it is fixed by the clamp, fig. 332, as before de-
scribed ; the tool for cutting, &c. is fixed into the two holders b by by their
screws ; these holders are fastened to a sliding plate a, which can be moved
backwards and forwards by the screw c, causing the tool to advance or re-
cede ; fig. 333 represents the under side (turning upwards) of the part A, A
in which the screw c is seen fixed at each end, and the nut rf, which is at-
tached to the underside of the plate a, working upon it. When it is neces-
sary, as in the turning of the inside of cones, &c. that the tool should not
be parallel to the spindle P, the screw c, and another similar one behind,
must be loosened, _the tool set at the proper angle, and then be screwed tight
again. In order to make the piece AA
move truly when it is turned
round, there is a hole/, fig. 333, to receive a knob gy fig. 338, upon the
plate B, which acts as a centre, and keeps it in its place ; there are three
holes on each side in the plate B, fig. 336, to put the screw e in at different
tiines, thus giving to the tool a greater range than the circular openings S S
will admit.
The part E E E E, represented separately, and inverted, in fig. 334, is of
cast-iron, and has a screw, 4, working in it, similar to fig. 333 ; the nut of this
screw is attached to the bottom of the slide H, fig. 335, at ty which slides
in the groove z, figs. 331 and 334; at one end of it is a box containing a
screw my to be hereafter described, and at the other is a frame of brass K K.
Near the same end of the slide is a pin L, projecting above the plate, which
is put through an opening,
/ in fig. 336, to steady it, while the other end C,
of fig. 336, is put through an opening M, in the box D, fig. 335. In the
part C is an oblique slit 1 1, to receive a stub which projects from the bot-
tom of the nut n, worked by the screw m, fig. 335 ; by this arrangement it is
obvious that if the screw m is worked, the stub of the nut Ji, acting against
the slide of the slit 1 1,
as an inclined plane, will move it either backwards or
forwards through the opening ; M
a metal cover , fig. 338, is occasionally
put over the opening for the nut n, and screw m, to prevent the chips from
falling in.
Near the four corners of the frame, fig. 336, are four small projections, ooooy
with inclined sides, which fit into the four openings p p p py oi figs. 337 and
331 ; these openings are cut out in two brass plates, wliich are screwed on at
right angles to the plate B B, figs. 331 and 337 ; the ends,
qq q q, of these
plates slide between the edges of the frame K K and the box D, so as to
prevent any other motion than a vertical one. When this slide tool is used,
the puppet G is to be removed or pushed back further from F, and the tool
from 331 to 3 40

yade i SvytJdtf 4< ifff Srrtnl

 AND MACHINIST. 325
is put upon the bai II, 325, and fixed in the place of the rest j, by the
fig.

elamp, hg. 332, the distance from the centre n is adjusted by the. screw h,
which moves the slide, fig. 335, in the grooves i, figs. 331 and 334, with the
whole apparatus upon it; by the screw m, figs. 331 and 335, as before de
scribed, the slide, %. 336, may be moved in a direction perpendicular to the
bar H, fig. 325, and its projections o o, acting against the slits pp, figs. 331
and 337, as inclined planes, will raise or lower the plate B, as is required.
The tool, which has been before fixed in the holders b b, can be set at the
proper angle by loosening the screw e, as previously described ; and, lastly,
the tool with the holders and slider a, can be advanced or withdrawn by
working the screw e. The nuts of the screws c and h, fig. 331, are not
screwed fast to the sliding plates, but are held by two pins #,fig. 335, which fit
into grooves u, fig. 334, in each side of the nut ; by these means the sliding
plate can at any time be taken out by only unscrewing one of the brass slides
from the grooves i, without taking out the screw or nut. In order to make the
grooves always fit their slides, the two pieces of brass y y, fig. 331, which
compose the sides of the groove, have elliptic holes for their screws v, so as
to admit, w'hen the screws are slackened, of being pushed inw'ards by the
screw w which works in a lump of metal cast with the part A. A
Thelarge lathes which Mi . Maudslay uses in his manu-
factory, instead of being worked by the foot, as represented
in fig. 325, are worked by hand ; the wheel and fiy-wlieel
which the men turn works by a strap on another wheel fixed
to the ceiling directly over it ; on the axis of this wheel is a

larger one, which turns another small wheel or pulley fixed

to the ceiling, directly over the mandrel of the lathe ; and
this last has on its axis a larger one which works the mandrel
D, by a band of catgut. These latter wheels are fixed in a
frame of cast-iron, movable on a joint ; and this frame has
always a strong tendency to rise up, in consequence of the
action of a heavy weight, the rope from which, after passing
over a pulley, is fastened to the frame ; this weight not only
operates to keep the mandrel-band tight, when applied to
any of the grooves therein, but always makes the strap be-
tween the two wheels on the ceiling fit. As it is necessary
that the workman should be able to stop his lathe, without
the men stopping who
are turning the great wheel, there are
two pulleys or (on the axis of the wheel over the
rollers
lathe) for the strap coming from the other wheel on the ceil-
ing ; one of these pulleys, called the dead pulley, is fixed to
the axis and turns with it, and the other, which slips round it,
is called the live pulley ; these pulleys are put close to each
other, so that by slipping the upon the
live pulley, it
strap
will not turn the axis ;
slipped on the other,
but if it is
it will turn with it
;
this is effected by a horizontal bar, with
two upright pins in it, between which the strap passes. This
bar is moved in such a direction as will throw the strap into
the live pulley, by means of a strong bell- spring; and in is
326 THJi OPBRATIVE MliClIANIC
contrary direction it is moved by a cord fastened to it^ which
passes over a pulley, and hangs down within reach of the
workmans hand ; to this cord is fastened a weight heavy
enough to counteract the bell-spring, and bring the strap
upon the dead pulley to turn the lathe ; but when the weight
is laid upon a little shelf, prepared for the purpose, the spring
will act and stop it.
Mr. Maudslay has likewise some additional apparatus for
cutting the teeth of wheels, in which the face of the mandrel
D, fig. 325, has seventeen concentric circles upon it, each
divided into a different number of equal parts, by small holes.
There isa thin stop x, fig. 325, which moves round on a screw fixed
in the standard F ; this stop is made of thin steel, and is so fixed, that
when it is turned up, and its point inserted into any of the divisions
of the mandrel, it will have a sufficient spring to keep it there; the
wheel to be cut is fastened, by means of a chuck, to the screw n, and after
it has been turned, and brought to the proper shape,, the rest,
J, is to be
taken away, and the slide-tool substituted ; a square bar is then put into
the two holders b b, fig. 331 ; this bar has two branches for holding the ends
of a spindle, near one end of which is a pulley, and at the other are four
chisels fixed perpendicularly into the spindle for cutting out the teeth, (in-
stead of the circular saw commonly used ;) the pulley is turned (with the inter-
vention of several wheels to augment the velocity) by the- same great wheel
as the lathe, with 7300 revolutions per minute ; the mandrel is then fixed by
the stop X, fig. 325, and the cutter advanced towards the wheel, by the
screw c, fig. 331. When it has cut that tooth, the cutter is withdrawn, and
the mandrel turned to another division, and a tooth is cut again as before.
At that part of the frame of the cutting-spindle where the bar which is fixed
in the holders of the slide-tool connects with the two branches, there is a
joint, by which the cutting-spindle can be set in an inclining position for
cutting oblique teeth, like those which are to work with an endless-screw.
The great velocity with which this spindle turns soon generates by friction
and resistance a degree of heat sufficient to expand it very sensibly ; but this
ingenious mechanist, foreseeing such a circumstance, has judiciously com-
pensated for it in his construction, by making the spindle so short as to
play loosely in its sockets at the commencement of the motion; but after a
few seconds the expansion is such as to cause the whole to fit together as it
ought to do, and the work of cutting to proceed with accuracy and safety,

Mr. Smart, of the Ordnance-wharf, Westminster, has

made some very useful improvements in the art of turning,
and particularly has struck out a simple method of turning
cylinders and cones in wood.
Ilisturning machine is illustrated in figs. 339 and 340, where the legs or
stilesL, the puppets A B, the cheeks o o, the pikes and screws M, N, R,
with the handle D, are but slightly varied from the usual construction,
Round the mandrel E passes a band F F, which also encompasses a large
wheel, not shown in the figure ; and when this large wheel is turned round
with moderate swiftness, it communicates a rapid velocity to the mandrel E,
and the long piece of wood G, which is proposed to be made cylindrical.
This piece is previously hewn into an octagonal form. The cutting frame H
t^ontaim a sharp iron tooj, which is to answ'er the purpose of the common
 AND MACHINIST. 327
iurning gnuge, and which is fitted into the frame so as to project a little be-
yond its inner part, after the manner of a carpenters plane-iron for round or
ogee work. Then, while the piece G is turning swiftly round by a man
working at the great wheel, another man pushes the frame H gently oii
from L towards M, the lower part of that frame fitting between the cheeks
o 0, and sliding along between them. By this process, the piece G is re-

duced to a cylinder, moderately smooth ; and, in order to render the smooth-

ness as complete as need be, a second cutter, and its frame I, adapted to a
rather smaller cylinder than the former, is pushed along in like manner
from L to M. This operation may be performed with such speed, that a
very accurate cylinder of six feet long, and four inches diameter, may be
fixed to the lathe and turned in much less than a minute.
Mr. Smart turns a conical end to one of these cylinders with
great facility, by means of a cutting-blade fixed in an iron hol-
low conical frame K, the smaller end of which admits the
pike from the screw S, fig. 340, to which one end of the cy-
linder G is attached ; as the cylinder turns rapidly round, the
cutter K is conducted gently along it by means of the hollow
frame, and soon gives the conical shape to the end of tlie
cylinder, as required.
Some important directions for tuzinng screws, ovals, cubes,
rose-work^ swath- work, &c. may be seen in Moxon^ s Mechanic
Exercises: see also, Tour pour faire sans Arbre toutes
Sortes de Vis, par M. Grandjeau, in Recueil des Machines
et Inventions approuvdes ^iar I Acad. Hoy. des Sciences/*
tom. V. ; and Mr^ Healys method of cutting screws in the
common turning-lathe.
Previously to entering upon the several branches of our
manufactures, where machinery will be found in its most
jcomplex state, it may, perhaps, be considered not alto-
gether irrelevant, if wc take a cursory view of the manner in
which we have conducted the reader thus far. In the first
place, we have taken up the subject by treating of the Me-
chanical Powers, and the attributes of matter, as if he were
totally unacquainted with the science ; and having given him
every necessary information with respect to the fundamental
principles, have then proceeded to demonstrate the Moving
Powers ; thus progressively leading him on to a perfect com-
prehension of the invariable laws of mechanics, before we have
ventured to introduce to his notice certain simple machines
acting, either separately or conjointly, as accessors to our
manufactures. These we have now also portrayed, and so
amply, that we feel satisfied he will, though totally destitute
of the science at the commencement, be able fully to compre-
hend and appreciate the several excellencies of the various
combinations which will now be unfolded to him.
328 THE orfiRA'IIVE MECHAM6

IRON MANUFACTURE.
Works for themanufacture of iron, owing to the great
sums necessary to be expended in their erection, have, till
^vithin these few years, been confined to a very limited scale ;
hut the spirit of enterprise which has of late, and more
especially since the French revolution, manifested itself in
nearly the whole of our manufiictures, conjoined to the im-
mense capitals acquired by many individuals, and the difficulty
of employing them to a better advantage, have given to the
manufacture of this highly valuable metal a more decisive
character.
The ores from which the metal is extracted are, in this
country, found, in general, to consist of iron united with
oxygen and various proportioiis of earthy matter.
The earthy matter in a state of combination with the iron may
be divided into two classes ; the one called argillaceous, from
abounding in excess of alumine, or clay the other calcareous,
;

from abounding in lime. The former is by far the most

common ; indeed it is owing to the f)i*e being so frequently
met With in an argillaceous state, that iron-masters are so
very inattentive to its quality, and that we sometimes see
them use limestone as a flux when the ore already abounds
with calcareous ingredients.
Both lime and clay, when separately subjected to the usual
heat of the blast-furnace, are infusible ; but on being mixed
together in certain proportions, are too fusible even for the
common purposes of brick-making. An alloy of two metals
is also fusible at a temperature much less than the arith-
metical mean of the metals themselves.
Such being the case, it is much to be regretted, that iron-
masters, in general, are so very ignorant of, and inattentive
to, the fusibility of the diflerent combinations of the iron ores,
which causes them so frequently to be at a loss what to add
to the furnace in order to produce the most fusible cinder.
An analysis of the ore, by which they might learn the relative
proportions of its earthy constituents, and the quantity of
limestone or clay to be added as a flux, would, in the end,
prove much to their advantage.
In the usual process of smelting, the coke is always a fixed
quantity, and the proportions of ore and limestone ;ire
varied according to the quantity of iron to be made, and the
 AND MACHINIST, 329

TTorking order of the furnace. In proportion to the quantity

of lime and ore that is added to the standard quantity of the
coke, the furnace is said to carry a greater or less burthen.
Some furnaces carry so little burthen as not to produce more
than 13 or 14 tons per week; whilst others, with the same
sized furnace, will yield 60 and even 70 tons in an equal time.
The burthen of the last-mentioned furnaces is very great, the
ore to the coke being, in some cases, as 13 to 7- The quality
of the iron is uniformly inferior.
The burthen of the furnace will vary according as the iro?i
to be made is required to possess more or less carbon ; for
instance, in making No. 1, or the best iron, which contains
the greatest portion of carbon, the burthen must be consider-
ably less than that required to make less carburetted iron, or
what is called white- iron, or forge-pig.
To afford a general idea of the proportions of the materials,
we shall state the quantities, given by Mr. Mushett, tis used
at a blast-furnace, making good melting iron, which is of an
intermediate quality between No. 1 and the forge-pig. The
ore is argillaceous, containing on the average about 27 per
cent, of iron ; the coal rather soft, but not very bituminous,
and contains a large proportion of carbonaceous matter ; and
the limestone, which is that abounding in shells, from Critch,
in Derbyshire, is very good. It works with a bright tuyere,
and receives from the blast about 2,500 cubic feet in a
minute, through a circular aperture of 2| inches in diameter.
It is usual at this, and most other furnaces, to divide the
men into two classes, one class to relieve the other every
12 hours ; these periods are called shifts. The average
charges of coke per shift are 50 (each 2^ c\vt.) or about
six tons. The quantity of calcined ore for the manufacture
of good melting iron is upon a par with the coke ; and for
forge-pig, or the least carburetted variety, six of coke to
seven of ore. The limestone unburnt, under the same
circumstances, is to coke as 4 to 11 ; and for melting
metal, retains a similar ratio. With the above charge per
day, that is, for twelve hours, this furnace makes on the
average about 40 tons melting iron per week.
After the ore is dug, it is drawn from the pit by the power
of steam-engines ; it is then, in order to extract the arsenic
and sulphur, subjected to a process called roasting. This
process consists in laying the ironstone in strata with refuse
pit-coal, called in Staffordshire slack,and setting fire to it on
the windward burning it in large heaps in the open air.
side,
When the ore has been roasted, it is taken to the smelting
 330 THK OPERATIVE MECHANIC
or blast furnace, the lower part of which is filled with either
charcoal or coke the coke is always a fixed quantity, and
;

the proportion of limestone added to the ore is according to

the quantity of heterogeneous matter with which the metal is
combined.
A section of the blast-furnace is represented in fig 346. A, at the top
of the furnace, is an opening for the introduction of the materials ; B, the
body of the furnace ; C, the place where the blast is introduced ; and D,
a cavity to receive the metal when released from the earthy matter.

The materials in the furnace are, previously to the intro-

duction of the blast, heated simply by the draught of the
atmosphere ; the coke and limestone to a bright red or white
heat, and the iron-ore to a melting heat.
When the blast is introduced, the metal immediately above
it is brought into a state of fusion, and penetrates through

the fuel into the cavity D. The ore and fuel that were above
it sink down to fill up the space left by the ore melted and

the fuel consumed. This next comes under the operation of

the blast, and is similarly reduced.
The men who attend the furnace keep adding fuel, ore, and
limestone, through the opening A, at the top, and the
operation of smelting goes on, until the melted iron, in the
cavity D, rises nearly to a level with the tuyere-irons, or
blast-pipes.
The melted iron is then tapped, by driving a round-pointed
bar into a sort of loam, with which the hole is stopped, and
run into moulds made in sand 5 in this state it is called pig
or cast-iron.
When the slag, in smelting, has a greenish-grey appear-
ance, it is a certain sign that the furnace is in excellent
order ; and when the colour changes to black, it denotes that
something is going wrong.
In making the best iron, called No. 1, which possesses the
greatest quantity of carbon, it frequently happens that a
portion of the iron will unite with a great excess of carbon ;
and as this carburet is less fusible than the iron, it will, pre-
viously to the iron entering into the pig-moulds, be seen
floating at the top in the form of scales. The appearance of
this substance, called by the workmen kish, is a sign that the
furnace is working the best sort of iron ; indeed, it is so
common an attendant on the production of the most highly
carbonized iron, that the workmen have applied the term
Ms hi/ to that peculiar sort of iron.
The limestone and the earths being much lighter than the
metal, float upon its surface, and gradually rising as the metal
 AND MACHINIST. 331

accumulates, is ultimately discharged over a dam-nto7iey

which, though at right angles, we have represented by the
dotted linec enclosing the letter I. T is called the lymp-
stone, and forms a bridge over the cavity in which the liquid
cinder rises ; t is the lymp-plate, to give the stone greater
firmness, as e, which is called the dam-plate, does the dam-
stone. The cinder, if not taken to mend the roads, is thrown
away as useless.
Sometimes two blasts are introduced, as may be seen in fig. 347. That
blast, and that furnace, which can reduce the greatest quantity of fuel in a
certain time, will always produce the greatest quantity of iron.

The conveyed into the furnace is from 1,000 to 4,000

blast
feet per minute ; and it is worthy of remark, that the quantity
of metal fused does not agree with the ratio of the blast ; for
instance, a blast of 1,500 feet per minute will manufacture
20 tons of melting iron per week a blast of 3,000 only 30
;

tons, and a blast of 6,000, which is double the last, and four
times the amount of the first blast, only 36J tons per week ;
and again, a blast of 2^ lbs. per square inch will manufacture
from 22 to 25 tons per week ; while two pipes of the same
diameter as the last, with a blast of 3 lbs. per square inch,
udll never exceed 30 tons.
In the summer months, owing to the increased temperature
of the atmosphere, the furnaces yield little better than one
half the quantity that they do in winter, and the iron is of
an inferior quality. In some manufactories, by adding a
greater quantity of fuel, the quality of the iron is preserved
but in others no addition of fuel will compensate for the
deficiency either in quality or quantity.
In presenting the section of a blast-furnace, represented in
fig, 346, we do not pretend to recommend it as the best form
of construction. Different iron-masters have variously con-
structed their furnaces, and as each of them can boast of
being in some degree successful, it were needless to give a
description of any particular one ;
we shall therefore briefly
mention, that of whatever materials the buildings be made,
care should be taken that they contain no more moisture than
is absolutely necessary for their proper construction.
In the erection of the wall, a space of about six inches
should be left from the bottom to the top ; in this aperture
small fragments of sand-stone, not exceeding the size of an
egg, may be introduced, so that when the expansion, pro-
ceeding from the fire-building of the interior, causes the
bricks immediately in contact to push outwards, the masses
of sand-stone are instantly reduced in size, and filling the
332 THE OPERATIVE MECHANIC
interstices occasioned by their former angular shape, occupy
much less space, and present to the flame or fire, should it
be inclined to penetrate so far, a solid vertical stratum of
sand, after having secured the expansion of the furnace to
the extent of some inches. The eftects of the pressure are
thus diverted from the shell of the building, and lost in the
pulverization of the sand- stone.
The advantages resulting from this plan may be nearly-
doubled, by using a double lining of fire-bricks, between each
of which and the common building a similar vacancy should be
left,but filled with sharp sand, containing no more moisture
than serves to compact it in a firm body ; as this moisture
becomes gradually^ expelled in the slow heating or annealing
of the furnace, the sand occupies less l)ulk, or, which is the
same in effect, is then susceptible of a greater degree of com^
pression when the gradual expansion of the furnace comes
on. It is evident that the force is here also diverted against
the sand, in place of acting immediately with a tendency to
enlarge the circumference of the building.
Over and above tliese precautions, the annealing or drying
of the furnace in a progressive and regular manner ought to
be carefully Jittended to, and continued for two or three
months at least.
Many methods have been adopted to obtain a regular and
uniform blast. first that we shall notice, and which is
The
in pretty general use, is, by discharging the air from the
blowing-cylinder into an intermediate cylinder of larger dia-
meter, called the regulator ; in this vessel is a loose piston,
which is forced up by the air from the blowing-cydinder, and
being weighted, it descends during the returning stroke, and
continues to press the air into the furnace, by which means
a more steady and uniform blast is kept up than would be
effected by the cylinder alone.
first
As this method
of regulating the blast has been found to
be far from perfect, other means have been resorted to with
a view of obtaining the desired end. The one called the
water-regulator consists of a large cistern, in which another
of less area and capacity is inverted. Through the bottom
of the smaller cylinder, which is, from its being inverted,
uppermost, a pipe communicates with the blowing-cylinder.
This inner cistern is filled with water, as is also the space
between the inner and outer cistern to the same level. Now,
supposing the air to be forced from the blowing-cylinder
through the above-mentioned pipe into the inner cistern, the
water, being displaced by the air, will descend in the inner
 AND MACHINIST. S33

cistern, ami rise up l)etween the two vessels till the column
of w'ater on the outside be ecjiuil to the required force
of the blast this column would be about 4 lbs. upon a square
;

inch, and about nine feet. Another pipe proceeds from the
same cavity in the inner vessel to the furnace, and com-
municates nearly a uniform blast, varying only with the outer
cohimii of water, which will 1)e less as the outer surface of the
water is greater.
This contrivance, though for some time considered an
important discovery, has, in many instances, been abandoned,
owing to its carrying water, both in a state of sprayq produced
bv the agitation, and in a state of vapour, into the furnace,
by which both the quality and quantity of the iron was
materially affected.
Another mode has been attempted to equalize the blast,
called the air- vault.The first experiment of this nature was
tried at the Clyde iron-works, by excavating a large cavity
in a rock, into which the air was forced by the blowing
machine but the trial was unattended by success, partly from
;

the vault not being air-tight, and partly from the moisture
which exuded from the rock mixing with the air.
A more successful experiment was made at the Carron
iron-works. An air-vault of wrought-iron plate has been
employed in one of the furnaces at Bradley, in Staffordshire,
which appears to answer very well. Its form is a cylinder
about 10 or 12 feet diameter, and 50 or 60 feet long.
According to an average deduced from a series of experiments madd by
Mr David Mushett,* appears, that when the outer air was from 63 to 68**,
it

the air immediately after its escape from the blowing cylinder into a
receiving vessel, was increased from 63 to 90, and from 68 to 99i. In
ah average of thirty experiments the air in the act of condensing was raised
30. This would have the effect of increasing its volume not less than
of the whole, and the increased pressure of the blast by this cause alone,
^
w ould be nearly half a pound upon an inch. Or, in other words, if the
air were introduced into the furnace at 60, the same quantity would be
admitted with half a pound less pressure upon an inch than if it were
90. Hence any means of cooling the air after its condensation, in all
seasons of the year, must be attended with beneficial consequences. If the
air-vault were made of WTOught-iron, and its surface constantly kept wet,
the evaporation from so great a surface, if freely exposed on all sides to the
air, would cool the air very considerably. Indeed, without the aid of the
moisture, the effect would he such as to recommend its adoption. It was
supposed, that in the summer season there would be some advantage in
bringing the air under ground for a considerable distance before it entered
the blowing machine; but the resistance arising from the friction on the

Edinburgh Encyclofadia, Dr. Brewster, 4to.

334 THE OPEUATIYE MECHANIC
sides of the channels llii-ough which il must pass has been found to be an
obstacle that oveoules it.

The pig-iron which has the smallest portion of carbon is

the best adapted for conversion into malleable iron ; and as
a proof that the pig-iron has only to lose its carbon to become
malleable, we shall state the fact, that we have in this country,
at this present time, many manufactories upon a large scale,
for the express purpose of converting articles made of cast-
iron, such as nails, cutlery, &c. into iron perfectly malleable,
without altering in the slightest degree the figure given to
them in the casting. We
have even seen nails made in this
way welded together, and when cold bent at right angles in
a vice.
The method of releasing the pig-iron of its carbon, or of
converting it into what is called wrought or malleable iron
is, by placing it in an open furnace, termed a refinery^ and

by some a run-out furnace, heated by cokes, and subjected

to the operation of a very powerful blast. The pig-iron is
laid upon the cokes, and is soon melted, leaving much of its
impurity behind. This is termed refining it. The metal
when melted is run into plates, about four inches thick, and
as soon as it becomes set, is thrown into water, which makes
it more frangible, and easier to be broken.

The refining furnace is represented in figs. 348 and 349. A

is a recess,
or trough, made of cast metal, having a bottom of fire-stone or brick.
This recess is surrounded on three sides by a cavity, through which water
is constantly passing from the cistern C ; p p are two pipes connected
with the blowing machine, and entering into conical openings in the
refining furnace. These pipes are kept cool by water from the pipe a,
which runs off at the pipe b cc. B is a shallow recess, about four inches
deep, to receive the melted mass.

When the cake of metal is broken into lumps of a con-

venient size, it is taken to the puddling furnace, where it is
heated with coals, without the aid of an artificial blast. As
soon as the metal becomes heated, and begins to melt,
or has a frosty appearance, the furnaceman throws in a
small quantity of water to keep it at a proper temperature,
and keeps stirring and moving it about, so that the carbon
makes its escape. The water that is thrown in to preserve
the temperature also assists in some degree the decarboniza-
tion. The quality of iron depends much upon the attention
that is paid to it during this process.
When the iron is deprived of the carbon, or fusible pro-
perty it before possessed, the furnaceman rolls it up into
balls of one half or three quarters of a cwt. each. It is then
 MATrrFAC-TlIJIKlE
PI. 46.

* From 346 to 332

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 AND MACHINIST, 335
brought out of the furnace and placed under a tilt-hammer,
or passed through the rolls, or rollers, which consolidates it,
and forces out more of the impure parts. A considerable
doss in weight is sustained in this process, not only from the
iron losing its impurities, but also from the surface of the
bloom or bar oxydizing and falling off in scales whilst being
worked. The loss which is thus sustained in weight is
generally estimated at one-sixth or one-seventh of the whole.
A and elevation of the puddling furnace is represented in fig. 350.
section
A the door for the admission of metal, having a small square hole A, for
is
the introduction of the rake and other tools used by the furnaceman. B is
the chimney ; C the ash-pit ; and Dthe grate. At E is a circular cavity,

where the prepared metal is laid, and the flame passes over it up the
chimney B. The heat of the furnace is so intense that without having the
door for a guard, and the small hole h for the introduction of the imple-
ments, the furnaceman could not approach it ; nor indeed can he as it is
without suffering great inconvenience. The hole is also of use for him to
look into the furnace to observe how the work is going on. At first the
light is too intense to be borne, but by practice the eye at length becomes
accustomed to it, and is able perfectly to distinguish the different masses as
they lay in the furnace.
The iron having undergone this process is taken to the
shears and cut into lengths of about one or two feet, and in
order to impart closeness and solidity is piled into pieces of
seven or eight together, and heated in another furnace, very
similar to the one just described. There is no occasion this
time to remove them about, for the iron having lost its
carbon is infusible. When it is of a sufficient heat, which
the furnaceman from practice can easily tell by his eye, it is
again brought to either the hammer or the rollers, and is
worked into a bar. This is called No. 2 iron. Again, further
to improve the quality, it is cut up, piled, and worked over
again; and is then called No. 3, or best iron. The more the
iron is worked the purer it becomes, and the grain becomes
more closely united ; but of course it becomes more expensive.
Two kinds of hammer, moved by machinery, are used in iron-works.
Tne one called the forge-hammer is represented in fig. 353. The first
mover gives motion to the shaft A A, by means of a cog-wheel acting upon
the pinion B. The shaft is regulated by a fly-wheel C, and has at the
further end a number of cogs, \^icb by passing under the shaft, or helve, D,
lift the hammer E. F is a strong horizontal beam, inserted in the post G,
and loaded with heavy pieces of metal, at H, to prevent it receiving motion
from the hammer. Another large beam of wood, made of either oak, or
ash, but most frequently the latter, is inserted in the posts IK. The
hammer in ascent strikes against this beam, called the rabbit, wKich
its
by reacts upon the hammer, and causes it to descend with
its elasticity
greater velocity than would be produced by gravity alone.

The construction of a tilt-hammer differs from that of the

 THK OPER\TlVI2 MEC HANIC
by being poised on a centre of motion, about the middle^
f<-)ri;e,

or two-thirds of the length of the lielve from the hecid, and

from receiving its motion from cogs acting upon the tail of
the helve, in some few cases the ash spring is placed over
the head of the hammer similarly to that above described ;
but, in general, the tail of the helve is made to strike against
a fixed floor, and the hammer from the force it has received
continuing to rise after the tail strikes the floor, the halve
bends, and hy its elasticity causes the hammer to descend
^vith greater force upon the anvil.
The tilt-hammer represented in fig. 354.
is It is taken from a tilt-mill
made at the Carron iron-works in Scotland, after designs of the celebrated
Mr. Smeaton. It is adapted for forging iron into bars. The description
13 extracted from Dr. Reess Cyclopcedia.
Having described the manner in which the tilt-hammer is connected
with the first-mover, (drawings of which may be seen in the work,) the
author proceeds to explain the figure above referred to ; e the iron head of
the hammer, its centre of motion, and d the tail or extreme end, upon
f
which the cogs of the wheel act, and which is plated with iron on the upper
side, to prevent it from wearing.
P is the anvil-block, which must be placed on a very firm foundation, to
resist the incessant shocks to which it is subjected: the centre,/, or axis
of the hammer, is supported in a cast-iron frame gh^ called the hirst.
When the cogs of the wheel strike the tail of the hammer suddenly down,
and raise the head, the lower side of the tail of the hammer strikes upon a
support n, which acts to stop the ascent of the head of the hammer e, when
it arrives at the desired height ; but as the hammer is thrown up with a

considerable velocity as well as force, the effort of the head to continue its
motion, after the tail strikes the stop n, aqts to bend the helve L of the
hammer, and the elasticity of the helve recoils the hammer down upon the
anvil with a redoubled force and velocity to that which it would acquire
from the action of gravity alone.
To obtain this action of recoil, the hirst g h must be held down as firmly
as possible ; and for this purpose, four strong iron bolts are carried down
from the four angles of the bottom plate h, and made fast to the solid basis
of stone R
R, upon which the whole rests ; upon this basis are placed four
layers of timber, ikhn, which are laid one upon another, and the timbers
of each layer are laid cross-ways over the others. Each layer consists of
several pieces laid side by side, and they are slightly treenailed together, to
form a platform. Each platform is rather less than that upon which it rests,
so as to form a pillar of solid timber; on the top of which the hirst-frame,
g h, is placed, and firmly held down by the four bolts, which descend through
all the platforms, and have secure fastenings in the solid masonry beneath.

The stop n is supported by a similar pillar, but smaller, and composed of

three layers the upper piece n, which is seen cross-v.mys, is about three
:

feet long, and the under side is hollowed, so that the piece bears only upon
the two ends, leaving a vacancy beneath it, which occasions it to bend or
spring every time the tail d of the hammer strikes upon it, and this aids the
recoiling action very much.
Tlie axis on which the hammer moves is formed by a ring of cast-iron,
through which the helve of the hammer is put, and held fast by wedging
round it. The ring has a projecting trunnion on each side, ending in an
 IfliON ^ 5TEJEJL MAI^I^iPArTlITiRB
From 353 to 356
354

356
355

I

2Teele is SfockUy sr 35i Strand

 AND MACHINIST, 337
obtuse conical point, which is received in a socket firmly fixed in the hirst-
frame g h, by screws and wedges, one of which is seen at r. These two
sockets are thus capable of adjustment, so as to make the hammer face fall
flat upon the anvil.
In the Carron iron-works, three hammers are worked from the same
shaft. In such case it is necessary to have the three wheels ihat com-
municate motion to their respective hammers of different sizes and numbers
of cogs to produce that velocity in each hammer which is best adapted for
the work it is to perform ; thus the wheel for the hammer, which is repre-
sented in fig. 352, has eight cogs, and therefore produces eight blows of the
hammer for each revolution of the fly-wheel; the wheel for the middle
hammer has 12 cogs; and the wheel for the smaller hammer 16; the
latter will therefore make two strokes for every one of the great hammers.
In fixing the three wheels upon the great shaft, care is taken that they
shall produce the blows of the different hammers in regular succession,
and equalize as much as possible the force which the water-wheel must
exert. Tire wheels are fixed on the shaft by means of a wedging of hard
wood, driven in all round; the wood being capable of yielding a little to
the shocks occasioned by the cogs meeting the tails of the hammers,
renders the concussions less violent.

The following are the principal dimensions

The head of the great hammer weighs cwt. and it is intended to make
150 blows per minute ; it is lifted 17 inches from the anvil at every blow.
The middle hammer is 2 cwt. and makes 225 blows per minute ; it is
lifted 14 inches each time.
The small hammer weighs 1^ cwt* and makes 300 blows per minute ; it
is lifted only 12 inches.
To produce these velocities, the great axis upon which the cog-wheels
are fixed must make 18| turns per minute; and the pinion upon this axis
being in proportion with the cog-wheel upon the shaft of the water-wheel
as 1 is to 3, the water-wheel must make 6^ revolutions per minute the ;

water-wheel being 18 feet diameter, its circumference will be 18 x 3 1416

.

= 56 54, or 56i feet; this multiplied by 6*25 is about 353 feet motion
.

per minute, or divided by 60 = 5*9 feet motion per second for the circum-
ference of the water-wheel.

The tilt-mills employed in the manufacture of steel, do

not have the great hammer, but the largest they use is about
the size of the middle one, and is adapted for welding faggots
of steel to make sheer steel the other two hammers are
:

about the size of the smallest just described, and are made
to work much quicker, viz. from 350 to 400 blows per
minute. This is very easily accomplished by making the
pinion upon the fly-wheel shaft in proportion to the cog-
wheel that acts upon it, and is fixed to the water-wheel, as
1 is to 4.
This highly raluable metal, having undergone these pro-
cesses, is now sold, and is used by smiths for an innumerable
variety of purposes. Indeed^ when we reflect upon the many
thousands of men, women, and children, who are daily em-
ployed in the manufacture and w'orking of this metal when ;

z
338 THli OPIiRATIVE MECHANIC
we consider the immense number of families of miners,
melters, refiners, smiths, and other handicraftsmen, who, in
ail the civilized parts of the world, look up to this particular
branch of manufacture for their maintenance and support
when we consider, that the once obscure and inconsiderable
village of Merthyr T}"dvil, though wild, barren, and sterile,
and too poor to produce even the common necessaries of life,
lias been peopled in the teeth of every obstacle, and, within
the space of seventy years, has, through the manufacture of
this metal, become by far the largest and most populous
town in Wales; we cannot but rejoice that this metal is one
of the staple manufactures of Great Britain.
When this metal has become too much worn to answer
longer the purpose for which the Smith designed it, it is sold
to the ^dealers in marine stores, who assort it into three
parcels; one called coach-tyre^ consisting of the old tyre of
coach and other wheels ; another bushel iron, being remnants
of old hoops, and different pieces of iron of similar nature ;
and another scrap or nut-iron, consisting of old nails, screws,
nuts, and pieces of that description.
These are sold to the manufacturer to be remanufactured.
The process of remanufacturing is as follows :

Two pieces of iron, each forming three sides of a square,

are fixed to a wooden bench, about 10 or 12 inches apart.
In the space between these two pieces are placed two rods of
iron, about three-eighths of an inch square, one rod being
placed close to each of the pieces. On these rods are laid
pieces of old hoop, previously straightened, and cut to the
proper lengths of 12 or 14 inches, according to the intended
length of the faggot. The ends of the hoop rest upon the
bottom of each of the pieces of iron first described, and similar
pieces of hoop are ranged upon each side, while the interior
is filled with bushel or scrap iron. The top is then covered
with hoop, and the whole pressed tightly down, and bound,
by bringing the ends of the three-eighths rod together, and
screwing them round. This is termed a faggot, being about
12 or 14 inches long, and six inches square.
The faggot is then carried to a furnace not much unlike
the puddling furnace, and when sufficiently heated is brought
out, and passed through the rollers, and made into what are
called- These blooms are generally about two feet
long, by three or four inches wdde, and two thick.
The blooms are again exposed to the heat in the furnace,
and when at a proper temperature are taken cut and passed
through the rollers, either those represented in fig. 351, or
 AND MACHINIST. '
339
those in fig. 352, accordingly as they are to be made into
hoops, or bars. The hoop-rollers are represented in fig. 351 ;
the bar-rollers in fig. 352.

Tables of the average weight of bars, squares, and bolts,

10 feet in length.

BARS.
Inches. c. qr lb. Inches. c. qr, , lb. Inches. C. qr,, lb.

X T3 X T3 12 2J X
23
32 24
6 1 1 15 3|- 1
5
1 0 13 4 10 1
S'
3 19
-5*

4 2 8 3
F 1 1
X T3
i-

1 1 1
3 20 1 2- X i 2 2
4 1 0 6 3^ X
S'
3 3 5 s
F 18 1
2 18
5'

4 3 10 5
tV 14 1
5 X 3 0 13
S'

2 4
5
1
3 23
4
3
16 1
4
F
3 09 1
1
S'

4 3 2 3J X T
S'

3 2 27 2x4- 24 1
2 14
;

S
4| X
3
0 10 F5
5
1
15 1
3 19 4
27 11
1 tV 1
S'

4 2 25
3
14 1 4 6 1
g-
3 2 5 3 X T3
ff

2 22 F
3
0 26
X T3 0 4 X 20
1 4
2 238 1-g- 1
-|-

3 13
4 F
129
1 1

r
.4
21
3
10 1 9
1
3 2 11 3
2| X T
F
2 14 r*T

s
X T 3 25 5
F 2 2 4
3 0 245
1

& 3 7 20 1 If X f
ff

17 1

4 2 17
3
7 1 F5 10 1
3
g- 2 0 2i X
S'
2 8 TF9 5 1

4 X 3 3 19
T

F
s 25 1 2 1

4 3 1 4 15 1 F
3 0 23
4 2 12
3 4 1 1^" X 11 1
3 1 24 X
"S

3 2 5 -r

Fs 3 1
S'

tf9 0 1

z2
 340 THE OPERATIVE MECHANIC

SQUARES. 1
BOLTS.
Inches. C. qr .lb. Inches. C. qr . lb.

3 2 3 0 3 2 0 18
2 2 3 2| 1 3 22
1

0 1 8 1 24 1 3 6
2i 2 0 11 21- 1 2 17
1 3 18 24 1 1 23
24 I 2 24 24 1 1 11
2^- 1 2 5 24 1 0 24
2^ 1 1 14 24 1 0 9
2 1 0 25
j

2 3 24
14 1 0 8
!

14 3 9
14 3 21 14 2 26
2
14
32 212 14

16

2
>
14, 14 3
u 11 24
2 25 14 1

14 1 14 1 14
I 4 15 1 14 1 5

0 266 00 27
1 1 1
7 7
20
T3 0 19 Hr

T3 0 15
s 0 5 0 10
K
4 0 138 TT

4 0 17

STEEL MANUFACTURE.
When iron has lost all its carbon, and has become malle-
able, it can be reimpregnated with carbon, to a certain extent^
without materially injuring its malleable properties.
The compound of iron and carbon thus produced is called
steel.
To reimpregnate the iron with carbon, it must be put into
a close vessel, called a cementing pot, and stratified with
powdered charcoal.
The pots are made with a peculiar kind of stone, termed
firestone, which is found abundantly in the neighbourhood
of vSheffield. It possesses the properties of not being liable
to crack by the heat, or of entering into fusion. These pots
in the interior dimensions are from 10 to 15 feet long, and
from 24 to 30 inches square. Each bar of iron is com-
pletely covered with powdered charcoal, and the last stratum
oi it is usually made much thicker than the rest, and kept
 AND MACHINIST. 341

close with a mixture of sand and clay, to prevent the charcoal

from entering into combustion with the outer air. Two of
these pots only are contained in a furnace at a time, and fire is
gradually employed till the heat is little short of what would
be required to fuse the steel.
A vertical section, and horizontal plan, of tne converting furnace is
shown in figs. 355 and 356. In both figures the same letters denote the
same parts.
CC is the external cone, built in a substantial manner of stone or brick-
work. Its height from the ground to its vertex, in order to procure a good
draught of air, should not be less than 40 or 50 feet; and to procure a still
stronger heat a cylindric chimney of several feet in length is most generally
fixed on the top of the cone. The lower part of the cone, which may be
made of any dimensions, is built either square or octangular. The sides
are earned up until they meet the cone, giving the furnace the appearance
of a cone cut to a square or octangular prism at its base, and exhibiting
the parabola where every side intersects the cone.
Inside the conical building is a smaller furnace, called the vanity built of
fire-brick or stone, which will withstand the action of the most intense
heat. D D, in the section, is the dome of the vault, and E E are its
upright sides, the space between which, and the wall of the external build-
ing, is filled with sand and rubbish. A B represent the two pots that
contain the iron to be converted into steel. The space between them is
about one foot m width, and the fire-grate is directly beneath it. The
pots are supported by a number of detached courses of fire-brick, as
shown at e e, in fig. 355, which leave spaces between them, called flues, to
conduct the flame under the pots ; in the same manner, the sides of the pots
are supported from the vertical walls of the vault, and from each other, by
a few detached stones, represented by /, placed so that they may intercept
as little as possible of the heat from the contents of the pots. The adjacent
sides of the pot are supported from one another by small piers of stone-
work, which are also perforated to give passage to the flame. The bottoms
of the pots are built of a double course of brick-work, about six inches thick
the sides nearest together are built of a single course of stone, about five
inches in thickness ; and the other parts of the pot are single courses about
three inches, the sides not requiring so much strength, because they have
less heat and pressure to resist
The vault has ten flues, or short chimneys, F F, rising from it, two on
each side, to carry off the smoke ink) the great cone, shown in fig. 356,
communicating with each side, and two at each end. In the front of the
furnace an aperture is made through the external building, and another
corresponding in the wall of the vault ; these openings form the door, at
which a man enters the vault to put in or take out the iron ; but when the
furnace is lighted, these doors are closed by fire-bricks luted with fire-clay.
Each pot has also small openings in its end, through which the ends of two
or three of the bars are left projecting in such a manner, that by only
removing one loose brick from the external building, the bars can be drawn
out without disturbing the process, to examine the progress of the conver-
sion from time to time ; these are called the tap-holes ; they should be
placed in the centre of the pots, that a fair and equable judgment may be
formed from their result of the rest of its contents.
b, in the elevation, is the fire-grate, formed of bars laid over the ash-
pit T, which must have a free communication with the open air, that it
may convey a current of fresh air to supply the combustion. The ash-pit
342 THE OPERATIVE MECHANIC
should also have steps down to it, that the attendant to the furnace may
get down to examine by the light, whether the fire upon the whole length
of the grate be equally fierce ; and if any part appear dull, he uses a long
iron hook to thrust up between the bars, and open a passage for the air.
The fire-place is open at both ends, and has no doors. The fire-grate is
laid nearly on a level with the floor of the warehouse, before the furnace,
and the fireman always keeps a heap of coals piled up before the apertures
at its ends, so as to close the opening. This forms a very simple and
effective door; and when the furnace requires a fresh supply of fuel, a
portion of the heap of coals is shoved in by a sort of hoe, and the heap
renewed, to stop any air from entering into the furnace, except that which
has passed upwards through the ignited fuel, and by that means contributed
to the combustion.

The fire-stone& composing all those parts of the furnace

which are exposed to the action of the heat, are first hewn
nearly to size, and finished by grinding two surfaces together,
so that they make very perfect and close joints ; when laid
together, they are cemented wdth well-tempered fire-clay,
mixed up thin wdth water. The fire-clay which answers
best for this purpose, is that brought from Stourbridge, in
Staffordshire, and is the same of which the celebrated Stour-
bridge crucibles are composed; but very good fire-clay for
the pur}X)se is procured from Birkin-lane, near Chesterfield.
V^^hen the furnace has been once burnt, this clay becomes
equally hard with the stone, and is less liable to fly or vitrify
in an intense heat than any other known cement.
The flame arising from the ignited fuel upon the grate
passes upwards between the pots, and strikes the dome of
the vault, from whence it is reverberated down upon the
pots, and ultimately escapes through the flues or chimneys
of the vault. By this means every part of the pot is exposed
to the same degree of heat, which is of great importance.
In order to ascertain when the cementation is perfect, one
or two of the bars, having their ends, as before described,
projecting from the pots, are taken out of the furnace, and
examined.
The upon the surface of the steel, caused by the
blisters
carbonic oxyd,* is, in general, adopted as a criterion to
judge if the metal be sufficiently converted ; but this is found
frequently to be fallacious, and well it may, for the size of
the blisters depend more upon the degree of heat to wliich
the bar has been exposed, than to any other cause.
The time usually required for the conversion of iron into
steel is about seven days and nights and a similar number
;

* Carbonic oxyd is the union of the two gases which arise from the small
portions of carbon and oxyd of iron, of which the iron w'as possessed, au4
which IS dissipated by the heat of the furnace during this long process
 AND MACHINIST. 343

of days and nights is aliowed for the gradual cooling of the

furnace.
The steel when taken from the converting furnace is found
on its surface to be covered with blisters; and on being
broken is found to be full of cavities within, for this reason
it is called blistered steel.
To make it sound and tenacious, it is put into a furnace,

and moderately heated, and is then exposed to the action of

the tilt-hammer, which we have already described. This is
called slteer-steeL
The steel is made of different degrees of hardness, by
giving it more or less carbon, according to the different
degrees and duration of the heat applied.
The steel used in the manufacture of coach-springs contain
the smallest portion of carbon ; a somewhat greater quantity
is used in the different branches of cutlery, and in the make
of agricultural implements ; and the greatest dose of all is
required for files, which cannot be too hard, provided the
steel be sufficiently malleable to be worked.
Cast-steel, which is entirely free from the defects of
blistered steel, and is, in some degree, preferable to sheer-
steel, is made, by placing small portions of the bars of
blistered steel into a crucible, capable of containing about
30 pounds weight.
These crucibles are made of Stourbridge clay, mixed with
a small portion of powdered charcoal, which makes them
much less liable to crack in the heating or cooling. They
are furnished with covers, which are more fusible than the
body of the vessel, and, on that account, soon enter into a
state of partial vitrification; by which means they become
closely luted at the time the steel is at a temperature suffi-
ciently high to be destroyed by the oxygen of the atmosphere.
The fuel employed for melting steel should consist of the
hardest cokes, which will give a great heat for a longer con-
tinuance than the soft cokes.
When the metal is fused it is taken from the furnace, and
poured into iron-moulds, which form it into ingots of an
octagonal shape, about SO inches long.
These ingots, like the bars of blistered and sheer steel,
are again heated, and drawn into bars by the operation of
the tilt-mill. By means of this machinery the ingots of cast-
steel can be drawn into bars one-third of an inch square
and by the hands it can be drawn into rods of a much smaller
size.
manufacture of steel has been greatly improved within
344 THE OPERATIVE MECHANIC
a short period^ and it can now be fused with so small a por-
tion of carbon, as will admit of its being welded either wdth
iron or another piece of steel.
The most singular property belonging to steel is that of its
hardening by being heated red-hot, and suddenly cooled;
and the hotter the steel be made, and the colder the fluid
into which it is plunged, the harder will be the steel. Water
is generally employed for this purpose; and spring water is
considered to be the best. File-makers state, that the salt
which is inevitable in their hardening water, makes the steel
harder, and they sometimes put sulphuric acid into it for the
same purpose.
In hardening steel in thin plates, such as saws, particularly
when of cast-steel, quenching in water would cause them to
crack, and make them so hard as not to be useful. They
have, in consequence, recourse to some substance which is
not so good a conductor of heat. Oil, with tallow and bees
wax, and resin dissolved in it, is generally employed for these
articles. If the steel be heated red-hot, it mostly returns to
its original state. This, however, is sometimes not the case
with thin plates of cast-steel. In giving various degrees of
heat from the hard state, it becomes more soft and less elastic.
In the year 1789, Mr. David Hartley took out a patent for
a method of tempering steel by the aid of a pyrometer, or
thermometer, applied near to the surface of the article, and
at the same time recommended the use of heated oil, in
which (he says) many dozens of razors or other tools might
be tempered at once with the utmost facility, and the various
degrees of heat necessary for different purposes might speedily
be determined by experiment. (See Nicholsons Journal,
vol. i. quarto.) An improvement of this principle has been
since suggested by Mr. Parkes, by providing a bath of oil or
of some kind of fusible metal for the tempering of every
species of edged tool, which contrivance would, in his opinion,
give to this operation a greater degree of certainty, than has
ever been experienced by those who have conducted such
manufactories,

WIRE MANUFACTURE.
Wire is madeof various ductile metals; but as the manu-
facture of the whole is very similar, we shall confine our-
selves principally to a description of the manufacture of iron
wire, which is by far the most extensive article of commerce.
 AND MACHINIST. 345
The process of wire-drawing consists in drawing a piece
of metal through a hole in a steel plate^ which forms it into
a regular and even thread, of great length, according to the
quantity of metal supplied.
The first part of the process in the manufacture of iron
wire is, to subject the iron to the action of a tilt-hammer till
it be reduced to a size that will admit of its being drawn

through the plate. The tilt-hammer used is similar to that

which we have described in the article Iron Works. It
weighs about 100 pounds, and makes 130 strokes per minute.
A smaller tilt-hammer, weighing about 50 pounds, and
making 20 strokes per minute, is also used for the wire-
work.
Toprepare the iron for the draw-plate, the workman heats
six or eight inches of the end of a large bar, and works it
under the small tilt-hammer until it is drawn out into a
small and regular round rod, of about six feet in length.
Before it has time to cool another workman straightens it,
and cuts off with a hammer upon an anvil the rod thus
formed, and puts the remainder of the bar into the forge to
be again healed.
In manufacturing common wire, the bars may be advan-
tageously run through a pair of rollers, instead of exposing
them to the action of the tilt-mill ; but as the iron in rolling
does not acquire so much tenacity as in the hammering, this
process should not be attempted in the manufacture of the
best wire.
The rod being thus prepared by one of these methods, is
next drawn through a hole in the draw-plate, either by a
strong machine with a chain, or else by a lever-machine.
The machines used in the process of wire-drawing are,
first.

The common draw-bench, which stroijg plank of wood

consists of a
fixed on legs, like a stool or bench. represented in fig. 357.
It is is A
an axis, fixed in a horizontal position, so that it can be easily turned round
by means of the four levers B B, fixed like radii on the end of the axis,
C is a strong strap or chain, capable of being wound about tlie axis or
roller, and connected by means of a link with the pincers D. E is a draw-
plate, perforated with holes of different sizes, lodged against two stiong iron
pins a a, which are fixed in the bench, and left standing up perpendicularly,
so that the plate can rest against them. The wire is passed through the
<lraw-plate E, and 'is seized by the pincers D, which, by turning the arms
or levers B B, winds about the roller, and draws the wire through the
plate.
Fig. 358 represents another kind of draw-bench, where a rack and pinion
are used, instead of a roller and strap or chain, as above-mentioned. If
idiis machine be turned by a winch the motion is more uniform, which is
346 THE OPERATIVE MECHANIC
of importance for some purposes. For instance, if a piece of metal be
drawn rapidly through the draw-plate, it will in passing through be greatly
compressed, and on emerging will expand a little ; but if it be drawn
through the plate slowly, it will lose its expansive property. Now in the
common draw-bench, or one we first described, the motion communicated by
means of the arms B B is very irregular, and the wire is consequently some-
times drawn through the plate with a fast, and sometimes with a slow mo-
tion, wliich causes it to be of different degrees of quality ; but in using the
rack and pinion, by means of a winch, the motion is regular, and the
quality uniform.
In I>ance the roller or windlass is not employed, but tlie pincers are at-
tached to a lever, which alternately draws them backwards and forwards by
the power of the water-wheel.
The pincers are so constructed, that they open and release themselves
from the wire when they move towards the draw-plate ; but when drawn
from the draw-plate close and bite the wire with a force that will draw it
tl) rough the plate.
A machine of this kind is represented in fig. 359. A B is a wooden lever,
which moves round an iron bolt or pin p, as a centre of motion ; is C an
iron link, connected with the upright part of the lever B, and having A its
lower end formed like a ring to seize the ends of tlie pincers. The pincers
are supported upon an inclined plate of iron ?, which has a groove to receive
the head of the pincers, to direct tlrem in their motion to and from the
draw-plate.
The end B of the lever is depressed by cogs, affixed to the axis of the water-
wheel, which draws the wire througli the plate ; but when the cogs quit the
end of the lever, it is returned to its former position, by means of a rope
fastened to the end of B, and to a strong wooden pole, fixed to the top of
the roof of the building, which acts as a spring. As the lever returns to its
place, the pincers, by their own weight, slide down the inclined plane, and
in their descent open sufficiently to allow the wire to slide through them,
without extricating itself from their jaws ; and on the next descent of the
lever, they close upon tlie wire, and draw another portion through the plate.

Three of these machines^ of different sizes, are, in general,

employed in a wire-mill the largest draw's two inches of
;

the wire at each stroke, and makes about forty-eight strokes

per minute; the next four inches and the third five inches.;

This last makes about sixty-four strokes per minute. This

mode of drawing wire is very simple, but defective for ;

much time is lost in the returning of the pincers they some- ;

times fail to take hold; and wdierever they bite they make
deep marks upon the wire, which are not more than two inches
apart in the great wire, and five inches in the smaller.
Fine wore is always made from the large wire, by reducing
it and lengthening it out by repeated drawings. The large
wire usually manufactured at the wire-mills in the country,
is
and sometimes is reduced to small wire at the same establish-
ments, but those w'ho have occasion to use much wire usually
purchase the large sort, and reduce it themselves.
A liaiul macliine, represented in fig. 360, is used for this purpose. A is a
roller or cylinder, turning upon a vertical pin, fixed in the bench B; C a
 FI. 49.
362
^WCB:E MiOTHFArTimE from 357 to 362

36if

Keele <f Stvddir\ Strand

 AND MACHINIST, 347
handle turned by manual labour ; E the draw-plate ; and a a the pins against
which it rests. The wire to be drawn is placed upon a reel D, which turns
upon a -vertical pin. This reel is sometimes placed on the table, and some-
times in a tub containing starch-water, or beer that has become acid. This
last is to loose the oxyd from the surface of the wire, which it has acquired
in the process of annealing. Fig. 361 represents a very simple and complete
wire-drawing machine, capable of drawing three wires at once. AK are
two rollers or barrels with cog-wheels, T V, on the ends of their axis. S is
a pinion wFich is turned round by means of a handle B, and communicates
motion to the cog-w^heels T V. Both these wheels are fitted upon round
parts of the axis of their respective rollers, so as to slip or turn freely round
with the same ; but a square is formed on the axis outside of the wheel, and
a clutch or catch, t or v, is fitted on this square part, so as to turn always
round with the axis. The catch is at liberty to slide upon the axis in the
direction of its length, by means of a lever W, which operates upon both
catches at once. When either of them is pushed back in contact with the
wheel, it intercepts two studs which project from the face of the wheel, and
then compels the axis or roller to turn round with the wheel ; but when the
catch is drawn aw'ay from the wheel, then the w-heel will slip round upon its
axis w'ithout communicating any motion. By means of the lever W, only
one wheel can be engaged at once, and the other must be free. The draw-
plate is firmly fixed betw'een the twu rollers, and it has a great many holes
the rollers are long enough to receive three wires at the same time. Each
roller has a groove in it parallel to the axis, into which a bar of metal is
fitted, and will exactly fill it up.
When the wires are introduced through the holes in the plate, the ends
are laid across this groove ; the bar is then put in and fastened by a simple
contrivance, and it fastens the ends of the wires beneath it, so that they be-
come attached to the roller ; then by turning the handle, B, round, the two
wheels are put in motion in contrary directions ; and that wheel which is
connected with its axle by its catch, will turn its banel round, and wind up
the wires so as to draw them through the plate E. The other roller being at the
same time detached, its wheel is at liberty to turn round in a contrary di-
rection to the wheel, as fast as the wires are drawn off from it. When the
whole length of the wires has been draw'n through the plate, they are de-
tached from the roller, the ends introduced through smaller holes in the
plate, and fastened again to the roller ; then the lever W is shifted, to dis-
engage that wheel which operated before, and engage the other. This being
done, the rollers will be turned in an opposite direction, and will w'ind back
the wires,' although the handle B is turned the same way round.
After the wire has been drawn three or four times, the metal becomes so
hard and fibrous that it would not draw^ any more without breaking ; it
therefore requires to be heated in the fire to restore its ductility ; for this
purpose it must be taken oflthe barrels. A roller, M, is provided to wind the
wdre upon and draw it off from the barrel ; this roller is turned round by a
handle, m, fixed on the extremity of its axis ; and the wire wFich is w-ound
upon it in a coil is slipped off sideways. This machine is well adapted to be
worked by a mill, because the handle may ahvays be turned in the same way.
Fig 362 represents a machine that is used for reducing the w'ire to be
employed in the manufacture of musical instruments, or in making cards for
wool and cotton. A AAA are conical rollers, called blocks, each having
a bush, through which passes a vertical spindle. These spindles are con-
nected with wheel-work, situated beneath the bench, and being round are
capable of revolving without communicating motion to the rollers. When the
rollers are required to be engaged^ they are lifted up from tlte bench, till two
348 THE OPERATIVE MECHANIC
knobs, fixed in the hollow part of each, come in contact with a cross-bar
fixed on the top of each spindle, which immediately carries them round. So
long as any wires are supplied by the reels E E E E, the stress of the wires
passing through the draw-plates will hold the rollers and spindles clasped
together ; but as soon as the whole of the wires have passed through the
draw-plates, the rollers will become disengaged, and fall upon the bench.
The tubs in which the reels are placed contain stale-beer grounds, or starch-
water, for the purpose which we have already noticed.

The French draw-plates are the most esteemed, and, in

time of war, a good French draw-plate has been sold for its
weight in silver. M. Du Hamel, in Les Arts et Metiers^
vol. XV. gives the following account of the process of making
the draw-plates for the large iron- wire,
A band of iron is forged of two inches broad and one inch
thick. This is prepared at the great forge. About a foot in
length is cut off, and heated to redness in a fire of charcoal. It
is then beaten on one side with a hammer, so as to work all
the surface into furrows or grooves, in order that it may re-
tain the substance called the potin, which is to be welded
upon one side of the iron, to form the hard matter on which
the holes are to be pierced. This potin is nothing but frag-
ments of old cast-iron pots j but those pots which have been
worn out by the continued action of the fire are not good ; the
fragments of a new pot which has not been in the fire are
better.
The workman breaks these pieces of pots on his anvil, and
mixes the pieces with charcoal of white wood. He puts this
in the forge, and heats it till it is melted into a sort of paste ;

and to purify it he repeats the fusion ten or twelve times, and

each time he takes it with the tongs to dip it in water. M. Du
Hamel says, this is to render the matter more easy to break
into pieces.
By these repeated fusions with charcoal, the cast-iron is
changed, and its qualities approach those of steel, but fur
from becoming brittle, it will yield to the blows of the ham-
mer and to the punch, which is used to enlarge the holes.
The bar of iron which is to make the draw-plate is covered
with a layer of pieces of the potin, or cast-iron thus prepared.
It is applied on the side which is furrowed, and should occupy
about half an inch in thickness. The whole is then wrapped
up in a coarse cloth, which has been dipped in clay and water,
mixed up as thick as cream, and is put into the forge. The
potin is more fusible than the forged iron, so that it will melt.
The plate is withdrawn from the fire occasionally and ham-
mered very gently upon the potin, to weld and in some mea-
i^ure amalgamate it with the iron, which cannot be done at
 AND MACHINIST. 34y
once; but it must be repeatedly heated and worked until the
potin fixes to the iron. The workman then throws dry pow-
dered clay upon it, in order, they say, to soften the potin.
The union being complete, the plate is again heated, and
forged by two workmen, w^ho draw out the plate of one foot
to a length of two feet, and give it the form it is to have. It
is well known that cast-iron cannot be worked at the forge
without breaking under the hammer ; but in the present in-
stance, it is alloyed with the iron-bar, and is drawn out with
it. It has also acquired new properties by the repeated
fusions with charcoal.
The holes are next pierced whilst the plate is hot. This is
done with a well-pointed punch of German steel, applied on
that side of the plate which is the iron-bar. It requires four
heats in the fire to punch the holes, and every turn a finer
punch is employed, so as to make a taper hole. The makers
of draw-plates do not pierce the holes quite through, but
leave it to the wire-drawers to do it themselves when the
plate is cold, with sharp punches, and then they open the
hole to the size they desire ; and although this potin is of a
very hard substance, the size of the hole may be reduced by
gentle blows with a hard hammer, on the flat surface of the
plate round the hole.
A great many holes are made in the same plate ; and it is
important that they should diminish in size by very imper-
ceptible gradations ; so that the workman can always choose
a hole suitable for the wire he is to draw, without being
obliged to reduce it too much at once.
To ascertain the size of the wire, three kinds of gauges are
used. The one is made of a piece of wire bent in zigzag,
with a space of a different width between every bend ; another
is made of a steel-plate with notches on the edge ; and the
other, which is the most accurate, consists of two straight
rules of steel put together at an angle. The diameter of the
wire in this last is indicated by the depth to which it will
enter into the angle ; the edges of the rules are divided into
equal parts for that purpose, and numbered, to correspond
with the different sizes of the wire.
The wire manufactory of Messrs. Mouchel, situated at
LAigle, in the department of L'Orne, is one of the most
considerable in France. It furnishes annually in cards for
wool-combing only, 100,000 quintals of iron wire, each
100 lbs. A part of this is consumed in France, and the
rest is exported to Spain, Italy, Portugal, and even to the
shores of the Levant.
350 TffE OPERATIVE MECHANIC
They employ the iron manufactured in the departments of
LOrne and La Haute Soane, as being of the best quality.
The first produces the best wire for making screw s, nails, and
pins, as much on account of its hardness as its fine polisih, which
resembles steel-wire. In this respect, it issuperior to the
iron of Haute Soane ; but from its ductility the latter can now
be made extremely fine, and it appears to be most free from
heterogeneous particles.
The smelted iron, prepared and hammered, being in a state
nearly fit for their purpose, is transported at a small expense
to LAigle, by the rivers and canals. They have a forge to
reduce the steel and iron of Normandy, which arrives in large
pieces, into small and regular bars.
When the iron is formed into an irregular bar of about a
centimetre, near four- tenths of an inch in diameter, they be-
gin to draw it be already much extended
into ware. Although it

by hammering, it is inplace passed four times

the first
through the drawing-plate ; then its molecules become dis-
posed lengthways, and exhibit fibres at their utmost exten-
sion. The fibres must be removed by means of heat, which
disperses and divides them; and after that the wire may
again be reduced three numbers. The fibres wdiich are re-
produced by this operation are again removed by heat. The
whole process is five times repeated, consequently the ware
is passed through fifteen numbers ; after wdiich, a single ex-
posure to the fire is sufficient to fit it for passing six others,
whereby it is reduced to the thickness of a knitting-needle.
The steel-wire, being much harder, requires to be passed
through forty-four numbers, and to be annealed every other
time.
The machine which drawls the steel-wdre, must go slower
than that which di\ws the iron ; for the first being very
hard, and offering more resistance to the drawing-plate,
should be pulled out with more care, since the quickness ought
to be proportioned to the resistance, and reciprocally ; and
if they depart from this principle the results will vary. Thus,
for example, the iron of the department of LOrne, which is
more compact than that produced at Haute Soane, if drawn
by the same machines, augments to hardness, and is weakened
when it is brought to too great a degree of fineness. But this
iron, which is very hard, and capable of receiving a very high
polish, is to be preferred for certain uses.
In order to anneal the wire,, they formerly employed a
large and elevated fur-nace, wdth bars of cast-iron to support
the wire in the middle of the flames. It contains
 AND MACHINIST. 351
pounds weight, so contrived as to contain equal portions of
each number. They are so arranged that the thickest wires
receive the strongest heat ; therefore, the whole is equally
heated in the same space of time.
The operation lasts three hours with a fire well kept up,
and it might be imagined that this apparatus was completely
adapted to the purpose ; but there are imperfections in this
method, because it leaves the wire exposed to the contact of
the atmospheric air, the oxygen of which it seizes with extreme
avidity ; whence a considerable quantity of oxyd is occasioned,
and also an operation to free it from the scales, which consists
of beating the bundles of wire with a wooden hammer wetted
wdth water.
Notwithstanding this precaution, there often remains a
portion of oxyd adhering to the surface of the metal, which
streaks the draw-plate, or fixes on the wire, and gives it a
tarnished appearance, and causes it to break when it is brought
to a great degree of fineness. This furnace is only used for
the steel-wire, or the iron from LOrne, which is less liable
to change ; and besides, being harder, is not easily attacked
by the oxygen.
In order to diminish the waste that the fire occasions, they
have contrived another process, which consists in dipping the
bundles of wire into a basin of wet clay before they put them
into the furnace ; and they are left in the furnace to dry
before the fire is lighted, without which precaution the clay
would peel off from the iron.
For making wire for cards, M. Mouchel invented another
furnace. It is round, and about one metre six decimetres
in diameter, and one metre eight decimetres in height, without
including its parabolic arch, and the chimney above it. The
interior is divided by horizontal grates into three stories ; the
lo^vest receives the cinders, the second is the fire-place, and
into the third, or upper place, they slide a roleau of wdre,
w'eighing 150 kilogrammes, which is enclosed in a space
comprised between two cast-iron cylinders, being luted to
prevent the admission of air between them. The flames
circulate about the outside of the first, and within the interior
of the second, which defends the wire from atmospheric air.
The diameter of the largest cylinder is about one metre four
decimetres ; that of the second one metre ; thus the space
comprised between them is two decimetres, on an elevation
of five decimetres. There must be several pair of cylinders
provided, because whilst one pair is in the furnace, another
must be. prepared to receive a fresh roleau of wire 5 they are .
352 THE OPERATIVE MECHANIC
changed every hour by means of a long iron lever, with whicli
a single man can easily push them in, and draw them out
again, as the cylinder slides on cast-iron rails.
They are very careful not to open the cylinders imme-
diately on their being drawn out of the fire ; for the roleaus
of wire contained in them, being still red, would oxydate
quite as much as if they had been heated in the midst of the
flames without the least precaution.
The opening contrived for the passage is on the side, and
has a door of cast-iron, with a groove which winds round the
furnace ; the fire-place has one something similar to it ; that
of the ash-hole is vertical, in order that it may be raised to
increase the fire at will.
When the iron-wire is reduced to the thickness of a knitting-
needle, it is made up into bundles of 1 25 kilogrammes (275 lbs.)
each, into a large iron vessel, in order to anneal it sufficiently
to be reduced for the last time. This vessel is placed upside-
down in the middle of a round furnace, which is so con-
structed as to sustain burning coals all round it, and of which
it consumes 35 kilogrammes (77 Ihs.) before the operation is
completed. The cover must be carefully luted, as the slightest
admission of air is sufficient to burn the external surfaces of
the wire to an oxyd, which cannot afterwards be reduced.
When one of these vessels is sufficiently heated, it is filled
with water containing three kilogrammes (six pounds and
a half) of tartar, and suspended over the flames of the furnace
to make it boil ; this solution, without attacking the metal,
frees it from the grease and the little oxyd that adheres to it.
This is the last operation in which the wire is exposed to the
fire, and it is then in the proper state for being reduced to
the utmost degree of fineness it is capable of sustaining, and
will preserve enough of the effect of the annealing to require
it no more ; but when the natural hardness of the iron varies,

this last exposure to the fire should take place in proportion

to its thickness. As steel loses its capacity of extension much
sooner than iron, it is annealed until it is no thicker than a
sewing-needle. The space which is left in the vessel is filled
up with charcoal-dust, which prevents it from losing the
quality of steel, and preserves the heat long enough to give
it the proper degree of pliancy.

As Messrs. Moucbel always use iron and steel at the same

manufactory, they have been able to reduce their operations
to a general system ; and to attain this end, have determined
a graduated scale, by which the wire will not be more stretched
in the drawing-plate in one number or size than another.
 AND MACHINIST. 353

The following is the method they contrived, in order to form

this scale for the iron- wire : They take a certain quantity of
various thicknesses, which has been drawn as fine as the iron
would bear; the smallest size is 100,000 metres (109,333
yards) in length to the kilogramme, 2*2 pounds avoirdupois f
they note the weight that each might be capable of supporting
without breaking ;
being expressed by figures, it is easy/
this
by a few interpolations, to express them in a progressive
form. This kind of scale has been partly formed by comparing
the weight of the different sizes with equal lengths, from
which gauges or calibres may be made for the use of the
workman. These gauges are certain guides, which they
cannot mistake, except through great carelessness. If they
had not these gauges, they would often pass the wire through
holes in the drawing-plates that are too large for it, whence
it does not acquire the strength it should have in proportion

to its thickness, and loses its hardness ; they might also pass
it through holes that were too small, which would weaken it,

and render it very brittle. In the latter case, it frequently

happens that the steel of the drawing-plate, being unable
to sustain the force to which it is exposed, will give way,-
as if the plate were too soft ; and the wire will be brittle
at the beginning, and soft and too thick at the other
extremity.
The greatest part of the fine wire at Messrs. Mouchels:
manufactory is drawn by workmen who are dispersed about
the country ; but they have also a machine which moves
twenty-four bobbins in a horizontal direction, which only
requires the workmen to look after it. It is upon the bob-
bins that the MUre is reduced to the different degrees of thin-
ness desired ; therefore this is the last operation in the art of
making iron and steel wire, although it has all requisite quali-
ties given to it in the workshop of the wire-drawer.
Wire is still incapable of being made into needles and
carding-hooks until it has undergone another operation for
dressing and straightening the wire, by which it is made to
lose the bend or curve that it acquires on the bobbins.
This work consists in drawing the wire between pins fixed
on a piece of wood, and which act to bend the wire, first in
one direction and then in the opposite, nn a waving line, of
which the waves are at first larger, but decrease gradually,
and the last bend of which tends to force the wire into a
straight line. The dresser is obliged constantly to adjust the
pins, by inclining or raising them with strokes of the hammer.
Also, for each number of wires, the pins must be at different
 354 THE OPERATIVE MECHANIC
and calculated distances. This requires a workman of inteU
Hgence, diligence, and address.
An ingenious instrument is now appropriated to this opera-
tion, and removes all difficulty. Six little puppets of very
hard steel are substituted for the nails of the ordinary instru-
ment, and are fixed on parallel bars of metal, so jointed toge-
ther that the movement of them all will be parallel, and the
puppets are widened or brought nearer together by screws ;
the wire is drawn between these puppets in a zigzag or
waving line, and the repeated flexures break the sinuosities of
the wire. There is a conductor of the wire to the puppets,
and another conductor which serves to prevent the wire from
being shaken. There are slight grooves at the extremity of
the puppets, to give a passage to the wire. A scale sustained
by a screw indicates the distance at which the puppets should
be placed from each other, to straighten each size of wire
this forms nearly an invariable rule, and the dresser saves a
third of the time which is employed in regulating the pins
of the instrument formerly used. There is nothing more to
be done but to draw out the wire by means of a wheel, on
which he reels it, and then form, it into bundles to be deli-
vered to the consumers.
The steel wire of France is proper for many puq>oses. It
is brought from Messrs. Mouchel for making knitting-needles
in the English fashion, shoemakers" needles, and other similar
articles ;
it may be also used for needles of all sizes, and
even for cards for wool-combing ; but as this steel is much
more expensive than the iron- wire, it is very seldom used for
the latter purpose.
The method of preparing the draw-plates is described by
Messrs. Mouchel, and is different from that before described.
For making wire for cards, two sorts of drawing-plates are used, large
and small ones ; the first, for the sort of wire that we have been describing,
is drawn with the pincers, as fig. 359, and with the bobbin or roller, which
is a cylinder, adapted to the axis turned by the water-mill, and is used in
preference, to avoid the marks made on the wire by the pincers ; the small
drawing-plates are used for such wire as may be drawn by hand. The steel
xvhich they employ fo#%hese drawing-plates should never vary in quality,
except that the smallest pieces are made of the finest steel. Several pieces
of iron are disposed in the furnace in the form of a box without a lid, their
weight being according to the use for which they are intended to be made.
The workman fills each of these boxes with cast-steel, and having covered
it over with a luting of clay, it is exposed to a fierce fire until the steel be

melted. Ilis art consists in seizing the proper moment to withdraw the
plate from the fire ; he raises the luting, and blows on it through a tube, in
order to drive off all heterogeneous parts, and then amalgamates it with the
iron by light blows ; after it is cool, he replaces it at the fire, where the
fusion again takes place, but to a less degree than before; he afterwards
 AND MACHINIST. 355
works the with light blows of the hammer, to purify and solder it with
steel
tlie iron. This operation is repeated from seven to ten times, according
to its quality, which renders it more or less difficult to manage. During
this process, a crust forms on the steel, which is detached from it the fifth
time of its exposure to the fire, because this crust is composed of an oxydated
steel of an inferior quality. It sometimes liappens that two, and even three,
of these crusts are formed of about two millimetres, or one-sixteenth of an
inch, in thickness, which must also be removed.

After these different fusions, the plate is beaten by a

all
hammer wetted with water, and the proper length, breadth,
and thickness, are given to it. When thus prepared, the
plates are heated again, in order to be pierced with holes by
punches of a conical form ; the operation is repeated five or
six times, and the punches used each time are progressively
smaller. It is of importance that the plate never be heated
beyond a cherry-red, because if it receives a higher degree of
heat, the steel undergoes an unfavourable change. The plates,
when finished, present a very hard material, which neverthe-
less will yield to the strokes of the punches and hammer,
which they require when the holes become too much enlarged
by the frequent passing of the wire through them.
When the plates have been repaired several times, they
acquire a degree of hardness which renders it necessary to
anneal them, especially when they pass from one size to
another ; sometimes they do not acquire the proper quality
until they have been annealed several times. Notwithstanding
all the precautions which are taken in preparing the plates,
the steel still varies a little in hardness, and according to this
variation they should be employed for drawing either steel or
iron wire ; and if the workman who proves them finds that
they are too soft for either the steel or iron, they are put
aside, to be used by the brass- wire drawers.
A plate that is best adapted for drawing of steel-wire is
often unfit for the iron ; for the long pieces of this latter
metal will become smaller at the extremity than at the begin-
ning, because the wire, as it is drawn through the plate, is
insensibly heated, and the adhering parts are swelled, conse-
quently pressed and reduced in size towards the latter end^
The plates that are fit for brass are often too soft for iron,
and the effect resulting is the reverse of that produced by
a plate that is too hard.
The smallest plates which Messrs. Mouchel use are at the
least two centimetres, or eight-tenths of an inch, in thickness,
so that the holes can be made sufficiently deep ; for when
they are of a less thickness, they will seize the wire too sud-^
denly, and injure it.
2 A 2
356 THli OPERATIVE MHCIIANiC
This inconvenience is much felt in manufactories where
they continue to use the plates for too long a time^ as they
become exceedingly thin after frequent repairs. One of
Messrs. Mouchels large plates reduces i,400 kilogrammes
(3,080 lbs. avoirdupois) from the largest size of wire to N 6,
which is of the thickness of a knitting-needle ; 400 kilo-
grammes (880 lbs.) of this number are afterwards reduced in
one single small plate to N 24, which is carding-wire ; and
to finish them,- they are passed through twelve times suc-
cessively.
Wires are frequently drawn so fine as to be wrought along
wdth other threads of silk, wool, or hemp ; and thus they
become a considerable article in the manufactures-.
Dr. Wollaston, in 1813, communicated to the Royal Society
the result of his experiments in drawing wire, liaving re-
quired some fine wire for telescopes, and remembering that
Muschenbrock mentioned wire 500 feet of which w^eighed
only a single grain, he determined to try the experiment,
although no method of making such fine wire had ever yet
been published. With this view, he took a rod of silver,
drilled a hole through it only one-tenth its diameter, filled this
hole with goldj and succeeded in drawing it into wire till it
did not exceed the three or four thousandth part of an inch,
and could have thus drawn it to the greatest fineness percep-
tible by the senses. Drilling the silver he found very trou-
blesome, and determined to try to draw' platina-wire, as that
metal w'ould bear the silver to be cast round it. In this he
succeeded with greater ease, drew the platina to any fineness,
and plunged the silver in heated nitric-acid, which dissolved
it, and left the gold or platina wire perfect.

LEAD MANUFACTURE.
Lead ore is found in most parts of the world.- In Britain
the principal lead-mines are situated in Cornwall, Devonshire,
and Somersetshire ; in Derbyshire, Durham, Lancashire,
Cumberland, and W estmoreland ; in Shropshire, Flintshire,
Denbighshire, Merionethshire, and Montgomeryshire ; at the
lead-hills in Scotland, on the borders of Dumfrieshire and
Lanarkshire, in Ayrshire, and at Strontian in Argyleshire.
The smelting of the ore is performed by either a blast-
furnace, called an ore-hearthj or a reverberatory-furnace.
In the former method, the ore and fuel are mixed topether.
 AND MACHINIST. 357
and exposed to the action of the blast, which quickly fuses
the metal, and causes it to fall into the lower part of the

hearth, where it is protected from the oxygen of the blast

by the scoria that floats upon its surface.
When the fluid lead is tapped, or drawn off, a sufficient
quantity of it is left in the furnace to float the liquid scoria ;
but v/hen the whole of the lead is to be drawn off, the blast
is stopped, and some lime is thrown into the furnace to con-

crete the scoria, while the lead is run out.

In smelting by the reverberatory-furnace, which is uu-
doubtedly the best in places where there is an ample supply
of coal, the fire is made at one end, and the flame passes over
the hearth, and enters into an oblique chimney, which ter-
minates in a perpendicular one, called a stack, of considerable
height. The length of the hearth, from the place where the
lire enters to the chimney, is about eleven feet, two of which
constitute the throat of the furnace ; the remainder forms a
concave surface, four and a half feet wide at the throat of the
furnace, seven feet four inches at the distance of two feet from
the throat, seven feet two inches in the middle of the hearth,
five feet eleven inches at two feet distance from the chimney,
and two feet ten inches where the flame enters the chimney
at two apertures, each ten inches square ; the throat of the
furnace is two feet long, four feet wide, and six inches deep
the length of the fire-place four feet, equal to the width of
the throat ; its width two feet, and depth three feet, from the
grate up to the throat of the furnace; the section of the
oblique chimney is sixteen inches square, and of the perpen-
dicular twenty inches, supposing a straight horizontal line
drawn from the lower plane of the throat of the chimney to
the opposite side of the furnace ; the lower part of the con-
cave hearth, which is in the middle of this cavity, is nineteen
inches below this line, the roof of the furnace being seventeen
inches above the same line ; the rest of the hearth is conform-
ably concave.
The furnace on one side has three openings, about ten
inches square, at equal distances from each other, and pro-
vided with iron doors, which can be removed as occasion may
require. Besides these apertures, which are for the purpose
of raking and stirring the ore, &c. and consequently, upon
a level with the horizontal line above alluded to, there are
two others of smaller dimensions, the one to tap the liquid
lead, the other the scoria. The ore is introduced by a vessel
pi the shape of a hopper placed in the roof of the furnace.
The ores of lead, similarly to those of iron and most other
358 THE OPERATIVE MECHANIC
metals, are combined with various kinds of earthy matter,
which require them to be well pounded before they are intro-
duced into the reverberatory or smelting furnace. The pound-
ing is sometimes performed by women using hammers, and
sometimes the ores are pounded or crushed by causing them
to pass through iron rollers loaded with great weights. After
the ores have been pounded or crushed, the earthy matter
is separated by washing.
The powder to be washed is put into a riddle or sieve, and
placed in a large tub full of water ; when, by a certain mo-
tion, the lighter or earthy parts are separated and thrown
over the edge of the riddle, while the metal, which, as we
have before stated, is always considerably heavier than its
accompanying ingredients, is retained. There are some im-
however, which cannot be sejjarated by this process,
j)urities,
consisting principally of blmd, or black-jack, called mock ore,
and pyrites, or sulphuret of iron, named Brazil,
In the process of smelting, the ore is spread upon the con-
cave hearth, so that the flame may act upon it, and release
the sulphur. When the sulphur has escaped, the lead com-
bines with oxygen, and the oxyd of lead, thus formed, com-
bines with and reduces the earthy matter to a liquid, which
floats upon the surface of the metal, and for the remainder of
the operation, protects it from the action of the oxygen. The
temperature of the furnace is now considerably raised, to
separate as quickly as possible the lead from the liquid scoria
after which a ccmsiderable portion of the scoria is tapped off,
leaving only so much behind as is necessary to protect the
metal from the action of the oxygen. The fire is now slackened,
and a quantity of slack, or refuse pit-coal, thrown into the
furnace, which serves to diminish the heat, and to concrete the
melted scoria ; though this last part of the process is not well
done unless powdered lime be also added. The scoria being
now hardened, is broken to pieces by a rake, and thrust to
the opposite side of the furnace, where it is taken out through
the apertures already mentioned.
The lead is now tapped, in a manner similar to that de-
scribed in the manufacture of iron, and is allowed to run into
a large iron pan, from whence it is laded into moulds to cast
into pigs. When the ores abound with blind, or black-jack, or
sulphate of iron, it becomes necessary to add the fluat of lime,
as a flux.
The scoria is still found to contain some lead, independent
of that in the state of oxyd, and chemically combined with it,
and is consequently exposed to the heat of another furnace,
 AND MACHINIST. 35D
being a species of biast, and called a slag-hearUi, which fuses
the scoria, and causes the metal to penetrate through it, and
fall into a cavity, where it is protected from the agency of

the blast, and from whence it is taken and cast into pigs.
As all lead ores contain more or less of silver, we shall
extract from Dr. Reess Cyclopaedia the method by which the
silver, by the oxydation of the lead, is extracted.
shallow vessel, or cupel, is filled with prepared fern-ashes
well rammed down, and a concavity cut out for the reception
of the lead, with an opening on one side for the mouth of the
bellows, through which the air is forcibly driven during the
process. The French smelters cover the surface of the ashes
with hay, and arrange symmetrically the pieces of lead upon
it. When the fire is lighted, and the lead is in a state of
fusion from the reverberation of the flame, the blast from
the bellows is made to play forcibly on the surface, and in a
short time a crust of yellow oxyd of lead, or litharge, is
formed, and driven to the side of the cupel opposite to the
mouth of the bellows, where a shallow side or aperture is
made for it to pass over ; another crust of litharge is formed
and driven off*, and this is repeated in succession till nearly
all the lead has been converted into litharge and driven off.
The operation continues about forty hours, when the complete
separation of the lead is indicated by a brilliant lustre on the
convex surface of the melted mass in the cupel, which is
occasioned by the removal of the last crust of litharge that
covered the silver. The French introduce water through a
tube into the cupel, to cool the silver rapidly, and prevent its
spirting out, which it does when the refrigeration is gradual,
owing probably to its tendency to crystallize. In England
the silver is left to cool in the cupel, and some inconvenience
is caused by the spirting, which might be avoided by the
former mode.
The silver thus extracted is not sufficiently pure ; it is
again refined in a reverberatory-furnace, being placed in a
cupel lined with bone ashes, and exposed to greater heat
the lead which has escaped oxydation by the first process, is
converted into litharge, and absorbed by the ashes of the
cupel.
The last portions of litharge in the first process are
again
refined for silver, of whichcontains a part which was driven
it
off with it. The litharge is converted into lead again by
heating it with charcoal ; part is sometimes sold for pigment,
or converted into red-lead. The loss of lead by this process
differs considerably, according to the quality of the lead.
360 THE OPERATIVE MECHANIC
The lithargecommonly obtained from three tons of lead
amounts 58 hundred weight ; but when it is again reduced
to
to a metallic state^ it seldom contains more than 52 hundred
weight of lead, the loss on three tons being eight hundred
weight. The Dutch are said to extract the silver from the
same quantity of lead with only the loss of six hundred
weight.^
Having explained the process by which pig-lead is ex-
tracted from the ores, it now remains for us to show the
methods by which pig-lead is manufactured into sheet-lead,
or into the tubes called lead-pipes.
In the manufacture of sheet-lead, the ingots or pigs are put
into a large caldron or furnace built with free- stone and
earth. Near this furnace is the table or mould on which the
sheet is to be cast ; it is made of large pieces of wood, well
jointed, and bound at the ends with bars of iron, and has
a ledge or border of wood, about two or three inches thick,
and one or two high, called the sharps. The tables are
usually about three or four feet wide, and from eighteen to
twenty feet long. The table is covered with very fine sand,
which is prepared for the casting by moistening it with clear
water, working it together with a stick, beating it flat with
a mallet, and smoothing it with a piece of brass or wood.
A long narrow piece of wood, with notches cut in each end
so as to fit the ledges, is placed over the table, and is so
arranged, that the space between it and the sand shall be
proportionate to the intended thickness of the plate. The
workman gradually slides the strike from one end of the
table to the other, by which means he obtains a sheet of the
requisite, and in all parts of equal, thickness.
At the top of the table is a large triangular iron peel or
shovel, with its fore part bearing upon the edge of the table,
and the hinder part on a tressel, somewhat lower than the
table ; the design of which is, to prevent the liquid metal
running off at the fore side, where there is no ledge. The
metal being sufficiently fused, is taken out of the furnace or
caldron with a large iron ladle, and is put into the peel,
where it is cleansed of its impurities by using another large
iron ladle pierced like a scummer. The handle of the peel is
now raised, which causes the liquid metal to run into the
mould, while the workman, with the strike, regulates the
thickness. When the sheet is of the required thickness,
the handle of the peel is lowered, and the sheet is allowed to
cooL When set, the edges on both sides are planished iu
order to render them smooth and straight.
 AND MACHINIST, 361

The method above described is only used in casting large

sheets of lead ; in casting sheets of smaller dimensions, the
table or mould, which is placed in an inclined position, is, in
lieu of sand, covered with a piece of woollen stuff, nailed
down at both ends, and over that is placed a very fine linen
cloth.
In this process great attention must be paid to the heat
of the liquid metal, and a piece of paper is used as a test
if the paper take fire, the lead is too hot, and W'ould de-
stroy the linen ; if it be not shrunk and scorched, it is not
hot enough.
When the sheets are required to be very thin, it is neces-

sary to make the peel and strike of one piece. It is a kind

of wooden box without a bottom, being closed only on three
sides j the back of it is about seven or eight inches high, and
tlie two sides, like two acute angles, diminish to the top j the
width of the middle makes that of the strike, which again
makes that of the sheet to be cast.
The strike is so placed, that the highest part is towards
the lower, and the two sloping sides towards the upper end
of the table. The top part of the table, where the metal is
poured in, is covered with a pasteboard, which serves as a
bottom to the case, and prevents the linen from being burnt
while the metal is pouring in.
The strike or peel being filled with lead, according to the
intended size of the sheet, two men, one at each side, seize
hold of it, and with greater or less velocity, as the sheet is to
be more or less thick, force it down the inclined table ; for
the thickness of the sheet always depends upon the velocity
with which the strike slides down the table. The sheet-lead,
after casting, is frequently reduced by rollers.
As this particular department is so intimately connected
with the business of a plumber, we shall not be considered
as departing from the subject by inserting the following
tables, from Hutton's Mensuration,
Plumbers work is commonly estimated by the pound or
hundred weight ; but the weight may be discovered by the
measure of it, in the manner below stated. Sheet-lead used
in roofing, guttering, &c. is commonly between seven and
twelve pounds weight to the square foot ; but the following
table shows by inspection the particular weight of a square
foot for each of several thicknesses.
362 THK OPERATIVE MECHANIC
Pounds Pounds
Thickness. to a square foot. Thickness. to a square foot.

10 5-899 15 8-848
11 6-489 16 9-438
1
TJ
6-554 1
TT 9-831
12 7-078 17 10-028
1
7-373 18 10-618
13 7-668 19 11-207
14 8-258 2=* 11-797
1
T 8-427 .21 12-387

In this table the thickness is set down in tenths and hun-

dredths, &c. of an inch ; and the annexed corresponding
numbers are the weights in avoirdupois pounds and thou-
sandth parts of a pound. So the weight of a square foot of
or of an inch thick is 5 pounds and of a pound ;
and the weight of a square' foot to one-ninth of an inch
thickness is 6 pounds and -iWo- of a pound. Lead pipe
of an inch bore is commonly 13 or 14 pounds to the yard in
length.
Examples :

1. How much
weighs the lead which is 39 feet 6 inches long, and 3 feet
3 inches broad, at 8 lbs. to the square foot ?

Duodecimals.
Decimals.
39- 6
39-5 3- 3
H 118- 6
118-5 9-10-6
9*875

128-375

1027-000
64-1875
128- 4-6

1024
64

()1 7

1091*1875
Answer. 1091^^ibs.

2. What
cost the covering and guttering of a roof with lead, at 1 8 j. per
cwt. the length of the roof being 43 feet, and the breadth or girth over it
;

32 feet, the guttering 57 feet long, and 2 feet wide ; the former 9,831 lbs.

and the latter 7,373 lbs. to the square foot? Answer, 115?. 9. l^c?
It is now time to direct our attention to the manufacture
of lead pipes, which are universally employed for small
water-pipes, from the facility of bending them in any direc-
tion, and soldering their joints.
Lead pipes are sometimes cast in an iron mould, made in
two halves, forming, when put together, a hollow cylidner,
of the size of the intended pipe ; in this cylinder, or mould,
is put an iron rod or core, extending from the top to the
 AND MACHINIST. 363
bottom, and leaving all round a space between it and the
cylinder of the intended thickness of the pipe. The lead is
poured in at a spout, formed by two corresponding notches
cut in each half of the mould ; and a similar hole is made at
another place for the escape of air. The mould is fastened
down upon a bench, upon which, at one end, and in a line
with its centre, is a rack, moved by toothed-wheels and
pinions.
When the pipe is cast, a hook at the end of the rack is put
into an eye at the end of the iron core, which, by the action
of the cog-wheels and pinions, is drawn so far out, that about
two inches of it only remain in the end of the pipe ; the two
halves of the mould, which fasten together by wedges or
screws, are now separated from the pipes, and are fastened
upon the iron core, and the two inches of lead pipe attached
to it; melted lead is again poured into the mould, which,
uniting with the end of the first piece, forms the pipe of con-
siderable length ; and the operation is repeated till it be of
the length required.
Another and a much better method is, to cast the lead in an
iron mould upon a cylindrical iron pipe, of a size proportioned
to the bore of the pipe to be made, and leaving a space be-
tween the core and the mould three or four times the thick-
ness of the intended pipe, and in short lengths, w'hich are
afterwards drawn through holes in pieces of steel, similar to
the process of wire-drawing, till the pipe is reduced to the
required thickness.
Another method is that for which the celebrated iron-
manufacturer, Mr. John Wilkinson, of Brosely, took out a
patent in 1790, and which, since the expiration of his patent,
has been successfully practised by many other manufacturers.
This method consists in casting a circular piece of lead, about
eighteen inches long, with a core or hole longitudinally
through its centre. This piece is of considerably larger
diameter than that of the pipe intended to be made. The
core or hole at one extremity suddenly decreases, so as to
form on the internal surface of the piece of lead a stop or
shoulder, against which a polished iron triblet or mandrel,
which has been passed thus far along the core, rests. This
triblet or mandrel is of somewhat greater length than the
length required of the pipe to be manufactured, which,
generally speaking, is from seven to nine feet. An iron screw,
having a loop at the opposite end, is then passed down the
other end of the core, and is screwed into that part of the
mandrel which rests against the shoulder. In this state
364 THB OPERATIVE MECHANIC
the mandrel, with the circular piece of lead fixed fast on it, is
taken to the drawing-table.
The drawing-table in the principle of its operation resem-
bles the block described in the Wire Manufacture in every
respect, though it is far more powerful. The table generally
used is about thirty feet long, by two feet wide ; having at
one end a powerful cylinder with a chain attached to it.
This cylinder receives motion from a steam-engine, or other
first mover, and can be thrown in and out of geer by an adapt-
ation of any one of the appropriate modes described under
the article Mill-geering." About two-thirds the length
cf the bench from the cylinder, or roller, are two pins or stops
to hold a steel plate, which has a gradation of conical holes.
Through the largest of these holes, which is somewhat less
than the diameter of the circular piece of lead, the loop that
is screwed on to the end of the mandrel is passed, and attached
to a hook at the extremity of the chain, which chain is affixed
to the cylinder or roller. The cylinder being now thrown
into geer, the piece of lead is drawn through the hole in the
steel plate, which diminishes it in diameter, and increases it
in length ; and this operation is carried successively through
the series of gradually decreasing holes in the draw-plate,
until the pipe is reduced to the required diameter. The
cylinder is now struck out of geer^ and the mandrel liberated
from the chain, which is immediately attached to the other
end of it. The steel draw-plate being now removed, the
stops against which it rested allow the mandrel to pass be-
tween them, but detain the lead pipe, which, consequently,
by striking the cylinder into geer, allows the mandrel to be
extricated from it. A small portion of pipe being cut off at
both ends, the pipe is considered finished. Through the
whole of the operation, great care is taken to keep the
mandrel and steel plate well oiled.
As no acid can pass through lead pipe without becoming
more or less affected by its deleterious qualities, it is neces-
sary in cases where acids are used, to have pipes made of
iron, or of lead lined with tin. To line lead pipe with tin,
the lead pipe must be cast in a vertical mould, which has
a core of somewhat larger diameter than the intended-bore of
the pipe passing down its centre. When the pipe is cast,
and the metal is set, this mandrel is drawn out of the mould,
and another of smaller diameter is substituted. About as
much coarse resin as will lay on a shilling is now thrown into
the space between the pipe and the core or mandrel just
passed down the mould. This resin by the heat of the lead
 AND MACHINIST. 365

13 melted, and runs to the bottom of the mould. The melted

tin being now poured in, the resin will float on its surface,
and, consequently, as the tin rises, anoint the tin in every
part, and act as a flux, and unite the two vessels. As soon
as the tin is set, the last-mentioned mandrel is drawn out,
and the external mould being removed, the lead now lined
with tin is, when quite cold, ready to be submitted to the
process of drawing. Various other equally simple processes
are adapted to this purpose.

PAPER MANUFACTURE.
Paper, that highly valuable substance, which enables us
to communicate our thoughts to persons situate at the most
distant quarters of the civilized globe, is manufactured from
rags, by the aid of machinery.
It was formerly necessary to assort with great care the
rags which were intended to be manufactured into paper ;
and none but the whitest and best, and which, consequently,
were the most expensive, could be made into paper of the
finest quality ; but since the introduction of chlorine (which
was discovered by Scheele) into our bleaching establishments,
the necessity of this assortment has been greatly obviated
as it was soon conceived that that chemical agency, which
was capable of bleaching linen, was also applicable to the
whitening of the rag during the process of paper-making.
At that period of the process, when the rag is coining into
a state of pulp, chlorate of lime, which was first manufactured
by Mr. Tennant, of Glasgow, is introduced into the vat; and,
by its chemical action on the fibre, whitens or bleaches the
whole mass ; thus enabling the manufacturer to produce a
whiter and much finer quality of paper from rags of a se-
condary quality, than he had heretofore done from rags of
the most expensive description. It must, however, be ad-
mitted that, as in all bleaching processes where the fibre is
more or less deteriorated by the action of chlorine, the paper
manufactured and whitened by this agent is not so strong as
that formerly produced ; as may be observed in some thick
and beautifully white papers frequently offered to the public
 366 THE OPERATIVE MECHANIC
at low prices, which are manufactured from
aBtonisliing
coloured and inferior rags, with a superabundance of the
chlorate of lime introduced in the process of the manufacture.
By this, therefore, it is evident that the chlorate of lime,
when used too abundantly, will rot or destroy the fibre of the
whole ; but when judiciously applied, it produces a paper of
superior colour, and of adequate strength for all practical
purposes.
The paper-mill consists of a water-wheel, or other first
mover, connected with a combination of toothed and other
wheels, so arranged as to cause the cylinder in the washer,
and the one in the beating engine, which will be hereafter
described, to make from 120 to 150 revolutions per minute.
On the same shaft, and of the same size as the water-wheel,
is a toothed or cogged wheel, which plays in a pinion ; the
spindle of this pinion is furnished with a crank, which, by
means of a connecting rod, gives a reciprocating motion to a
lever, for the purpose of working tw'o pumps, which raise
a constant stream of water from the mill-dam. This stream
of water is kept running through the rags in the washing-
engine, to carry away the dirt separated from them by the
operation. The structure of an engine is more minutely
explained by figs. 371, 3J2, 373, 374, &c. ; fig. 371 being
a section through the length of the engines, and fig. 372
a horizontal plan.
The large vat or cistern, A A, is of an oblong figure on the outside, the
angles being cut off ; but the inside, which is lined with lead, has straight
sides and circular ends. It is divided by a partition, B B, also covered
with lead. The cylinder C is fixed fast upon the spindle D, which extends
across the engine, and is put in motion, as before described, by the pinion E,
placed on the extremity of it. The cylinder is made of wood, and furnished
with a number of teeth, or cutters, fixed fast on its circumference, parallel
to the axis, and projecting about an inch, as is shown on a larger scale at
fig. 375.
Immediately beneath the cylinder, a block of wood, H, is placed, and
provided with similar cutters to those of the cylinder, which, when they
revolve, pass very near the teeth of the block, but do not touch ; the dis-
tance between them being capable of regulation, by elevating or depressing
the bearings on which the necks D,D, of the spindle are supported. These
bearings are made on two levers, F, F, which have tenons at their ends,
fitted into upright mortises, made in short beams, G, G, bolted to the sides
of the engine. (See also fig. 373.) The levers, F, F, are movable at one
end of each, the other ends being fitted to rise and fall on bolts, in the
beams G, as centres-
The front one of these levers, or that nearest to the cylinder C, is capable
of being elevated or depressed, by turning the handle of the screw b,
which, as shown in fig. 373, acts in a nut a, fixed to the tenon of F, and
comes up through the top of the beam G, upon which the head of the screw
TAFER MAI^rFACTURE &5Z
11.50.51
From 371 to 3 75

yeelf & Stcddey sc J5 X Str<and

 AND MACHINIST. 367
takes bearing. Two brasses are let into the middle of the levers F, F
its

and form the bearings for the spindle of the engine to work upon. The
screw, h, is used to raise or lower the cylinder, and cause it to cut finer or
coarser, by enlarging or diminishing the space between the cutters in the
block, and those of the cylinder.
Near K, figs. 371 and 372, is a circular breasting made of boards, and
covered with sheet-lead it is curved to fit the cylinder very truly, and
:

leaves but very little space between the teeth and breasting. An inclined
plane, K, leads regularly from the bottom of the engine-vat to the top of
this breasting ; and at the bottom of it the block, H, is fixed.
The engine is supplied with water by a pipe, Q, bringing it from the
pump ; this pipe delivers it into a small cistern, M, adjoining, and com-
municating with the engine. Tliq pipe has a cock, P, to stop the entrance
of the water, when required, or to regulate the quantity of its discharge.
The small cistern has a grating fixed across it, covered with a hair-strainer,
to catch any extraneous matter which may come in with the water, or a
flannel bag is sometimes tied over the orifice of the cock, P, through
which all the water must be filtered. When the engine is filled with water,
and a quantity of rags put in, they are, by the revolution of the cylinder,
drawn between its cutters and the teeth of the block H. This cuts them
in pieces, then, by the rapid motion of the cylinder, the rags and water are
thrown over the top of the breasting, upon the inclined plane ; in a short
time, this raises more rags and water into that part of the engine-vat ; and
the tendency to restore the equilibrium puts the whole contents of the vat
in slow motion, down the inclined plane K, and round the partition B B,
by which they come to the cylinder again in about the space of 20 minutes
so that the rags are repeatedly cut and chopped in every direction, till they
are reduced to a pulp.
This circulation is of advantage, in turning the rags over in the engine,
and causes them to present themselves to the cutters in a different direction
every time ; for as the cylinder cuts or clips in straight lines, in the same
manner as a pair of shears, it is requisite to cut the rags across in different
directions, to reduce them to a pulp.
Tlie manner of the cutting is this : the teeth of the block are placed
rather inclined to the axis of the cylinder, as shown by fig. 374, but the
teeth of the cylinder are parallel to its axis ; therefore, the cutting edges,
when they meet, are at a small angle, and come in contact first at one
end, and then successively the contacts proceed along to the other end, so
that any rags interspersed betw'een them are cut in the same manner as
they would be between the blades of a pair of shears. Sometimes the
plates or cutters, in the block, are bent to an angle in the middle, instead
of being straight, and inclined to the cylinder ; in this case, they are
called elbow plates, and of course the two ends are both inclined to the
axis of the cylinder in opposite directions. In either case, the edges of
the plate of the block cannot be straight lines, but must be curved, to
adapt themselves to the curve which a line traced on the cylinder will of
course have.
The plates or cutters of the block are united, by screwing them altogether,
and fitting them into a cavity cut out in the wooden block H ;
their edges
are bevelled away on one side only; as shown at U in the section, fig. 374.
The block is fixed in its place by being made dove-tailed, and truly fitted
into the bottom of the cistern, so that the water will not leak by it. The
end of it comes through the wood-work of the chest, and projects a small
distance on the outside of it, being kept up to its place by a wedge, so that
by withdrawing this wedge, the block becomes loose, and can be removed,
308 THE OPERATIVE MECHANIC
to sharpen the cn tiers, as occasion requires. This is done on a grindstone,
the plates being first separated from each other.
The cutters of the cylinder are fixed into grooves, cut in the wood of the
cylinder, at equal distances from each other round its circumference, in a
direction parallel to its axis ; the number of these grooves is twenty ; and
for the washer, each groove has two cutters or bars put into it; then a fillet
of wood driven fast in between them, to hold them firm ; and the fillets
is
are kept fast by spikes driven into the solid wood of the cylinder. The
beater is made in the same manner, except that each groove contains three
bars and two fillets, as shown in fig. 375.
In the operation of the cylinder, it is necessary that it should be enclosed
in a case, or its great velocity would throw all the water and rags out of the
engine. The case is a wooden box, L L, enclosed on all sides except the
bottom ; one side of it rests upon the edge of the vat, and the other upon
the edge of the partition B B. The lines, c e, represent the edges of wooden
frames, which are covered with hair or wire-cloth ; and immediately behind
these, the box is made with a bottom, and a ledge towards the cylinder,
which makes a complete trough.
The dark spaces, e e, in fig. 371, show the situation of two openings, or
spouts, through the side of the case, which lead to flat lead-pipes, b, b,
fig. 372, which are placed by the side of the vat;' the beam, F, being cut
away for them. There are waste pipes, to convey away the foul water from
the engine ; for the cylinder, as it turns, throws a great quantity of water
and rags against the sieves ; the water goes through them, and runs down
into the trough at e e, and from thence into the ends of the lead pipes, 5, b,
fig. 372, by which it is conveyed away ; d^d, fig. 371, are grooves for two
boards, which, when put down in their places, cover the hair-sieves, and
stop the water from going through them, if it is required to retain the water
in the engine. This is always the case in the beating-engines, and therefore
they are seldom provided with these waste-pipes, or at most on one side
only ; the other side of the cover being curved, to conform to the cylinder.
Except this, the only difference between the washing-engine and the beater
is that the teeth of the latter are finer, having 60 instead of 40 bars on its
circumference ; and it revolves quicker than the washer, so that it will cut
and divide those particles which pass through the teeth of the washer.

The rags being now reduced to a state of pulp, we shall in

the next place proceed to show the method of forming it into
sheets of paper.
It was formerly the custom to allow a small, but sufficient
portion of the pulp to flow on a sieve furnished with two
handles, which sieve was agitated by a workman until the
pulp had subsided or settled regularly throughout the surface.
This, when it had passed through the usual processes of
pressing, drying, &c. constituted a sheet of paper; and its
texture was indicated by the fineness of the quality of the
wire out of wffiich the sieve was constructed.
This unmechanical and desultory mode of operation has
])een obviated by improvements eflected by many ingenious
persons ; but the machines which are now almost universally
employed, and which have most decidedly superseded all
 AND MACHINIST. 3G9
attempts at the same object, was the invention of the
Gtliel*
Messrs. Fourdrinier. The action and arrangement of this
ingenious piece of mechanism consists in having a horizontal
frame, of any required length, furnished with a roller or
cylinder at each end, over which is stretched an endless web
of brass wire, of the requisite texture or fineness for the
paper about to be manufactured. At one end of the frame,
parallel with, and immediately over, one of the cylinders, is a
long angular trough, into which the pulp is received, whence
it issues through a long slit or opening, which is regulated by

a screw, and falls on the surface of the web beneath. At this

period of the process, the cylinders are set in motion, and
the web proceeds slowly forward with a tremulous motion,
which arranges and disperses the pulp regularly over the
whole surface of the web. This tremulous motion is im^
parted to the whole of the machinery by an eccentric move-
ment.
As soon as the paper arrives in this crude and wet state at
the extremity of the web of the further cylinder, it is wiped
and taken up by a larger cylinder, covered with felt or flannel,
and is passed between a series of similar cylinders, and finally
delivered to a reel, and wound off in a coil or hank so long as
the operation proceeds. Thus, paper, by the action of this
ingenious machine, may be manufactured to an unlimited
length, and of any width that is compatible with the manu-
facture of wire web. The reel or winder being now with-
drawn, the coil of paper is cut on both sides, forming sheets
of the length and breadth of the machine and reel on which it
is wound.
The arrangement of the different speeds of the various
cylinders for moving the web, and afterwards pressing the
paper, together with the action of the reel, and the tremulous
motion that is imparted to the whole of the machinery by the
eccentric or wiper, as also the regular supply of the pulp for
the various qualities of the paper to be manufactured, form a
most elegant combination of ingenuity and mechanical know-
ledge ; and it is only to be lamented that the inventors and
first proprietors, of this great source of national industry,
should not have obtained a reward adequate to the benefit
which they have conferred on their country.
The quantity of water which a paper-mill can command to
turn its engines, generally limits the extent of its trade;
hence the manufacturers should attend to every improvemeni
>f the machinery which can increase their effects

2 B
 370 I HE OPERATIVE MECHANiC
A very large and capital paper-mill^ at Maidstone^ in Kent^
which is the principal seat of the paper trade in England^ is
worked by steam-engines, and is found to answer very well.
The machinery and building of a paper-mill should be well
made, and firmly put togetheiv otherw^e its great velocity
and power produces a tremor, which in time shakes every
thing to pieces. The noise and vibration of a washing-
engine is tremendous for when it revolves 120 times per
;

minute, and has forty teeth, each of which passes by twelve

or fourteen teeth in the block at every revolution, it will make
near 60,000 cuts per minute, and each of them sufficiently
loud to produce the most honible growling sound which can
Be conceivedo
The beater revolving quicker, having si.7ty teeth, and twenty
or twenty-four cutters in the block, will make 180,000 cut
per minute, v/hich is so rapid, as to produce a coarse, musical
note or humming, which may be heard at a great distance from
the mill. This great number of cuts will account for an
engine being able, in the course of four or five hours workings
to reduce a quantity of rags lo those exceedingly minute
filaments, of which paper is composed.
Mr. John Dickenson took out a patent in 1809, for C^ertaiyit
improvements on his former patent machinery for cutting and
planing paper, as also for certain machinery for the manu-
facture of paper by a new method. His description of it is
as follows:
Tlie first part of the inverrtion, consisting in certain improvenients in the'"
patent machinery for cutting and planing paper, is described in the annexed
drawings ; wherein fig. 376 represents a sectional elevation, fig. 377 a
plan, and fig. 378 a transverse section. Every part in the elevation, fig. 376,
is on a line with the same part in the plan, fig. 377, and the same parts are
represented by the same letters in all the three figures ; a is a reel, covered
with paper; b a swinging roller, to draw the end of the paper a little back
after it has been cut ; c a bar, having a groove in its upper surface, into
which the circular cutter d runs. The bar c is movable up to a certain'
height, and connected with two arms, x x, by means of which it may he
moved downwards ; the springs e e will elevate it again when the pressure
is removed from the arms xx ; is a sliding frame, having a pair of
f
tongs attached to the front of it, and marked g. The board on which the
paper is laid is marked h and on the side next the tongs is furnished
with thin teeth, ii. The frame which carries the tongs, slides in groove.s
in the frame of the machine, and is moved backwards and forwards by tlie
rod j, which in draiving the tongs from the reel of paper closes them ; and;
in forcing them back again towards the reel of paper, opens them. On
each side of the frame /is fixed a small roller, which act upon the arms xxy
so that the frame in being forced tow^ards the reel of paper presses the arm.s
down, and consequently moves the bar c down out of the way of the tongs?,
wdiichat that period are open. Tlie end of the paper is at that time lying
<;ven with the extremity of the teeth i and the jaws of thf^ tongs closing
 PAF'K >1^ MAFr.'l^YXiT I'M n.53.
Troin 376 to 380 8c 384 to 386

i
4
i

^
i-i
I i r
 AND MACHINIST. 3/i

jTnmed lately that the rod j is put in motion to draw the frame back, seize
the paper in every interval between the teeth, and draw it along with them
When they have carried it out the length that the sheet of paper is wanted,
the bar c having been raised up to its place by the springs ee, the circular
Cutter is thrown across, and as the edge descends into the groove about the
sixteenth part of an inch, the paper which is lying upon it is cut through,
and the ends fall down upon the heap below the tongs; being then forced
back, and at the same time opened by the rody, the other end of the sheet
is released, also the swinging roller b then falls dowm upon the board /^,
and draws back tlie end of the paper even wdth the line fofmed by the end
of the teetk, ready for being seized again by the tongs. The rods j, by
which the frame carrying the tongs is moved backwards and forwards, has
a hook A, which can be fixed at any part of the rod by a screw ; and the
ciinck being furnished with pins m m, at two opposite points on its surface,
these catch the hooks, and draw the rod, and consequently the frame, with
the tongs outwards. When the ciinck has made half a revolution the hook
is stopped by the bar , and the rod and frame remain stationary while
the paper is cut. When the pin has got clear of the hook, the rod and
frame are immediately drawn hack by aw'eight acting over a pulley, which
is connected wdth the rod by the cord o. Tire circular knife is fixed in a
sort of waggon, having four rollers p p, by means of w^hich it runs along llie
beams q q. The knife is kept moving at tlie rate of about five hundred turns
per minute, by means of a band passing round the stnall rigger r, and the
pulleys s Sy which is kept in motion by any convenient power. The waggoir
may be thrown across at the proper period by the following method, or any
other more convenient. A cord is attached to the waggon, acting over a
pulley with a weight at the end, sufficient to draw it across one way with
a quick motion : for drawing it across the other way a cord is attached to
the waggon, which is carried over a pulley, and fastened to the weight A,
in fig. 379, which is much heavier than the weight before mentioned. The
endless band B passes round the rigger D, which is kept in constant
uniform motion, according to the rate at which the paper is cut. The band
also passes round the rigger C, which has a click that stops it going round
consequently as the tigger goes on, it keeps winding up the w^eight A, and
the spare band is engrossed by the smaller weight E, so that when the click
that confines the rigger D is removed, the weight A descends and draw's it
round a complete revolution, when it is again caught by the click, at the
same time the weight A draws the waggon across, and it is caught on that
side the frame and confined by a click when the next sheet is to be cut the
;

waggon is released, and the weight attached to it on the other side draws it
across again, the heavier weight A being by that time drawn up high enough
to allow of its going all across the two clicks may be contrived according
;
to any common Well-known mechanical method, and the motion that
releases them can be communicated with the most advantage from the
click e ; the pins m m can be fixed in holes i f, at a greater or lesa distance
from the centre, according to the size the paper is intended to be Cut, and
the hook on the red
j must be shifted accordingly. A regular motion may
be given to the click by any convenient power, and at such a rate as it is
required to cut the paper.
The remainder of the drawings is for the purpose of explaining the
remaining part of the invention, consisting of certain machines or machinery
for the manufacture of paper, by a new method. For this purpose, a
cylinder is constructed so as to possess the following requisites :in the first
place it must be hollow and open at the ends secondly, the surface of the
;
periphery must be like a sieve, with apertures communicating with the
2b2
372 THE OPERATIVE MECHANIC
internal part large enough to permit the passage of water, but calculated idr
intercept fibres of rag ; thirdly, it must be so contrived that the surface will
not yield from its perfectly cylindrical form, notwithstanding a very consider-
able degree of pressure upon it ; fourthly, it must be furnished with broad
flat rings for the purpose of covering part of its surface ; at the ends there
may be several pairs of these rings of different widths, in order to vary the
proportion of the surface which is left uncovered, provided the same
cylinder is extended for making fifthly, it must be
different sized papers ;

hung upon an and firmly fixed in bearings, so

axis in a horizorrtal position,
that it may be turned by any convenient power ; sixthly, the numerous
small apertures on the external surface must open into a less number of
large ones, communicating with the internal surface, with solid interstices
between them; seventhly, it ought not to be made of wood because it
would be liable to warp, nor of iron because it would rust, and injure the
paper ; brass or any other strong metal w^ould be found most convenient.
To construct a cylinder possessing the requisites above-mentioned, of
v/hich the dimensions must be according to the size and thickness of tlie
paper it is intended for making, the patentee takes a brass cylinder, perfectly
smooth inside and outside, excepting a small portion at each end which is
left plain, and turns the outside so as to resemble a screw, the threads of
wdiich are about a quarter of an inch apart, and the twenty -fifth part of an
inch in depth, vv^ith a round edge. He then drills holes between the threads,
which are cut in a taper form, the diameter at top being the width of the
interval between the threads, and at the bottom reduced to one half that'
size ;
the space on the outer surface of the cylinder, left between these
holes on each side, is equal to the breadth of the thread notches are cut in
;

the threads for the purpose of letting in cross wires, the diameter of which is
equal to that of the threads, so that w'hen they are laid into the notches and
soldered, or otherwise fastened down, the surface of the cylinder will resem-
ble network, with openings of an oblong shape, and having the surfaces
of all the interstices plane with each other, and wound to an equal curve.
It is then covered with an endless web of woven wire, which is drawn tight
over it. The ends of the cylinder are cut down, or rabbeted, so that a ring
may be m.ade to slide on each end and the ends of the wire are fastened to
;

this ring by means of small plates, which are put over the wire, and screwed
down upon the rings by means of screws which pass through tlie wire.
These rings are also furnished with other screws for the purpose of extend-
mg them out from the cylinder, and the wire being fastened to them it is
by that means stretched and drawn tight down upon the surface of tlie
cylinder.
In the annexed drawing, fig. 380, a to b represents a transverse section-
of a segment of the cylinder C C C, being the holes; ddd, the cross wire;
eece, the thread of the screw, which is shaded.
Fig. 381- is a plan of a portion of the external surface of the cylinder,
Vherein A to B shows it without the cross wires, or the external wove
wire ; C C C are the Jioles, e ee the thread of the screw with the notches
cut, a a a, for the reception of the cross wires ; B to C shows it with the
cross wires let in, d d d, which are soldered or otherwise fastened at their
ends into the ends of the cylinder. C to D
shows it with the woven wire
laid over it, through which the surface of the cylinder is seen underneath.
Fig. 382 is a section of a part of the cylinder at one end, where the holes
are marked ccc, the cross wires ddd, the threads eee the external wove
wire/, is represented by a red line, it is carried under the plates g, and
fastened, by means of a number of screws, h, down upon the ring i, which
is shaded, and after it is fixed in that manner at each end of the cylinder.
 AND MACHINIST. 37s
tiie ring i may be extended from by means of the larger screws
the cylinder
R, and the wire thereby strained down tight upon the surface of the cylinder;
this. part of the mechanism is also represented in the plan, fig. 381, where the

different parts are marked in the same manner, except that the woven wire
is drawn in black.
Fig. 383 is a representation of a connected w eb of laid wire, which may
be laid over the cylinder exactly in the same manner as the wove wire,
observing that the laid wires should be parallel with the axis, and the
tying wires eee at right angles with it, observing that the laid wires must
be very fine, placed very near together, and drawn as tight as possible at
the ends. The reason of laying the cross wires ddd diagonally, is prin-
cipally in order that they may not be parallel with the laid wires, in wdiich
case they would impede the passage of the water ; for this reason they ought
to lay at an angle as near 45 degrees as may be convenient ; but if the
cylinder is intended only for the manufacture of wove papers, the cross
wires may be parallel with the axis, the holes ranged in rows also parallel
with the axis, and the threads of the screw converted into small beads. -

There are other modes of constructing a cylinder possessing the necessary

requisites, but the patentee thought it expedient only to describe that
which he considers easiest of construction, most durable, and most effica-
cious in use. He also proposes connecting the rings mentioned as the
fourth requisite, as being necessary for covering part of the surface of the
cylinder, completed as above at the ends with arms, so as to form caps that
may be fixed on to the end of the cylinder, and each being furnished with
an axis, it can then be fixed in bearings for the purpose of being turned by
any convenient power.
Fig. 384 is an outline section, representing it in that situation, with a vessel
-fixed against it, which is called aback ; the sides or cheeks ofwhich are curved,
fo as to correspond with the rings or surface of the caps ; and the bottom,
at the point s, is made to close in upon the surface of the cylinder, so that
the vessel on all sides fits the cylinder in such manner, that, if fixed against
it, and filled with any fluid, the fluid would have no means whatever of

escaping, except by running through the surface of the cylinder, and out at
the ends the exact shape of this vessel is not material.
: He next takes a
triangular trough, or receiver, closed up at the ends, and made so that the
i.pper edges fit the inside of the cylinder, and of such a depth that the
bottom may be about level wdth the centre of the cylinder, so that this
1 eing fixed, and the cylinder turned round, every part of the upper edge

may rub against the inside of the cylinder, which we have before said must
be perfectly smooth. In fig. 380 a section is shown of this trough, which has
an orifice at one end, at the bottom, marked jn. It may be observed, that
at the points n it comes in contact with the internal surface of the
cylinder.
Fig. 335 is an outline vertical section, wherein the trough is represented
fixed in the inside of the cylinder, and coloured blue, with the orifice ?n and
pipe communicating with it . It is to be observed, that this trough is
firmly fixed by means of a plummer block 0 0 which has the top coupling
,

screwed down fast, and the trough is supported at the other end by means
of a cylindrical pin, which works in a hole in the cap a. The other cap d,
instead of an axis, has a hole in the middle, fitted to the outside of the
pipe n, so that it forms a bearing for that side of the cylinder. The axis
of the cap , at the other end of the cylinder, is supported in a bearing,
arid has upon it a cog-wheel
p by means of which motion may be com-
municated to the cylinder, and as it turns round it rubs against the upper
edge of the trough, which will remain fixed, and receive any fluid that
374 THE OPERATIVE MECHANIC
passes tlu'ou<;h the upper part of the surface of the cylinder, and carry it
off tlirough the oriftce m in the same section. The cylinder is coloured
yellow, the caps red, and the parts which answers to the rings are shaded,
hhg. 386 is a front view of one of the caps.
Fig, 387 is a sectional elevation of the machinery, in a state of prepara-
tion for the manufacture of paper.
Fig. 388 is a plan of the same. Each part in the elevation, fig, 387, is
on a line with the same part in the plan, fig. 388 ; and every part is marked
with the same letter in both. A is a circular stuff-chest; into which the

stuff is admitted from the engine. B is an agitator, consisting of a number

of arms, connected with the spindle C, which passes up through a tube D,
in the centre of the chest, and this being turned by the bevelled cog-wheel E,
keeps the stuff in motion in the chest, and also, by means of the two
riggers F F', gives motion to another small agitator, in the smaller vessel G,
wliich is for the purpose of receiving the stuff from the first chest, and it is
conveyed through the pipe FI, the aperture of which is enlarged or contracted
by means of a conical valve, which is acted upon by some apparatus I, on
the principle of a ball-cock, so that as the vessel fills wdth stuff it gradually
closes the orifice ; by this means the stuff in the smaller vessel G may be
kept at a uniform height, and the head being uniformly the same, the
discharge through the pipe J at the bottom will be always equal. The
large chest A may be of any shape or dimensions, and agitated in any
convenient manner ; the smaller chest G ought to be circular, and about
18 inches diameter, and the same depth. The use of it is to cause an
uniform discharge, which would not take place if the stuff were to pass from
the large chest without any intermediate vessel, because its passage through
the pipe would be more or less rapid, according to the height of the head,
which would be continually varying in proportion to the consumption or
accumulation of stuff. In the pipe J there is a cock K, by means of which
the quantity of stuff that is permitted to pass may be regulated with the
greatest degree of nicety ; and when it is once ascertained what proportion
of stuff is required, no variation in the supply can take place. The best
sort of cock or valve for the purpose will be such a one as leaves an open-
ing for the stufi, which is nearly round or square, because if it were narrow
the stuff might lodge. The pipe J descends into the pipe K, through which
there is a constant and rapid flow of water, and it carries awa.y the supply
of pulp from the pipe J, and they pass together into the vessel L, in which
there are two agitators M M, kept in pretty quick motion by means of the
riggers N N. In this vessel and in the pipe K the water and stuff become
intimately mixed, and formed into pulp, ofaproper consistency for working;
but it is to be olaserved, that in making paper by this method about four

times as much water should be introduced into the pulp as is made use of
in the ordinary modes of paper-making. From the vessel L the pulp flows
through the pipes O O into the vessel P, which has been before described
in fig. 384, and called a back. QQ are waste pipes, for adjusting the height
of the head, or, in other words, the level of the pulp. In the back R is the
hollow cylinder, described in figs. 380, 381, 382, 383, 384, and 385, and
the cylinder being in motion in tlie direction described in the drawing,
the water is constantly flowing through the surface of it from the point S
to the point T, that is to say, through every part which is covered by the
pulp, and, as the water passes througli, tiie fibres of rag are left on the
surface, so that they are generally accumulating on any given part of the
surface of the cylinder during tlie whole of its passage from the point S to
the point T ; and w hen it emerges from the pulp at the point T, the
quantity requisite for the composition of a sheet of paper is collected,
 r.'KK

From SSI to 383 & 3S7 to 392

381 390
 AND MACHINIST,
s.nd tills takes place in endless successkin as iong as the motion is
continued, and an unifoirn supply of pulp is kept up. It has been before
tftated, that when the surface of the cylinder emerges from the pulp
at the point T, the quantity of fibre requisite for the composition of a
sheet of paj:>er is collected; but at that period so much v'atcr is con-
tained among them, that it is necessary' to <iram off the greater part of it
before it will admit of any sort of pressure usually made use of for squeezing-
out the water, and for compressing the fibres of rag together, for the purpose
of making them cohere, and thereby giving tenacity to the paper. For this
purpose the trough V, the construction of which is more fully explained in
figs. 380 and 385, is fixed in the inside of the cylinder, and made to fit tight
all round its upper edge- It has a communication with the pipe W, as is
represented in fig. 385, where t]he pipe is pointed out by the letter n ; and
this pipe is connected with a pair of double-acting pumps X
X, placed in a
cistern of water, so that when those pvunps are put in motion, tlie air con-
tained in the triangular space, enclosed between the trough and the cylinder,
is immediately drawn out, and consequently the pressure of the atmosjiherc
takes place upon the surface of the cylinder, which is covered with pulp, in
the state before described, and thereby rendered nearly impervious to tlie
air. The immediate affect produced is the squeezing out the water, and
laying the pulp down in a compact state on the surface of the cylinder, so
that the paper cannot be disturbed at tlie point Z, by the pressure of the
solid roller a. This part of the process I call the pneirmatic pressure. The
periphery of the roller moves it exactly the same rate as the periphery of
the cylinder R, and in the direction described in the drawing. The roller
a is made to fit in exactly betwen the inside of the caps, described in fig. 385,
so that it shall only press upon the paper covering the surface of the pervious
cylinder. The surface of the roller A
should be smooth, and the paper wilt
adhere to it instead of the pervious cylinder R, and be led round by it to
undergo a second pressure between the roller a and the roller b, which
iatter has a pervious surface, consequently the paper will be produced
sufficiently dry for leading off to the cutting. It is well known by paper-
makers, that, independent of the quality of the materials, the strength,
smoothness, and beauty of papers depend upon the arrangement of the
fibres of rag of wffiich it is composed ; that in a well-made sheet of paper
fhe fibres are ranged in a horizontal and parallel direction, and a manu-
facturer describing such a sheet of paper, would say that the stuff was well
shut, which quality all paper must possess in a greater or less degree,
because otherwise the parts of the sheet will scarcely cohere together, the
surface will be rough, the thickness uneven, and the paper devoid of
beauty, and not adapted for use. In the modes of paper-making exercised
hitherto, this indispensable object has been accomplished, by shaking the
mould or wire on which the pulp is settling, so that, as the water runs off,
the fibres are laid flat upon the surface of the mould, and arranged in a
parallel direction ; but in making paper by the machinery above described,
the stuff is perfectly well shut, without any shaking, the fibres of rag being-
deposited gradually, in a longitudinal direction, by means of the frictioa
which takes place upon the cylinder, in consequence of its motion being in
an opposite direction to that of the stream of pulp, the effect of which is to
smooth down the fibres of rag as they are laid upon the cylinder, and it is
necessarily continued during the whole time of the formation of the paper,
and must be uniform throughout every part of it. The reason of introducing
,so large a quantity of water into the pulp, is in order that every fibre may
be afloat separately, and at liberty to take a direction according to th
influence of these courses.
 376 THE OPERATIVE MECHANIC
It is tobe observed, that the principle here developed would admit of other
less eligible modifications, such as confining a body of the pulp on the
surface of an endless well of woven wire, carried round cylinders, as in the
outline section, fig. 389, or supporting it on a cylinder of a large size, as in
the outline section, fig. 390, without applying the pneumatic pressure in
either case.
In fig. 389 the cylinder ab c should be hollow, and have pervious surfaces.
In fig. 390 the cylinder might be of a more simple construction than that
described in figs. 380, 381, 382, 384, and 385, but unless of a very large
size indeed, it could only be made use of for making very thin papers, be^
cause the water requires so long time to run off before the paper will admit
of any mechanical pressure.
It is to be observed, that in making paper by this method, after a certain
quantity of fibres of rag are deposited on the surface of the cylinder, it ren-
ders the passage of the water and the accumulation of more fibres so diffi-
cult, that without a considerable height of pulp the pressure will not be
sufficient to force the water through the cylinder, and the fibres of rag laying
upon it, the consequence of which w^ould be, that the fibres of rag accumu-
lated on the surface of the cylinder would be washed off by the pulp, or very
much disturbed before they arrived at the point T, which is the level of the
pulp in the back ; to obviate this, it will be necessary to add the pressure of
the atmosphere to the weight of the water in making thick papers, which
may be done by extending one side of the trough V below the level of the
pulp, so as to cause a suction under that part of the cylinder which is
covered by the pulp, as well as under that part which has emerged from it.
For this purpose a wider trough would be necessary ; but at all events the
exact proportion of the cylinder, covered by the trough, is not material, be-
cause it will be found by experience what width is sufficient for drying the
paper, so as to enable it to have the pressure of the roller a. The roller a
ought to press on the cylinder R about the point which is ovei one side of
the trough V, and, according as the trough is shifted, the roller should be
shifted also ; but this pressure ought to be not less than forty-five degrees
above the level of the axis, because, otherwise, part of the water pressed
out of the paper will be absorbed by it again, whereas, from the position it
acts in, in the drawing, fig. 387, the water will be sucked into the trough.
The roller a should not be fixed in bearings, but confined down upon the
cylinder by weights, suspended upon each end of the axis, which may be
adjusted according to circumstances, and in all cases the principal pressure
should be upon the roller b. The water which runs through the cylinder in
figs. 387 and 388, and out at the end, falls in the first instance into the cis-
tern C, from whence it passes through the pipe d into the cistern e, and
from thence is, by means of a pair of double-acting pumps,/ forced through
/
the pipe K into the vessel L, so that it continually returns for the same purpose
of conducting the pulp to the cylinder from the pipe J. The pipe G is a sort
of gauge, by means of which, after the pulp rises to a proper height in the
vessel L, the remainder of the water is carried off into the cistern C, where
there may be a waste pipe for conveying off the superfluous quantity. Thq
water drawn from the cylinder R, through the trough V, by means of the
air and water pumps X X, may run to waste. The size of the cylinder R,
and of the trough V, must be regulated according to the substance and di-
mensions of the paper it is intended for making. Fifteen inches will be
sufficient for the diameter of a cylinder intended for making paper equal in
substance to a paper twenty-two inches by seventeen inches and a half,
weighing twenty pounds per ream the length of the cylinder is entirely
:

arbitrary. The thickness of the paper made by a cylinder may be adjusted

 AND MACHINIST, 377
jn various ways : first, by using cylinders of various diameters ; secondly, by

accelerating or retarding the motion of the cylinder ; thirdly, by varying the

proportion of the surface of the cylinder, which is covered with pulp;
fourthly, by varying the consistency of the pulp. The periphery of the cylin-
der ought to move at the rate of about thirty-six feet per minute ; the pulp
ought at all events to be very thin, and therefore the most eligible mode
of adjusting the thickness of the paper would be by varying the pro-
portion of the surface of the cylinder, which is covered w'ith pulp ; conse-
quently for thicker papers a larger cylinder would be necessary, or a back
may be made use of, extending higher up towards the point Z, so as to covet
a larger proportion of the surface of the same cylinder : and for thinner pa-
per a back might be made use of covering less of the cylinder, as in fig. 390,
by means of the cock in pipe J. The quantity of pulp supplied to the cylin-
der can be adjusted with the greatest accuracy, consequently the thickness
of the paper may be preserved uniform, or varied at discretion, provided the
thickness of the pulp in the chest A, and the motion of the cylinder R be
continued uniform. By means of the gauge pipes Q the level of the pulp in
the back P can be varied till the most eligible point for the cylinder to emerge
from the pulp is ascertained, and the supply of water through the pipe r
must be adjusted accordingly. It may be laid down as a general rule, that
the thicker the paper the higher should be the level of the pulp in the back.
In order to close the trough V tight upon the cylinder R, the patentee pro-
poses packing it all round the top, where it comes in contact withinside of
the cylinder, as at the points nn, in the section fig. 380.
The mode of packing is so well known, that it is unnecessary to give any
description, except the representation in the drawing. The friction of the
oack P upon the cylinder may be taken off by strips of woollen cloth or
leather, particularly at the line across from the point S.
Figs. 391 and 392 are for the purpose of explaining a more simple mode
of construction. Ais a hollow cylinder, with a pervious surface, which may

be used in cases when the pneumatic pressure is not applied ; a is the

thread of a screw ; bb represent cross-bars, carried across ^he internal
surface, parallel with the axis. The best mode of constructing it will be to
cast a cylinder with the bars in the inside, and to cut the screw deep enough
to form an opening between every bar. It should be furnished with cross
wires, c c e, and covered with wove wire, in the same way as the cylinder
R. It might be made on a larger or smaller scale, according to the purpose
for which it is required. The roller b, in figs. 387 and 388, may be made
in this manner, but stronger, as a great degree of pressure is intended to
take place upon it.
When the machinery is to work, the agitator and pumps should be set in
motion ; first by turning the shaft K, and then the cylinder R, by means of
the cog-wheel P, which gives motion to the rollers a and b, by cog-wheels
q
and r. The mode of giving motion, and the situation of the pumps and
stuff-chest, may be arranged according to convenience, but the motion
pught to be perfectly regular.
378 THK OPERATIVE MECHANIC

COTTON MANUFACTURE.
Cotton is a fibrous vegetable substance, the produce of a
small tree called the gossypium, or cotton plant, which grows
naturally, and is much cultivated, in the tropical regions of
Asia, Africa, and America.
The cotton, when collected from the pod, contains the seed,
and pieces of the husk by which it was enveloped is attached
to it ; it has therefore, preparatory to being subjected to the
operation of spinning, to undergo a process that will divest it
of these superfluous parts. The ancient mode of effecting
this wis by what is termed bowing it ; that is, exposing it to
the action of a bow, about four feet long, such as is used at
the present day by hatters. The process consisted merely in
placing the cotton upon a square table with horizontal chinks
cut through it, and submitting it to the repeated action of the
bow until the dust, seeds, and superfluous parts had separated
and fallen through the chinks. This inconvenient and desul-
tory mode has in modern times been superseded by a far more
eftectual and expeditious one, by the application of a machine
called a gm. Gins are of two kinds, the one called the roller-
gin ; the other the saw-gin.
The is represented in fig. 399.
roller-gin It consists of two shallow fluted
rollers a and placed so near to each other, that when the cotton is thrust
b,
against the line where they enter into contact, they immediately seize hold of
it and draw it in between them, while the seeds and other particles, not
being able to pass through, fall into the box K, and are, by the slanting di-
rection of its bottom, delivered on one side. The motion is communicated
by means of the treadle and crank C D, and is equalized by the fly-wheel
E. The cotton is presented to the rollers over the board f g, and is drawn
between them, and delivered at I H. In South America this kind of gin
is much used, and a negro working with one of them can clean from 30 lbs.
to 40 lbs, weight of cotton per day, which, however, is considered heavy
work.
The saw-gin is given in section in fig. 400. The cotton is thrown into the
receptacle AB, on that side marked C D, which is formed of strong wires
placed parallel to each other, to admit the circular saws E, fixed on the axis
F, behind the grating, about an eighth of an inch apart, to pass between
them. By this means, the teeth of the saws seize hold of the cotton and draw
it through the bars ; and the seeds and other superfluous parts, being too

bulky to pass tiirough, remain behind, and eventually fall through the aper-
ture G. The cotton is brushed from the saws by a circular brush H, made
to revolve rapidly on its axis. The motion is communicated by manual or
any other power applied to the axis F, upon one end of which is the wheel
K, acting in the pinion M, fixed to one end of the axis of the brush.
The application of the power of horses to either the roller,
or saw-gin, would greatly aid the process, which, as we be -
fore have stated, is considered heavy work for the negroes,
 AND MACHINIST. r>79

and on that account is much avoided. An objection has been

started to the applying of this power, under a supposition,
that the animal by changing his speed would injure the cotton ;
it is almost superfluous to add that many
simple contrivances
may be adapted to equalize the motion, and prevent these
dreaded effects.
When the cotton has undergone either of these processes,
it ispacked, and exported to the European markets.
When it arrives in this country, it is again submitted to the
action of machinery for the further separation of the extra-
neous matter, unless it is to be spun into coarse yam, when
the preceding process is considered sufficient.
The first machine that we shall describe as used in this country for the fur-
ther clearing of the particles is called a picker, and is represented in fig. 393.
A and B are two rollers, having an endless-cloth, C D, stretched over them.
This cloth is called the feeding-cloth, and its upper surface is, by the revolu-
tion of the rollers, always carried towards D. E and F are two fluted rollers,
which nearly touch each other, and revolve, so that their touching surfaces
pass towards G H. GH K I are cylinders, covered on their outer surfaces
with long blunt pins, making about 250 revolutions, in the direction of the
letters, per minute. L L is a grating of wires for the seeds to fall through,
when the cotton carried by the feeding-cloth is delivered by the small rollers
G
upon the face of G H. By the rapid revolution of H, the cotton is thrown
against the top O P, and is carried forwa,rd and delivered upon the cylinder
I K, which in like manner carries it rapidly round, draws it over the grating,
and delivers it back upon the lower face of G II, which after having drawn
it over the remainder of the grating, and divested it of the remainder of the

seeds and particles of dust, deposits it in the box R R.

This machine is liable to injure the staple of the cotton, and is therefore
superseded by another called a hatter, represented in fig. 401. In this ma-
chine, the feeding-cloth upon the rollers A and B carries forward the cotton
to the rollers c and cl, w'hich deliver it upon the curved rack or grating d e,
while a scotcher, g h, revolving rapidly upon its axis, strikes the cotton with
its two edges
g and h, and divides it ; at the same time a draught of air,
created by the revolution of the fan I, blows the cotton forward over the
grating K K, divests it of the superfluous parts, and ultimately deposits
it in a box at the end.
The cotton is now considered in a state fit for the operation
of spinning; which is differently performed according to the
purposes to which the yarn is to be applied. The different
sorts of spinning may be classed under the respective heads of
Jenny, mule, and water spinning.
Mule-spmning, which is by far the most perfect process,
and by which the finest }^arn is produced, shall first have our
attention.
In this process, when the finest yarn is to be produced, the
cotton, instead of being submitted to the operation of either
of the machines before described, is cleansed entirely by the
hand. The mode of effecting this is, by spreading the cotton
380 THE OPERATIVE MECHANIC
upon a strong netting of cords stretched on a frame, and beat-
ingit with osier wands till divested of its impurities. It then

undergoes the elementary operations of carding, drawing,

stretching and plying, and twisting the whole of which are
;

essential in the manufacture of mule yarn.

Carding is performed by two kinds of engines, one of which,
upon the cotton preparatory to its
called the breaker, operates
being submitted to the operation of the other, called the
finisher.
A card is a kind of brush, formed by making wires into the form of
staples, as represented in fig. 394. Tire two legs of the staples are placed
through holes in a flexible piece of leather, and present to the side view a
form similar to that shown in the figure, where A B is the leather, and C D
the wires forced through it. Cards are formed in two ways ; the one called
sheet-card, is made about four inches wide, and 18 inches long, or of a
length corresponding with the width of the main cylinder, which they have
to cover ; the other, called fillet-card, is made in one continuous band or
fillet, and is used for covering the doffer cylinder. The teeth of the fillet-card

are placed pointing in the direction of the length of the fillet, and completely
cover the cylinder to which they are applied ; whereas in sheet-cards a space
is left between every sheet, as may be seen on the main cylinder, fig. 395.
Fig. 395 represents a sectional view of the immediate working parts of a
breaker carding-engine. A is the main cylinder, covered with sheet-cards ;

B the doffer cylinder, covered with fillet-card ; C C C are the tops ; e is the
feeding-cloth supplied with cotton, which has been previously weighed,
moving forward over the roller,/, by means of the roller apd delivering
the cotton between the feeding-rollers H H, which carry it to the main cy-
linder. The main cylinder revolves rapidly in the direction of the dart, and
carries the cotton upward between itself and the tops, which are covered
with sheet-cards, about inches to 2 inches wide, so that they may, as
nearly as possible, follow the curve of the main cylinder. I is the lapping-
cylinder, having a wooden roller laying upon its upper surface ; and K
is the doffer or taker-off, having affixed to it the steel comb called the
doffing-plate.
The doffing-plate may be seen more at large in fig. 396, which represents
a front view of the doffer cylinder on a larger scale. On inspecting tins
figure, it will be seen, that the doffing-plate L L, whose lower edge is
formed like a comb, is fastened across the whole of the doffer cylinder, arid
is supported by the two uprights m m, fastened on two cranks on the shaft
71-. The upper parts of these uprights, m m, are fastened to corresponding

cranks at n n, so that the doffing-plate, by the revolution of the shaft, is

made to move downwards while in contact with the doffer cylinder, and up-
wards while away from it. The cotton is taken in by the feeding rollers,
and is carried up by the main cylinder and passed between it and the tops
or flats, whose teeth lie in an opposite direction to those of the main
cylinder, and by whose united action the cotton is combed, divided, and
cleansed, and its fibres placed in a direction nxore parallel to each other.

The main cylinder, by its revolving motion, is soon covered

with cotton, and is divested of it by the doffer cylinder, which
is placed so as nearly to touch it, and which moves at a much
slower speed, in the direction of the dart. The effect of this
engine would therefore be to distribute the cotton equally over
 (COTT QN MAHITFAC TURM FI 35
Front 393to3f)8
3SS ,
'
 i

js

\
 AND MACHINIST. 381

the main cylinder, the top cards, and the doffer cylinder 5 but
the doffing-plate, bj^the action already described, is continually
clearing the doffer cylinder ; whose points are consequently
leftbare to receive a fresh supply from the main cylinder.
The doffing-plate continually strips the doffer cylinder of the
carded cotton, which it delivers upon the lapping cylinder in
one continuous web of about 18 inches wide, which is the usual
width of the engines for fine work.
When the top cards are covered with cotton, an attendant
is appointed to take them off and to divest them of the cotton
by means of a card nailed on a board, which he carries in his
hand for that purpose.
The quantity of work delivered to the engine is ruled by the
speed of the cylinders and quality of the cotton. When it has
passed through the engine, and is wound upon the lapping
cylinder, (which is so adjusted as to contain about 20 laps,)
the attendant lifts up the roller F, makes a division in the
circular web, and takes it off the roller.
In this operation we are presented with the first act of ply-
ing or doubling, which is introduced in the process of spin-
ning in order to obtain equality in the strength and thickness
of the yarn.
The cotton is in this state called a lap, and is immediately taken to a
finisher-engine, which, in general, is disposed back to front, immediately after
the breaker-engine, as may be seen in fig. 397. The construction of the
finisher-engine is exactly similar to that of the breaker-engine, except that
instead of having a lapping cylinder, the cotton, when it leaves the doffer, is
drawn through a mouth-piece, 11, formed like the end of a trumpet, by means
of the rollers ^ and t, and is delivered into the can W. The rollers s and t
may be seen in section in this figure, and in a front view in fig. 396. Pre-
viously, however, to leaving this process, we shall make a few remarks, as
it is, with much propriety, considered the very foundation of all good
spinning.
The breaker-engine for spinning fine cotton is generally
covered with cards of a fineness that will admit 225 teeth, or
450 points, in a square inch ; and the finisher 2J5, or 550.
But spinners are much divided on this subject, and in some
mills the same work is performed with cards one- fifth coarser
than it is in others. The top cards are in general one-tenth
coarser, and those of the doffer cylinder one-tenth finer, than
those on the main cylinder and in some manufactories, at the
:

back part of the engines, where the cotton first arrives, coarser
top cards have been introduced, with a view of divesting the
cotton of the largest particles of extraneous matter, and in
some instances have been again laid aside as superfluous.
Cards must he set easy in the leather, which should be thin
and strong. The card-engine is driven by a strap passing
 THE OPERATIVE MECHANIC
from a drum over a fast and loose pulley, fixed on the shaft
of the main cylinder. The fast and loose pulley is represented
in fig. 65 ; and its utility has been explained in the article
Mill-geering.
To return to the manufacture, the cotton, which is now in the can from
the card-engines, in the form of a sliver, is next submitted to the process of
drawing, represented in hg. 398. In this })rocess three or four card-ends
are brought in tin cans, and passed between the rollers A
B and C D, which
revolve with different velocities ; that is, the rollers C and D
revol'vc much
quicker than A
and B, and the top rollers A and C are made to press upon
B and D by means of the v/eight e. Now, supposing four slivers be placed
together, and passed throtigh the rollers A D
B and C D, and that C revolve
so much quicker than A B, that the sliver will become four times its original
length, the cotton will, by such elongation, be reduced in thickness three-
fourths, thatis, to the same thickness of a single sliver when first brought to

the rollers. By this process the fibres of the cotton are laid more parallel
to each other, in the direction of the length of the sliver, and tlie operation
is repeated, by plying the slivers which have passed the rollers, and passing
them through a similar set. The sliver, when thus plied and reduced, is
drawn through the mouth-piece G, by the rollers E and F, and delivered
into another can.
After the cotton has been plied and drawn as many times
as the spinner, from the quality of the cotton, rmd the intended
quality of the j^arn, considers necessary, it is carried to the
Toving-frame.
The roving-frame^ which is much used in mills vdiere mule-spinning is
carried on, isrepresented in fig. 402, and is termed the can roving-frame.
A B, two rollers, moving at a slower speed than C D A
;
and C are pressed
upon the rollers B and D by the weight E, as may be seen in a front view,
fig. 402, and section, fig. 403. The cans (fig. 402) are represented, the one
shut, and the other open ;
the latter opens by means of hinges, after raising
the ring g. The cans are capable of revolving upon their spindles h h, and
are supported in an upright position by the collars i i, aud have at their
upper extremities funnel-shaped pieces, k k.
If ttvo slivers of cotton are brought from the drawing-frame, and passed
between the rollers A B and C D, the processes of plying and drawing will
again take place ; and the rollers C D will feed the end thus formed into the
can through the mouth-piece at k, which, by revolving rapidly upon its
axis, will impart to the end, or sliver, a slight degree of twist. When the
can is filled, the rollers are thrown out of geer, and the motion ceases ; the
can is then opened, and the cotton, or as it is now called, the roving, i&
taken out and wound upon a bobbin, and in that state is carried to a machine
called a stretcher.

Some objections exist against this species of roving ; firsts

from the necessity of taking the roving out of the can for the
purpose of windiug it upon a bobbin, during which it is liable
to sustain much damage from the fibres being in a very slight
state of adhesion and secondly^ from the roving receiving its
;

tvdst solely from the revolution of the can in which it rests,

and by which the twist is not equally diffused over the whole
length of the roving. The first objection was attempted U>
V-

C (0 T T OK 3HAKCT A (C TJ7MIE R.56

402 404

I
 AND MACHINIST. 38:J

be obviated, by placing the can in a frame, and drawing the

roving out through the mouth-piece at which it entered ; and
a remedy for the second was somewhat unsuccessfully at-
tempted by Mr. Arkwright^ who tried to introduce a pair of
rollers upon the top of the roving-can, to seize hold and feed
the roving into the can as fast as it was received from the
drawing-rollers. This, undoubtedly, would have perfectly
equalized the twist throughout > but the machinery necessary
to produce the double rotatory motion was found to be incon-
venient, and the plan was in consequence abandoned.
A roving-frame of a different construction^ which obviates the preceding
objections, and which,in consequence, has received more general adoption,
is represented in fig. 404 ; it is called the bobbin and filer roving-frame.
The rollers for stretching are similar to those before described ; and the plied
and drawn roving is represented as coming from the rollers at A, whence it
passes through an eye at C, over the top of the spindle D, and down one of
the legs of the flier B B, which is for that purpose formed tubular. By the
revolution of the spindle D, generated by a strap acting upon the pulley F,
the fliers are carried swiftly round, and twist and deliver the thread upon
the bobbin E, wbicli is moved upwards upon the spindle by raising the
board G
G, upon which it rests, descending again as the board descends.
The roving is, by this means, slightly twisted and wound upon a bobbin,
in a fit stale to be immediately carried to the stretching-frame, which, being
very similar in its construction to the mule, we consider it necessary only to
give a side view of one of the spindles of a mule, shown in fig. 405. A is
the place where the bobbin from the roving-frame (not shown in this figure)
would have been situate ; and c c c are three pairs of rollers, revolving at
different speeds, for the further drawing of the roving. The roving, when it
has been thus drawn, is brought to the spindle B, which is formed of
polished steel, ground slightly tapering to the end, which is a round blunt
point. The spindle receives its motion at the pulley D, by means of a band
passing round a drum in the box E E E ; which drum has bands passing
in the same manner to several other spindles. When the motion com-
mences, the carriage E E E passes backwards to the position shown by the
dotted lines, and carries with it the spindles to the position B^ during
;
which the spindle revolves rapidly on its axis, and gives a certain degree of
twist to the roving, which already has undergone a reduction in diameter
by passing through the rollers C C C. The extent to which the frame re-
cedes is about three yards, and when the spindles have given the requisite
degree of twist to the yarn, it returns to its former place while the at-
;
tendant, by moving the bar II upon its axis, presses the yarn downwards,
by means of a piece of wire K, which causes it to be wound upon the spin-
dles,so as to form a figure that may be represented by two cones, one
having a more acute angle than the other, placed base to base, as shown at
A, B, and Bh This form is termed a cop, and the act of so distributing
the yarn, by the movement of II K, the building of the cop.

It may
here be observed, that although this is called the
stretching-frame, the yarn is not stretched, but merely under-
goes a further process of drawing and spinning, and that the
stretching is not performed till in the next operation, which
is performed upon the mule^ and termed spinning.
384 THE OPERATIVE MECHANIC
The yarn, delivered from the stretching-frame in the form
of a cop, is taken to the mule, which is, though much lighter,
both in the form and action of the parts, very similar to the
stretching-frame. The spindles also are of a smaller size,
and are situated nearer to each other.
The mule sjnnning-frame differs from that of the stretching-
frame insomuch as the act of stretching is added to the other
operations ;
for when the frame EEE has receded a certain
distance, generally about one yard, the rollers C C C cease to
move, and the frame still continuing to recede, stretches the
yarn. During this process, the spindles on the frame EEE
move considerably quicker, in order to save time. The
stretching is performed with a view to elongate and reduce
those places in the yarn which have a greater diameter, and
are less twisted than the other parts, so that the size and
twist of the yarn may be more uniform throughout. When
the cops are full, they are taken from the moving spindles,
and placed on stationary parts of other mules, as at A, and
the yarn is again submitted to the same process, until it is
reduced and spun to the proper fineness, both as respects the
diameter and the twist ; during the whole of which process,
the yarn can be continually joined, so that the cops, which
are in separate pieces, can be added to each other in parts, or
otherwise, as the continual elongation of the yarn in the
course of the different operations of each mule may require.
The pieces are joined by children, called piecers, who are in
attendance on each mule, to join any yam that maybe broken
in the act of stretching or twisting.
The drums, which drive the spindles in those parts of the
mule that recede, receive their motions from bands com-
municating with the moving power ; but the advancement
and recession of the carriage, for the purposes of receiving
and stretching the yarn, as before described, is performed by
means of a wheel moved by hand-labour. A spinner is enabled
by experience to judge of and regulate both these operations,
as also the building of the cop, which is a matter of very
great nicety ; for if the cop is not well built, the yarn will
not run off even when it is to be used. The number of spin-
dles on a mule amount frequently to 300. The yarn produced
l)y mule-spinning, being by far the most perfect, is employed
in the fabrication of the finest articles, such as lace and
hosiery ; and when it is twisted in two, four, or six plies, is
used for sewing-thread.
Jenny -spinning is of earlier date, and a much less perfect
process than mule-spinning; consequently it is but little
 And machinist. 3a5
Used, except in the manufacture of yam for coarse goods. In
this spinning, the cotton, after having been cleansed by some
of the processes already described, is, preparatory to being
exposed to the action of the jenny, immersed in a solution of
soap and Avater, to divest it of the glutinous matter generally
found on the surface of this and other vegetable fibres ; it is
then, after the soap and water has been pressed from it, put
into a warm stove, and when dry, is considered to be in a fit
state to be exposed to the operation of the cardiiig-engine.
The carding-engine used in jenny-spinning is different in
its construction to the one before described ; for in mule and
water spinning there is a breaker and a finisher engine ; but
the engine used in this process is called the double-engine ;
the first part, or breaker, is in the same frame with the second
part, or finisher, and the doffer from the first part delivers the
cotton upon the main cylinder of the second part, wliich, in
like manner, delivers it upon the second dofier. The second
defter, instead of being covered v/ith fillet-cards, as the doffer
of the single engines, is covered with sheet-cards, like the
main cylinder, but being of smaller dimensions, has generally
only twelve cards upon it 5 therefore the web of cotton combed
from such doffer by the doffing-plate is not in one continuous
piece, but in several pieces or portions, equal to the quantity
attached to each sheet-card upon the doffing- 5dinder.
As the several small portions are delivered by the comb,
they fall into the concave part of a smooth arc that is equal
to one-third of a circle. In this arc a cylinder of smooth
mahogany slowly revolves in such direction that the lower
Surface in the arc passes from the engine. This cylinder has
small cavities or flutes on its surface, in a parallel direction
to its axis ; the angles on the projections between the flutes
are taken off, so that the several portions of web which fall
from the doffer into the arc are seized by the flutes, and car-
ried forward on the concave face of the arc, and formed into
a sliver, about half an inch in diameter, and of a length cor-
responding with the breadth of the carding-engines, wdiich is
about from 24 to 34 inches. The portions thus rolled are
called rows, rolls, or rowans.
' In this state, the cotton may be considered in the same
relative state of progress as a card-end in mule or water
spinning ; but it is evident that this mode of spinning is very
deficient for the purposes of fine yarn, insomuch as in the
rowans the fibres of the cotton are laid across the longitudinal
direction in which they are to be spun, so that the advantage
derived in the other process of carding, from the fibres being
380 THE OPERATIVE MECHANIC
placed in a direction parallel to the intended length of the
yarn^ is entirely lost. In this process^ also, the advantage of
plying, which we have noticed as taking place on the lapping
cylinder, is omitted.
When the rowans are perfected by the mahogany cylindery
they are taken up by children, and placed upon the feeding-
cloth of a machine called the billy, or roving-billy, the
operation of which is called roving or slubbing ; but the latter
expression is now but seldom used, except in the manufacture
of woollen. This machine is in its construction and action
very similar to the mule, as is the feeding-cloth to that de-
scribed in the machine called the picker and batter.
The feeding-cloth lays in a slanting position, and the
rowans are placed upon it so that they can pass lengthv/ise
in the direction of its action, and be delivered over the upper
roller between two pieces of board which possess a capability
of clasping and again relieving them. The rowans are then
attached to revolving spindles,, which have an advancing and
receding motion similar to the mule or drawing-frame. By this
revolution and recession the spindles perform the operation of
spinning and stretching ; and at such intervals as the spindles
are stretching and twisting, the feeding-cloth stops, and the
clasps seize hold of the roving, and detain it till sufficiently
spun and twisted, when it relieves it in order to allow a fur-
ther portion of the rowan to be fed. The roving having by
this means received a certain degree of twist, is built on a
spindle in the form of a cop, as in mule-spinning, and is then
taken to the machine called the jenny.
The operation of i\i& jenny is nearly the same as the roving-
billy ; the only material difference is, that the cops of roving
to be spun are fixed upon a moving carriage, which has
clasps to hold the roving while in the act of being stretched
and spun into yarn.
Having now concluded the process of jenny-spinning, it
will be seen, that drawing and plying, the two essential requi-
sites for producing fine yarn, by placing the fibres parallel to
the length of the twist, are wanting, and that fine yarn, in
consequence, cannot be produced ; but the fibres in this pro-
cess being placed in a direction more across the length of the
twist, give to the yarn a rich fulness which renders it prefer-
able for the weft of heavy goods, for which it is esteemed.
TFater-spinning differs both from the mule and jenny spin-
ning ; but the carding and drawing machines are the same as
those used in the process of mule-spinning. When the cotton
has passed through the carding and drawing machines^ it is
 AND MACHINIST. 387
carried to the spinning-frame, which is upon a different prin-
ciple to the mule, and, indeed, is more closely allied to the
bobbin and flier roving-frame.
One of these spindles is represented in fig. 406. A, the bobbin, brought
from the roving-frame ; B C and E guides for the yarn to pass through
H
G G Ci three pairs of rollers to perform the office of drawing ; and a flier,
formed solid, and having at the end of one arm a small twist like a cork-
screw, through which the yarn passes. By the revolution of the flier the
yarn receives the requisite degree of twist, and is wound upon the bobbin,
whioh, by the movement of the seat I I, on which it rests, has an upward
and downward motion, in order that the yarn may be received upon it regu^
larly. The guide C has a slow reciprocating motion in the direction of the
axes of the rollers GG
G, by which the roving is moved over the surfaces
of the rollers, so that the parts wear uniformly.

In water twist-spinning, the operation of stretching is not

introduced. The motion is transmitted from the first mover
to the drawing and roving frames by means of bevel- wheels,
placed on the end of the frame. These wheels communicate
motion to the rollers, which have spur-wheels upon their
shafts, adapted to give motion to each other by intermediate
wheels, which give to the lower rollers motion in the proper
direction. The spindles receive their motion from bands
communicating with the drum K, represented by the dotted
lines. This construction of a water spinning-frame is called a
throstle^ and the difference which characterises it from that
properly called the water-frame is, that the cylinder runs K
through the whole length of the frame, and gives motion to
all the spindles at once ; whereas in the water-frame the
spindles are moved by an upright pulley, communicating
motion to only one set of six spindles, which is an advantage,
as the motion of one set can be stopped without stopping the
motion of the whole. But as the water-frame is far more
expensive than the other, it is a matter of doubt which ought
to be preferred.
The several sorts of yarn have each their peculiar destina-
tion. The yarn from mule and jenny spinning is taken from
the frame in the form of a cop ; that from water-twist is
wound upon a bobbin. The yarn from water-frames possesses
much regularity and strength, and is mostly used for the warps
of heavy goods, such as fustians and strong calicoes. If the
yarn has to be packed for the market, it is reeled upon a frame
consisting of six horizontal bars supported on an axis parallel
to each other.
T^is frame k represented in section, infig. 407; A AAAAA the
horizontal bars ; B
the axis ; and C the bobbin from the water-frame. The
dotted lines represent the direction of the twist. These reels are of a suffix
eieiit breadth to wind off about 50 cops, or bobbins, at the same time.

2c2
 388 THE OPERATIVE MECHANIC
When the reel has made 80 revolutions^ a small bell that is
connected with the machinery rings, and warns the attendant
to stop the motion of the reel. The portion thus wound is
called a lay, and seven of these lays wound upon the same
reel constitute a hank, which is taken from the reel by
causing one of the horizontal bars, supplied with a hinge, to
fall inwards. The circumference of the reel is a yard and a
half consequently the hank measures 840 yards.
;
The size
of the twist is expressed by stating how many hanks go to
the pound weight thus, the yarn called N 100 is that whicli
:

takes 100 hanks of 840 yards each to weigh an avoirdupois

pound. Yarn can be spun upon mules as fine as 200 hanks
to the pound ; but in water-twist and jenny-spinning it seldom
exceeds 60 or /O.
The plan of the buildings in which the cotton-spinning
machinery is placed, is generally in the form of a parallel-
ogram, of a length proportionate to the extent of the manu-
facture carried on therein, and about thirty feet wide. In the
best constructed mills, the carding and other preparatory
machines are placed on the lowest floor; the mules and
stretching frames on the next ; and so on progressively as
the machines improve the fineness of the yarn. The mules,
jennies, and water-frames are placed with their line of spin-
dles across the building ; and the card-engines have the axes
of their cylinders parallel to the long wall of the building.
Four or six rows, breakers and finishers, are placed alter-
nately. ,

The steam-engine, or first mover, is placed at one end of

the building, and the motion is communicated by a horizontal
shaft running the whole length of the building, which trans-
mits the motion to vertical shafts with bevel-wheels, which
wheels transmit the motion to horizontal shafts in the upper
floors.

WOOL MANUFACTURE.
This well-knowm staple is in the process of the manufac-
two distinct classes, long wool, or worsted
ture divided into
spinning ; and sliori ivool, or the sjnnning of woollen yarn,

ON WORSTED SPINNING.
Having by means of machinery accomplished the forma-
tion of a thread of cotton, the application of the principle to
 AND MACHINIST. 389

other fibres would naturally follow and although some diffi-

,*

culty might be expected to occur in adapting the rollers to

different staples, yet this was soon overcome. The methods
of forming threads from long wool and from flax, by the
hand, were very different, yet each was spun from the middle,
not from the end, of the respective fibre. In hand-spinning,
the pluck, that is, the portion plucked from the sliver or
combed wool, was placed across the fingers of the left hand
and from the thick part of it, the fibres were drawn, and
twisted, as the hand was withdrawn from the end of the
spindle, to which it had been previously attached. The
revolution of the wheel, effected by the right hand, conveyed
by a band to the whirl, or pulley on the spindle, produced
the requisite twist to give firmness to the thread ; and by a
very gentle motion of the same wheel, the thread being
brought nearly perpendicular to the spindle, -it was wound
upon the spindle to form the cop. From this it w^as trans-
ferred to the reel, and became a hank, of a definite length,
but varying in weight with the thickness of the thread. In
this state it was transferred to the manufacturer to be con-
verted into the different fabrics of slialloon, calimanco,
bombasin, &c.
A few years after the introduction of cotton machinery, an
obscure individual of the name of Hargraves, previously
unknown as a mechanic, w^ho had been long employed by
Messrs. William Birkbeck and Co. at Settle, in Yorkshire,
in the management of a branch of the worsted manufactory,
attempted to spin long w'ool by means of rollers. He con-
structed working models of the necessary preparing machinery,
and of a spinning-frame, by the assistance of persons accus-
tomed to the construction of cotton machinery, and succeeded
so completely, as soon to induce his employers to build a
large mill for its application. By degrees his plans became
known to the trade, and many large manufactories have
subsequently been erected for this purpose. Contrary to
the earlier anticipations on this subject, it has been found,
that mill -spun yarn answers better for the coarse as well as
the finer fabrics, than that produced by the hand, which it
has entirely superseded.
The first process after the wool of the fleece has been
properly sorted, as it is termed, and washed, is combing.
This is either done by the hand or by machinery, invented
for that purpose some years since by the ingenious Dr. Cart-
wright. The object of each mode is to arrange the fibres as
much as possible parallel to each other, which, as they have
390 THE OPERATIVE MECHANIC
a somewhat tortuous form, and are of considerable length,
requires them to be frequently drawn from each other by the
exertion of the strength of the wool-comber or the machine.
In this state they form a bundle of fibres about six feet ia
length, called a sliver, and this being laid upon the stretch

ing or drawing frame, constitutes the commencement of the

preparing process. The wool passes through several pairs of
rollers of which the first and last are of course the essential
ones, the intermediate moving with equal velocities, and
consequently serving merely to conduct the skein : this is
received in cylindrical cans ; and three such skeins being
passed through another drawing-frame, and stretched in their
progress, become fitted for roving, the last step in the pre-
paratory processes. Allowing for the difference in distance
of rollers and weights, which on account of the length and
adhesiveness of the fibres of wool, are both necessarily
greater than with cotton, the description of the bobbin roving
machine already introduced, will be sufficiently explanatory.
Spinning, the concluding process, is effected by means of
two pairs of rollers moving with unequal velocities, and inter-
mediate auxiliaries.
The loosely twisted thread from the roving bobbin, E, fig. 408, is slowly
carried forwards by the holding rollers A, a, and supported as it proceeds
by the two pairs, C, c, and D, d. It is then drawn between the rollers B, 6,
and having been thus brought to a proper thickness, is twisted by the
flier L, fixed on the top of the spindle, through which at K it passes :it is

then taken up by the bobbin M, which moves round with the spindle its
axis, although not equally quick. The ultimate thickness or size of the
thread is determined by the difference of velocity in the holding and drawing
pairs of rollers ; that is of A, a, and B, b, which in their operation evidently
imitate a pair of hands. The celerity of the three pairs of rollers nearest to
the back of the frame is equal ; consequently no stretching takes place
amongst them. The upper rollers of the first and last pair are pressed
down upon the lower, by weights, F, G, much heavier than H, I, which are
supported by the axes of C, D ; these being only required steadily to carry
forward the skein, and prevent the remote ends of the fibres of the wool
from starting, whilst B, h, are pulling their other extremities. The front
rollers belonging to or^e division, or box, as it is commonly termed, are
represented in fig. 409, where the drum, which moves the spindles, and by
a bevelled pinion at the top of its axis conveys motion to the rollers, is also
shown. The pinion on the right extremity of the roller, acting upon a
train of wheels properly adjusted, imparts the required relative motion, in
succession, to the rollers beyond.

SHORT WOOL.

Short wool is wrought into the finest cloths for personal

wear, and is spun in a manner similar to cotton, as described
in jenny- spinning.
< I
 AND MACHINIST, 391
The first stage of the manufacture consists in submitting
it to the action of chamber-ley and frequent rinsings in clean
water, which bring it to the state fit for the operation of
carding. The carding-engine for fine short wool is con-
structed with one main cylinder, having, in lieu of the top
cards used in jenny-spinning, numerous small rollers, lying
and rolling upon its upper surface ; it is used in place of a
breaker-engine, and is called a scribbler. The wool is deli-
vered from a main cylinder to a doffer, and, being combed
or doffed, is carried to another engine, called the carder^
which perfects the carding, and delivers it off, by means of
grooved mahogany rollers, in a row or rowan, as in jenny-
spinning. If the wool is of a coarse description, such as is
formed into yarn for the manufacture of coarse cloths or
woollen cords, more carding is required.
The scribbler-engine has three distinct parts or cylinders
in one frame. The first part consists of the first main cylin-
der with its top rollers, and is called the breast ; this delivers
the wool to the second main cylinder, which, with its top
rollers, is- called the first part ; this delivers it to a small
intervening cylinder, called the Tween doffer, which carries
it to the third main cylinder, which, with its top rollers, is
called the second part ; from hence it goes to the last doffer
cylinder, from which it is combed by a doffing-plate, and
finally carried by hand to a carding-engine.
The carding-engine consists of similar parts to the scrib-
bler-engine, except that it has no breast cylinder, and is
covered with finer cards its last doffer delivers the wool to
:

a mahogany grooved roller, which forms it into rowans for

the process of spinning.
The act of continuous carding, as described in mule-spin-
ning in the cotton manufacture, is said to have been effected
in some mills, but the advantages arising from it are not so
great as to procure it general introduction. '

The rows or rowans are taken to a roving-billy, which we

have already noticed in jenny-spinning, and is spun and
stretched by hand as there described. In this, however, the
act of plying and drawing is not introduced, as fineness of
yarn is not the object sought.
The engines used in carding wool are generally larger
than those used for cotton, being frequently six feet wide
during the operation of carding, the wool is copiously sprinkled
with rape oil.
392 THE OPERATIVE MPX'HANIC

SILK MANUFACTURE.
Silk is a very fine and delicate thread, the produce of a
small insect, called homhyxy or the silk- worm ; which is not
less curious on account of the changes it undergoes in its
existence, than valuable for the beautiful fibre which it spins.
The egg, requiring not the care of parental incubation, is
by the solar heat brought into existence, and the bomb3^x or
silk-worm thus produced lives upon the leaves of the mul-
berry-tree until it has arrived at maturity, when, spinning
itself up in a small bag, about the size of a pigeons egg, it is
changed into an aurelia. In this state it continues till about
the fifteenth day when it is changed into a butterfl}", and, if
not prevented, eats its way through the silken prison, to
expand its newly acquired wings in the sun.
The ball or cocoon, which the ingenious little insect has
been at so much pains to spin, to secure itself from its
enemies and the eftects of the weather, is the substance we
call silk ; and many who have examined it with attention
are of opinion that it will extend to the distance of six English
miles.
In order to secure the silk foi the purposes of the manufac-
turer, it becomes necessary to destroy the insect so soon as

the cocoon is completed, which is on or about the tenth da}%

The cocoon is of various colours ; but the most predominant
are flesh colour, orange, and yellow. The whole of them, how-
ever, are lost in the process of scouring and dying, and there-
fore it is not necessary to wind them on separate reels.
The balls, preparatory to being wound oft' into skeins or
banks, are immersed in hot water, which dissolves a natural
gum, by which the fibres are united together, so that a single
thread taken from the reel will be found to be composed of
numerous small fibres or threads in the state produced by the
worm.
The silk is imported into this country thus wound off into
skeins, and in order to undergo the processes of the manu-
facturer is wound upon bobbins ; and each thread being, as
we before have stated, composed of several fibres, receives a
pertain degree of twist, that the constituent parts may be
united more firmly together than they can possibly be by the
gum alone. When the^" have been subjected to thus much of
the manufacture, they are wound upon fresh bobbins, and two
or three threads twisted together, to form a strong thread for
 AND MACHINIST. 393
tiieweaver^ who warps and finally weaves the silk into various
beautiful and useful articles, by a process very similar to
that used in the weaving of cotton and linen.
In Piedmont, vihere very excellent silk is produced, the manufacture is
carried on by aid of the silk reel represented in fig. 424.
The balls or cocoons are thrown into hot water contained in a copper basin
or boiler. A, about 18 inches in length, and six deep, set in brick-work, so
as to admit of a small charcoal fire beneath it. B B is a wood frame sustain-
ing several parts of the reel ;D is the reel upon which the silk is wound ; C
is a guide which directs the thread upon it; and E E the wheel-work which

gives motion to the guide. The reel D

is merely a wooden spindle, having

four arms mortised into it to support the four battens or rails on which the
silk is wound.
Uponthe end of the wooden spindle of the reel, and within the frame B,
is a wheel of 22 teeth, which gives motion to another wheel C, fixed upon
the end of the inclined axis E F, and having twice the number of teeth ; at
the end of this inclined axis is another wheel G, of 22 teeth, playing in a
horizontal cog-wheel with 35 teeth. This wheel turns upon a pivot fixed in
the frame, and has a pin fixed in it at a distance from the centre, to form an
eccentric pin or crank, and give a backward and forward motion to the slight
wooden rail or layer C, which guides the threads upon the reel; for this pur-
pose, the threads are passed through wire loops or eyes, C, fixed into the layer,
andtlie end thereof opposite the wheel and crank F is supported in a mortise
or an opening made in the frame B, so that the revolution of the crank wall
cause the layer to move, and carry the threads alternately towards the right
or left. Tiiere is likewdse an iron bar H, fixed over the boiler at H, and
pierced with two holes, through which the threads pass to guide them.

In the operation of reeling, it is well known, that if the

thread be wound separately it will be totally unfit for the pur-
poses of the manufacturer; consequently the ends of the
threads of several balls or cocoons are joined and wound to-
gether, and when any one of them breaks or comes to an end,
its place is supplied by a new one, and thus by continually
keeping up the same number the united threads may be wound
to any required length.
The reeling is conducted by a woman, who, when the balls
or cocoons have remained a sufficient time in the hot-water
contained in the boiler A, to soften the gum, takes a whisk of
birch or rice-straw, about six inches long, cut stumpy like a
worn-out broom, and brushes the cocoons with it, which
causes the loose tlireads to adhere to it ; these she disengages
from the whisk, and by drawing them through her fingers cleans
them from the loose silk, which always surrounds the cocoon,
till they come off clean, which operation is called la hattue.

When the silk has been perfectly cleansed, she passes four or
more of the threads, if she intends to wind fine silk, through
each of the holes in the thin iron bar H, and afterwards
twists the two compound threads, consisting of four cocoons
each, about 20, or 25 times round each other, that the four
394 THE OPERATIVE MECHANIC
ends in each thread may the better join together by crossing
each other^ and that the thread of the silk may be round
which otherwise would be flat.
The threads when thus twisted together are passed through
the eyes of the loops, C, of the layer, and thence are conducted
and made fast to one of the rails of the reel. As it is of con-
sequence in the production of good silk, that the thread should
have lost part of its heat and gumminess before it touches the
bars of the reel, the Piedmontese are by law obliged to have
38 French inches between the guides, C, and the centre of
the reel ; and the layer must also, under a penalty, be
moved by cog-wheels instead of an endless-cord, which, if
suffered to grow slack, will cause the layer to stop and not
lay the threads distinctly, and that part of the skein will be
glued together, whereas the cog-wheel cannot fail when the
:

skeins are quite dry, the reel is removed from the frame, and
by the folding of two of its arms, by means of hinges, the
skeins are taken off, and with some of the refuse silk are tied
into hanks.
Although from the foregoing description the operation
must appear very simple, it is a matter of very great nicety
to wind an even thread, and the difficulty of keeping the
thread always even is so great that, except when using a
thread of two cocoons, they do not say a silk of three, four,
or six cocoons ; but a silk of three or four, four or five, five
or six cocoons. In a coarser silk it cannot be calculated
even so nearly as to four cocoons, and consequently they say,
from 12 to 15, from 15 to 20, and so on.
It is also necessary that the water in the boiler be kept at
a certain temperature ; for if the water is too hot, the thread
is dead and has no body ; if too cold, the ends of the threads
do not join well, and form a harsh silk. The threads them-
selves indicate when the water is not at the proper degree of
temperature, by frequent breaking when it is too hot ; anc}
coming off entangled, and in a woolly state, when too cold.
In the process of winding the woman has always a bowl of
cold water by her, into which she occasionally dips her
fingers, and frequently sprinkles it upon the iron bar H, that
the threads may not be burnt by the heat of the basin ; it also
serves to lessen the temperature of the water in the boiler
when approaching the boiling point.
All kinds of silk which are simply drawn from the cocoons
by the process of reeling are called raw silk, and is denomi-
nated coarse or fine according to the number of fibres of
which the thread is composed. In preparing the raw silk for
 AND MACHINIST. 395

dying the thread is slightly twisted, in order to enable it to

bear the action of the hot liquor without the fibres separating
or furring up. The silk-yarn employed by the weaveis for
the woof or weft of the stuffs which they fabricate, is composed
of two or more threads of the raw silk, slightly twisted by the
aid of machinery ; and the thread employed by the stocking-
weaver is of the same quality, but composed of a greater
number of threads, according to the thickness required.
Organzine silk consists in combining together two or more
threads of silk, each of which has in the first instance been
twisted by itself, and afterwards the whole are twisted toge-
ther. This operation, with the exception of the elongation
of the cotton, closely resembles roving in the Cotton Manu-
facture. The process consists of six different operations.
1 . The silk is wound from the skein upon bobbins in the
winding-machines. 2. It is then sorted into different quali-
ties. 3. It is spun or twisted on a mill in the single thread,
the twist being in the direction of from right to left, and more
or less tight, as the purposes to which the silk is to be applied
may require. 4. Two or more threads thus spun are doubled
or drawn together through the fingers of a woman, who at
the same time cleans them, by taking out the slubs which
may have been left in the silk by the negligence of the foreign
reeler. 5. It is then thrown by a mill, that is, two or more
threads are twisted together, either slack or hard, as the
manufacturer may require ; but the twist is in an opposite
direction to the first twist, and it is wound at the same time
in skeins upon a reel. 6. The skeins are sorted according
to their different degrees of fineness, and then the process is
complete.
The first operation w'hich the raw silk undergoes is winding,
that is, drawing it off from the skeins in which it is imported,
and winding it upon wooden bobbins, in which state it can
go to the other machines.
Each of the skeins is extended upon a slight reel called
a swift ; it is composed of four small rods, fixed into an axis,
and small bands of string are stretched between the arms to
receive the skein, but at the same time the bands admit of
sliding to a greater or less distance from the centre, so as to
increase the effective diameter of the reel, according to the
size of the skein, because the skeins, which comes from dif-
ferent countiies, vary in size, being generally an exact yard,
or other similar measure, of the country where the silks are
produced. The swifts are supported upon wire pivots, upon
which tliey turn freely when the silk is drawn off from them ;
396 T}1E OlERATIVE MECHANIC
but ill order to cause the thread to draw with a gentle force,
a looped piece of string or vvire is hung upon the axis within-
side the reel, and a small leaden weight is attached to it, to
procure friction. The bobbins which draw off the threads are
received in the upper part of the frame, and are turned by-
means of a wheel beneath each, the bobbin having a small
roller upon the end of it, which bears by its weight upon the
circumference of the wheel, and the bobbin is thereby put in
motion to draw off the silk from the swift. A small light rod
of ivood, called a layer, which has a wire eye fixed into it, is
placed at a little distance from, and opposite to, each bobbin,
so as to conduct the thread thereupon 5 and as the layer moves
constantly backwards and forwards, the thread is regularly
spread upon the length of the bobbin. The motion of the
layer is produced by a crank fixed upon the end of a cross-
spindle, which is turned by means of a pair of bevelled wheels
from the end of the horizontal axle, upon which the wheels for
turning all the bobbins are fixed.
These winding-machines are usually double, to contain a
row of bobbins and swifts at the back as well as in front.
Two of these double frames are put in motion by cog-wheels
from a vertical shaft, which ascends from the lower apart-
ments of the mill, where the twisting-machines are placed.
The winding-machines require a constant attendance of
children to mend the ends of threads -wdiich are broken ; or
when they are exhausted, they replace them by putting new
skeins upon the swifts. When the bobbins are filled, they
are taken away, by only lifting them up out of their frame
and fresh ones are put in their places.
A patent has been lately taken out by l^iessrs. Gent and
Clarke, for a new construction of the swifts for winding-
machines they are made with six single arms, instead of four
:

double ones ; and the arms are small flat tubes made to con-
tain the stems of wire forks, which receive the skein, instead
of the bands of string in the common swifts. These forks
admit of drawing out from the tubes until the swift be suffi-
ciently enlarged to extend It ; but as they extend the skein
at six points instead of four, as in the common ones, the
motion is more regular. Instead of the weight v/hich causes
the friction, a spring is used to press upon the end pivot of
the axis, and make the requisite resistance.
The twisting of the silk is always performed by a spindle
and bobbin, with a flyer, but the construction of the machine
is frequently varied. The limits of our plate do not admit
a representation of the great machines, or throwsting-mills,
 S II. K MANVYJ^ C T r ]R!B
FL.69.li; 00.

I
 ^

AND MACHINIST. 397

at theii full extent
;
but the principle is the same as %, 426,
which we have
extracted from Dr. Reess Cyclopaedia, varying^
the description a little, to agree with the present improved
state of the manufacture.

In fig. we have given a drawing of a small machine, which is similar

426,
in the parts which act upon the silk ; and indeed many mills employ such
machines constructed on a large scale. The one in our plate contains only
thirteen spindles, and is intended to be turned by hand, a method which is
too expensive for this country, but is common in the south of France, where
many aitisans purchase their silk in the raw state, and employ their wives
or children to prepare it by these machines, which they call ovules, because
the spindles, b b, are arranged in an oval frame, G II.
B is the laandle by which the motion is giv^en ; it is fixed on the end of a
spindle 11, which carries a wheel D, to give motion to a pinion upon the
upper end of a vertical axle E ; this, at the lower end, has a drum or
wheel F, to receive an endless strap or band, a a, which encompasses the
frame G, and gives motion to all the spindles at once. The spindles b b are
placed perpendicularly in the frame G H, their points resting in small holes
in pieces of metal, which are let into the oval plank G ;
and the spindle's
are also received in collars affixed to an oval frame II, which is supported
from the plank G, by blocks of wood ; rinnd a are small rollers supported in
the frame G
H, in a similar manner to the spindles ; their use ij to confine
the strap , to press against the rollers of the spindles with sufficient force to
keep them motion.
all in
The thread taken up, as fast as it is twisted, by a reel K, which is
is

turned by a wheel h, and a pinion i, upon the end of the principal spindle R.
The threads are guided by passing through wire eyes, fixed in an oval
frame L, which is supported in the frame of the machine, by a single bar or
rail 1 1, and this has a regular traversing motion backwards and forwards,
by means of a crank or eccentric pin R, fixed in a small cog-wheel, which
is turned by a pinion upon the vertical axis E ; the opposite end of the
rail I is supported upon a roller, to make it move easily. By this means
the guiders are in constant motion, and lay the threads regularly upon the
reel K, when it turns round, and gathers up the silk upon it as shown in the
figure.
One of the spindles is shown at r without a bobbin, but all the others are
represented as being mounted and in action. A bobbin, e, is fitted upon
each spindle, by the hole through it being adapted to the conical form of
the spindle, but in such manner that the bobbin is at liberty to turn freely
round upon the spindle ; a piece of hard wood is stuck fast upon each
spindle, just above the bobbin, and has a small pin entering into a hole in
the top of the spindle, so as to oblige it to revolve with the spindle, this
piece of wood has the wire-flyer, b, fixed to it ; the flyer is formed into eyes
at the two extremities ; one is turned down, so as to stand opposite to the
middle of the bobbin e and the other arm, b, is bent upwards, so that
the eye is exactly over the centre of the spindle, and at a height of some
inches above the top of the spindle. The thread from the bobbin, e, is
passed through both the eyes of this wire, and must evidently receive a
twist v/hen the spindle is turned ; and at the same time, by drawing up the
thread through the upper eye, b, of the flyer, it will turn the bobbin round,,
and unwind therefrom. The rate at which the thread is drawn off from the
bobbin, compared with the number of revolutions which the flyers make in
the same time, determine the twist to be more or less hard. This circum-
stance is regulated by the proportion of the wheel h to the pinion i, from
 I

398 THE OPERATIVE MECHANIC

wliicn it receives motion ; and these can be changed when it is required to
spin different kinds of silk.
The operation of the machine is very simple. The bobbins filled with
silk in the winding-machine, 425, are put loose upon the spindles at
fig.

and the flyers are stuck fast upon the top of the spindles ; the threads are
conducted through the eyes of the flyers b, and of the layers L, and are then
made fast to the reel K, upon which it will be seen that there are double
the number of skeins to that of the spindles represented, because one half
of the number of spindles is on the opposite side of the frame, so that they
are hidden. With this preparation the machine is put in motion, and
continues to spin the threads by the motion of the flyers, and to draw them
off gradually from the bobbins, until the skeins upon the reel are made up
to the requisite lengths. This is sometimes known by a train of wheel-work
at u op, consisting of a pinion, , fixed upon the principal spindle R,
turning a wheel, o, which has a pinion fixed to it, and turning a larger
ivheel p this has another wheel upon its spindle, with a pin fixed in it,-
and at every revolution raises a hammer and strikes upon a bell, s, to inform
the attendant that the skeins are made up to a proper length.

In the silk-mills they employ two different machines, one

for the first operation on organzine, and the other for the
second operation.
Thus, after the silk is twisted it must be wound on fresh
bobbins, with two or three threads together, preparatory to
twisting them into one thread. In the original machines at
Derby this was done by women, who, with hand-wheels,
wound the threads from two or three of the large bobbins
upon which the silk is gathered instead of the reels, and
assembled them two or three together upon anotlier bobbin^
of a proper size to be returned to the twisting-mill.
In 1800, Mr. John Sharrar Ward, of Bruton, obtained a
patent for a new method of doubling silk, worsted, cotton, or
flax, which we intend to describe here ) for though various
modes are adopted for this purpose, one will be sufficient to
give an idea of the whole. Whatever number of threads may
be required to be doubled together, they may by means of
this invention be doubled to the greatest certainty ; for if at
any time any one of the threads, or union of threads, to be
so doubled, should break, it will immediately stop the other
thread or threads until the broken thread shall be repieced,
which secures a constant double thread, or union of threads ;
and the manner in w^hich the same is to be performed will, we
trust, be clearly understood by the subjoined description.
Tig. 429. A is a roller carrying round the bobbin B, which draws the
threads C C from the bobbins ;
DDconsequently the balls E E, and the
thread-wires F F, move round on the pins G
G. HH are two wood or iron
standards, at the tops of which are hung two regulating thread-wires, 1 1.
\V hen either of the threads C C break, the thread-wire through which it
passes falls down, and the tail part K
rises up to a level with the ball E, and
stops the other thread-wire from going round, and consequently the thread
 and machinist^ 399
that passes through it, arid prevents the bobbin B from taking it up ; but
tlie roller A
continues its motion. L L are guide-wires for the threads to
pass over ; M
is a slide, moved by a short wheel or crank, to lay the threads

level on the bobbins.

Fig. 430 is another doubling-machine, the form varied, but the principle
the same as fig. 429. A is a roller, whereon lies a smaller one, marked B,

the axis of which goes through the bobbin; C is a slide, for the same pur-
pose as M, in fig. 429 ; DD two bobbins, with spindles through them, on
each of which is fixed a wheel EE; F F are two thread-wires hung at G. G
When either of the threads break, the wires drop between the teeth of the
wheel, and stop the other thread, the bobbin and roller B stopping at the
same time ; but the roller A continues moving, as Ain fig. 429.

The bobbins being thus filled with double or triple threads,

are carried back to the throwsting-machine, and are there
spun or twisted together in a manner similar to that before
described. At this period, the silk is a marketable article,,
and is passed from hand to hand.
Tlie silk being now spun, is put into a boiler filled with hot
water, into which is put a small quantity of soap, in order ta
divest the silk of its gum. In the earlier processes, the gum
was necessary for the purposes of the manufacture, for the
silk, had it been divested of it, would have assumed a fine
downy appearance similar to that of cotton, and must have'
undergone similar operations before it could have been formed
into a thread; this, indeed, is necessary for that portion of waste
silk which is drawn from the cocoons in the first operation
of reeling ; also for those cocoons which have been reserved
for breed, or which is made in the operations of twisting just
mentioned, through which the moth or butterfly has eaten
a hole, and rendered them impracticable to be wound off
into silk.
The silk is now taken to the warping-mill, w'hich, being a
precursor to the act of weaving, will be noticed under that head.
At this present moment several improvements are in pro-
gress for winding and throwing silk upon a new principle ;
indeed, the silk manufacture now may be compared with what
the cotton manufacture was about thirty years ago. There
appears to be taking place in every department the same
great and rapid improvements ; and it is much the opinion
of practical men, that the machinery now in use will, in the
course of a very few years, be entirely superseded, and that
this branch of our manufactures will ultimately be almost, if
not quite, as great a source of national prosperity as the
cotton manufacture.
The art of throwing silk was first introduced into this
country by Mr. John Lombe, who, with considerable inge-
nuity, and at the risk of his life, took a plan of one of these
40t> THE OPERATIVE MECHANIC
complicated macliines in the king of Sardinias dominion';?
from which, on his return, he, in conjunction with Mr,
Thomas Lombe, established a similar set of mills at Derby,
Parliament granted them a patent for fourteen years; and, on
being petitioned at the end of that term for a renewal, granted
them 14,000/. instead, on condition that they should allow
a perfect model to be made, and placed in the Tower for
public inspection.

.

FLAX MANUFACTURE.
Flax undergoes various processes before it can be worked
into cloth or other articles ; these processes are very diifcrent,
and require different sorts of implements and machinery, in
order to their being properly performed. Flax, for the pur-
pose of being formed into cambric, fine lawn, thread, and lace,
is dressed in rather a different manner to that which is em-
ployed for other purposes ; it is not scotched so thoroughly
as common flax, which from the scotch proceeds to the heckle,
and from that to the spinner ; whereas this fine flax, after a
rough scotching, is scraped and cleansed with a blunt knife
upon the workmans knee, covered with his leather apron
from the knife it proceeds to the spinner, who, with a brush,
made for the purpose, straightens and dresses each parcel
before she begins to spin it.
In the Sivedish Transactions for the year 1747^ ^ method
is given for preparing flax in such a manner as to resemble
cotton in whiteness and softness, as well as in coherence ;
for this purpose, a little sea- water is directed to be put into
an iron pot, or an untinned copper kettle, and a mixture of
equal parts of birch-ashes and'quick-iime strewed upon it,
a small bundle of flax is to be then opened and spread upon
the surface, and covered with more of the mixture, and the
stratification continued till the vessel is sufficiently filled.
The whole is then to be boiled with sea-water for ten hours,
fresh quantities of water being occasionally supplied in pro-
portion to the evaporation, that the flaxy matter may never
become dry. The boiled flax is to be immediately washed in
the sea, by a little at a time, in a basket, with a smooth stick
at first, while hot ; and when grown cold enough to be borne
by the hands, it must be well rubbed, washed with soap, laid
to bleach, and turned and watered every day for some time.
Repetitions of the washing with soap expedite the bleaching ;
after which, the flax is to be beat, and again well washed
when dry, it is to be worked and carded in the same manner
 AND MACHINIST. 401

as common cotton, and pressed between two boards for forty-

eight hours. It is now fully prepared and fit for use. It
loses in this process neaidy one-half its weight, which, how-
ever, is abundantly compensated by the improvement made
in its quality, and its fitness for the finest purposes.
The Jiax-hrake is hand instrument, or machine, which was originally,
a
and for many ages, chiefly employed in breaking and separating the boon or
core from the flax, which is the cuticle or bark of the plant. In performing
this business, the flax being held in the left hand, across the three under
teeth, or swords of the brake, shown at A, figs. 432 and 433, the upper
teeth or swords B, fig. 432, and 6, fig. 433, are then with the right hand

quickly and often forced dow n upon the flax, which is artfully shifted and
turned with the left hand, in order that it may be fully and completely
broken in its whole length.
The flax foot-brake is an implement, or machine, of the brake kind,
invented in Scotland, by which flax is broken and scotched wdth much
greater expedition than by the hand instrument just described, and in a
more gentle and safe manner than by the flax-mill. By this contrivance,
the boon or stem is well broken, and the sloping stroke given as with the
scotcher, while the machine is moved by the foot. The treadle is of con-
siderable length, on which account it is put in motion with great facility,
and assisted in it by means of a fly. Tlie scotchers are fixed upon the rim
of a fly-wheel. But though these machines may be highly useful where
mills turned by water cannot be established, they are probably much inferior
in point of expedition, and the economy of labour. A brake of this kind is
represented in different views, in figs. 434 and 435, in which is shown, by
A, the three under brake-teeth, or swords, seventeen inches long, three
inches deep, one inch and a quarter thick at the back, and a quarter of an
inch at the fore-part or edge.
B the edges, two inches and three-quarters asunder at the end next the
guide B, and two inches asunder at the other end.
C displays the two upper teeth, about an inch shorter than the under
teeth; and
D represents the brake-mallet, about thirty-three pounds English weight.
F is a compound foot-treadle, which is eight feet four inches between the
fulcra F, raised at F eight inches above the ground, or rather five inches
higher than the lance of the workman ; E is two feet four inches between
the fulcra G, and is raised at G
eighteen inches above the ground ; that is,
fifteen inches higher than the lance of the workman.
H the sword, or upright timber rod, which turns the wheel by the treadle-
crank.
I the treadle-crank, cf seven inches and a half radius.
K the fly-wheel, four feet and a half diameter, above sixty pounds
English weight. As here represented, it is beat or cast iron ; but it may
also be made of timber.
L brass cods or bushes.
M
m the lifting-crank ; M
is fixed firm upon the axle of the fly, while the
crank about eight inches radius, plays freely round the axle. In position
first,M begins to take round the crank (which by the lever R
pulls up the
mallet) ; when it oomes to position second, the mallet is again at liberty,
and by its weight pulls up the drank (faster than the fixed pieces move) into
position third.
It may be observed that the treadle-crank is ad^anced about one-eighth
part of the circle before the lifting-crank.
2 D
402 TIIK OPERATIVE MECHANIC
a small pulley, which turns easily round on the end of the crank, and
to which a rope is fixed.
O a piece of timber which prevents the roller from falling in upon the
axle, but which should not rub against the rope in its coming down.
P shows where the rope passes between two friction-rollers, which are so
placed that it comes down three or four inches, or half the radius of the
lifting-crank on the side of the plummet-line, crossing the centre .of the
wheel ;
that is,to the side on which the crank turns when it pulls dowai
the rope.
Q a pillar, which serves only to support the guard for the rope O, and the
friction-rollers at P.
''
P. the lever. t;

S the lever-pillar.
T part of the mallet-frame.
U two pillars which guide the brake-mallet.
V an iron spring which receives the leap of the mallet, and throws it the
quicker down.
W the pillars which support the fly.
XU the pillars which bear the brake-teeth and mallet.
YY the spur and cross that support the pillars.
Z Z the bottom frame-piece.
a the broad stool upon which the workman stands, three inches above the
ground.
The lifting crank and pulley are shown separately, in different views, at
Mm n, and m u.
The brake-teeth are made of good beech or plane-tree ; the brake-mallet
of plane-tree, ash, elm, birch, or oak ; and the sword, or upright timber-rod,
between the treadle and the treadle-crank, of beech, ash, or oak. The fly-
wheel, if timber, should be made of oak, ash, beech, elm, or plane-tree.
All the other parts of timber worth mentioning may be made of fir-Vv^ood.
At fig, 436 is shown the ground plan of the whole.
This brake may at any time be converted to a beater of
flax and hemp, by removing the brake-teeth, and putting in
their place flat boards. In the upper of these boards may be
driven 32 nails, the heads about three-quarters of an inch
long, and the points of the heads about a quarter of an inch
in diameter the points of the nail-heads may be placed one
;

inch clear asunder, and at equal distances, as in this way any of

the nails may most easily be drawn out in repairing the mallet.
An iron hoop put about the mallet wdll prevent its bursting
with the driving in of the nails. In the time of beating, the
narrow end of the mallet is placed towards the workman,
and where there is much w^ork in that way, the mallet and fly
may be made heavier, and then two or more workmen can
work together upon the foot-treadles, which may also he
made equally long.
The
flax-hackle is an instrument or tool constructed for the purpose of
hackling or straightening the fibres of the flax, which is seen at figs. 437 and
438. It has many teeth, fixed in a square flat piece of wood, as seen at
A and B. Wlicn used, it is firmly fixed to a bench before the workman,
who strikes the flax upon the teeth of the liackle, and draws it quickly
 Ft. 61.
From .13? to 439

43F

SlpJify
 AND MACHINIST. 403
through the teetli. To persons unacquainted with this kind of work, this
may seem a very simple operation ; but in fact it requires as much practice
to acquire the method of hackling well, and without wasting the flax, as any
other operation in the whole manufacture of linen. The workmen use
finer, or coarser and wider-teethed hackles, according to the quality of the
flax ; generally putting the flax through two hackles, a coarser one at first,
and then a finer one in finishing it.
The Jiax rippling-comb is an instrument or tool which is formed by letting
six, seven, or more long square teeth nearly upright, in a long narrow piece of

plank, so that their different angles shall come nearly to touch each other.
By drawing the flax through between these teeth, the balls or'pods in which
the seed is contained are forced off. A
It is seen at and B, fig. 439. If
the flax is to be regarded more than the seed, it should, after polling, be
allowed to lie some hours upon the ground to dry a little, and so gain some
fiiTnness, to prevent the skin or harl, which is the flax, from rubbing off
in the rippling ; an operation which ought by no means to be neglected, as
the balls, if put into the water along with the flax, breed vermin, and other-
wise spoil the water ; the balls also prove very inconvenient in the grassing
and breaking. In Lincolnshire and Ireland they think that rippling hurts
the flax; and therefore, in place of it, they strike the balls against a stone.
The handfuls for rippling should not be great, as that endangers the lint in
the rippling-comb. After rippling, the flax-raiser will perceive that he is
able to assort each size and quality of the flax by itself more exactly than
he could before have done it.

The hand and foot methods of breaking and scotching the

flax are, however, too tedious in their operation to give satis-
faction to the manufacturers, in the present advanced state of
mechanical science ; consequently mills have been con-
structed, by which these preparatory operations are much
facilitated.

Flax-mills are constructed in great variety ; but one of

which w'e are acquainted is described in Gray's
the best with
Experienced Millwright^ in nearly the following terms :

Fig.440 is the plan. A A, the water-wheel ; C C, the shaft or axle

upon which it is fixed B B, a wheel fastened upon the same shaft,
;

containing 102 teeth, to drive the pinion D, having 25 teeth, which is

fixed upon the middle bruising-roller ; E, a pinion in which are 10 teeth,
turned by the wheel B, which is fastened upon the under end of the
perpendicular shaft that carries the scotchers; MM,
the large frame that
supports one end of the shaft C, and the perpendicular axle; NN
are
frames in which the rollers turn that break or bruise the rough flax ; I A
. and L, the machine and handle to raise the sluice when the water is to be
let on the wheel AA, to turn it round ; G
G, doors in the side walls of the
mill-house ; I K, windows to lighten the house ; H
H, stairs leading up to
the loft.
Fig. 441 is the elevation. A A, the water-wheel upon its shaft C C, on
which shaft the wheel B B is also fixed; this latter wheel containing 102
teeth, to turn the wheel E, having 25 teeth, which is fastened upon the
middle bruising-rollei. F F is a vertical shaft, upon the lower end of
which is fixed a pinion having 10 teeth, which is driven by the wheel B.
riiere are two arms that pass through the shaft F ; and upon these arms are
fustetifidi with screwed iron bolts, the scotches that clear the refuse off the

2 D 2
404 THIS OPERATIVE MECHANIC
flax. D D, the frames vrhicii support one end of tlie axle C, the vertical
shaft, and the break ing-roliers ; L is a weight suspended by a rope, the
other end of which is fastened to a bearer, as is seen in fig. 442 S S, a lever,
;

the short arm of which is attached to the frame tliat the gudgeons of the
upper roller turn in and by pushing down the long arm, the upper roller
;

is, when necessary, so raised as to be clear of the middle one. N N, the end
walls of the mill-house ; R R, the couples or frame of the roof ; H, a door in
the side wall ; I K, windows.
Fig. 442 is a section. A A, the great water-wheel fixed upon its sliaft,
and containing 40 aws, or float-boards, to receive the water which com-
municates motion to the whole machinery. B B, a wheel fastened upon the
same axle, having, as before mentioned, 102 cogs, to drive the wheel C, of
25 teeth, which is fixed upon the middle roller, No. 1. The thick part of
this roller is fluted, or rather has teeth all round its circumference ; these
teeth are of an angular form, being broad at their base, and thinner
towards their outward extremities, which are a little rounded, to prevent
them from cutting the flax as it passes through betwixt the rollers. The
other two rollers. Nos. 2 and 3, have teeth in them of the same form and
size as those in the middle roller, whose teeth, by taking into those of these
two rollers, turns them both round. The rough flax is made up into small
parcels, which being introduced betwixt the middle and upper rollers, pass
round the middle one; and this either having rollers placed on its off-side,
or being enclosed by a curved board that turns the flax out betwixt the
middle and under rollers, when it is again put in betw'ixt the middle and
upper one, round the same course, until it be sufficiently broken or softened,
and prepared for the scotching-machine. The bearer in which the gudgeon
of the roller No. 1 turns, is fixed in the frame at C ;
and the gudgeons of
the rollers Nos. 2 and 3 turn in sliders that move up or down in grooves in
the frames S S. The under roller is kept up to the middle one by the
weights D D, suspended by two ropes going over tw'o sheeves in the frames
S' S
;
their other ends being fastened to a transverse bearer below the sliders
in which the gudgeons of the roller No. 3 turn. The weights D D must be
considerably heavier than the under roller and sliders, in order that its teeth
may be pressed in betwixt the teeth of No. 1, to bruise the flax when passing
between the rollers. The whole weight of the roller No. 2 presses on the
flax which passes between it and No. 1. There is also a box fixed on the
upper edge of its two sliders to contain a parcel of stones, or lumps of any
heavy metal, so that more or less weight can be added to the roller, as is
found necessary. O O is the large frame that supports one end of the shaft
which carries the two wheels A B, and vertical axle F F ; on the lower
end of which is fixed the pinion turned by the wheel B, and having 10 teeth.
In the axle F are arms upon which the scotches are fastened with screwed
bolts, as seen at G G, fig. 441. These scotches are enclosed in the cylin-
drical box E E, having in its curved surface holes or porches at which the
handful of flax are held in, that they may be cleaned by the revolving
SGotchers. H H, the fall or course of the w'ater 1 1, the sluice, machine,
;

and handle for raising the sluice to let the wmter on the great wheel. The
gudgeons of the axles should all turn in cods or bushes of brass. K K, the
side walls of the mill-house ; G G, doors ; L L, windows.

Having proceeded thus far, the reader will have become

acquainted with the various modes of preparing flax for the
operation of spinning, which operation, from the copious
manner in which we have treated of it under the article
Cotton Manufacture, requires but little elucidation.
]t]LAX MIM.
Fl.Sz
From 440 to 4 43

SuteAl^ ^^4 Stt'nnd.

 AND MACHINIST. 405

About the 5^ear 1787? Messrs. Kendrew and Porthoiise, xyf

Darlington, obtained a patent for spinning a flaxen tliread hy
means of machinery ; prior to that time, we believe, the rock
and wheel, variously modified, occasionally for superior spin-
ners to form two threads at once, were universally employed.
In Ireland especially, even at the present day, this method is
much practised. The flax, rendered straight and smooth by
hackling, is wrapped loosely round the rock, from which it is
gradually drawn by the left hand, whilst the thumb and
fore-finger of the right, moistened with w^ater, are employed
in adjusting the fibres, and directing the thread. A bobbin
and flyer, placed upon a horizontal spindle, serve to give the
twist, and to take up the finished thread ; their motion is
derived from a wheel, impelled by the foot through a treadle
and crank, by means of an endless-band passing round a
pulley of much smaller diameter, which is fixed upon tlie
spindle.
The straightness aud smoothness of the fibres of flax, so
different from the corrugation and adhesiveness of cotton and
wool, with their extraordinary length, seemed to demand an
arrangement in machine-spinning very different from what
has been already delineated.
In the patent alluded to, the hackled flax was extended upon a hori-
zontal frame, at fig. 410% to be carried betw een the rollers B b, and after-
wards to pass along with the cylinder C, (revolving with a velocity equal
to that of any point of the circumference of B,) under several successive
rollers, untilarrived at the drawing-rollers
it D
d the twdst and removal
of the thread then taking place by the flyer and bobbin, as before described.
The rollers E, F, G, H, I, if of equal weights, will, on account of their re-
spective positions, press with unequal force ; the one resting upon the vertex

of the cylinder being evidently the most efficacious, and with the surface
beneath acting probably the part of a pair of holding-rollers to fibres of tlie
length of nearly one-fourth of the circumference ; whilst for fibres which are
longer or shorter, the other rollers, according to their place, will answer the
.same purpose. In this, how ever, there i? no new principle ; and although
modified, it amounts merely to the.operation of holding and drawing rollers.
From some impediments thrown in the way of the Scotch flax-spinners by
the patentees before mentioned, they began, we believe, iu no long time, to
place their rollers in a stra.ight line, at distances suitable to the length of
the fibres. Of the excellence of this arrangement a working model made
for the A.ndersonian Institution in Glasgow, in the year 1803, afforded
sufficient evidence.

We shall now proceed to give a description of a patent,

obtained, in the year 1806, by Messrs. Clarke and Bugby,
for effecting certain improvements in a machine, intended to
be worked by hand-labour, for the spinning of hemp, flax,
tow, and wool.
Fig. 445 represents an cfolique view of the front of a frame containing
ten spindles, (W
frames may contain an indefinite number of spindles.) A,
 406 THE OPERATIVE MECHANIC
the spindle or a bow passing through the whole frame, having ten bosses of
brass or cast-iron thereon, each about four inches diameter, each boss supply-
ing one spindle ; B, a pinion of twelve leaves upon the end of the spindle A,
connected with the wheel C, of eighty teeth, fixed upon the end of a small
iron spindle F, covered with wood and extending through the whole frame ;
D, a slack or intermediate pinion of any size at discretion, connected with
another similar pinion, the latter connected with a wheel of 120 teeth,
which is fixed upon an iron spindle G, of about inch diameter, and
extending through the whole frame ; but the wheels BCD and E may be
varied in their numbers, to increase or diminish the draught of the sub-
stance operated upon, as may best suit its quality or the ideas of the workman.
The pinion B is so contrived as to slip olf the end of the spindle A, to
make room for a smaller or larger one ; by means whereof a larger or shorter
thread may be spun from the same sized rovings ; aa a a a aa a a a repre-
sent ten roved slivers of hemp, flax, tow, or wool, passing between the iron
spindle G and rollers in pairs pressed against them by springs or weights
these springs or weights must be of sufficient force to hold back the slivers
or rovings so securely, that they may only pass on with the movement of
the spindle ; these pairs of pressing rollers are placed behind the spindle.
The use of the small iron spindle F, covered with wood, and left rather
larger than the spindle G, is, with pressure of the small wood roller, made
up in pairs h bbb 6, and so contrived that each pair may roll upon two
slivers, to bring them down straight, and preserve the twist which they
receive in the roving-machine till the slivers leave them. The bosses on the
spindle A have likewise wooden rollers in pairs pressed against them by
springs or weights, between which the drawn, lengthened, or extended slivers
pass to the spindle, the rollers having each a tin conductor ccccccccccj
to bring the material under operation as centrically as possible between the
wood rollers and the bosses; but all the above-mentioned parts of the
machine is so similar to the common upright frames for spinning flax, that
a person conversant with them will not be at a loss to make it all. H is a
wheel of wood four feet in diameter, having its rim about two inches thick,
with a groove in its periphery for a small cord or band. In its centre is a
rule or stock of wood through which the spindle I passes, and extends into
its frame about one-fourth of its length. To enable the person that turns
the winch to reach all the spindles at work, with the hand that is not
engaged in turning, to remove any obstacle that may arise to the spindles,
the arbor or spindle of the wheel I has its bearing on the sides of the frame
that contains it, marked L L L L ; this frame, with the wheel H, the arbor I,
and the winch K, is similar to that part of a machine called a mule-jenny,
used for spinning cotton ; this frame is supported in a horizontal position
at the outer end by two legs marked M M, and a screw pin which passes
through K, the front upright, a A, fig. 444, and made tight with the thumb-
screw a i the screw passes through a groove or mortise at the end of the
wheel frame, to enable the workman to adjust the wheels N and O, as it
will be found necessary to change the wheel N, to make such alteration in
the twist as the size of the yarn may require, or as the workman may think
proper. P and are bevel wheels of equal size, the former fixed upon
Q
the rule or stock of the wheel H, and connected with Q upon the spindle R,
taking round with it the wheel N, which is connected with the wheel O.
Upon the embossed spindle or arbor A,aaaaaaaaaa, are spindles
standing on a carriage with four wheels, similar to the carriages used in
mule-jennies for spinning cotton, having at each of them, dddddddddddd,
a convex seat of wood of any convenient size, not less than the bottom of
the bobbins or quills eeeeeeeeee; these bobbins or quills are about six
3fcfU i: stfchlty. J-ajJl,Serw!ti
 AND MACHINIST, 407
inches long and inch diameter at the bottom, and three-quarters of an
inch diameter at the top ; but the sizes must be varied according to the
size of the yarn. Perhaps four or five variations will be sufficient to spin
yarn for tarpaulins or sail-cloth, up to fine yarn fit for good dowlas and
fine stockings. T a pulley, over which a band, from S, runs and returns, to
draw out the carriage upon the four wheels described ; W, the cylinder
which drives the spindles.
Fig. 444 exhibits a side view. A, the wheel mentioned above in fig. 445,
and there marked H ; B, the winch by which it is turned by hand ; C C C C,
the frame wherein it works ; D and E are blocks of wood on each side of
the said frame to raise the wheel, so that the winch may be clear of the
<?arriage F F, and apparatus G G ; the two end wheels upon the carriage
containing the spindles having two more corresponding on the opposite
side thereof. H, a groove upon the end of a cylinder, which drives the
spindles, and stretches through the carriage frame, for the diameter of
which no certain rule can be laid down, as it depends upon the length or
size of the yarn, taken into account with the other parts of the machinery.
NNNNNNN, a small band passing over the wheels A K, H I L and M,
by which the groove wheel H and its cylinder are moved, and the spindles
driven. O a treadle shaft, represented by S S, in fig. 445, passing through
the frame or part thereof at the option of the workman, connected with a
tumbler at the end of the embossed spindle or arbor A, in fig. 445, by a
small band, wound five or six times round each of them, and passing over
the wood groove wheel Q, and made fast to the back of the carriage FF ;
this tumbler, by the motion of A, is, at the return of the carriage, locked
to the wheel R; and unlocked when the carriage is not to its destined place.
The carriage is drawn on by the weight of S fastened to a cord, wliich
passes over the groove wheel T, and is connected with the front of the car-
riage ; U, the wheel on the arbor containing the holder shown in fig. 445.
V, the cylindrical roller on a stirt fixed therein, and rolling at every return
of the carriage on the plane W and X, which raises and falls the fallers and
holders, so as to distribute the yarn upon the bobbins from top to bottom ;
the wheels YZ, A 2, and B2, are the same wheels shown by B, C, D, and
E, in fig. 445 ; 1, 2, &c. spools containing the rovings.
This machinery is calculated to save the heavy expense of
currents of water, erecting spacious buildings, waterworks,
steam-engine, &c. and to spin hemp, flax, tow, and wool, at
such an easy expense, as to bring it within the reach of
small manufactories. This machinery is also constructed
upon such safe and simple principles, that no length of
experience is necessary to enable even children to work it
and the use of water, steam, &c. being rendered unnecessary,
it occupies so little space, that it may be placed in small
rooms, out-buildings, or other cheap places. To effect the
above purpose, it was necessary to get rid of the lanier or flyer
upon the spindle used in the old machinery for spinning
hemp and flax, which requires a power in proportion of
5 to 1, and to surmount the difficulty that arose from the
want of elasticity in these substances. This want of elasti-
city in the substance to be operated upon, is compensated
408 THK OPERATIVE MECHANIC
and provided for in this machinery ;
and upon this compensa-
tion and provision, effected by the various means hereafter
mentioned, the return of the carriage without any assistance
from the work-person, and the traverse for distributing the
yarn upon the bobbins or quills, lay the stress upon the
patent. The most simple mode of compensating the want
of elasticity, and which is recommended in preference to the
other, is that of having a holder of large wire for every
spindle fixed in an arbor or shaft extending from one end of
the carriage to the other.
This arbor or with the holders, may be considered as a large and
shaft,
improved substitute what is called a faller in the mule-jennies for spin-
for
ning cotton, fig. 443. Let A
represent the arbor or shaft, bbbbbbbbbb
the holders fixed therein with the elliptical eyes, through each of which a
thread passes from the bosses on the arbor A, in fig. 445, to its spindle.
B, a spindle, which may be from 10 lo 13 inches losg. C, the whirl,
wherein a small worsted band from the cylinder H, fig. 444, works D, a
convex seat upon the spindle, whereon the concave bottom of the bobbin or
quill E rests.'
F, a piece of buffalo skin or metal screwed or nailed to the rail I, having
a hole in it, through which the spindle passes, and by which it is kept
steady ; G, a wire bent at right angles at a, and the bent part driven into
the rail A, so that it may be removed to or from the whirl C, and by the
other crook, b, prevent the spindle from running out of its step H, which is
a screw of brass or other metal passing through the rail K. The wire of
which the holder is made, after forming the elliptical eye, is left or extended
beyond the uppermost part at e, that the yarn may be conveniently slipped
in when occasion may require it ; these holders for each thread are for the
purposes of keeping the yam in a state nearly vertical over the tops of the
spindles when the carriage which contains them is coming out, and being re-
leased from that situation at the beginning of the carriages return, and thrown
into nearly a horizontal position, so as to bring the yarn below the top ot
the bobbins or quills upon the spindles ; and then being curved and raised
again by the wheel U, and its cylindrical roller moving upon the plane W
and X, fig. 444, distributes the yarn upon the bobbins or quills, and pre-
vents it from cockling, hinkling, or improperly doubling or twisting together.
The seats upon the spindles described by D, are turned convex, and the
bottoms of the bobbins and the bottoms of the quills concave, to keep the
bobbins or quills in a more central state upon the seats. The concavity of
the bobbins or quills exceeding the convexity, throws the weight of the
bobbins or quills upon the peripheries or extremities of the seats, and
ensures the rotary motions of the bobbins or quills with that of their
spindles. Weprefer the convex and concave surfaces before described;
but other surfaces will have nearly the same eftect, if so contrived (as they
easily may be) to bear upon the peripheries or extremities of the seats as well
as of the bobbins or quills. The hole through the bobbin or quill, fig. 446,
is rather larger than the spindle, that it may not be obstructed in its motion
round the spindle, which motion takes place at every return of the carriage,
and as often as any thing obstructs the coming forward of the sliver of
which the yarn is formed. At one end of the arbor whereon the holders
are fixed is a counterpoise L, fig. 443, having a socket, and made last
 AND MACHINIST. 409
the arbor by a thumb-screw wi, the round ball at the top being led to
counterbalance the holders. This counterpoise, when the holders are in a
vertical state, declines about 10 or 15 degrees towards the horizon, but
when the holders are thrown down, and under the government of the cylin-
drical roller V, upon the wheel U, is in a different situation ; but the roller
V, arriving at B 3, fig. 444, on the return of the carriage, the holders are
precipitated to a height where the counterpoise overbalances them, and
locks the wheel M, fig. 443, or U, in fig. 444, in the ratchet n, where it
remains until the carriage has reached its destined place, where the tail of
the catch O strikes against a pin in the frame C C C C, fig. 444, and
releases it, the said roller then resting upon the frame UX. A
second
method of compensating and providing for the want of elasticity in hemp
and flax, which is a part of the discovery, is, to fix a round bar of wood,
about inch in diameter, the whole length of the carriage, about three or
four inches above the tops of the spindles, so that the outer surface, or that
next the work-person, may be perpendicularly, or nearly so, over the tops
of the spindles, the inner side having pieces of w'ood or metal nailed or
otherwise fixed thereto, leaving only small spaces between each for the
yarn to pass through ; the use of these pieces is to prevent the threads
getting together and entangling, see fig. 447. A A A A represents a com-
mon faller used in the mule-jennies for spinning cotton with counterpoise B,
wheel C, with its cylindrical roller D, with the plane W and X, before
described by figs. 445, 444, and 443. E E, spindles with their whirls, con-
vex seats, bobbins or quills, with their concave bottoms, FF F F F F F F F F
the pieces of wood or metal, nailed or otherwise fastened to the round piece
of wood, to prevent the thread getting together. In this case every thing
applied to or used with the arbor, containing the holders above mentioned,
may be applied or used.
A third method of compensating the want of elasticity in hemp and flax,
which the patentees describe as a part of their contrivance, invention, and
discovery, is the fixing each spindle in a small frame A A, fig. 448
b, a step of brass ; C, a common made spindle, with its whirl D E and F
;

two stil ts of iron fixed one on each side of the frame A A, equally in a line
with the groove in the whirl D, and moving in holes in two cheeks g gy
fastened into the rail II, on the small frame A A. On the back side thereof,
next to the cylinder, is a small roller, moving on two pivots, so planted,
that when the spindle is in an upright position, the band from the cylinder
which drives it may just run free of it, and as the spindle frame, A A, is
kept to the rail I by a tender spring made of wire, wound round a pin
about half an inch in diameter, that the spindle may yield to the yarn in aH
cases when necessary, the said roller is to prevent the band which drives
the spindle out of the whirl, when the spindle leaves its vertical position.
Fig. 449, a side view of the little frame in fig, 448 ; A the frame, B
the
spindle, Cthe whirl therein, D the end of the roller and one of its
supporters. This apparatus requires the faller last mentioned and described
by 447, witli its appendages for laying the yarn upon the spindles, no
fig.
seat on the spindle or bobbin in this case being wanted, nor any more
than a thin piece of paper, or something thin, round the spindle, to enable
the spinner to take the yarn off with safety and care. A
fourth and
last-mentioned mode of compensating and providing for the want of elasti-
cityin hemp and flax, and preventing breakages and other accidents from any
tightness in the yarn, occasioned by any obstruction or other circumstance,
and which is part of this invention and discovery, is, by driving the com-
mon mule-spindle with a slack band, having the yarn to pass over the
holders described in fig. 443, or over the round bar described in fig. 447,
410 THE OPERATIVE MECHANIC
with all upon the spindles, &c.
the other apparatus for laying the yarn
This last method cannot be used advantage in any case, but may be
to
substituted for either of the three methods described above for spinning
yarn for sail clothe, sackings, tarpaulins, or other coarse or htnvy goods.

WEAVING.
In the preceding articles, cotton, wool, silk, and flax, we
have traced the process of forming the four commonest fibrous
materials to the state of thread or yarn, and now purpose,
in general terms, to treat of their farther destination in the
formation of the various superficial structures termed web or
cloth.
The structures which come under the name of cloth are
formed of two distinct layers of yarns, generally crossing each
other at right angles, termed the warp, and the woof or weft;
and as all cloths, however varied, are constructed of these
two distinct portions of threads, the mind will, when made
tocomprehend the mode and form of loom used in the weav-
ing of one material, be able easily to conceive its application
to other sorts, varying only in dimensions and strength,
according as the weight of the yarn or size of the cloth may
demand.
Prior to commencing the weaving of any material, it is
necessary to prepare the yarn for the loom, one process of
which preparation is, in fact, the measuring and arranging
the threads that are to compose the warp in a parallel direc-
tion, termed luarping.
The warp, or that layer of threads which extends the length
of the piece to be woven, requires the most attention in the
preparation. To form a warp, it is necessary to be very
particular in the number and quality of the yarns ; for upon
their fineness, length, and breadth, depend the fineness,
length, and breadth of the piece to be woven. Though this
may appear a very simple operation, yet, the performing of
it with expedition and accuracy demands some mechanical
skill. The machine for effecting this object is termed the
warping-mill, and, though considerably larger, may be com-
pared to the reel described in the cotton manufacture but :

the spindle upon which it revolves is placed perpendicularly.

The reel cannot easily be made of such dimensions that a
thread measured upon its circumference shall be equal to the
required length of the warp ; and consequently the layer of
yarns is placed in a direction parallel to the axis of the reel,
 AND MACHINIST. 411

and wound upon it they arrive at the

in a spiral direction till

upper end, when the motions of the mill and the yarns are
reversed, and a fresh layer is placed upon the same parts of
the reel. By this method of plying the layers of yarn, it is
obvious, that a small number of ends may be doubled so as
to form the required breadth of the wai*p. If the twist is
spun on cops, it must, prior to warping, be wound on bobbins,
which bobbins are placed in a frame to be wound off upon
the warping-mill.
The next operation to be effected in the manufacture of
cotton goods is that of dressing the warp ; that is, impreg-
nating it with certain gummy or gelatinous matter, and coating
the surface of the yarns, to enable the warp to sustain the
abrasion to which it is subjected in the process of weaving,
as will be seen when that process is described. In preparing
the wool and silk yarns for the looms, dressing is in general
only required for the finest sort, when a little mucilage of
gum arabic, or of jelly made from rabbit or other light skins,'
is used to increase in a slight degree the tenacity.
As it is of considerable importance in the dressing of warps
to have the materials dispersed equally over the surfaces,
many ingenious mechanics have constructed machines for that
purpose ; the general principle of which are the placing of
the warp on a roller, and immersing it in the mucilage,
which allows it to be drawn off covered with mucilaginous
matter. The superfluous mucilage is brushed off, and the
yarn is put in a frame, and by means of revolving fans is
dried and rendered fit to be put in the loom. In cases
'where the manufacturer operates separately, the weaver
dresses the warp, by extending and carefully brushing it over
with paste, and drying it in the air, prior to placing it in the
loom.
Before we proceed to give a description of the looms used
in the manufacture of cloth, it is requisite that the reader
should be acquainted with the various sorts of structure arising
from the dift'erent dispositions of the warp and weft, termed
fabric.
The simplest modeof disposing of the warp and weft is
called common and taking into account the quantity
fabric
;

of yarn used for a given superficies of cloth, is certainly,

so far as respects its strength and durability, the most advan-
tageous mode of distributing it.
Fig. 412 a section of a piece of cloth wove in the common fabric.
is
The circles representthe warp in section, and the weft is seen passing
alternately above and below each succeeding yarn, and the return, or next
412 THE OPERATIVE MECHANIC
layer of weft, passing beneath those threads over which it had passed before,
and vice versa.
Fig. 413 represents a section of a piece of cloth wove to a twilled
pattern. In this the yam of the weft passes alternately over four and
under one of the threads of the warp, and vice versa in its return.
Fig. 414 represents the section of a dimity or kerseymere, in which the
weft passes over four and under four, then over one and under four, and
over four and under one, which places it in a position to begin again ; when
the passage of the weft, as it regards the warp, is exactly reversed.
Fig. 415 shows the construction of a double cloth woven with two warps.
This mode of weaving is mostly applied to the construction of carpets, and
the transposition of the colours in the pattern arises from it. All the divers
modes of passing the weft among the warp may be introduced in this
figure, and whatever is effected with one web of warp is alternately effected
with the other, as may be seen by the figure. It is therefore easy to
conceive, that all the various patterns in woven goods are obtained by
differently disposing of the warp, that is, lifting a greater or smaller quan-
tity of it at a time, which places the weft on either surface of the cloth at
pleasure.
The common loom, or that which is destined to w'eave cloth of the
common fabric, is the most simple in its construction, as the mode of lifting
and depressing the portions of the warp are similar at each throw of the
shuttle. A top view of a loom of this description is given in fig, 416.
A is a warp.
B a roller upon which the warp is wound, called the yarn-beam, and
applied to maintain the w^arp in a stretched position by means of a lever
passing through one of its ends and tightened with a string, as will be
more clearly understood by referring to the perpendicular section at No. 2
of this figure.
C C C are rods placed between the threads of the warp to keep them
separate, so that they may pass forward clear of each other, when the
warp is fed forward and filled with the weft, these rods are at different
periods moved towards the warp-roller B.
At D are the heald or heddles, formed of two rods, one above and the
other below the piece, and connected together by numerous strings,
through which distinct portions of the warp pass, and by means of the
treadles below are lifted and depressed. A detached view of two leaves of
a heddleis represented in section in fig. 417.
a a, a* a, are the top and bottom bars, and the two lines a'* a'^ represent
two adjacent yarns of the warp, so that when a a rises it carries with it
one thread, while the other thread which is passed through the lower loop
of this heddle is depressed by the other heddles. The next part, E, fig. 416,
is a frame to carry the reed, called the lay. A portion of the reed is shown
detached in fig. 418. It is, except when used in cloth of the coarsest
description, formed of flatted wires, placed parallel to each other, and
governed, as to their thickness and adjacency, by the fineness of the fabric
in which they are to be used.
The lay, %. 416, which carries the reed, is hung from a bar capable of
vibrating on gudgeons in the upper frame of the loom. The two thin
elastic pieces of wood which suspend the lay are called swords, and may be
seen at F\ F^, fig. 419. The r^ed thus hung is just beyond the line of the
shuttle-flight, and has one or two threads of the warp passed between each
of its wires, which wires are termed dents. Its use is to strike home the
thread of the weft immediately after it has been delivered by the flight of
the shuttle ; it is therefore pushed by the weaver towards the yarn-beam,
 TL. 68
/'rom /17 to 423
 AND MACHINIST. 413
prior to each flight oi the shuttle, and when the weft has been delivered, it

IS allowed to return and strike home that individual thread.

The next part of the loom is the shuttle-boxes, which are placed at F, F.
In weaving narrow goods, the shuttle is passed between the warp by the
hands of the weaver, but when the cloth is fine, or of a breadth to preclude
this mode, the fly-shuttle, which is much more compact, and has a spindle
to carry a cop upon it, is introduced. This form of shuttle is represented
in fig. 420. The shuttle with its cop is placed in the shuttle-box, which is
of dimensions just sufficient to receive it. In fig. 419 is represented the
reed and lay at F^ F^. The shuttle is driven to the opposite boxes by
means of a small piece of wood, called a driver, which lies behind the
shuttle in each box, and is capalale of being swiftly drawn forward by a
string attached to it, and connected with a handle, G. The weaver holds
the handle in his hand, and by a jerk throws the shuttle across the web
into the opposite box, and then, by bringing the lay towards him, strikes
home the weft. The flight of the shuttle requires adjustment or skill, as
its impetus must be proportioned to the weight of the yarn which it carries,

and the freedom with which the cop unwinds.

If two or three colours of weft are to be put into a piece, so as to form a
pattern, there are two or three shuttles to be thrown ; in such case, the
shuttle-boxes are formed in three parts, as represented by the dotted lines.
This combination of shuttle-boxes is capable of being moved upwards and
downwards upon the lay by the small levers, II, H, fixed upon the swords,
.and worked by the handle I, so that the shuttle to be thrown may be
brought opposite to the division in the w^arp through w'hich it is to fly.
As the cloth is perfected, it is led over the breast-beam K, fig. 416, and
is, by means of a ratchet wheel, wound upon the roller L, which is termed
the cloth-beam. Atm is a stretching-rod, formed of two pieces, and lashed

with a piece of band, in such manner, that the ends are forced outwards,
as may be seen in the figure. This rod has small points at each end, which
pass through the selvage of the cloth, and serve to keep the cloth stretched,
as otherwise the action of the weft would occasion it to pucker and lay in
hollows. The weaver sits behind the breast-beam, and in fine work,
where the breast-beam is dispensed with, behind the cloth-roller.

Such is the construction of loom used in plain- weaving;

and by examining it attentively it will be seen, that by an
additional number of heddles any required movements of the
warp can be effected, and by varieties of weft other diversifi-
cations attained almost to infinity. The greatest skill required
in the act ofweaving by hand is the directing of the flight of
the shuttle, where the impetus given should just suffice to
deliver it in the opposite box. The striking home of the
weft should be done with a regular force, and the preparatory
operations carefully attended to, that the warp may wind off
freely and regularly with an equal tension in all its parts.
From an examination of the movements of so simple a
machine as the loom, the mechanist will instantly conceive
the practicability of applying power to produce the necessary
movements we ;
shall, therefore, present the reader with two
combinations of this class which are called power-looms:
the first invented by a Mr. Millar.
 414 TilE OPERATIVE MECHANIC
Fig. 421 represents a section of a power-loom, in which all the operations
by means of treadles, moved by wipers or eccentrics.
are effected
A, the main shaft, to which the power is communicated, carrying the
wipers, one of which is seen at A. A', the yarn-beam ; B, three rollers, on
the lower of which the cloth is wound after passing above and between the

two upper ones ; C, C, tlie heddles ; D, D, the treadles, to which the heddles
are attached by means of a line passing over a pulley, in such manner, that
tne depression of one heddle occasions the raising of the other ; E, E, the
lay carrying the reed ; the motion is given to the lay by a wiper moving a
treadle that is attached to the lay by means of the line and crank at
F. The return motion for striking home the weft is given by a weight
hanging over a pulley, as may be seen in the figure. The flight of
the shuttle is occasioned by attaching the strings from the drivers to
another treadle, which treadle is worked at the proper periods by another
wiper.

Another form of power-loom^ called the crank-loom, is

used, and varies from the preceding in the mode by which
the movement is given to the heddles. In this construction
of loom the revolving shaft is placed immediately under the
heddles, which are suspended over a pulley similarly to the
loom last described; but the motion is given to them by
means of their being attached to two opposite cranks on the
shaft. The motion is given to the lay by a crank upon ano-
ther shaft, which is made to revolve twice, while the shaft
that moves the heddles revolves once. By this, it is evident,
that the warp is opened, and the shuttle thrown twice, during
one revolution of the first shaft.
The flight is given to the shuttle by the cords of the drivers being attached
to an upright lever, as represented in fig. 422.
The cords, c, c, of the drivers are attached to the lever, e, which, by
means of the arms, /i, i, is caused to vibrate in opposite directions upon
the centre, being alternately struck, by two projecting pieces upon the
first mentioned crank-shaft, which causes the lever, c, to vibrate in a plane
parallel to the crank-shafts, and gives flight to the shuttle, at the period
when the warp is opened.
In either of these plans for working looms by power, if the
number of heddles is required to be increased, in order to
produce any figure, it is easily effected, by varying the
number and the position of the cranks or wipers.
But, though great variations in the movements of a warp
may be effected by using many heddles, yet when the number
of heddles and the number of cranks are increased, great
objections arise to their being used; consequently, ano-
ther construction of loom, called the draw-loom, is intro-
duced when complicated figures are to be woven. In this
loom the changes are effected by raising one portion of the
warp entirely out of the way, wdiile the other is wrought by
the heddles at the time it is being filled with the weft; the
 AND MACHINIST. 415
part raised is then lowered into work, and other yams of the
warp out of the way,
lifted
A loom on this principle is shown in fig. For weaving carpets by
423.
this method, every yarn of the warp has a it, which lines
line attached to
are brought together in one connected piece, according to the portion of
warp to be raised at once, and carried over the pulleys as at A, and attached
to the fixed beam at B. This portion is called the tail. Below the warp
these lines, which are called the simples, are kept in a state of tension by
weights, as at C ; and in order to keep them distinctly apart, are made to
pass through a board perforated with holes at D. Other lines are attached
to the tail, capable of being pulled by handles, as at E, by which means,,
such portions of the warp as are required can be raised. By this contriv-
ance the greatest intricacy of pattern can be attained ; but the attaching of
the simples to the different parts of the warp, by means of small eyes of
metal through which the threads of the warp are made to pass, is a work of
considerable labour. Damask table-cloths are produced by this loom.

It would occupy too much room were we to enter with

more exactness into the great variety of looms which ingenuity
has constructed ; what we have said therefore we trust will be
sufficient to convey to the reader a perfect knowledge of the
principles of forming those various fabrics which are termed
cloth. In the weaving of ribands and other ornamental
works, many extraneous substances, totally unconnected with
the warp or weft, are thrown in, which affords the designers
an additional scope for the display of embellishments. These
substances are merely held in the fabric by the intersection
of the two staple parts, the warp and the weft, and are by
the weavers denominated whips.
In the formation of cloth from the yarn of cotton, silk,
hemp, and long wool, denominated worsted, the fabric when
taken from the loom is, so far as regards the weaving, in a
perfect state the further operations, both mechanical and
;

chemical, which it undergoes, may properly be considered as

tending merely to its further embellishment. These opera-
tions consist generally of singing the superfluous fibres from
the surface of the cloth, by drawing it over hot irons, and
after bleaching or dying, submitting the cotton and linen
goods to pressure between heavy iron cylinders, for the pur-
pose of giving it a gloss, and the worsted, called camblets or
stuffs, between warm copper-plates, called hot-pressing, to
give it a smooth and finished appearance.
In the formation of cloth from short wool, of which our
wearing apparel is made, the loom cannot be said similarly
to have completed the operation. In this branch of manu-
facture, the yarn is woven in a common loom in the manner
we have shown, and called common fabric, but .when the
piece is taken from the loom the web is too loose and open.
416 THE OPERATIVE MECHANIC
and is consequently submitted to another operation, called
fulling. The cloth, after it is, by repeated washings, divested
of the oil that was put in it in the act of carding the wool,
is taken to the fidling-mill, where it is immersed in water,
and subjected to repeated compressions by the action of a
large beater formed of wood, which repeatedly changes the
position of the cloth, and by its continuous action causes the
fibres to felt and combine more closely together, so that the
beauty and stability of the texture is greatly improved. The
cloth is next submitted to the dyer, if so destined ; but in
many colours for the best cloths this process is effected in
the wool prior to the commencement of the manufacturing.
The cloth then undergoes the operation of the gig-mill,
which is formed of a cylinder, somewhat similar to that of
a carding-engine, covered with the heads or burs of a large
species of thistle, called teasels. This engine is used to
raise the fibres or nap, and lay it in a parallel direction,
which, in fine cloth, is cut off by shears, and the cloth
then undergoes hot-pressing to bring it into a state fit for the
market.
Upon considering the various methods of fabricating cloth
in general, it may easily be conceived, that great scope is
afforded to the practice of dishonest modes of forming fabric
apparently valuable, such as the introducing of weft or warps
of different qualities and hiding them by the mode of plying
the other part. In trying the strength of cloth it should
always stand both in the direction of the warp and the weft;
and the substances of which all parts are formed should be
known by separate examination, and not by mere superficial
inspection, as the surface may easily be formed to hide
defects, and display apparent value.

ROPE-Mx\KING.
In rendering the hemp-plant proper for the uses of the
rope-maker, it has to undergo a variety of processes.
The first of these is retting, that is, exposing it to me
action of the dew, or w^ater ; the former termed deiv-retting
the latter, by which the finest hemp is produced, water-
retting. In both or either of these processes, the quality of
the hemp is said to be influenced by the state of tbe weather,
and the finest to be produced when showers have mostly
prevailed.
 and machinist. 417
In dew-retting^ the hemp-stalks, immediately after being
pulled, are spread out, in a thin, even, and regular way, so
us to keep exact rows, on a sward
fine level piece of close old
land, for the space of three, six, and sometimes eight weeks,
as circumstances may require during which, they are turned
;

two or three times in the week, according to the state of

the atmosphere.
The motive for thus spreading it out upon the ground is,
that the dew, by penetrating into the plant, may render the
separation of the rind from the stem or bur easy to be
accomplished. When the dew has acted upon it sufficiently
for this purpose, it is tied up into large bundles, and carried
home and slacked, or it is put into a covered
otherwise
building, till wanted formed into hemp.
to be
This process, called grassing^ requires great nicety and
attention, that the texture of the hemp may not be injured
eitherby too long continuance on the sward, or by being
removed before the hempy substance is rendered sufficiently
separable.
In water -retting, the much more common and speedy
method is, to tie the hemp-plant into small bundles, by
means of bands at each end, and in general to deposit it
bundle upon bundle, in a direct and crossing manner, in a
pond of standing water, to form what is called a bed of
hemp. This bed, when formed of as great a thickness as the
depth of the water wdll admit, wdiich some think can hardly
be too great, though five or six feet are the usual depths, is
loaded with large pieces of heavy wood until the whole is
immersed in the water. In choosing ponds, those should be
preferred that have clayey bottoms.
When the hemp-plant has remained in the water for about
five or six days, varied according to the nature of the pond
and the state of the weather, it is taken out, and conveyed
to a piece of mowm grass or other sward land, which is free
from all sorts of animals. Here the bundles are untied, and
the hemp-stalks spread out thin, stem by stem. While in
this state, especially in moist weather, they must be carefully
turned every second day, to prevent their being injured by
the worm casts. In this way they are kept for about five or six
weeks, when they are gathered up, tied in large bundles, and
kept perfectly dry in a house or small stack, till wanted for use.
In some of the northern parts of Scotland, the hemp, after
it has been pulled, and cleared of its leaves, seeds, and

branches, by means of a ripple, is formed into bundles of

twelve handfuls each, and steeped in a manner similar to flax,
2e
418 THK OFERATIVS MECHANIC
till its reed becomes capable of parting from the barlu In
this process^ it is favourable to give it rather too much than
too little of time ; and let it be observed^ that the most
slender hemp requires the greatest length of time in the
water. Where the quantity of hemp is only small, the
hempy part may be separated from the reed by hand-labour;
hut where it is large, drying and breaking it in the manner
of flax is strongly recommended.
After the hemp has been taken out of the water, it is not
spread out upon the grass-ground in the way of flax; but
set up in an inclined position against cords arranged for
the purpose, or by any other method by which it can receive
the full benefit of the air till it be perfectly dried, which may
be known by its rising in blisters from the boon. As soon
as it has been reeded, it must be divested f the mucilaginous
material which it contains, by pouring water upon and re-
])eatedly squeezing it. In this part of the process great care
must be taken to prevent the fibres from getting entangled,
as by that means great waste will be incurred.
M. Brealle, on the Continent, has suggested a mode, very
different to any of these, for the purpose of steeping hemp,
the advantages of which, it is asserted, have been fully proved
by numerous trials. The process consists in heating water
in a vessel, or vat, to the temperature of from 72 to 'Jb
degrees of Reaumer, and dissolving in it a quantity of green
soap, in the proportion of 1 to 48 of the hemp : the body of
the water being about forty times the weight of the hemp.
When this preparation is made, the hemp is thrown into it,
and floats on the surface, and the vessel being immediately
covered, the fire is put out. In this state the hemp.is allowed
to remain for two hours, at the expiration of which time it
will be found to be fully steeped.
The principal superiority of this method, besides the great
saving of time and expense, is said to consist in the hemp
affording a greater proportion of tow. The value of the
fuel, as v/ell as the time employed in the process, should,
however, be well considered in such cases. Besides these,
it is said to promote the cultivation of tlie hemp crops, by the

facility which it affords to the preparation, even in such

situations as are not contiguous to rivers, streams, or ponds
it also obviates any ill consequences that might possibly
ensue from the putrid effluvia of the atmosphere, and the
corruption of the waters, induced by it, which last are well
known to destroy the fish contained in them, as also to prove
hurtful to the cattle that drink of them.
 AND MACHINIST. 419

In consequence of the great trouble and expense attendant

iipon the process of water-retting, the hemp is frequently left
for seed; in which case, it is commonly stacked up and well
covered for the winter season, in order that it may be thinly
spread out in about January or the following month. Where
this can be executed during the period of a snow, the hemp
comes much more readily to a good colour, and forms strong
coarse cloths ; but it is far inferior to that pulled in due season,
and .which has undergone the water-retting operation.
Various contrivances have been made in the form of ponds
and pits, for the steeping of hemp ; but the one which seems
to possess the most merit is described in the Norfolk Report,
as the invention of Mr. Rainbeard ; by using of which, the
hemp can be deposited in the pit, without the necessity of
any person getting wet. The pond is an old marl-pit,
with a regular slope from one side, where the hemp is pre-
pared, to the depth of eight feet on the other side. On the
slope, above the water, the hemp is built into a square stack
upon a frame of timber, of such a height as will float and
bear a man without wetting his feet this is slid down upon
:

the frame into the water, and a person on the opposite bank
draws it to the spot where it is to be sunk. Mr. Rainbeard
has found by experience, that the hemp does soonest at the
bottom, and would not object to 16 feet of water. By
means of this very useful contrivance he can put in a waggon-
load in an hour. The sheaves are taken out one by one in
the usual way ; but it is suggested, that some more expedi-
tious and simple contrivance, either upon the principle of
the lever, or some other, should be resorted to, for effecting
the desired purpose.
In preparing the hemp for the hackle, the work is executed
chiefly by the beetle, first using a coarse, and then a finer
brake : it may, however, be more expeditiously performed by
the rollers of a lint-mill. In either mode, shaking the hand-
fuls frequently with force is necessary. In cases where the
plant has not been sufficiently watered to loosen the rind, the
operation of peeling must be performed by the hand.
Another method for effecting this purpose is the hemp-
mill, which is much used in America. It consists simply of
a large heavy stone in the form of a sugar-loaf, having the
small end cut off. Thus shaped, it readily moves round
in a circle, when passing upon a plane. The motion is
given by the impulse of water on a wheel, and the hemp,
deposited on the receiving floor of the mill, is, by the weight
and revolutions of the stone, perfectly crushed and broken.
420 TUB OPERATIVE MECHANIC
Still,however, the fluted rollers of a lint-mill are the best
means of performing the work, provided sufficient care be
taken to guard against accidents.
When the hemp has been completely broken, it is sub-
mitted to another operation, called swingling, or scotching
the intention of which is, to separate the reed from the
hemp. This operation is sometimes performed by a labourer,
who takes a handful of hemp in his left hand, and while
holding it over the sharp edge of a board, strikes it with, the
fine edge of a long flat straight piece of wood, usually termed
a swingle-hand or scotcher 5 but this way is both laborious
and tedious, consequently, mills moved by water, having a
number of scotchers fixed upon the same axle-tree, and mov-
ing with great velocity, are much more frequently used. The
work, in this case, is executed with much greater expedition,
and far less fatigue of the workman ; but the velocity of the
mill occasions a great waste of hemp.
Before the hemp prepared in this manner is subjected to
the hackle, it mostly undergoes another process, termed
beetling; by which the fibres of the hemp become more
loosened and divided. The beetles employed with this
intention are moved by the power either of the hand or
water, which may be considered best.
The implements used in preparing hemp for the operation
of spinning are so very similar to those described in the
preparatory processes of the flax-manufacture, that we do
not consider it necessary to give more than a general descrip-
tion of the proeesses ; we shall therefore conclude this article
with an accurate description of a patent, taken out by
Mr. George Duncan, of Liverpool, in March 1813, for his
improvements in the different stages of rope-making, and
for certain machines adapted for the same.
The first part of the process which he has described, is
that for spinning the yarn for all kinds of cordage, lines,
and tivine.
In this part of the invention there are two railways,
adjoining and parallel with each other, fixed along the spin-
ning-ground or rope-walk, from one end of it to the other.
Upon each of these railways a machine for spinning the
yarn is made to travel alternately backwards and forwards,
one setting ofl from the bottom of the ground at the same
lime that the other sets off from the top, and as they both
travel at the same rate, the former arrives at the top of the
ground at the same time the latter arrives at the bottom.
These spinning-machines are in every respect similar to
 AND MACHINIST. 421

each other, and are respectively furnished with two sets of

twisting spindles ; one set being placed at one end of the
machine, with the hooks facing the top of the spinning-
ground ; the other at the opposite end, with the hooks
facing the bottom. The spinners employed in spinning with
them are, accordingly, divided into two companies, and
arranged similar to the machines ; the one company at
the top, the other at the bottom, of the ground. The number
of spindles in each set of each machine should be equal, and
also equal with, or rather not fewer than, the number of
spinners in each company ; or, in other words, as there are
in each machine two equal sets of spindles, (four sets in all,)
the number of separate spindles in the two machines should
not be fewer than double the whole number of spinners
employed ; because one set only in each machine is occupied
at the same time in spinning, the other set being in the
mean time engaged in retaining the yarns last spun from it,
and following them back to the winding-machine.
The manner in which the operation is performed is as
follows: The spinning-machines are placed, as before de-
scribed, one at each end of the spinning-ground, on its respec-
tive railway, ready to set off. Each spinner of the two
companies immediately attaches his hemp or flax to the
spindle of the machine that is nearest to him and the motions
,

of both machines, excepting those of that set of twisting-

spindles facing the opposite company, are then struck into
geer, and each machine recedes from its own company, spin-
ning and leaving the yarn on separate guides or hooks as it
proceeds onwards, the one down and tlie other up the ground,
the one arriving and striking itself out of motion at the
bottom, when the other arrives and strikes itself out of motion
at the top. Each spinner of the two companies then detaches
the yarn in his hand from the hemp or flax which he was
spinning, and fixes the end of the piece that is spun to a
v/inding-up reel, in a machine stationed behind or near him,
while the other end still remains attached to the spindle-hook
of the machine on which it was spun, and which is now at
the further end of the ground.
The machines have now changed their company ; that is,
the machine which formerly belonged to the company at the
top, now belongs to the company at the bottom ; and that
which belonged to the company at the bottom, belongs now
to the company at the top. Each spinner, therefore, of both
companies, immediately attaches his hemp or flax to the
spindles left vacant by the opposite company, and the fHotions
422 THE OPERATIVE MECHANIC
of the spindles to which the hemp or flax is attached being
struck into geer^ the spinning proceeds as before ; during
which, the respective winding-machines wind up the yarns
last spun, regularly as the spinning-machine, to whose spin-
dles they are attached, and which have remained stationary,
advances towards it from the other end.
The spinning of the two sets of yarn, and winding up of
the two last spun, being finished at one and the same time,
the whole machinery again stops, and each spinner, as before,
immediately detaches the yarn in his hand from the hemp or
flax, and then detaches from one of the spindle-hooks of the
spinning-machine just arrived, the yarn which he had on the
former occasion spun, and which has just been wound up on
one of the reels of the winding-machine, as closely as the
short length necessarily intervening between the spinning and
winding machines will allow. The two ends of these yarns
he splices together, so that the yarn just spun, lying on the
guides or hooks along the whole length of the spinning-
ground, is now ready to be wound up. The spinners then attach
their hemp to the emptied hooks, the machines are again
struck into motion, the spinning and winding go on as before,
and the same procedure continues to be renewed each time.
The general principle which constitutes this mode of opera-
tion, and consequent facilities of the invention, are, that one
set of spindles in each machine is always employed in spin-
ning, while the yarns spun by and attached to the hooks of
the other set at the opposite end of the machine are Avinding
up, so that every spinner is constantly kept at work in spin-
ning, excepting the short interval when splicing the yarn,
and preparing to set on to spin. Throughout the whole of
the operation, therefore, whatever one of the spinning and
the winding machines may be performing, and one of the
company of spinners employed in doing, the other spinning
and winding machines, and company of spinners, are, in
every respect, similarly engaged.
An endless rope, driven by any external machinery, gives the
travelling and twisting motions to both spinning-machines
and the whole of these motions are connected with and bear
a given proportion to each other, capable of being regulated
to suit the speed required. The two winding-machines may
also be driven by the endless rope. All or any of these
machines may, nevertheless, be driven by distinct endless
ropes, or by any other method or methods in use for driving
locomotive machinery, provided the proportionate speed be
kept up.
 AND MACHINIST. 423

The application of the rack, hereafter described, will be

the most accurate for regulating the travelling-movement of
the spinning or any other machine, on a rope-walk ; but as
the resistance in the present case is very trifling, the motion
given to the truck-wheels of the spinning-machine, as shown in
the engravings, will answer the purpose at less expense.
As a further improvement, Mr. Duncan invented an addi-
tional apparatus for giving an after-twist, which either may
or may not be adopted. The object of this improvement is,
to prevent the yarns losing strength, which otherwise they
do, by losing twist by the counter-twist of the strand, and
other subsequent operations. This is effected in a simple
and convenient way, by continuing the twisting for a sufficient
length of time after the travelling motion of the spinning-
machine has ceased ; by which means, an additional twist is
given to the yarns after they are spun to their full length ;
and this is done while the spinners are splicing them at the
other end of the spinning-ground, and preparing again to set
on to spin, without occupying any of their time for the pur-
pose. The effect of this part of the invention for the after-
twist has been produced in different ways by others ; but by
modes either so complicated or expensive, as not to be con-
veniently available in practice.
The principal advantages to be derived from this method
of spinning are the following :

First. The spinners are enabled, at much less expense, to

spin a greater quantity of hand- spun yarn than they can by
any other method in the same space of time ; because, except
while splicing the threads, they are constantly occupied in
spinning ; and have neither to hook up the threads, nor to
travel up and down the walk, so that their time and attention
is solely confined to the delivering of the hemp or flax from
their hands. Secondly. The speed of the spinning-machine,
besides being uniform, is proportioned to the full extent of
work the spinners can conveniently accomplish, which, in
some measure, compels them to produce the greatest possible
quantity ; and as the machine is constructed so as to lift the
threads off the hooks, and follow them up to the winding-
machine, little or no attendance is required from wheel-boys
or followers. Thirdly. The spinners are enabled, partly from
their wdiole skill and attention being confined to the one
object, of simply delivering the hemp or flax from their
fingers, and partly from the requisite degree of twist being
given by machinery, to produce a superior quality of yarn.
 424 THJC OPERATIVE MECHANIC
And fourthly. to be spUn by this machinery may
The hemp
either be dressed in the usual way, or prepared and dressed
on the hackling-machines, which draw out the whole in a
long sliver ; and in either case it may be spun from the end
of the fibres, by which means the strongest yarn is formed.
It may, however, be spun from the spinners waist, and with
more convenience than in the common way, because, by this
method, the spinners remain always in a room at each end of
the spinning-ground ; consequently, the hemp is not so liable
to be discomposed as when they have to travel up and down
itswhole length ; neither, for the same reason, is it so liable
to be wasted.
The expense attendant upon erecting the spinning ma-
chinery, with all its connections, and the power requisite to
drive it, is comparatively trifling. In making the spinning
machinery, various forms or shapes may be adopted, as they
may be made to travel on railways on the ground, or on
railways suspended from the beams of the rope-walk, or fixed
upon or above them, as may be thought proper ; and the
disposition of the necessary machinery may be arranged and
diversified to suit the situations of the railways, and the
construction and conveniences of the rope-walk.
mode shown in figs. 469, 470, and 471, is most preferred by
llie
jMr. Duncan, merely because it occupies least room in proportion to the
number of spindles the spinning-machines can employ. The whole width
of a rope-walk, required by this mode, need not be more than six feet, except
at each end, where, of course, sufficient width convenient for the spinners,
and for the winding-machine and dressed hemp, must be allowed. In this
narrow space no less than twenty-four threads may be constantly kept
spinning at one time, and as many winding up ; so that besides every other
advantage, the saving in the original cost of a spinning-ground on this plan,
and in the expense of covering it in, will be considerable.
In the explanations to the figs. 478 and 479, is shown how other arrange-
ments may be made by which the competent mechanic will be enabled to
adapt or diversify the form of the machines, and form and disposition of
the machinery, to suit any situation in a ropery which is most convenient,
or of little use for other purposes.
In that part of the drawing, entitled Rope-spinning, from A to B is
supposed to be the SYjinning-ground, shown as broken off in the middle, for
want of room to show it in full length ; C C and C C, on each side of the
break, is one railway ; DDand D L) the other.
Fig. 469 is a plan of one of the spinning-machines, at the top of the
ground, on the railway C C.
Fig. 470 is the other, exactly of the same construction, at the bottom of
the ground, on the railway ;
DD
and
Fig. 471 is a side elevation.
Tliough both machines are precisely similar, yet some parts of the
machinery are omitted in some of tlc figures, tliat other parts may be seen
more distinctly, and in none of the figures are the whole shown together.
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 AND MACHINIST. 425
li, wherever ii occurs, shows the endless rope which drives both machines,
and IV the rollers or pullies suspended from the beams L over head, which
guide and carry it.
The same characters, in all the above figures, wherever they may be used,
denote the same part.
F shows the framing of the machines.
a and b two grooved sheeves, fastened upon the two upright shafts
c and d, (as best seen in fig. 471,) driven contrary ways by means of the
endless rope.
The manner in which the rope goes round, and grasps the sheeves, and
occasions their contrary motion, is best seen in fig. 470.
In fig. 471, e and are two spur-wheels, fixed upon the shafts c and rf,
/
with a view to equalize their motion.
The twisting motions for each set of spindles are driven by their respec-
tive shafts, which, at the same time, drive all the travelling motions. But
the twisting motions for one end only are driven at a time; for while the
shaft that is nearest to the end from which the spinners are spinning, is
driving the twisting motions of that set of spindles, together with all the
travelling motions, the shaft nearest to the other end is not driving any,
though both shafts are then revolving.
g and h in the travelling motions are two pinions, upon loose rounds,
alternately driving the wheel i, which is fast upon the short upright shaft A,
and shown only in fig. 471. On the lower end of this shaft is the bevel-
wheel I, driving, by means of another bevel-wheel, m, the cross shaft w, upon
one end of which are fastened the sheeves 1,2, 3, and upon the other the
sheeves 4, 5, 6, seen best in fig. 469. These sheeves are of different sizes,
and one only at each end of the shaft is in use at a time ; o and p are the
two axles of the truck-wheels, having the sheeves 7, 8, 9, fastened upon o,
and upon/) the sheeves 10, 11, 12. The four truck- wheels 5^ are also fast-
ened upon the shafts 0 and p, and motion is given to them by two belts
one driven from any one of the sheeves 1, 2, 3, and the other from any one
of the sheeves 4, 5, 6, each belt running upon its corresponding sheeve on
the axles of the truck-wheel. The turning round of these axles impels,
according to the motion given to them, the machine forward ; which motion
can, by the sheeves being of different sizes, be regulated as occasion may
require.
On the lower end of the shafts c and d of the twisting motions are the
sheeves r and s, on loose rounds, each in its turn carried about by catch-
boxes, (as shall be hereafter explained,) and driving the upright rollers or
cylinders Gand H, by means of belts going round the sheeves t and u, fast-
ened on the axles of the rollers. These hollers give motion to the twisting
spindles by separate bands or belts passing round a whirl on each spindle
in each machine are placed twenty-four spindles, twelve at each end, or six
at each corner of each end, the positions of which are seen in figs. 469 and
470. In either of these figures, one spindle at each of the four corners
only appears, the other five being ranged in a direct line underneath ; but
the manner in which they range is seen in fig. 471. In fig. 471, twelve, or
one half of the number of spindles, appear on the nearest side; six, or half
a set, at each end ; the other half appear similarly situated on the opposite
side. These two sets are alternately employed, the one in spinning, and
the other in holding and following the yarns that are winding up ; z
fig. 471, are ratchet-wheels and catches, placed on the axles of the rollers

G and H, to keep the yarns from untwisting when winding up.

Figs. 469 and 470 best show the carriers, projecting from the frame in
which the twisting spindles run the form and use of them, and of the
;
426 THE OPERATIVE MECHANIC
whirls and spindles, are so obvious, that it is not necessary to point them
out in any of the figures by a distinguishing character of reference ; and,
for the same reason, none of the bands or belts are marked.
Having so far described the different motions and appurtenances of the
spinning-machine, we shall now proceed more particularly to explain the
manner in which they operate.
By an inspection of fig. 471, it will be seen, that the catch of the catch-
box 13 is in contact with the catch of the pinion h, and the catch of the
catch-box 14 with the catch of the sheeves I, and that the catches of the
boxes 1 5 and 1 6 are not in contact with the corresponding pinion g and
sheeve r.
17 and 18 are two separate levers, one at each end of the machine,
alternately used for striking into geer the catches above mentioned ; the
lever 17 serving for the two boxes 13 and 14, and the lever 18 for the two
boxes 15 and 16. 19 and 20 act as swingers or levers from the joints 21
and 22, having claw ends to grasp the catch-boxes 13 and 14 ; and being
coupled with the main lever 17, by means of the connecting rod 23, move
them either up or down. When in geer they are held firm by the sneck 24
but on running against a fixture at one end of the spinning-ground, are
pulled back, which causes all the motions of the machine to stop. The
machine, however, may at any time be stopped, as occasion may require, by
pulling back the sneck by hand. The two main levers 17 and 18 are so
weighted at the handle end, that when disengaged from their snecks the
catch-boxes always fly out of geer. The machine is put in motion by raising
the main lever into the sneck by hand. All the machinery on each side of
the wheel i, at each end of the machine, is precisely alike ; the description
therefore given of one end may answer for the other. The twisting motions
at each end are never in geer at the same time ; for those at one end are
engaged in spinning one set of threads, while those at the other, whose
spindles retain and follow up the other set of threads (last spun) to the
winding-machine, remain at rest. All the four catch-boxes, 13, 14, 15, and
1 6, constantly go round with the shafts c and d, by means of feathers in the
shafts acting in grooves in the boxes.
When the catch-box 14 is in contact with the sheeve s, it gives motion
to the set of twisting-spindles belonging to the roller H, at the same time
its accompanying catch-box 13, by being in contact with the pinion h,
gives a retiring or travelling movement to the whole machine, which is
effected by the wheel i communicating motion to the four truck-wheels, by
the means which have been before described. The wheel i is common to
both pinions, being turned one way by one pinion, when the machine is
retiring from the top of the ground, and the contrary way by the other when
it is retiring from the bottom of the ground ; consequently, the cross shaft Ji,

which derives its motion from the wheel 2 , turns at the same time both the
truck-wheel axles, one way when retiring from the top, and the contrary
way wlien retiring from the bottom; the shaft n being common to both
truck -wheel axles.
Fig. 472 is the plan of a winding-machine, placed at the top of the spin-
ning-ground, containing twelve reels, corresponding with the number of
spindles in each spinning-machine.
Fig. 473 is a plan of a similar winding-machine, placed at the bottom ot
the ground, containing the same number of reels. Both these winding-
machines are mounted' so high above the ground as to allow the yarn wind-
ing on them to pass over head, that the spinners may have room to move
underneath. In the engraving they are placed rather nearer the spinning-
niachines than they ought to be, from want of room in the plate. When all
 AND MACHINIST. 427
the spindles of the two spinning-machines are employed, one half in spin-
ning and the other half in following up the yarns to the winding-machine,
as has already been described, all the reels of both winding-machines are of
course at the same time fully employed in winding up.
Fig. 474, at one end of the ground, shows a side view of the reels, placed
on their spindles, a description of which is unnecessary, as the movements
and construction of such machines are well known and understood. In the
figure they are represented as only winding one yarn on each reel, in ord-er
to expilain the improved or patent method of rope-making ; but more than
one yarn may be wound on any one of these, or any other kind of reel, that
may be used in my method of spinning, for the convenience of the common
method of rope-making, or for other purposes. It is neither convenient, nor
necessary, that the endless rope should cease motion, when the spinning-
machines have arrived and struck themselves out of geer at the top and bot-
tom of the ground ; consequently we will suppose, that the endless rope is in
motion, and all the other parts of the machinery at rest, excepting the two
shafts cand d, and their respective catch-boxes. The catch-boxes of each shaft
ill both machines are in the position of 15 and 16, as seen in fig. 471. Each
spinner in the two opposite companies having now attached the hemp to the
spindles, nothing remains to be done but to raise by hand the lever 7, 1

fig. 471, (which in the engraving appears to be already done,) and the corres-

ponding lever in the opposite machine ; which will cause the spinning and
winding to proceed in the manner already described.
When the machines stop, each spinner splices his thread, and throws it on
the nearest guide x, to keep it out of the way, and to conduct it to the wind-
ing-machine. The grooved sheeves a and b, on the top of tlie shafts c and d,
to which the endless rope gives the first motion, may be changed when re-
quired for sheeves of a larger or smaller diameter, for the puipose of dimi-
nishing or increasing all the motions in a proportionate degree. For the same
purpose the wheel or sheeve, which gives motion to the endless rope, may
also have grooves of different diameters. The sheeves that may be changed
for increasing ordiminishing the twisting motions, are the four sheeves t r
for one end of the machine, and v s for the other, as seen in fig. 471 In
.

order to obtain more or less travelling motion, the belts may be made to run
either on the sheeves 1 and 9, and 6 and 10, or on 2 and 8 and 5 and 11,
or on 3 and 7 and 4 and 12, as seen in fig. 469.
Fig. 475 (within which are .figs. 476, 477, 478, and 479) represents an
end view of a rope-ground building, set down as eighteen feet wide inside.
It is merely divided into portions, to show some different modes of diversi-
fying spinning-machines upon this principle, the different situations in which
they may work, and the proportion of room they may occupy according to
the number of spindles.
Figs. 478 and 479 show end views of two forms of spinning-machines,
different from each other, and from the one already described; but all upon
the same principle. The machine in fig. 478 is represented as moving on a
railway M M, underneath the beam L, having spindles both above and be-
low. The parts shown in the figure are as follows N N two of the truck-
:

wheels. O P the endless rope sheeves. Q one of the rollers for turning the
spindles. R a sheeve on the end of the roller, answering the same purpose
as t and v in fig. 471 . W
part of a sheeve on the truck-wheel axle, answer-
ing the same purpose as one of those on the axles o and p in figs. 469 and
470. The carriers, the whirls, the spindles, and their bands, in this machine
are the same as in the spinning-machine already described ; and their situa-
tions are so obvious, as not to require particular characters of reference.
Such part of the figure as consists of framing will be obvious. One side of
the railway is fixed to the post K ; the other side is fixed and rests iqiou
42B THE OPERATIVE MECHANIC
the iron fixture S, hanging from the beam L, which also serves tlie same
purpose for the adjoining railway. X one of the guide pullies for tlie end-
less rope. T a rail, (which may occasionally be removed,) laid across, and
answering the purpose of both railways, from post V to K, having upright
pins at proper distances, for the purpose of bearing and keeping separate
the yarns of the lower spindles. The hooks fixed to the under side of the
beam L are to answer the same purpose for the yarns of the upper spindles.
In order to lay the yarns upon these hooks, a separate guide upon each
spindle is fixed upright in a slender rail, fastened to, and projecting two or
three feet from, and parallel with, each end of the machine. The shape of
these guides is the same as the hooks in the beam, with this exception, that
each one has an eye at the point, to convey the yarns in a slanting direction
from the spindles, and to lay them upon their respective hooks in the beam
when spinning, and also to lift them off when winding up. The manner in
which the guides pass between the hooks may be seen in fig. 477, where a
represents the projecting rail; the guides, two only of which are marked
it must here be understood, that the spindles are not opposite the eyes of

their respective guides, but exactly opposite the upright part of them, and
on a level with the eyes. There are many other ways by which the hooking
up of the yarns may be effected, but the method just described is conceived
to be the most simple. The space between the post V and the iron fixture S,
is the room to be occupied by the other spinning-machine.
The spinning-machine, fig. 479, is represented as moving on a railway,
laid upon the beam L. It will be seen that this machine is nothing more
than the lower part of the one last described, having no spindles on the upper
part. The guide pins are in this method driven into the beam. The empty
space to the right of this machine is the room to be occupied by its fellow.
Tlie letters of reference used in fig. 10, and its appurtenances, apply to the
same parts whenever they are used in fig. 479, and its appurtenances.
Though these machines (the end views of which are shown in figs. 478 and
479) are different from each other in form and arrangement of machinery,
and also from the form and arrangement of the one shown in figs. 469, 470, and
471, yet the same principle of the travelling and twisting motions is appli-
cable to all, and therefore it is unnecessary to enter into further explanations
respecting them.
Fig. 480 shows the method of giving the after-twist. As the apparatus
for this purpose is to be applied to each of the endless rope shafts in each
machine, a description of the apparatus as belonging to one of them may
be sufficient. This figure is a side view of the apparatus, and is represented
as applied to the shafts/, in fig. 471 ; the same characters of reference there
used being retained in the present figure, where they denote the same parts.
The apparatus for the after-twist is merely an addition, which on the lower
part of the figure consists of a catch on the under side of the sheeve s, a cor-
responding catch and catch-box 25, carried round by the shaft, and the
lever or swinger 26 to act on the catch-box. The rod 23 is lengthened, to
connect this swinger with the other two. On the upper part of the figure
is the remainder of the apparatus, consisting of a catch on the upper side of

the catch-box 13 ; the worm on a loose round on the shaft 27, with a catch
on the under side, to operate with its corresponding catch on the catch-box
13 ; the screw-wheel 28 to act in the worm ; the arm 29, on a loose round
on the axis of the screw-wheel, confined near the circumference of the
wheel by the staple 30, but having play the width of the staple, the end
of the arm farthest from the axis being intended to act on, and press down,
the swinger 19; and the spring 31, fixed on the v/heel, which presses
against the back of the arm.
Tlie v/hole of the macliinery in the figure is represented out of the gccr,
 AND MACHINIST. 429
and is in the position as when ready to set off from one end of the spinning-
ground, to follow the yarns to the winding-machine. In that position it
continues until it has arrived at the winding-machine, and the yarns are
disengaged from the spindles when the main lever 17 is lifted up by hand
into the catch 24, for the purpose of putting the spinning and travelling mo-
tions into geer, as formerly described. By the raising up of this lever tlie
swinger 19 is pulled down, and the arm 29 is thus disengaged, which hav-
ing play within the staple, swings forward by its own weight, clear of the
swinger, which is hollowed or bent at that place for the purpose. The ob-
ject of this is, that the arm may not be in the way of the swinger 19 the
next time it goes into geer with the worm. When the machine has returned
to the other end of the ground, and the yarns consequently are spun to their
full length, the catch 24, on which the main lever rests, is thrown back by
the machine going against a fixture in the ground, as has been before
mentioned, and the lever (being sufficiently weighted at the handle end)
drops down, by which means the travelling motion is stopped. The twist-
ing motion would also be stopped, were it not, (as will be seen from the
figure) that though the catch-box 14 is throwm out of geer with the sheeve s
on the upper side, the catch-box 25 will be at the same instant, and by tlie
same movement, thrown into geer with it on the under side, so that the
twisting motion continues. The under side of the catch-box 13, being
thrown out of geer with the pinion k, (which stops the travelling motion)
the upper side of it will be at the same instant, and by the same movement,
thrown into geer with the worm 27, which consequentiy gives motion to the
screw-wheel 28 ; the arm 29 (which it will be recollected is then hanging
down) is also carried round with the wheel ; and when it comes in contact,
having nearly made one revolution with the swinger 19, it forces it down,
and by this means puts the catch-box 25, as well as its own, out of geer, and
causes the whole of the machinery to stop. The use of the spring 31, press-
ing against the back of the arm, is to cause it to force, as soon as the catches
13 and 25 are out of geer, the swinger 19 a little further down, wdiich it will
then be enabled to do, inconsequence of the resistance against it being de-
creased ; the object of this is to prevent any jarring of the catches when in
that situation. The spring is prevented forcing too far by a stop. Anotlier
method of forcing the swinger thus much further down may be adopted, by
fixing a pin or fang to project from the framing of the machine, so as the
end of the spring above mentioned may come in contact with it a little be-
fore the time when the arm begins to force down the .^winger, in order that
the arm may be relieved from the pressure of tlie spring until the arm has
forced the swinger down nearly to the point of sending the catches out of geer,
at which time the end of the spring, having got free of the pin, comes with
a sudden blow against the back of the arm, and thus sends down the catches
clear of those with which they were in geer ; the spring in this case also is
prevented from forcing too far by means of a stop. The time the screw-
wheel is in going round is the time allowed for the after-twist but should
:

one wheel not allow sufficient time for the purpose the motion may be farther
decreased, by any usual and well-known means, and change wheels may be
applied to suit the different kinds of yarn.

In tempering the strands of all kinds of cordage, whether

shroud, hawser, or cable-laid, it is well known that from
various causes an inequality of tension between the different
strands intended for the same rope takes place, and is most
commonly apparent during or after the operation of hardening,
some of the strands becoming too slack, others too tight, and
430 illE OPERATIVE MECflANfC
consequently of unequal lengths, though ovs,ginally they
may have been of equal length, and have received the same
twisting or number of turns by machinery of the most improved
and perfect construction. In cases, therefore, where this in-
equality appears, the strands require to be rectified, by being
brought to an equal degree of tension, in order that each
may bear its equal portion of strain in the rope when made.
The operation for effecting this object is commonly called
tempering the strands ; and the method in general practice is
to give more twist to a slack strand, or to take twist out of a
tight one, or to do both. In some rope-grounds where the ma-
chinery is driven by steam, or other considerable power, the
method adopted is to give more twist to the slack strands,
which is done by stopping the twisting of the tightest strand,
by throwing its hook out of geer, and to keep it waiting in
that position until the slack strands have twisted up to the
same tension.
These methods in most cases are defective ; because the
strand to which more twist is given is thereby rendered less
pliable, and is of smaller circumference ; consequently it can-
not top or lay up in the rope evenly and regularly with the
other strands which have less twist ; for the harder twisted
one will in the rope sink inwards, and the others stand out-
wards and form more of a spiral round the harder twisted one,
which will thereby have more than its proportionate strain
in the rope to bear, and will also be least enabled, when
under a strain, to stretch up, so as to avail itself of the as-
sistance of the others, and by consequence must be the first
to break. Should the inequality of tension be occasioned by
any original inequality of thickness in the strands, the smallest
one will, during the process of hardening, become the slack-
est, and in tempering by twisting it up to the tension of the
tightest, the inequality of size will by that means be increased
for the more it is twisted, the still smaller in circumference,
as well as shorter in length, will it become. But, supposing
all the strands were originally of equal thickness, and that the
inequality in tension proceeded entirely from an error in the
original lengths ; it is plain, that, by tempering according to
the methods in question, (and no other methods, after the
strands are fixed on the hooks, and the work has commenced,
can, y any machinery hitherto in use, conveniently be adopted,)
'

the same defective principle still applies, which, by causing

one strand to be harder twisted, and consequently to become
of a smaller size, and another to be softer twnsted, and to be-
come of a larger size, prevents the whole from jointly forming
 AND MACHINIST. 431

Itregular and perfect rcpe, and to stretch equally when under

a stniiuj as already described.
As a more convenient, accurate, and certain method, than
any hitherto practised, appeared to be necessary, Mr. Dun -
can invented and adopted a new mode of tempering the
strands of all kinds of cordage, whether shroud, hawser, or
cable-laid the nature and general principle of which is, to
:

cause any one strand-hook of the foreboard, or foreboard-ma-

chine, when the strand attached to it requires to be tightened,
to recede from its corresponding opposite hook of the sledge
or stranding machine, to which the other end of the strand is
attached ; or when it requires to be slackened, to cause it to
advance towards its corresponding opposite hook, thus bring-
ing all the strands to an equal tension, without one strand-
hook making more revolutions than another. And, what is of
essential importance to this invention, the operation may be
performed leisurely, as occasion may appear to require, either
before, during, or after hardening the strands, without stop-
ping the twisting, or other motions, or occasioning any inter-
ruption to them whatever; and with more ease, minute
accuracy, and useful effect, than by any other method yet
practised for the purpose.
In order more particularly to exemplify and illustrate this
part of the invention, we have annexed engravings of the
machinery which Mr. Duncan has contrived and adapted for
the purpose.

In fig. 481 ,ABC represent the upper part of the framing in which the
machinery, placed at the foreboard, is fixed; C being the front of it, facing
or looking down the rope-walk. D is a toothed wheel, receiving motion

from any external machinery. This wheel drives the other toothed wheel E,
and either of them can be changed to suit the speed of the motion required.
The toothed wheel E is fixed upon the axis of, and gives motion to, the
toothed wheel or fluted cylinder F ; which cylinder drives the four pinions
J
, 2, 3, 4,
whose axles, to the hooks of which the rope strands are attached
when twisting and tempering, are the four strand hook spindles , h, c, d.
To answ'er the purpose of the invention, the strand hook spindles, besides
having the rotative or twisting motion which we have already described,
are so contrived, for the tempering of the strands, that any one or more of
them may, while the twisting motion is or is not going on, be made to
slide, in a horizontal direction, parallel with the axle of the cylinder F,
along any part of its length, either backward or forward, as shall now be
explained. The strand hook spindles having to slide, as has been said, in
a direction parallel to the axis of the cylinder, are of course placed in that
direction, and so as their pinions may pass each other. The positions of
these pinions round the cylinder are seen in fig. 482, which represents a
front view of the machinery ; the same references in each figure being used
to denote the same part. As all the four strand hook spindles, with their
accompaniments and immediate connections, are precisely the same, a
description of one will be sufficient ; we will therefore take the spindle
in fig. 481. GH is a long or male screw, a few inches longer than the
432 THE OPERATIVE MECHANIC
cylinder, upon which is fitted tlie nut or female screw, e, having spokes or
arms, to admit of it being turned by hand. Joined fast to this long screw
is a head-piece or claw f, within which a carrier or step is fitted, and in
which the adjoining end of the strand hook spindle revolves. Two collars,
g and hj fitted on the spindle, one on each side the step, cause the spindle
to accompany the long screw, either backward or forward, when moved by
turning the nut e, the rotative motion of the spindle going on at the same
time if required ; i and k are two steps or guides, fixed on the cross
framing B and C, through which the spindle may pass and repass, and in
which it also revolves ; / is a carrier of the same description, fixed on the
cross framing A, through which the long screw may pass and repass, but
without revolying. Fast upon, and projecting from the head-piece/, and
consequently accompanying the long screw and spindle in the sliding
movement, (see the side view, fig. 483,) is the tongue m, the end or point of
which is fitted to pass along during that movement in a slot in the rail n,
fixed parallel with the long screw and spindle, between the two cross
bearers A and B.

The object of this contrivance is to prevent the spindle

(one end of -which, as has been shown, revolves within the
head-piece of the long screw) from carrying round the screw
along with it, and to keep the screw and its head-piece at ail
times steady, and in a direct line with the spindle. For the
purpose of keeping the long screw stationary in the situation
to which it may have been last set, the pull of the strand on the
hook (by pressing and abutting the screw-nut e against the
back of the carrier /) will always be found to be sufficient.
The diameter of the cylinder F may be about two feet, and
that of each of the fore pinions 1, 2, 3, 4, about one foot,
more or less, according to the speed desired, and the discre-
tion of the mechanic. The pitch of their teeth should be the
same as that of the teeth of the cylinder. The length of the
cylinder should at least be equal to the greatest difference or
inequality of length ever likely to take place between the
slackest strand and the tightest strand intended for the same
rope, previous to, or during, the operation of hardening, when
they are both brought to an equal tension by tempering
according to this method. The inequality of length, or, in
other words, of tension, which takes place in the strands
during the process of hardening them, is generally found to be
in proportion to their circumference, and is more in a set of
the large strands than in the small. In rope- walks, therefore,
where cordage of the largest size is manufactured for the use
of his Majestys navy, the length of this cylinder should not
be less than four feet but Mr. Duncan has found, by expe-
;

rience, in manufacturing cordage for merchantmen of the

greatest burthen, that few cases occurred where it was requisite
for the length to be more than three feet. In rope-walks
where cordage on the common principle is manufactured, some
additional length is necessary. Each of the four pinions is
 AND MACHiNlST. 433

fastened upon the middle of the length of its strand hook

spindle. Supposing, therefore, that the pinion 2 should be
set so as to be exactly at one end of the cylinder next to the
cross framing B, it must be enabled to slide along to the
opposite end next the cross framing C, and also back again
to B ; for this purpose the spindle must always be kept in
its steps or carriers, z and /c, which support it, and in which
it both slides and revolves, and therefore it requires to be

double the length of the cylinder, besides an additional lengtli

equal to the spaces in its passage occupied by the necessary
steps, framing, clearances, &c. The length of the long screw
G H, and of the rail are each the length of the cylinder,
and correspond with, or are a few inches longer than the
sliding distance, to allow for steps, &c. as above. It has
been shown, that the cylinder drives the four strand hook
spindles, and that any one of them can be moved, by means
of its screw, either backw'ard or forward, without interrupting
its own rotatory motion, or the rotatory motion of any of the
others ; the teeth of the pinions being for this purpose kept
in geer with, while at the same time they are made to slide
along between, the teeth, or in the flutings of the cylinder.
Suppose, then, that the strands are attached to their
respective hooks, and the pinions set so as to be all at an
equal distance from each end of the cylinder, and all the
strand hook spindles going round, twisting and hardening
the strands, the operation of tempering is performed merely
by turning round, by hand, as often as required, any one or
more of the screw-nuts either way about, as the case or cases
may require, according as any one or more of the strands
require slackening or tightening for bringing them all to an
equal tension. Thus, in order to slacken a tight strand, its
hook must be advanced forward further from the front of the
framing C ; and in order to tighten a slack strand, its hook
must be drawn in, towards the framing.
Fig. 484 a side view, representing some variatiofiin the machineiy for
is

effecting the sliding movement of the strand hook spindles on the same
principle, and answering the same purposes, as the plan in fig. 481, already
described. After the full descriptions and explanations already given, a
very short account will be sufficient to make this fully understood : 6 is a
strand hook spindle, similar to those in fig. 481, excepting that the pinion
2 is not made fast upon it, because it has to pass or slide through the axle
hole of the pinion. In order, that the spindle may at the same time
revolve with the pinion, the slot 10 is cut upon one side of the spindle,
(the length of the slot being the sliding distance,) which slot receives a
feather or key in the axle hole of the pinion, through which the slotted part
of the spindle is to pass and repass, as occasion may require, the feather
always remaining in the slot to carry round and give the rotatory of
434 THE OPERATIVE MECHANIC
tv/isting motion to the spindle. The parts /, gy and h are exactly the
same as parts which have the same characters in fig. 481. I is a rack, (to
tlie

answer the same purpose as the long screw in fig. 481,) which the pinion o,
by means of the handle p, moves either backward or forward. The ratchet-
wheel, 7 , and its catch, hold the rack and pinion stationary in the situation
to which they may be set ; i i and k are the steps in which the spindle
revolves, and through which it also slides ; r r are two rings or washers,
loose upon the spindle, between the steps i i and the pinion 2, intended to
qualify the friction during both the sliding and the rotatory operation of
t-he spindle ; # is a guide or step for the rack to slide in, made square at
the bottom, which renders the tongue and slot, shown in fig. 48.3, unneces-
sary. The wheel K, receiving motion from any external machinery, drives
the pinion 2. Change wheels, for varying the motion, may be applied to
this method in the same way as in fig. 481.

From what has already been described, it will appear, that

the strand hook spindle may, by means of the rack I and
pinion o, be drawn or slided either backward or forward,
through its pinion 2, without interrupting its rotatory motion;
the pinion 2 always keeping in geer with the wheel K, by which
itis driven, and which may receive its motion from
latter
any external machinery. Referring, therefore, to the former
description, it will be evident, without further explanation,
by what means the strands are to be tempered by this variation
in the machinery.
The reader will observe that there are two principles by
which the strands of cordage may be tempered or brought to
an equal tension ; the one by causing any one or more of the
strand hook spindles either to advance or recede, whereby an
equal tension will be effected without one spindle making more
revolutions than another ; and the other, that of causing any
one or more of the strand hook spindles to be at rest while
the others are revolving whereby an equal tension will be
;

effected by an unequal number of revolutions. If one of

these two principles only is to be adopted, Mr. Duncan
prefers the former, as being generally more appropriate and
effectual. As, however, it sometimes occurs in practice,
that the application of the one principle, sometimes of
the other, and sometimes of both, proves to be the most
proper and effectual remedy, Mr. Duncan has invented a
still more perfect method, by which either or both of the

principles may be practically applied in one set of machinery.

This object which had never, we believe, been before accom-
plished, is effected merely by applying to either of the two
varieties of machinery before described, an additional appa-
ratus, so that all kinds of cordage-strands may thereby be
tempered, either entirely, by the principle of causing any
one or more of the strand hook spindles to advance or
K 'IDl^ :K. M V FA TIT MK
n.io
From J3l to tS l

Temfyerl/uf

\i7eAeX: ^tranA
 AND MACHINIST. 435

recede; or entirely, by causing any one or more of the

strand hook spindles to be at rest while the others are
revolving'; or partly by the one and partly by the other,
according as the original cause occasioning the inequality of
tension in the different strands may point out ; the whole, or
any part, of the operations going on, either together or
separately, as may be found convenient, without interruption
to each other.
Fig. 485 is a plan showing the additional machinery for tempering, by
combining the two principles as adapted for the first described machinery,
represented in fig. 481. The difference between the machinery of fig. 481,
and that of fig. 485, consists chiefly in the latter having its pinion 2 loose
upon the twisting spindle 5, but confined between two collars, which are
fast upon the spindle. The reason of the pinion running on a loose round
is, that it may be either put in or out of geer with the spindle, by means of
the catch-box t and lever u. The catch-box has a slot, fitting a feather
on the spindle, in order that it may revolve with it, as well as slide in or
out of geer, when moved by the lever. The ratchet-wheels v and w are
fast upon the spindle, one having teeth cut the reverse of the other, that
either of the two palls a: and y may, when the spindle is thrown out of geer
with the pinion, prevent the strands from untwisting, as otherwise the
spindle would be at liberty to be acted upon by the force of twist already
in the strand. The pall y is flat towards the point for holding against the
ratchet-wheel lo for a right-hand twist, and the pall x is hooked towards its
point for holding the wheel v for a left-hand twist. So far, this apparatus
would serve the purpose either of keeping in geer, or stopping the rotatory
motion of the spindle, provided it were not also required to perform the
sliding movement. In order, therefore, to complete the apparatus for both
these purposes, the arm z, fastened to the claw or head-piece /, and forming
one piece with the long screw G H, stretches alongside, parallel with the
spindle, so that its other end is nearly opposite to the pinion, where it is
furnished with two ears, having each an eye or ring, 7 and 7, fitting easy
upon the round iron rod 8 ; \vhich rod is fixed parallel with the spindle,
between the cross framing B and C. The step 9, on the cross framing B,
serves as a guide for the arm z. It is necessary that the distance between
B and C should be as much longer, than the distance in, fig. 481, as the
length taken up or occupied by the catch-box and ratchet-wheels. The
spindle also will require this additional length. The arm z, during the
sliding movement, has to conduct with it, along the rod 8, the lever w, and
the two ratchet palls x and y, the rod serving them also as a guide during
the sliding movement, and at all times as an axle. Though the pinion 2
is always in geer with, and carried round by, the cylinder F, fig. 481, yet
the spindle only goes round when put in geer with the catch-box by the
lever ; therefore the rotatory motion of the spindle may at any time, and
for any space of time, be stopped, for the purpose of causing the twist o
its strand' to cease, while at the same time the other strands are twisting
up. Though only one spindle is here spoken of, it is evident that all or any
of them may, from being furnished with the apparatus now described, be
made either to give, or cease from giving twist, while any one or more of
the spindles either may or may not, as required, be performing the sliding
movement.
Fig. 486 is a side view, showing the method adapted for the second
described machinery, as represented in fig. 484, the apparatus in thij case

2f2
436 THE OPERATIVE MECHANIC
applying to the narrow wheel, and that in the former case of fig. 485, apply^^
ing to the wide wheel or cylinder F. The difierence between the one and
the other is, that the spindle and pinion in fig. 485, slide together, as in
fig. 481, whereas in the figure now to be described the spindle slide?
through the pinion, as in fig. 484. The spindle b in this figure is similar to
that in fig. 484, having a slot, to receive a feather, which is fixed in the
catch-box t. The pinion 2, which is always in geer wdth the wheel K, is
fastened on the bush 11. running loose upon the spindle b. This bush,
being furnished with the collar 12, serves, by means of its revolving in the
cavity 13, adjoining the step i, to keep the pinion in its proper place,
during the spindles sliding movement i and k are two steps, answering
:

the same purpose as those of the same characters of reference in fig. 484
V and IV are two ratchet-wheels, fast to each other, but not fast on the
spindle, having a feather, fitting the slot of the spindle, in order that they
may hold it fast when occasion requires, and that it may pass and repas.s
through them during the sliding movement. These ratchet-wheels are
furnished with their two palls a: and ;?/,
altogether answering the same pur-
pose as those described in the former fig. 485. The catch-box t, having
also a feather, fitting the slot, is furnished with a lever, (not shown in the
figure,) answering the same purpose as the one marked u, in fig, 485 ; but
to suit the present case, it works on a stationary pivot, fixed to the framing
of the machine. The two ratchet palls also work on pins fixed to the
framing; and their wheels v and w, being furnished with the rim or
fencing 14, are kept always opposite to the palls, by means of a bracket,
(fixed to the framing, but not seen in the figure,) hollowed out to receive
the rim. It will be evident, from what has here been said, that the opera-
tion of striking in and out of geer the rotatory motion of the spindle is-
performed exactly in the same manner, and also answers the same purpose,
as that described under fig. 485 ; and that the sliding movement of the
spindle in both cases is performed in the same manner, and answers the
same purpose, as described under fig's. 481 and 484, either one or other of
the methods, under figs. 485 and 486j combining the two principles of tem-
pering strands in the manner previously pointed out.
Though in the first- described machinery it has been shown,
that the slidingmovement of the strand hooks may be
effected by means of a male and female screw, and in the
second-described machinery by that of a rack and pinion,
yet it will be seen, that either means may with equal pro-
priety be applied to either machinery. And a competent
mechanic, from what has been described, will easily perceive
that any other power, such as that of a lever, weight, or rope
and pulley, or one or more of them combined, may be applied
for the same purpose, though in the first preference be given
to the screw, and in the next to the rack.
The next part of the invention to be described is a
new method of regulating both the backward and forward
travelling movements of any sledge or other locomotive ma-
chine that is or may be used in a rope-walk. The back-
ward movement of the stranding- sledge, or the retrograde
movement of that machine towards the bottom of the rope-
walk by which strands are drawn out, in rope-walks whers
 AND MACHINIST. 437
the improved or patent principle of rope-making is adopted,
has hitherto been effected by means of a rope applied in
different ways for the purpose. In some cases the rope is
made to haul the sledge backwards, by fastening one end of
it to the sledge, and the other round the capstan or barrel,

at the bottom of the rope- walk; and in other cases the rope
is stretched tight along, and made fast at each end of the
rope- walk, and two or more doubles or bights of it passing
round and grasping the same number of grooved binding
sheeves in the sledge, which revolve by connection with the
rotative motion of the strand hooks, from which the other
motions are derived : thus the sledge works itself backwards
along the rope.
The great object to be attained in regulating this backv/ard
motion is, to cause it always to preserve a certain speed in a
given ratio with that of the rotative motion, in order that the
strands may always receive the degree and uniform distribution
of twist intended; But in whatever way a rope has hitherto
been applied for that purpose, the object has never been
effectually attained, nor the operation conveniently performed,
because, from the elasticity and specific gravity of the rope
itself, extended along the whole length of the rope-walk, it
has been found impossible to keep it accurately stretched,
and equally tight from one end to the other, so that when
the sledge is in motion, particularly when first struck into
geer, it pulls up the slack of the rope froi# the bottom of the
rope-walk, and its retrograde motion is thus retarded in
proportion as the rope may stretch, slip, oi* give way.
The retrograde motion loses therefore its relative speed
commensurate with that of the rotative motion of the strand
hooks, which have in the mean time, without interruption,
continued to put twist into the strands. Instances are not
unfrequent where they have been twisted to such a degree
as nearly to break them asunder before the rope could be
tightened sufficiently to cause the sledge to move on at its
proper speed ; and, on the whole, it is obvious, that by the
present method of drawing out the strands, they can neither
receive their proportionate twist nor the distribution of it.
The labour required in applying the rope is besides extremely
inconvenient and troublesome, because it requires to be first
fixed to the sledge, or round its binding sheeves, at the top
of the rope-walk, then tightened, and afterward disengaged
at the bottom, on every single occasion of drawing out a
strand or set of strands. The plan also is expensive, because
the constant wear and tear is considerable, and requires th?c
438 THE OPERATIVE MECHANIC
rope to be frequently renewed, An iron chain may indeed
be applied for the purpose, and though not requiring to be so
frequently renewed, it is equally objectionable with the rope
in most other respects, and on some accounts more so. The
forward movement of the stranding, topping, and dragging
sledges, is that slow progressive movement necessarily re-
quired towards the top of the rope-walk by the shortening or
shrinking up of the strands in twisting, while forming on the
common principle, and of the strands and cordage, either
common or patent, whilst hardening and topping. It will
readily be seen, that this movement should also be uniformly
regular, in a given proportion to the twisting motion, and
that the travelling distance should be neither more nor less
than the length the strand or rope ought to shrink up.
According to the usual method, a number of press barrels or
weights are placed on the stranding or topping sledge, or on
a drag sledge, attached to their tail end, to serve as a resist-
ance against the pull of the strand or rope when shrinking
up. But as the quantity of weight to be applied is to be
varied and proportioned to the size of the strand or rope, and
degree of twist required, and as the friction of the drag on
the ground is greater on some parts than on others, the
operation, depending on criterions so uncertain, must be
attended with a great degree of irregularity, both with regard
to the sledge sliding faster or slower, and also with regard to
the whole length to which, eventually, it may be dragged
thereby occasioning a proportionate irregularity, both in the
distribution and total quantity of twist or lay in the strands
or rope, corresponding with their length.
The object, therefore, of this invention, with regard to the
backward movement, is, to cause the sledge, or any other
locomotive or travelling machine used, or that may be used,
in a rope-walk, to travel and recede down the walk at one
uniform speed, such as shall be predetermined as proportion-
ate with the rotatory speed of the twisting hooks of tlie
machine, so as to cause the twist to be uniformly regular
throughout each operation. And the object of this invention,
with regard to the forward movement, is, to cause the sledge,
or other movable machine, to which any kind of strand or
rope may be attached, for the purpose of being formed,
hardened, or laid, to travel slowly, and advance up the walk,
during the operation, at one uniform predetermined motion,
and precisely the length or distance assigned to it, equal to
that which the strands or rope ought to shrink up in the
operation.
 AND MACHINIST.

439
Having stated the object of this part of the invention,
we shall now proceed to show that the nature and funda-
mental principle of it, and the means for accurately and
conveniently attaining all the objects in view, both with
regard to the backward and forward movement, consist in a
rack, or rack-way, of cast-iron, or other suitable material,
laid down and fixed upon and along the rope-walk, from one
.end of it to the other, parallel with a railway, upon which
the stranding sledge, or any other sledge or locomotive
machine, is to travel. The teeth of the rack- way are of the
same pitch as the teeth of a wheel whose axle is the m
machine. The motion of this wdieel being given and
governed by the other motions in the rxiachine which turn
the twisting hooks, the travelling speed of the machine,
whether working backward or forward, becomes at all times
uniform, and in a given certain ratio, with the speed of its
twisting motion ; for the whole machinery being composed of
geer and toothed work, no part of it is liable to slip or yield.
The required speeds, both of travelling and twisting motions,
are adjustable by change wheels, to suit each other in that
machine, as well as in any other machine or machines that
may be employed in one and the same operation. The whole
machinery may be driven by an endless rope, receiving its
motion from external machinery at the top of the rope-walk,
or by any other means in use for driving locomotive ma-
chinery ; for, we need scarcely observe, that it is not
necessary, for the purpose of producing accurate work, that
the motion which governs all the others should be uniform,
because, whether the original motion be quicker or slower
at one time than another during the operation, the motions
dependant on it will still keep their proportionate speed.
The only difference will be in the time in which the work
may be finished. We have mentioned the particular cases
in which this part of the invention is more essentially useful
but Mr. Duncan claims the application of the rack, in
manner described, as an invention subservient to every
purpose, in any stage or process of rope-making, for which
regularity of travelling motion to any machine, either
backward or forward, in a rope-walk or elsewhere, may be
required
In that part of th drawing entitled, Backward and Forward Move-
ment,'fig, 487 represents the side view of a travelling sledge, or locomotive
machine, of the description, and for the purposes referred to, moving on
the railway M M. A B is a side view of the rack-way laid down and
fixed on the wood sleeper N N, or other suitable material, supposed as
extending from the top to the bottom of tlie rope-grouiid. This machine
 440 THE OPERATIVE MECHANIC
is represented as driven by the endless rope O ; 13 and 14 are two guide
pullies, to conduct the rope in going on and coming off the large sheeve or
grooved wheel P, round which that rope (driven by external machinery,
and running from top to bottom of the rope-ground) passes, by which the
first movement in the sledge is given. This sheeve, giving motion to the
spindle or shaft Q, and being coupled with the shaft R, turns the pinion 1,
which drives the pinion -2, upon whose shaft, S, is the small bevel-wheel 3,
driving the large bevel-wheel 4, upon whose shaft again is the spur-wheel 5,
driving the other wheel 6 ; w'hich last wheel works in the rack-way. This
wheel is not fast upon its shaft, being capable of sliding thereon, for the
purpose of being put in and out of geer with, the rack by means of the
lever T- The machine travels on the lailway on four tru ck-w heels the
:

two shown in this figure are marked 7. The pinions 1 and 2 are change-
able, to suit the different travelling speeds required.
So far as has been now described refers only to the backward movement
of the machine ; which movement, it must be understood, is in the direc-
tion along the rack-^way, as from A towards B. The contrary, or forward
movement is of .course in the direction from B towards A, and is effected by
giving a reverse turn to the wheel 6, which works in the rack-way. The ne-
cessary machinerv for this purpose is the small pinion 8, on the shaft Q,
driving the wheef 9, on the shaft U ; which last shaft, and the one coupled
with it, W, lie parallel with, and extend to, the end of the shaft R, in order
that the pinion 10, fixed on the end of W, may, when required, work in the
pinion 2. The shaft S then becomes common to both the pinions 1 and 10,
and may, as required, be driven by either the one or the other, the pinion 1
being for the backward movement, and the pinion 10 for the forward move-
ment, one of them therefore must be out of geer while the other is in geer.
The figure sho-w^s the pinion 10 as out of geer. But supposing it to be in
geer with 2, and the pinion 1 out of geer with it, the effect is, that a con-
trary motion is given to the wheel 6, which works in the rack-way, by means
of the intervening wheels 3, 4, and 5, before described. The twisting mo-
tions of this machine are produced by the shaft Q being continued to the
front of the machine, where the wheel 11, on the end of the shaft, drives
the counter-wheel 12, from whence the required degree of speed is given to
the twisting hooks. From what has been before described, it will be seen,
that the backward and forward motions of the machine are produced by
means of the wheel 6 working in the rack-way either way about as required.
As, therefore, any predetermined quantity of twist may be given by means of
the change wheels 11 and 12, whilst at the same time the machine may be
made to travel at any given predetermined speed, either backward or forward,
by means of the change wheels 1, 2, and 10; and as the twisting as well as
the travelling motions are driven by one and the same impulse, originating
in the machine at the grooved wheel P ; they must always preserve a rela-
tive speed to each other in such proportion as may be assigned to them. A
forked lever, clasping on the catch-box 15, serves either to put in or out of
geer all the motions of the machine, excepting that of the grooved wheel P.
Fig. 488 is a view of the back end of the same machine, showing as much
of the machinery as is necessary for understanding it. The same characters
of reference used in fig. 1 denote the same parts in this.
Fig. 3 is a plan of part of the rack-way.A is the rack, and N N is the
wood sleeper upon which it is fastened. The forward motion of the sledge
is a remarkably slow movement ; the speed of the wheel 6 therefore requires
to be considerably reduced. The wheels shown in the figures will not re-
duce the motion sufficiently slow to suit every possible occasion ; but enough
is shown to enable a njechanic readily to produce any degree of motion that
maybe required.
 E.O MA^UFA F T FliF
From 485 to 488 n.7i

:bac]kwab.Ij) ^^foirwaio])

r>>U . 3S I StmU
 AND MACHINIST. 441

All or any part of the machinery which we have described

may be driven by the power of steam, water, wind, or animals.
In the course of describing the different machines, and their
component parts, adapted for the various purposes of the in-
vention, we have seldom taken notice either of their dimen-
sions or of the materials of which they may be made, because
no fixed rules can be given but any competent mechanic,
:

from what ve have shown, will be enabled to apply such

sizes, and use such materials, as may be suited and proportioned
to the nature and design of each machine, and to the power
which is to drive it, particularly when we add, that the figures
in the plates marked Tempering, and Backward and
Forward Movements, are made out on a scale J of an inch
to a foot, and that the dimensions there given are such as
inay with effect be applied in practice.

SAW-MILLS.
Saw-mills, constructed for the purpose of sawing either
timber or stone, are moved by animals, by water, by wind, or
by steam. They may be distinguished into two kinds those in ;

which the motion of the saw is reciprocating, and those in

which the saws have a rotatory motion. In either case the
researches of theorists have not yet turned to any account
instead therefore of giving any uncertain theory here, we shall
proceed to the descriptive part, and refer those who wish to
see some curious investigations on this subject to a Memoir
on the Action of Saws, by Euler, en Mem. Acad. Roy. Berlin,
1756.
Reciprocating saw- mills, for cutting timber, and moved by
water, do not exhibit much variety in their construction. The
saw-mill represented in fig. 450 is taken from Grays Ex-
perienced Mill- Wright ; but it only differs in a few trifling
particulars, from some which are described in Belidor's Archi-
tecture Hydrauli^e^ and in Gallons Collection of Machines
approved by the French Academy.
The plate just referred to shows the elevation of the mill. A A the shaft
or axle upon which is fixed the wheel B B, (of 1 7f or 1 8 feet diameter,) con-
taining 40 buckets to receive the water which impels it round C C, a wheel
upon the same shaft containing 96 teeth, to drive the pinion No. 2, having
22 teeth, which is fastened upon an iron axle or spindle, having a coupling-
box on each end that turns the cranks, as D D, round; one end of the pole
E is put on the crank, and its other end moves on a joint or iron bolt at F,
in the lower end of the frame G G. The crank D D, being turned round in
the pole E, moves the frames G G up and down, and those having saws in
^hem, by this motion cut the wood. The pinion No. 2 may work two.
442 THE OPERATIVE MECHANIC
tliree, or more cranks, and thus move as many frames of saws. No. 3 an iron
wheel having angular teeth, which one end of the iron K takes hold of, while
its other end rolls on a bolt in the lever HII. One end of this lever moves on
a bolt at I, the other end may lay in a notch in the frame G G so as to be
pulled up and down by it. Thus the catch K pulls the wheel round, while
the catch I falls into the teeth and prevents it from going backwards.
Upon the axle of No. 3 is also fixed the pinion No. 4 taking into the
teeth in the under edge of the iron bar, that is fastened upon the frame TT,
on which the wood to be cut is laid : by this means the frame T T is moved
on its rollers S S, along the fixed frame U U ; and of course the wood fastened
upon it is brought forward to the saws as they are moved up and down by
reason of the turning of the crank D D. V V the machine and handle to
raise the sluice, when the water is to be let upon the wheel B B, to give it
motion. By pulling the rope at the longer arm of the lever M, the pinion
No. 2 is put into the hold or gripe of the wheel C C, which drives it ; and
by pulling the rope 11, this pinion is cleared from the wheel. No. 5, a pinion
containing 24 teeth, driven by the wheel C C, and having upon its axle a
sheave, on which is the rope P P, passing to the sheave No. 6, to turn it
round; and upon its axle is fixed the pinion No.7, acting on the teeth in an iron
bar upon the frame TT, to roll that frame backwards when empty. By pull-
ing the rope at the longer arm of the lever N, the pinion No. 5 is put into
the hold of the wheel C C ; and by pulling the rope O, it is taken off the hold.
No. 8, a wheel fixed upon the axle No. 9, having upon its periphery angular
teeth, into which the catch No. 10 takes, and being moved by the lever attached
to the upper part of the frame G, it pushes the wheel No. 8 round; and
the catch. No. 11, falls into the teeth of the wheel, to prevent it from going
backward, while the rope rolls in its axle, and drags the logs or pieces of
wood in at the door Y, to be laid upon the movable frames T T, and car-
ried forward to the saws to be cut. The catches Nos. 10 and 11 are easily
thrown out of play when they are not wanted. The gudgeons in the shafts,
rounds of the cranks, spindles, and pivots, should all turn round in cods or
bushes of brass. Z, a door in one end of the mill-house at which the wood
is conveyed out when cut. W W, walls of the mill-house. Q Q, the
couples or framing of the roof. XXX, &c. windows to admit light to the
house.
Saw-mills for cutting blocks of stone are generally, though not always,
moved horizontally; the horizontal alternate motion may be commu-
nicated to one or more saws, by means of a rotatory motion, either by
the use of cranks, &c. or in some such way as the following. Let the hori-
zontal wheel A D
B C, fig. 451, drive the pinion O N, this latter carrying a
vertical pin P, at the distance of about one-third of the diameter from the
centre. This pinion and pin are represented separately in No. 2 of fig. 451.
Lei the frame WST V, carrying four saws, marked 1, 2, 3, 4, have wheels,
V, T, W, W, each running in a groove or, reel, whose direction is parallel to
the proposed direction of the saws : and let a transverse groove P R, whose
length is double the distance of the pin P from the centre of the pinion, be
cut in the saw-frame to receive that pin. Then, as the great wheel revolves,
it drives the pinion, and carries round the pin P and this pin being com-
;
pelled to slide in the straight groove PR, while by the rotation of the pinion
on which it is fixed its distance from the great wheel is constantly varying,
it causes the whole saw frame to approach and recede from the great wheel

alternately, while the grooves in which the wheels run confine the frame,
so as to move in the direction T V v. Other blocks may be sawn at the
same time by the motion of the great wheel, if other pinions and frames
running off in the directions of the respective radii, E B, E A, E C, be
 I

i:
 ANT> machinist; 443
worked by the teeth at the quadrantal pointsB A and C. And the contrary
efforts of these fourframes and pinions, will tend to soften down the jolts,
and equalize the whole motion.
The same contrivance, of a pin fixed at a suitable distance from the centre
of a wheel, and sliding in a groove, may serve to convert a reciprocating into
a rotatory motion ; but it will not be preferable to the common conversion
by means of a crank.
When saws are used to cut blocks of stone into pieces having cylindrical
surfaces, a small addition is made to the apparatus. See figs. 452 and
453. Tlie saw, instead of being allowed to fall in a vertical groove, as it
cuts the block, is attached to a lever or beam F G, sufficiently strong ; this
lever has several holes pierced through it, and so has the vertical piece E D,
which is likewise movable towards either side of the frame in grooves in the
top and bottom pieces A D
L, M. Tims the length KG of the radius can
be varied at pleasure, to suit the curvature N O ; and as the saw is moved
backwards and forwards by proper machinery, in the direction C B, B C, it
works lower and lower into the block, while, being confined by the beam
F G, it cuts the cylindrical portion from the block P, as required.
When a complete cylindrical pillar is to be cut out of one
block of stone, the first thing will be to ascertain in the block
the position of the axis of the cylinder ; then lay the block so
that such axis shall be parallel to the horizon, and let a cylin-
drical hole of from one to three inches diameter be bored en-
tirely through it. Let an iron-bar, whose diameter is rather
less than that of the tube, be put through it, having just
room to slide fr eely to and fro as occasion may require. Each
end of this bar should terminate in a screw, on which a nut
and frame may be fastened 5 the nut-frame should carry three
flat pieces of wood or iron, each having a slit running along
its middle nearly from one end to the other, and a screw and
handle must be adapted to each slit: by these means the
frame work at each end of the bars may readily be so adjusted
as to form isosceles or equilateral triangles ; the iron-bar will
connect two corresponding angles of these triangles ; the saw
to be used, two other corresponding angles ; and another box
of iron or of wood, the two remaining angles ; to give sufficient
strength to the whole frame. This construction, it is obvious,
will enable the workman to place the saw at any proposed
distance from the hole drilled through the middle of the
block ; and then, by giving the alternating motion to the saw-
frame, the cylinder may at length be cut from the block as
required. This method was first described in the Collection of
Machines approved by the Paris Academy.
If it were proposed to saw a conic frustrum from such
a block, then let two frames of wood or iron be fixed to
those parallel ends of the block which are intended to coin-
cide with the bases of the frustrum, circular grooves being
previously cut in these frames to correspond with the circum-
444 THE OPERATIVE MECHANIC
ferences of the two ends of the proposed frustrum ; the saw
being worked in these grooves, will manifestly cut the conic
surface from the block. This, we believe, is the contrivance
of Sir George Wright.
The best method of drilling the hole through the middle of
the proposed cylinder seems to be this on a carriage run-
:

ning upon four low wheels let two vertical pieces (each having
a hole just large enough to admit the borer to play freely) be
fixed, two or three feet asunder,and so contrived that the pieces
and holes to receive the borer may, by screws, &c. be raised
or lowered at pleasure, while the borer is prevented from sliding
backwards and forwards by pieces upon its bar, which are larger
than the holes in the vertical pieces, and which, as the borer
revolves, press against these pieces let a part of the boring bar
:

between the two vertical piecesbe square, and a grooved wheel

with a square hole of a suitable size be placed upon this part
of the bar ; then the rotatory motion may be given to this bar
by an endless-band, which shall pass over this grooved wheel
and a wheel of much larger diameter in the same plane, the
latter wheel being turned by a winch-handle in the usual way.
As the boring proceeds, the carriage with the borer may be
brought nearer and nearer the block, by levers and weights.
Circular saws, acting not by a reciprocating, but by a
rotatory motion, have been long known in Holland, where
they are used for cutting wood used for veneering. They were
introduced into this country, we believe, by General Bentham,
and are now used in the dock-yard at Portsmouth, and in a few
other places ; but they are not as yet so generally adopted
as might be wished, considering how well they are calculated
to abridge labour, and to accomplish, with expedition and ac-
curacy, what is very tedious and irksome to perform in the
usual way. Circular saws may be made to turn either in hori-
zontal, vertical, or inclined planes ; and the timber to be cut
may be laid upon the plane in any direction ; so that it may
be sawed by lines making any angles whatever, or at any
proposed distance from each other. When the saw is fixed at
a certain angle and at a certain distance from the edge of the
frame, all the pieces will be cut of the same size, without
marking upon them by a chalked line, merely by causing them
to be moved along, and keeping one side in contact with the
side of the frame 5 for then as they are brought one by one
to touch the saw revolving on its axle, and are pressed upon
it, they are soon cut through.

Mr. Smart, of the Ordnance Wharf, Westminster Bridge,

has several circular saws, all worked by a horse, in a moderate
 AND MACHINIST. 445
sized walk ; one of these intended for cutting and boring
tenons, used in this gentlemans hollow masts, is represented
in fig. 454.
NOPQR is a hollow frame, under which is part of the wheel-work

of the horse-mill., A D
B C E F are pullies, over which pass straps or
bands, the parts of which out of sight run upon the rim of a large vertical
wheel ; by means of this simple apparatus the saws S S are made to revolve
upon their axles, with an equal velocity, the same band passing round the
pullies D C, upon those axles ; and the rotatory motion is given to the borer
G by the band passing over the pulley A. The board I is inclined to the
horizon in an angle of about 30 degrees ; the plane of the saw S is parallel
to that of the board I, and about a quarter of an inch distant from it, while
the plane of the sawS^ is vertical, and its lowest point at the same distance
from the board I. Each piece of wood K, out of which the tenon is to be
cut, is about four inches long, and an inch and a quarter broad, and | of an
inch thick. One end of such piece is laid so as to slide along the ledge at
the lower part of the board I, and as it is pushed on, by means of the handle
H, it is first cut by the saw S, and immediately after by the saw S*; after
this the other end is put lowest, and the piece is again cut by both saws :
then the tenon is applied to the borer G, and as soon as a hole is pierced
through it, it is dropped into the box beneath.
By the above process, at least 30 tenons may be completed
in a minute, with greater accuracy than a man could make one
in a quarter of an hour with the common hand saw and
gimlet. Similar contrivances may, by slight alterations, be
fitted for many other purposes, particularly all such as may re-
quire the speedy sawing of a great number of pieces into
exactly the same size and shape. A very great advantage at-
tending this sort of machinery is, that wdien once the position
of the saws and frame is adjusted, a common labourer may
perform the business just as well as the best workman.

rtn^ir-

BARK-MILL.
The bark-millconstructed for the purpose of grinding
is
and preparing bark for the tanner.
till it is fit

Bark-mills, like most other mills, are worked either by

means of horses, by water, or by wind.
One of the best mills we have seen described for these
purposes is that invented by Mr. Bagnall, of Worsley, in
Lancashire. This machine will serve not only to chop bark, to
grind, to riddle, and pound it ; but to beam or work green hides
and skins out of the mastering or drench, and make them ready
for the ouse or bark-liquor
;
to beam sheep-skins, and other
skins, for the skinners use and to scour and take off the
;
bloom from tanned leather, when in the currying state.
 446 THE OPERATIVE MECHANIC
Fig. 455 a horizontal plan of tlie mill ; fig. 456 a longitudinal section
is
of it ; fig. 457 a transverse section of it.
A, the water-wheel, by which the whole machinery is worked.
B, the shafts.
C, the pit-wheel, which is fixed on the water-w'heel shaft B, and turns
the upright shaft E, by the wheel F, and works the cutters and hammer
by tapets.
D, the spur and bevel wheels at the top of upright shafts.
E, the upright shaft.
F, the crown-wheel, which works in the pit-wheel C.
G, the spur-nut to turn the stones I.
P, the beam, with knives or cutters fixed at the end to chop or cut the
Dark, which bark is to be put upon the cutters or grating i, on which the
beam is to fall.
Q, the tryal that receives the bark from the cutters i, and conveys it into
the hopper II, by which it descends through the shoe J to the stones I,
where it is ground.
K, the spout, which receives the bark from the stones, and conveys it into
the tryal L; which tryal is wired, to shift or dress the bark as it descends
from the stones I.
M, the trough, to receive the bark that passes through the tryal L.
]l, the hammer, to crush or bruise the bark that falls into the dish S,
which said dish is on the incline, so that the hammer keeps forcing it out of
the lower side of the said dish, when bruised.
A, a trough, to receive the dust and moss that passes through the tryal Q.
T, the bevel-wheel that works in the wheel D, which works the beam-
knife by a crank V, at the end of the shaft m.
W, the penetrating-rod, which leads from the crank to the start x, V
the start, which has several holes in it to lengthen or shorten the stroke
of the beam-knife.
y, the shaft, to which the slide-rods h h are fixed by the starts n n.
hy the slide rod, on which the knife
/ is fixed, which knife is to work the
hides, &c. On the knife are tw'o springs a a, to let it have a little play as
itmakes its strokes backwards and forwards, so that it may not scratch or
damage the hides, &c.
Zy is a catch in the slide rod A, which catches on the arch-head e and
the said arch-head conveys the knife back without touching the hide, and
then falls back to receive the catch again.
I, the roller to take up the slide-rod A, while the hides are shifting on the

beam b, by pulling at the handle m.

by the beam to work the hides, &c. on. Each beam has four wheels, py,
working in a trough-road, g g, and removed by the levers c c. When the
knife has worked the hides, &c. sufficiently in one part, the beam is then
shifted by the lever c as far as is wanted.
dy a press, at the upper end of the beam, to hold the hide fast on the
beam while working,
e, an arch-head, on which the slide-rod A catches.

fy the knife fixed on the slide-rod A, to work the hides, &c.

i, cutters or grating to receive the bark for chopping.

The beam P, with knives or cutters, may either be worked by tapets, as

described, or by the bevel-wheel T
with a crank, as V, to cut the same as
shears.
The knife / is bottom of the start, which is fixed on the slide-
fixed at the
rod A ; the bottom of the start is split open to admit the knife, the width of

one foot ;
the knife should have a gudgeon at each end, to fix in the open
1 SAW BAKbxMFLJLS Fi.65

431
From 151 to 137

465

ZEE

if tcfStTMA
 AND MACHINIST. 447
part of the start ; and the two springs a a prevent the knife from giving too
much way when working. Tire knife should be one foot long, and four or
five inches broad.
, The arch-head e will shift nearer to or further from the beam hy and will
be fixed so as to carry the, knife back as far as is wanted, or it may be taken
away till wanted.
The roller I is taken up by pulling at the handle m, which takes up the
slide-rod so high as to give head room under the beam-knife ; the handle
may be hung upon a hook for that purpose. The slide-rod will keep run-
ning upon the roller all the time the hide is shifting ; and when the hide is
fixed, the knife is put on the beam again by letting it down by the handle m.
There may be two or more knives at work on one beam at the same time,
by having different slide-rods; there should be two beams, so that the
workman could be shifting one hide, &c. while the other was working. Tire
beam must be flat, and a little on the incline ; as to the breadth, it does not
matter ; the broader it is, the less shifting of the hides will be wanted, as
the lever c will shift them as far as the width of the hide, if required.
Mr. Bagnall has formed a kind of press d, to let down, by a lever, to hold
the hide fast on each side of the knife, if required, so that it will suffer the
knife to make its back stroke without pulling the hide up as it comes back.
Tlie slide-rod may be weighted, to cause the knife to lay stress on the hide,
&c. according to the kind and condition of the goods to be worked.
Hides and skins for the skinners use are worked in the
same way as for the tanners.
Scouring of tanned leather for the curriers use can be done
on the beam, the same as working green hides ; it is only
taking the knife away, and fixing a stone in the same manner
as the knife by the said joint, and to have a brush fixed to go
either before or after the stone. The leather will be much
sooner and better secured this way than by hand.
The whole machinery may be worked by water, wind,
steam, or any other power ; and that part of the machinery
which relates to the beaming part of the hides, may be fixed
to any horse bark-mill, or may be worked by a horse or other
power separately.

OIL-MILLS.
Asthese kingdoms do not produce the olive, it would be
needless to describe the mills which are employed in the
southern parts of Europe ; we shall therefore content our-
selves with a description of a Dutch oil-mill, employed
for grinding and pressing linseed, rapeseed, and other
oleaginous grains ; and, to accommodate our description
still more to our local circumstances, shall employ water as
the first mover; thus avoiding the enormous expense and
complication of a windmill.
Description of fig. 458.
1 is the elevation of a wheel, over or under shot, as the situation may
lequire.
448 THK OPERATIVE MECHANIC
3,
i. the bell-metal socket, supported by masonry, for receiving the outcl'
giiageon of the w ater-wheel.
the watercourse.
Fig. 459.
1, a spur-whee'l upon the same axis, having 52 teeth.
2, the trundle that is driven by No. 1, and has 78 staves.
3, the wallower, or axis for raising the pestles. It is furnished round its

circumference with wipers for lifting the pestles, so that each .nay fall twice
during one turn of the water-wheel : that is, three wipers for each pestle.
4, a frame of timber, carrying a concave half cylinder of bell-metal, in
which the wallower (cased in that part with iron plates) rests and turns round.
5, masonry supporting the inner gudgeon of the water-wheel and the
above-mentioned frame.
6, gudgeon of the wallower, which bears against the bell-metal step fixed
in the wall. This double support of the wallower is found to be necessary
in all mills which drive a number of heavy stampers.

Fig. 460 is the elevation of the pestle and press-frame, their furniture, the
mortars, and the press-pestles.
1, the six pestles.
2, cross-pieces between the two rails of the frame, forming, with these
rails, guides for the perpendicular motion of the pestles.

3, the two rails ; the back one is not seen. They are checked and bolted
into the standards, No. 12.
4, the tails of the lifts, corresponding with the wipers upon the wallower.
5, another rail in front, for carrying the detents which hold up the pestles
when not acting. It is marked 14, in fig. 464.
6, a beam a little way behind the pestles ; to this are fixed the pulleys for
the ropes, which lift and stop the pestles. It is represented by 16, in fig. 464.
7, the said pulleys with their ropes.
8, the driver which strikes the wedge that presses the oil.
9, the discharger, a stamper which strikes upon the inverted wedge, and
loosens the press.
10, the lower rail with its cross-pieces, forming the lower guides of the
pestles.
11, a small cog-wheel upon the wallower for turning the spatula, which
stirs about the oil-seed in the chauffer-pan. It has 28 teeth, and. is marked
No. 6, in fig. 464.
12, the four standards, mortised below into the block, and above into the
ioists and beams of the building.
13, the six mortars hollowed out of the block itself, and in shape pretty
much like a kitchen-pot.
14, the feet of the pestles rounded into cylinders, and shod with a great
lump of iron.
15, a board behind the pestles, standing on its edge, but inclining a little
backwards. There is such another in front, but not represented here.
These form a sort of trough, which prevents the seed from being scattered
about by the fall of the pestles, and lost.
16, the first press-box, (also hollowed out of the block,) in which the grain
is squeezed, after it has come for the first time from below the mill-stones.

17, the second press-box, at the other end of the block, for squeezing the
grain after it has passed a second time under the pestles.
1 8, frame of timber for supporting the other end of the wallower in the
same manner as No. 4, fig. 459.
19, small cog-wheel on the end of the wallower^ for giving motion to the
mill-stones; it has 28 teeth.
ZII. 9 C (01.01711 &> lOTKOO 3m.]LS
FI. 66
From 458 to 468 ^

,1

A
 AND MACHINIST. 449
20, gudgeon of the wallower, bearing on a bell-metal socket fixed in the wall.
21, vessels for receiving the oil from the press-boxes.
Fig. 461, Elevation and mechanism of the mill-stones.
1, upright shaft, carrying the great cog-wheel above, and the runner mill-
stones below in their frame.
2, cog-wheel of 76 cogs, driven by No. 19 of fig. 460.
3, the frame of the runners.
4, the innermost runner, or the one nearest the shaft.
5, outermost ditto, being farther from the shaft.
6, the inner rake, which collects the grain under the outer runner.
7, the outer rake, which collects the grain under the inner runner. In
this manner the grain is always turned over and over, and crushed in every
direction. The inner rake lays the grain in a slopes of which fig. 465 is a
section; the runner flattens it, and the second rake lifts it again, as is
marked in fig. 466 ; so that every side of the grain is presented to the mill-
stone, and the rest of the legger or nether mill-stone is so swept by them,
that not a single grain is left on any part of it. The outer rake is also fur-
nished with a rag of cloth, which rubs against the border or hoop that sur-
rounds the nether mill-stone, so as to drag out the few grains which might
otherwise remain in the corner.
8, the ends of the iron axle which passes through the upright shaft, and
through the two runners. Thus they have two motions : first, a rotation round
their own axis ; secondly, that by which they are carried round upon the nether
mill-stone, on which they roll. The holes in these mill-stones are made a
little wide ; and the holes in the ears of the frame, which carry the ends of
the iron axes, are made oval up and down. This great freedom of motion
is necessary for the runner mill-stones, because frequently more or less of
the grain is below them at a time, and they must therefore be at liberty to
get over it without straining, and perhaps breaking, the shaft.
9 and 10, the border or hoop which surrounds the nether mill-stone.
11 and 12, the nether mill-stone and masonry which support it.
Fig. 462, plan of the runner mill stones, and the frame which carries
them round.
1,1, are the two mill-stones.
3, 3, 3, 3, the outside pieces of the frame.
4,4,4, 4, the cross-bars of the frames, which embrace the upright shaft 5,
and give motion to the whole.
6, 6, the iron axis upon which the runners turn.
7, the outer rake.
8, the inner ditto.
Fig. 463 represents the nether mill-stone seen from above.
1, the wooden gutter which surrounds the nether mill-stone.
2, the border or hoop, about six inches high all round, to prevent any
seed being scattered.
3, an opening or trap-door in the gutter, which can be opened or shut at
pleasure ; when open, it allows the bruised grain, collected in and .shoved
along the gutter by rakes, to pass through into troughs placed below to
receive it.

4. portion of the circle described

.
by the outer runner.
5, portion of the circle described by the inner one. By these we sec that
llie two stones have different routes round the axis, and bruise more seed. .

6, the outer rake.

7, the inner ditto.
8, the SAveep, making part of the inner rake, occasionally let down fo5
2 G
450 THE OPERATIVE MECHANIC
sweeping off all the seed when it has been sufficiently bruised* The pres-
sure and action of these rakes is adjusted by means of wooden springs,
which cannot be easily and distinctly represented by any figure. The
oblique position of the rakes (the outer point going foremost) causes
them to shove the grain inwards, or toward the centre, and at the same
time to turn it over somewhat in the manner as the mould-board of a plough
shoves the earth to the right hand, and partly turns it over. Some mills
have but one sweeper; and indeed there is great variety in the form and
construction of this part of the machinery.
Fig. 464j profile of the pestle-frame.
1, section of the horizontal shaft.
2, three wipers for lifting the pestles.
3, little wheel of 28 teeth for giving motion to the spatula.
4, another wheel which is driven by it, having 20 teeth.
5, horizontal axle of ditto.
6, another wheel on the same axle, having 13 teeth.
7, a wheel upon the upper end of the spindle, having 12 teeth.
8, two guides, in which the spindle turns freely, and so that it can be
shifted higher and lower.
9, a lever, movable round the piece No. 1 4, having a hole in it at 9,
through which the spindle passes, turning freely. The spindle has in this
place a shoulder, which rests on the border of the hole 9, so that by the
motion of this lever the spindle may be disengaged from the wheel- work at
pleasure ; this motion is given to it by means of the lever 10, 10, movable
round its middle. The workman employed at the chauffer pulls at the rope
10, 11, and thus disengages the spindle and spatula,
11, a pestle seen sidewise.
12, the left of ditto.
13, the upper rails, marked No 3, in fig. 460.
14, the rail marked No. 5, in fig. 460. To this are fixed the detents,
which serve to stop and hold up the pestles.
15, a detent, which is moved by a rope at its outer end.
16, a bracket behind the pestle, having a pulley through which passes
the rope going to the detent 15.
17, the said pulley.
18, the rope at the workmans hand, passing through the pulley 17, and
fixed to the end of the detent 15.
This detent naturally hangs perpendicular by its own weight. When the
workman wants to stop a pestle, he pulls at the rope 18, during the rise of
the pestle. When this is at its greatest height, the detent is horizontal, and
prevents the pestle from falling, by means of a pin projecting from the side
of the pestle, which rests upon the detent, the detent itself being held in
that position by hitching the loop of the rope upon a pin at the workmans
hand.
19, the two lower rails, marked No. 10, fig. 460.
20, great wooden, and sometimes stone, block, in which the mortars are
formed, marked No. 21, fig. 460.
21, vessel placed below the press-boxes for receiving the oil.
22, chauffer, or little furnace, for warming the bruised grain.
23, backet in the front of the chauffer, tapering downwards, and opening
below in a narrow slit. The hair-bags on which the grain is to be pressed
after it has been warmed in the chauffer, are filled by placing them in this
backet. The grain is lifted out of the chauffer with a ladle, and put into
these bags ; and a good quantity of oil runs from it through the slit at the
bottom into a vessel set to receive it.
 Al^O JWAckiNIST. 451
24 , the spatula attached to the lower end of the ipindle, and turning
teund aniortg the grain in the chauffw-pan, and thus preventing it from
sticking to the bottom or sides, and getting too much heat.

The first part of the process is bnlisiiig the seed under the
runnef-stones ; that this may be more expeditiously done,
one of the runners is set about two-thirds of its own thickness
nearer the shaft than the other ; thus they have different
treads, and the grain, which is a little heaped towards the
centre, is thus bruised by both. The inner rake gathers it
up under the outer stone into a ridge, of which the section is
represented in fig. 465 ; the stone passes over it, and flattens it.
It is gathered up again into a ridge, of the form of fig. 466,
under the inner stone by the outer rake, which consists of
two parts ; the outer part presses close on the wooden
border which surrounds the nether stone, and shoves the seed
obliquely inwards, while the inner part of this rake gathers
up what has spread towards the centre. The other rake has
a joint near the middle of its length, by which the outer half
of it can be raised from the nether stone, while the inner
half continues pressing on it, and thus scrapes off the moist
paste. When the seed is sufficiently bruised, the miller lets
down the outer end of the rake ; this immediately gathers the
whole paste, and shoves it obliquely outwards to the wooden
rim, where it is at last brought to a part that is left unboarded,
and it falls through into troughs placed to receive it. These
troughs have holes in the bottom, through which the oil drips
all the time of the operation. This part of the oil is directed
into a particular cistern, being considered as the purest of the
whole, having been obtained without pressure, by the mere
breaking of the hull of the seed.
In some mills this operation is expedited, and a much
greater quantity of this best oil is obtained, by having the
bed of masonry which supports the legger formed into a little
furnace, and gently heated ; but the utmost care is necessary
to prevent the heat from becoming considerable, lliis,
enabling the oil to dissolve more of the fermentable substance
of the seed, exposes the oil to the risk of growing soon very
rancid ; and in general it is thought a hazardous practice,
and the oil does not bring so high a price.
When the paste comes from under the stones, it is put into
the hair-bags, and subjected to the first pressing. The oil
thus obtained is also esteemed of the first quality, scarcely
inferior to the former, and is kept apart (the great oil-cistem
betog divided into several portions by partitions.)
The oil-cakes of this pressing are taken out of the bags,
broken to pieces, and put into mortars for the first stamping.
2g2
m THE OPERATIVE MECHANIC
Here the paste is again broken down, and the parenchyma of
the seed reduced to a fine meal 3 thus free egress is allowed
to the oil from every vesicle in which it is contained. But it
is now rendered much more clammy by the forcible mixture
of the mucilage, and even of the finer parts of the meal.
When sufficiently pounded, the workman stops the pestle of
a mortar, when at the top of its lift, and carries the contents
of the mortar to the first chauffer-pan, where it is heated to
about the temperature of melting bees -wax, (this, we are told,
is the test,) and all the while stirred about by the spatula.
From thence it is again put into hair-bags, in the manner
already described ; and the oil which drops from it during
this operation is considered as the best of the second quality,
and in some mills is kept apart. The paste is now sub-
jected to the second pressing, and the oil is that of the second
quality.
All this operation of pounding and heating is performed by
one workman, who has constant employment by taking the
four mortars in succession. The putting into the bags, and
conducting the pressing, gives equal employment to another
workman.
In the mills of Picardy, Alsace, and most of Flanders, the
operation ends here ; and the produce from the chauffer is
increased, by putting a spoonful or two of water into the pan
among the paste.
But the Dutch take more pains. They add no water to
the paste of this their first stamping 3 they say that this
greatly lowers the quality of the oil. The cakes which result
from this pressing, and are then sold as food for cattle, are
still fat and soft. The Dutch break them down, and subject
them to the pestles for the second stamping 5
these reduce
them to an impalpable paste stiff like clay. It is lifted out,
and put into the second chauffer-pan 3 a few spoonfuls of
water are added, and the whole kept for some time as hot as
boiling water, and carefully stirred all the time. From thence
into the hair-bags of the last press, subjected to the
it is lifted
press, and a quantity of the lowest qualityis obtained, sufficient
for giving a satisfactory profit to the miller. The cake is now
perfectly dry and hard, like a piece of board, and sold to the
farmers. Nay, there are small mills in Holland which have
no other employment than extracting oil from the cakes which
they purchase from the French and Brabantees a clear indi-
:

cation of the superiority of the Dutch practice.

The nicety with which that industrious people conduct all
their business is remarkable in this manufacture.
In their oil-cisterns the parenchymous part, which unavoid-
 AND MACHINIST. 453

ably gets through, in some degree,' in every operation, gradu-

ally subsides, and the liquor, in any division of the cistern,
comesto consist of strata of different degrees of purity. The
pumps which lift it out of each division are in pairs ; one
takes it up from the very bottom, and the other only from
one half the depth. The last only is barrelled up for the
market, and the other goes into a deep and narrow cistern,
where the dreg again subsides, and more pure oil of that
quality is obtained. By such careful and judicious practice,
the Dutch not only supply themselves with this important
article, but annually send considerable quantities into the
very provinces of France and Flanders, where they buy
the seed from which it is extracted. When we reflect on the
high price of labour in Holland, on the want of timber for
machinery, on the expense of building in that country, and
on the enormous expense of wind-mill machinery, both in
the first erection and the subsequent wear and tear, it must
be evident that oil-mills erected in England on waterfalls,
and after the Dutch maimer, cannot fail of being a great
national advantage. The chatellenie or seigneurie of Lille
alone makes annually between 30,000 and 40,000 barrels, each
containing about 26 gallons.
What is here delivered is only a sketch. Every person
acquainted with machinery well understands the general move-
ments and operations ; but the intelligent mechanic well
knows that operations of this kind have many minute circum-
stances which cannot be described, and which, nevertheless,
may have a great influence upon the whole. The rakes in
the bruising-mill have an office to perform which resembles
that of the hand, directed by a careful eye and unceasing
attention. Words cannot convey a clear notion of this ; and
a mill constructed from the best drawings, by the most skilful
workman, may gather the seed so ill, that the half of it shall
not be bruised after many rounds of the machinery. This
produces a scanty return of the best oil, and the mill gets a
bad character ; the proprietor loses his money, is discouraged,
and gives up the work. There is no security but by pro-
curing a Dutch millwright, and paying him with the liberality
of Britons. Such unhoped-for tasks have been performed of
late years by machinery, and mechanical knowledge and
invention is now so generally diffused, that it is highly pro-
bable we should soon excel our teachers in the branch ;
but this very diffusion of knowledge, by encouraging specu-
lation among the artists, makes it a still greater risk to erect
a Dutch oil-mill, without having a Dutchman, acquainted
with its most improved present form, to conduct the work
454 THE OPERATIVE MECHANIC

COLOUR AND INDIGO MILLS.

The reducing of earths, vegetable substances, and metallic
oxyds to an impalpable powder, is still in a great degree
effected by manual labour, by moving a heavy stone with a
smooth surface, called a muller, upon a slab of the same
material. To effect this work upon a larger scale, and to
i^ecure the workman from the ill effects of the poisonous and
noxious vapours of the paint, which is not unfrequently
ground with litharge of lead, Mr. Rawlinson, of Derbj^ has
invented a machine which we here describe. It is repre^
sented in fig. 467.
A, the made of any kind of black marble. Black marble
roller, or cylinder,
isesteemed the best, because it is hardest, and takes the best polish. B, the
concave muller, covering one-third of the roller, and of the same material,
fixed in a wooden frame 6, which is hung to the frame E at i i. C is a piece
of iron, about an inch broad, to keep the muller steady, and is fixed to the
fi-ame with a joint at f. The small binding screw witli a fly-nut, which
passes through the centre of the iron plate at c, is for the purpose of laying
niore pressure upon the muller, if required, as well as to keep it steady.
D is a taker-off, made of a clock-spring, about half an inch broad, and fixed
similar to a frame-saw in an iron frame K, in an inclined position to the
roller, and turning on pivots at rf rf. G is a slide-board to draw out occa-
sionally, to clean, &c. ifany particles of paint should fall from the roller ; it
also forms itself for the plate H, to catch the colour as it falls from the
taker-off. F is a drawer for the purpose of containing curriers shavings,
which are used for cleaning paint-mills. E is the frame.
Previously to putting the colour in the mill, it must be
pulverized in a mortar, covered in the manner of the chemists,
when they levigate poisonous drugs, or rather in an improved
mill, used at Manchester, by Mr. Charles Taylor, for grinding
indigo in a dry state, a drawing and description of which i^
annexed. After undergoing this process of dry-grinding,
which is equally necessary for the marble slab now in use, it
is mixed with either oil or water, and is with a spatula, or
palette-knife, put on the roller, near to the top of the concave
muller. Motion being given to the roller, it, without any
difficulty, carries the colour under the muller, and in a few
revolutions spreads it equally over the surface. When ground
sufficiently, it is taken off, both cleanly and expeditiously, by
the taker-off described, which, for that purpose, is held against
the roller, while the roller is turned the reverse way. The
muller only requires to be cleaned when the workman changes
the colour, or ceases from the operation ; it is then turned
back, being hung on pinions to the frames at i i, and is
cleaned with a palette-knife or spatula j afterwards a handful
 AND MACHINIST, 455

of curriers* shavings is held against the roller, which, in two

or three revolutions, cleans it effectually.
The roller of Mr. Rawlinson*s machine is sixteen inches
and a half in diameter, and four inches and a half in breadth 5
and the concave muller which it works against covers one-
third of the roller. It is therefore evident, that, with this
machine, he has seventy-two square inches of the concave
marble muller in constant work on the paint, and that he can
bring the paint much oftener under the muller in a given
space of time than with the common pebble muller, which,
being seldom more than four inches in diameter, has scarcely
sixteen square inches at work on the paint, whereas the con-
cave muller has seventy-two.
The quantity ground at once in the mill must be regulated
by the degree of fineness of which it is required, that which
is the finest requiring the smallest quantity to be ground at
once. The time requisite for grinding is also dependant upon
the state of fineness ; but Mr. Rawlinson observes, that his
colour-grinder has ground the quantity of colour which used
to serve him per day in three hours ; the colour also was
more to his satisfaction, and attended with less waste.
When the colour is ground, Mr. Rawlinson recommends,
instead of drawing the neck of the bladder up close in the act
of tying it, to insert a slender cylindrical stick, and bend the
bladder close round it ; this, when dry, will form a tube or
pipe, through which, when the stick is withdrawn, the colour
may be squeezed as wanted, and the neck again closed by
replacing the stick. This is not only a neater and much
more cleanly mode than the one usually adopted, that of per-
forating the bladder, and stopping the hole with a nail, or,
what is more common, leaving it open, to the detriment of the
colour; but the bladder, not being injured, maybe repeatedly
used for fresh quantities of colour. The barrel of a quill may
be inserted in the neck of the bladder, as a substitute for the
stick, and the end being cut off, may be closed by a small
piece of wood.
In order to make the whole of the process of colour-grinding
complete, we shall here insert a description of the indigo-mill
used by Mr. Charles Taylor, of Manchester, for grinding
indigo in a dry state, which may with equal advantage be
similarly employed for colours. It k represented in figs. 468
and 468*.
L, 468, represents a mortar, made of marble or hard stone j one made
fig.

in the common way will answer. M. a muller, or grinder, nearly in the

form of a pear ; in the upper part of which an iron axis is firmfy fixed.
456 THK OPERATIVE MECHANIC
whicli axis at the parts NN turns in grooves or slits, cut in two pieces of
oak, projecting horizontally from a wall, and when the axis is at work are
secured in the grooves by iron pins O O. P, the handle, which forms
a part of the axis, and
which the oak pieces
%
N N are
which the grinder is worked. Q, the wall in
fixed. R, a weight, which may occasionally
be added if mo^e power is wanted.
Fig. 468% shows the muller or grinder, with its axis separate from the
other machinery its bottom should be made to fit the mortar.
; S is a
groove cut through the stone.
Ongrinding the indigo, or similar substance, in a dry state,
in mill, the muller being placed in the mortar and
this
secured in the oak pieces by the pins, the indigo to be ground
is thrown above the muller into the mortar; on turning the
handle of the axis, the indigo, in lumps, falls into the groove
cut through the muller, and is thence drawn under the action
of the muller, and propelled to its outer edge within the
mortar, whence the coarser particles again fall into the groove
of the muller and are again ground under it; which operation
is continued till the whole of it is ground to an impalpable
powder ; the muller is then easily removed, and the colour
taken out.
A wood cover in halves, with a hole for the axis, is usually
placed upon the mortar, during the operation, to prevent
anv loss to the colour, or bad effects to the operator.

POTTERY.
The clays best adapted for the manufacture of earthen^
ware are excavated in Dorsetshire, and the next in quality in
Devonshire.
The natural compounds, palled clays, consist generally of
pure clay, or alumine, combined with either silex or lime,
and sometimes magnesia, and the oxyd of iron. The pre-
sence of the magnesia may easily be detected by its imparting
a soapy feel ; and the iron by the clay burning to different
shades of red, proportionate to the quantity it contains. The
magnesia has obtained the name of soap-rock, and a marked
variety of it steatite.
The clay is first put into a trough about five feet long, by
three wide, and deep, with a certain proportion of water,
and subjected to the process called blunging which is obvi-
ously akin to blending, or mixing. This is performed with a
long piece of wood formed in the shape of a blade at one end,
and with a cross-handle at the other. The bladed end is put
into the trough, andmoved backwards and forwards, up and
 AND MACHINIST. 457

down, with violence, till the clay be broken and well levigated.
The coarser particles of the clay sink to the bottom of the
trough, while the finer parts remain suspended in the
solution 5 and clay is continued to be added until the solu-
tion has acquired the consistence of thick cream. This thick
liquid is passed into a large tub, and afterwards through
fine hair and silk lawn sieves, and then mixed with certain
proportions of a liquid of ground calcined flints and Cornish
stone, which, likewise, have been passed through silk lawn
sieves.
The china clay, which is used in every kind of earthenware
except the cream colour, is sometimes put into the mass, and
blunged with it at other times it is put into another tub,
and blunged separately, and is then mixed in proper propor-
tions with the other slip.
The slip is now passed into another large stone or wood
cistern, and the parts, which have not been previously, are
now added, and the whole is passed through fine lawn into a
reservoir, from whence it is pumped upon the slip-kiln.
When a steam-engine is used, the clay is thrown into a
vertical cast-iron cone, about two feet wide at top, and six
feet deep. Inside of this cone are fixed strong knives, having
a spiral arrangement and inclination, and radiating towards
the centre. In the centre of these is worked a perpendicular
shaft, with similar radiating knives, so that the knives, by
the revolution of the shaft, cut in pieces every thing that is
thrown! into the cone, and force downward, agreeably to the
nature of the screw, whatever may be put in till it is dis-
charged through an orifice at the bottom.
The clay, thus reduced to powder, is next subjected to
the process of blunging. For this purpose it is thrown 'into
a large circular vat, or cistern, having a strong vertical shaft
of wood, with arms formed like a gate as radii, worked by
the power of the steam-engine. The vat is nearly filled with
proper proportions of water and clay, which, by the rapid
motion of the shaft, becomes well levigated and mixed;
clay or water being added until the liquid is of the consist-
ence of cream. The liquid is then passed along several
trunks, at the end of each of which is fixed a fine hair or
lawn sieve. These sieves have a quick horizontal motion
communicated to them by crank machinery, which causes the
slip to pass through into a large reservoir, where it remains
till pumped upon the kiln.

The flint in its crude state is the common flint used for
striking fire, which consists principally of pure silex. The
 458 THE OPERATIVE MECHANIC
method of calcining it is, by placing it in a email conical

kiln, about nine feet deep, and altogether not much unlike
that used to burn limestone. When red-hot it is taken out
of the kiln and thrown into cold water, in order to lessen its
aggregation, and make it easier to reduce to powder. The
flint is next broken into pieces, either by manual labour, or
machinery. Where manual labour is employed one man is
found adequate to break per diem enough to supply two
flint-pans, 12 feet diameter.
In the other process the flints are put on a strong iron
grating, and are struck by large hammers, moved by ma-
chinery, till they be so reduced as to fall through the grating
into a cavity, from whence they are taken to the flint-mill.
The Jiint-mill consists of a large circular vat, about 30
inches deep, with a step fixed in the centre at the bottom
for the axis of a vertical wood or iron shaft. The upper
end of the shaft is surmounted by a large crown cog-wheel,
to which the moving power is applied. The lower end has,
at right angles, four leaves, or paddles, like arms, upon
which are fixed chert-stones. Large blocks of chert-stone
are also placed in the vat. The flints being put into the vat,
the whole is covered with water, to prevent any dust from
arising, which had formerly a very injurious effect. Power
being communicated to the shaft, the chert-stones are car-
ried round with considerable velocity, and the calcined flints,
being of a very fragile nature, are, by their reciprocal action,
reduced to an impalpable powder.
This semi-fluid is put into another vat, that has a similar
vertical shaft, and when a large quantity of water has been
introduced, the power is applied and the whole is well
levigated. In this process, the weighty particles sink to the
bottom, and the finest remain in suspension ; which are then
passed into a reservoir that has certain apertures for drawing
off the surplus water, till it has subsided to a state fit for
the potters use. This is a very important process, and is
attended with some difficulty. It is at present best per-
formed by Mr. Sampson Hanley, of Sandon Mill.
The manufacturer should be very choice in selecting the
stones to be employed in the grinding ; for should they con-
tain calcareous carbonates, such parts will be abraded, and
by mixing with the silicious matter will, in a subsequent
process, prove a serious injury.
A few years ago a loss to the amount of several thousand
pounds was experienced by some manufacturers, who had
very injudiciously purchased stones that had been ground by
 AND MACHINIST. 459
a person ignorant of the art, and who had employed stones
for the grinding containing carbonate of lime.
The average weight of an ale pint measure of the pulp of
flint is 32 oz. ; and of clay 24 oz.
In some manufactories the pulps are mixed together in a
large vat, by a process similar to that first described of mix-
ing the clay with the water. But however the mixing be
accomplished, great attention must be paid to the relative
specific gravity of each fluid, and more of the solution of the
flint, or the clay, must be added, till a pint of the mixture
weighs the determined number of ounces. It is by the con-
sistence and weight of these materials, that the manufacturer
is enabled to ascertain, the proper proportions requisite for
each kind of pottery ; and it is from these that he can calcu-
late, whether there be a probability of making any improve-
ment that will yield him a profitable return.
When the proper proportions of slop clay and flint have
been well blunged together, the liquid is pumped out of the
reservoir on the top of the slip-kiln.
The slip-kiln is a kind of trough formed of fire-bricks, of
various sizes, from 30 to 60 feet in length, by from 4 to 6
in breadth, and about }2 inches iq depth. Flues from the
fire-places pass under these troughs, and the bricks of which
they are formed being bad conductors of heat, a slow and
advantageous process of evaporation is carried on, which gives
uniform consistence to the mass.
The porcelain clay is never allowed to boil, but is carefully
evaporated at a slow heat on a plaster-kiln ; the gypsum
being run on old moulds pulverized, and thus forming a level
surface.
The slip-maker carefully attends to the evaporation, and
at proper intervals turns over with a paddle the thickened
mass from one end to the other, else the part nearest to the
bricks would become hard, while the surface were fluid. To
regulate the heat three different thicknesses of bricks are
employed, the thickest being placed nearest to the fire-place,
where is the greatest excess of heat.
When a sufficient quantity of the moisture is evaporated,
which is indicated by the cessation of apparent effervescence,
or the absence of air-bubbles on the surface of the mass, the
composition, still called clay, is removed to the flags.
If the evaporation were continued longer the clay could
not be formed into the required shapes, either on the wheel,
or by the vat, but would be, What is called knotty, lumpy.
The clay is cut out of the kilns in square masses, by means
400 TIIK OPKRATIVE MECHANIC
of spades, and is thrown into a heap, where is attained an
uniform temperature of cold and moisture. The longer it
can lie after coming off the kiln the better it will be; but the
time is arbitrarily varied by the want of room, of time, or
of capital.
When the clay is first taken off the kiln, it is, partly from
the air-bubbles remaining in it, and partly from the non-
dissipation of the heat requisite for evaporation, too soft to
be worked. On this account it is well incorporated together,
or tempered, by beating with wooden mallets. It is then
cut into small pieces with a paddle, not much unlike a spade,
and from the paddle each piece is, with all the force of the
workman, propelled upon the mass. These two operations
are repeated until a proper consistence pervades, and the
whole is supposed to be well-tempered.
Whe*i the clay is required for the thrower the process of
slapping follows next. This is performed by a strong man,
who places a large mass, about half a hundred-weight, upon
a convenient and strong bench. He then, wdth a thin brass
wire, cuts the mass through, and taking up the piece thus
cut off, he, wdth his utmost strength, casts it down again on
the mass below ; and continues the operation as long as is
considered necessary.
This is a very laborious process, and is absolutely neces-
sary to drive out any air-bubbles which may happen to remain
in the mass after it has been beaten for should any be left
:

in the clay the pieces on being fired would blister and spoil,
owing to the rarefaction of the air by the heat. On this very
important account, the process is continued until the mass,
wherever cut by the brass wire, exhibits a surface, perfectly
smooth, and homogeneous.
In several of the largest manufactories the labour of slap-
ping the clay is superseded by mechanical contrivance. A
quantity of the mass from the slip- kiln, w hen rather cold, is
thrown into a large conical iron vessel, (similar to that em-
ployed in breaking the clay,) with strong knives fixed in it,
with a given inclination, with corresponding knives radiating
from a vertical shaft, moved by the steam-engine wdth a slow
and regular motion. By these means, all the clay put into
the cone is very minutely separated, and pressed down, as
by a screw, so that the mass just cut, and divided, is instantly
squeezed together again, and is then similarly affected by
other knives below. At the bottom of the cone on one side is
a quadrangular aperturej through which the clay is gradually
forced, and is by a thin brass wire cut into brick-shaped
 AND MACHINIST. 461

pieces of from 50 to 60 pounds weight. Sometimes these

masses are for particular purposes returned into the cone, and
undergo the process a second time.
fTedging the clay is a similar process, though never omitted
by the presser, or squeezer, however well it may have been
beaten by the slip-maker. The presser cuts off, with a thin
brass wire, a piece of clay from the mass, which he slaps
forcibly between the palms of his hands, and then with great
violence throws it on the board; continuing the operation
until the commixture is so complete that there is no proba-
bility of any air-bubbles remaining. If one of the two first
pieces of clay had been white, and the other black, the mass,
after undergoing these processes, would present wherever cut
a uniform grey colour.
It is owing to the mass being properly wedged that that
consistency and tenacity is obtained, which enables the
workman to employ it with facility and confidence in the
fabrication of the different pieces of pottery which he has to
make. The clays for vessels require different degrees of
wedging ; and some kinds require much more careful and
continued wedging than others.
The clay may now be considered ready for the thrower.
The throwing-wheel, or, with greater propriety, the
engine, consists of a large vertical wheel; having a winch or
handle affixed to it, and a groove on the rim for the intro-
duction of a cord. The whole is fixed upon a strong movable
plank, by which the cord can be slackened or tightened at
pleasure, and then upon a frame iiea,rly triangular, or half-
oval, and about 30 inches in height, with a broad ash hoop
placed edgewise on the fore part, about six inches deep.
In the centre of this frame is a vertical spindle, with its
low'er end fitted and working in a step. A little above this
is a pulley, with grooves for three speeds of the propelling-
power, connected with the throwing-wheel by means of a
cord or belt; and a little higher up is a pivot turned to fit
and work in a collar-step. On the upper end is a stout
wooden circular top, which revolves horizontally, and is in
diameter about seven inches; and other tops of different
diameters are in readiness to be fixed on, according to the
intended size of the vessel to be made.
The engine is set in motion by manual labour, applied at
the winch, and another man, called the halier, cuts with a
thin piece of brass wire a piece of clay from the mass on the
bench, and forms it into a ball, which he gives to the thrower,
if china is to be made, the bailer, previously to forming the
462 THE OPERATIVE MECHANIC
clay into a ball, breaks it in two, and violently slaps it toge-
ther between the palms of his hands. The thrower forcibly
throws the ball down upon the horizontal revolving top of
the engine, and dipping his hands frequently into water, to
prevent the clay adhering to them, fashions it into a long
thin column, which he again forces down into a lump, and
continues to repeat the operation until he is satisfied that
the air-bubbles, which might have remained in the clay after
the processes of slapping and balling, are dispelled.
Tiie thrower now directs the speed of the engine to be
lessened, and with his fingers, which he frequently dips in
water, he gives the first form to the vessel; then with
different profiles^ or rihs^ he forms the inside of the vessel
into w^hatever shape may be required, and smoothes it by
removing the slimy, or inequalities.
If a number of vessels of the same size be required, the
thrower has a peg placed as a gauge, which serves to direct
him in the width and depth; and when the vessel has two
diameters, as the neck and body in a jug, he has two pegs to
guide him.
The thrower forms all circular vessels in this manner; and
he employs different sized ribs to finish the shapes, or swell
of the edge, &c. When he has thus given the first form to
the clay, he cuts the vessel from the head of the engine, by
passing a thin brass wire through the lowest part of the clay,
which separates it, and allows it to be easily lifted off, and
placed by the bailer on a long board or shelf, where it is
left to dry a little preparatory to being turned, or properly
smoothed and shaped.
Where large vessels are made, and the power of a steam-
engine applied, according to Mr. J. Wedgwood's method, a
pair of vertical cones is used, the apex of the one being
opposite to the vertex of the other. One of these cones is
driven directly by the steam-engine, and transmits motion
to the other by means of a broad belt or strap of leather,
which is always equally tight in any and every part of the
cones, because they are equal and reversed ; but it is plain,
that the speed of the driven cone will vary much according
as the belt is at the top or the bottom of the driving cone.
When the belt is at the bottom or thinnest part of the driving
cone, the driven cone moves very slowly ; as the belt is made
to ascend, the speed of the driven cone increases, and ulti-
mately attains its maximum when the belt is at the top. A
strap is attached from the driven cone to the spindle of the
throwing-engine, and the speed is varied at the throwers
 AND MACHINIST. 465
pleasure, by a boy working a directing winch. When the
article is finished, the machine is thrown out of geer.
For forming saucers, and other small circular articles, there
has been recently introduced a small vertical shaft, called a
jigger, on the top of which is a turned head, suited to receive
the mould on which the saucers, &c. are to be formed.
When the clay is in one peculiar state, called the green
state, it is the most suitable and proper for performing to the
greatest advantage the remaining operations and processes of
turning, handling, trimming, &c.
The tumingdathe is the same as used by wood -turners.
The end of the spindle, outside the headstock, has a screw
tliread, upon which is screwed chocks of wood, of a tapered
form, and of different diameters, according to the size of the
interior of the articles of pottery to be turned. The turner
stands very steady, and receives from an attendant the vessel
to be turned, which he fixes upon the chock, and then with a
tool presses the edges close down.
The tools are of different sizes, from one quarter of an
inch to two inches in breadth, and six inches in length,
made of thin iron, like hoop-iron, the end for cutting being
turned up about a quarter of an inch, and ground sharp.
Motion being commmuiiicated to the lathe, the turner
applies his tool or tools to the various parts of the surface
that require reduction of substance, either as regards thick-
ness, or the suitable shapes of rims, feet, &c. When this is
completed, a contrary motion is communicated to the spindle,
during which the turner applies the flat part of his tool to
the vessel, and by gentle pressure gives it a smooth surface,
and solid texture.
In the turning-lathes moved by steam some particular
arrangements are made. A horizontal shaft runs the whole
length of the room ; and opposite to each lathe is a drum,
which communicates motion to a set of pulleys, of various
sizes, fixed on an arbor or shaft, by means of a leather belt.
Upon this arbor, or shaft, is a loose pulley, connected by a
crossed belt with a small pulley fixed on the spindle of the
lathe, which evidently will, whenever the strap from the
drum isdirected upon the loose pulley, receive a retrograde
motion. The spindle has pulleys counter to those fitted on
the arbor, and as they are ever revolving, the directing of the
belt from them to the spindle, by a guide moved by the
workmans foot, will increase or diminish the speed during
the turning of the vessel under operation; and when it is
finished, by moving the drum-strap on another pulley, retro-
4G1 TIIK OPERATIVE MECHANIC
grade motion is given, during which the turner smooths off
his article, as before noticed.
The engine-lathe is of the kind employed to give unto
circular articles of hardware a milled edge consequently, it
;

differs from the other, or common lathe, in the formation of

the end of the spindle, and the appendages to the headstock.
Certain thin circular plates of steel, into whose edges are cut,
at regular intervals, and of different degrees of breadth, deep
incisions, are made to screw very firmly on the end of the
spindle above the chock. The collar-step of the spindle is
so fitted that it can be effected by a screw pin, which gives it
the requisite horizontal shuffling motion. Opposite to the
steel-plate is fixed an iron piece that fits into the incisions.
The turners tools are filed to give the particular form to the
designed ornament, and the vessel, having been previously
turned in the plain way, receives a shuffling motion back-
wards and forwards as the spindle slowly revolves, and only
when the incision admits the piece of iron will the vessel be
in contact with the tool of the workman. When the iron is
against the rim the surface remains untouched by the tool.
Numerous very elegant and curiously indented porcelain arti-
cles are formed by the engine-lathe. The black Egyptian
circular tea-pots will exemplify every species of engine-lathe
turning.
As the vessels as soon as turned are in the best green
state, they are, as soon as possible, passed to the handler,
who fixes the spouts, handles, and all other requisite appen-
dages. Such spouts, handles, or appendages, as are in any
way curved, oval-shaped, or ornamented, are formed in moulds
of two or more parts, as will be seen hereafter when speaking
of squeezing.
For handles, and some other articles of appendage, a press
is used, consisting of an iron cylinder, six inches wide, and
ten inches deep. This cylinder has a strong bottom, with an
aperture in the centre, to which is made to fit differently
shaped plugs. It has a piston acting by a screw, that works
in a bent iron bow, fastened to the block on which the cylin-
der rests. The aperture being supplied with a plug of the
required form, some clay is put into the cylinder, and the
piston forced down, by turning the screw, which causes
the clay to protrude through the aperture in the shape
required. The workmen cut it into lengths, as wanted, and
bend it into the required form, and when sufficiently dry,
affix it to the vessel by slip. Slip is likewise used to affix ail
other appendages. When a tube is wanted, a pin is fixed
 AND MACHINIST. 466

in the clay that protrudes through the aperture of the cylin-

der, a pin is fixed above the centre of the plug. The vessel,
being allowed a short time to dry, is cleared of all the super-
fluous clay by a knife. The vessel is then trimmed with
other tools, and the whole of the joints cleaned off with a
moist sponge, which, while it carries off all excrescences,
gives to the whole uniform moisture.
We shall, previously to mentioning the process of squeez-
ing, lake notice of the modeller and the mould-maker, whose
occupations are very distinct branches of the art.
The modeller has great scope for the exertion of natural
and acquired ability, taste, and ingenuity for on him depends
:

the elegance, size, figure, adaptation, and correct arrange-

ment of suitable ornaments. His business consists in taking
a large lump of well-tempered clay, and modelling it, by
continued carvings, with a sharp narrow-bladed knife, into
the rough figure : he then commences the trimming process,
by removing all excrescences, inserting any additions, and
finally with a great variety of suitable tools, made of ivory,
wood, or metal, gives to the whole the several touchings and
retouchings requisite for finishing.
The modellers of the present day have attained much
excellence, and as a proof we need only to state, that many
who have seen the Portland or Barberini vase (for model-
ling of w'hich Mr. Wedgwood is said to have paid Webber
the enormous sum of four hundred pounds) declare, that any
good modeller would now execute the whole himself in less
than a month, and with a proper assistant in a fortnight.
The branch of modelling, however, is by far more common
now than it was in the time of Mr. Wedgwood j and good
workmen obtain fair remuneration for their labour.
The mould-maker receives the model, and forms from it
the requisite moulds, by employing plaster of Paris.
The gypsum or native sulphate of lime plaster is first
ground in a mill, similar to a flour-mill. It is then put in a
long trough, under which runs a flue communicating with the
fire, to effervesce until all the water is expelled. This process
is called both boiling and burning. The workman has his
mouth and nose always well covered, to prevent his inhaling
any of the dusty particles, which would, if taken inwardly,
be very prejudicial to the lungs.
The mould-maker forms, and secures by a broad strap, a
casing of thick clay round the model he then mixes in a jug,
:

containing a certain quantity of water, the proper portion

of the soft impalpable powder or plaster, and stirring it
466 TUB OPERATIVE MECHANIC
quickly, that the water may have an opportunity of pervading
itthoroughly, pours it upon and around the model : in some
instances gently or briskly shaking the mass. Some heat is
immediately given out, and the whole very soon becomes a
compact mass. After standing a short time, the mould is
easily separated from the model, and each part is placed in a
stove to be dried.
When the moulds are found to be perfect, they are kept
dry, by which they retain the property of absorbing moisture
with great rapidity, so that the squeezer can often separate
his work from them readily, and when this is the case, the
mould is said to deliver easily.
In some of the principal manufactories large slabs of
plaster are fittedup as shelves, which serve the twofold
purpose of holding the newly-formed articles, and of facilitat-
ing the drying, by absorbing a portion of the moisture.
The workman, called the dish-maker, who uses moulds,
for dishes, saucers, w\ash-bowls, or hollow ware,
plates,
always cuts from the mass a piece of clay according to the
off
size and strength of the article he has to make. This he
again cuts asunder, or breaks with his hands, repeating the
operation of forcibly slapping them together, to prevent any
air- bubbles from remaining in it. The piece is then laid on
a flat surface of board, or plaster, and the workman with a
heavy lump of clay, with a level under-surface, adapted for
holding in the hand, beats the clay to the thinness the vessel
is intended to form. These pieces of clay are technically
called hats.
For wash-bowls, dishes, or plates, the workman, called the
whirler, uses a vertical spindle, surmounted with a circular
block, ten inches diameter, and about two inches thick. On
this he places his plaster-mould, and with a bat lays the clay
properly upon it; he then with one hand gives motion to the
whole, while with the other, dipped in water, he presses the
clay very close to the plaster-mould : then, when any addi-
tional piece is required, as the ledge, or foot, it is joined on
with slip, and firmly squeezed to the other clay. Afterwards
a suitable thin tool or utensil of pot, of the profile of the
inside, is applied, to give the proper shape and thinness.
The sponge is now again employed to clean ofl* all excres-
cences ; the whole is cut to its size, finished with the sponge,
and set .to dry a little, and a horn tool is employed to trim
it off.
The moulds are capable of being used five or six times in
succession each day, because as soon as one has been charged
 and machinist. 407

jt is set in a stove lu dry, and as the workman proceeds

regularly, each is allowed equal time for drying.
When the bowls, dishes^ or plates, are taken off the
moulds, and have been pared round the edge with a thin
bladed knife, they are slightly polished by the hand, and
afterwards laid on each other in quantities of four, eight,
twelve, or more, according to their size and strength, to dry
and harden, preparatory to being placed in saggers for the
biscuit-oven.
The squeezer generally uses moulds which have two or
more parts. The moulds for figures have their parts numbered.
He takes a bat of a proper size and thickness, and lays it
in one part of the mould, then with a large sponge beats and
w'ell forces it into all the cavities ; he next takes another
part, on which is the bottom, and presses the two parts toge-
ther; he then rolls a piece of clay, and forces it into those
parts of the article where the mould joins together, and
afterwards cleans off all the excrescences, and secures the
parts by a leather strap, so that they cannot come asunder
while the mould is in the stove, or on the shelf, to dry to the
green state. When he takes the strap off, the parts of the
mould are carefully separated, and the vessel finished, by
the joints being pared, cleaned, and sponged. The spouts,
handles, covers, ornaments on the outside, and figures, are
similarly formed and finished off.

This part of the process was formerly performed by casting;

but casting is now only employed for the mos^ elegant
irregular shapes, where strength is not important.
The very dry mould is well closed together, and strapped
for security. Some clay is then mixed with pure water till
it be reduced to a pulp of the consistence of cream. This is
poured into the mould until it be filled, and the plaster, of
which the mould is formed, absorbs the water from the clay
that is contiguous to it, and leaves a coating of clay attached
to the mould. The pulp is then poured out, and the coating
allowed a short time to dry; a second charge of a much
thicker consistence is then poured in, and forms a body suffi-
ciently thick for the article intended, and when a coating is
again formed, the remainder of the pulp is poured off^ and
the mould placed a short time near a stove, and wlien suffi-
ciently dried is separated, and the article left to dry to the
green state the seams of the joints are then smoothed off, and
:

-the article is finished by the skill of the workman, and when

thoroughly dried is placed in a sagger for the biscuit-oven.
All the articles made in the clav bv these various processes,
'

2ii2
4es THE OPERATIVE MECHANIC
afterbeing finished in reference to their shapes, figures, sizesy
ornaments, &c. are placed on boards, and left to dry by the
temperature of the apartment where they were made, or put
into a drying-house, green-house, or stove.
The sagger-maker^ is expected to know the exact propor-
tions of marl, old ground saggers, and sand, that are required
to form the best saggers for either pottery or porcelain.
Saggers are of different sizes, shapes, and depths, formed of
a very porous composition, and capable of bearing, without
being fused, a most intense heat. The bottom of each sagger
has a thin layer of fine white sand, to prevent the pieces of
pottery touching and adhering to it.
For porcelain flat ware, as plates, &c. the sagger is also
firmly filled with very dry flint, to preserve each piece in its
proper shape. When a sagger is filled with clay ware, on
its outer edges are placed thick pieces of coarse clay, called
wads from their being employed to wedge or closely join
the interstice between two saggers, as well as to support the
edges, and preserve equal pressure.
Each pile of saggers placed in an oven is called a hung;
and the man who places the ware in the saggers, and the
saggers in the oven, the oven-man.
The potters oven, for both biscuit and gloss firings, is very
much like that in which bricks and tiles are usually burnt in
most parts of the kingdom; that is, a cylindrical form,
surmounted by a dome. Around this oven are formed fire-
places or mouths, whence the fire passes into horizontal
flues in the bottom, and perpendicular flues, called bags, on
the inside, and so ascends through all the interstices of the
bungs of saggers, until the surplus escapes through the
aperture in the dome of the oven.
Most ovens are surrounded bj^ a high conical building,
called a hovel, large enough to allow the man to wheel coals
to the requisite places, and to pass along to supply each mouth
with fuel ; and at the same time to protect both him and the
oven from rain or any other atmospheric inclemency.
The saggers are sometimes placed to dry in the sides of the
hovel, and sometimes in a smoke house.
The biscuit-oven is always the largest upon the premises.
The workman is called the biscuit fireman, and is employed
from 48 to 50 hours at a time. The heat is gradually in-
*The word sagger is by many supposed to be a corruption of safe-
guard ;
but we are disposed to date its origin to the Hebrew, from the
word sagar, to burn. It is a baked earthen vessel into which others are
placed when put into the kiln.
 AND MACHINIST. 469

creased throughout the time, but porcelain does not require

it so long, as it more readily allows the heat to be raised.
In different parts of the oven, where they can be easily ex-
tracted, rings of Egyptian black clay are placed, as trials, by
which an experienced fireman can tell how much longer the
process must be carried on, not within an hour, as indi-
cated by Wedge woods pyrometer, but within ten minutes.
Hence the pottery district has a very pertinent proverb :
JVothing beats a trial,*
The name of the ware thus fired
is biscuit, because of its
being to appearance and feel like ship-bread when well baked;
the surface is devoid of any appearance except that of a
tobacco-pipe, sometimes tinged by the intense heat. When
the saggers are taken out, the articles are carefully sorted,
and injured pieces are rejected.
all
If potterywere used in the biscuit state, it would, in some
cases, be permeable to water ; hence wine-coolers, alcazaras,
are always in the biscuit state. The best size of wine-coolers
is that which just admits the bottle, for then the air of the
room can very little affect the water in the cooler, which con-
sequently, bypassing from the inner to the outer surface, effects
the purpose sooner ; a humid coating being thus presented to
the action of the surrounding atmosphere, the evaporation
causes a consequent quicker diminution of heat than could
take place with a dry surface
All articles of pottery which have but one colour, and many
that have several, are in general ornamented either by the
pencil, or by impressions taken from copper-plates. The
former is called blue, or biscuit-painting, the latter blue-
printing, Both processes take place on the biscuit, prior to
the ware being dipped in the glaze, [f tlie ware were not
previously fired, and were capable of being handled about for
the painting, the water, used to soften the colours, would
soften the ware ; and the impressions from plates could not
be clearly, even if at all, transferred to the ware ; water also
could not be employed to wash off the paper, and the water
which contains the components of the glaze would be ab-
sorbed by the clay body, which would by this means be ren-
dered so soft as not to preserve its shape in the oven.
It has been thought that advantage might result from
being able to mix some substance with the clay of enamelled
ware, which would resist the action of water, as a suitable
glaze might then be first employed, and one firing answer for
both the biscuit and the gloss, which would save one operg^
tion, as well as the time, labour, and expense of fuel,
470 THE OPERATIVE MECHANIC
In blue- painting the colour is mixed with water and gum,
and carefully laid on the biscuit ware. As every stroke leaves
a mark in the pores of the vessel, great attention must be
paid to the pattern, for a stroke once made can never
be rubbed out. After the pattern is finished, the ware i
allowed to dry by the atmosphere, and is then dipped in th :

glaze ; it is afterwards exposed to heat in the gloss-oven

which fuses the minerals contained in the colours, and give4
to each a coating of true gloss : about 4000 young women are
employed in this branch of pottery, and by their industry
support themselves in a respectable manner.
Blue-printing is the impressions taken from engraved cop-
per-plates by means of a rolling-press. The bliie-printer lays
the plate upon a stove while the oily colouring substance is
rubbed in, and by the heat the metalline particles contained in
the oil flow and sink more readily into the engraved lines.
The colour is oxide of cobalt, fluxed with different sub-
stances, and in suitable proportions, for the pale or dark
blues.
The superfluous colour is carefully cleaned off the hot plate,
which on the press, and covered wuth a piece of coarse
is laid
tissue paper, which has been first brushed over with a strong
lie of soft soap, called sizmg. The whole is now passed
through the press, and the heat of the plate dries the paper,
renders it more adhesive of colour, and also more easy to be
extracted from the plate. The impression when taken oft* the
plate is given to a girl, called a cutter^ who cuts it into
shapes, and hands the parts to a woman, (the transferrer,) who
puts them on the biscuit, and when she has properly arranged
them rubs them till the several pieces are completely affixed to
the biscuit article the article is then left for a short time to
:

imbibe the colouring matter ; after which, the paper is well

washed off with clean water, and the article is put into a kiln
to dissipate the oil. Sometimes the outline of a pattern is
printed on the ware, and the colours are afterwards added
with a pencil.
The earthenware is now ready to receive the smooth coat-
ing called glaze or gloss. The employing of this glaze,
though in general, is not always, with a design to prevent the
vessel from imbibing the liquid that may, at any future time,
be poured into it ; because some bodies of earthenware are,
before glazed, impermeable to liquids of any kind ; but with
a design of accomplishing a more important object, that of
hiding the substance of the vessel, which is not always either
for fineness of texture or whiteness of colour, of a very pre-
 MACIHNiSfr. 471

possessing appearance. A
coating of glaze would, by
its.transparency, only expose these defects ; even if it were
sqfiicieiitly contractile and expansile, by sudden changes of
temperature, to admit of its being used. Hence is employed
a^vitrifiable composition of oxides of lead, glass, tin, &c. some-
what resembling common flint glass, readily made fusible
by a little alkali and hardened flint, which will, when w ell
managed, possess sufihcient opacity, and by applying a certain
degree of heat, flow and vitrify, and render fusible any flint
or clay in contact with it, and thus not only fill up the
pores of the biscuit article, but cover the whole with an
opaque coating, that may be regarded as of real flint glass.
As the glaze that suits one, composition of ware will not
suit another, owing to the difference in kinds as well as pro-
portions of materials, it is ever requisite that the components
of the glaze be carefully appropriated to the hardness, density,
&c. of the components of the clay ; because a good glaze
should always possess the property of remaining, after being
fired, unaffected by heat or cold, in exactly the same ratio as
the clay', else on any sudden change of temperature, there
would be a counter action between the body and the glaze.
When the article is short-fired, it is always more susceptible
of the components of the glassy surface, and becomes al-
together crazed, or full of little cracks, which render it perme-
able to water, and receptive of oily and greasy, and other
heterogeneous substances, and ere long the article will, by
constant usage, appear very much like a rotten substance.
Crazing is the technical term for the cracking of the glaze,
whatever be the cause whether it arise from excess of al-
:

kali in the materials composing the glaze, the deceptive

union of the body and glaze, the unsuitableness of the body
to the materials of the glaze, the components of the glaze not
being equally fusible at the heat employed, or the beat for the
proper fusion of the glaze being too high for the body
itself.
Mr. Parkes states, that a little lime mixed in the clay will
prevent crazing ; but manufacturers are of opinion that the
fact is the contrary. Lime will in a slight degree add to the
transparency of porcelain, but ever render it liable to craze.
If the articles, whether biscuit or gloss, be taken out of the
oven before tolerably cool, the temperature of the air will
most generally affect them, and especially the glaze, which is
not then properly annealed.
The glaze is a vitrifiable composition, about the consist-
ence of, and in appearance, very much like new cream. It is
 472 THE OPERATIVE MECHANIC
essential tiat it be thin, and when fired, possess a degree of
opacity to approach as nearly as possible to, and yet be below
the fusibility of the biscuit, that the combination may be
more intimate and permanent. Hence its composition varies
for each body, consonant with the view and experience of the
manufacturer ; and it is very seldom that it can be applied to
another body without previously altering its composition.
In some instances the cost of glazing is much less than in
others ; though economy is sought for in all, and each manu-
facturer regards his own as the best and cheapest of the kind
for the purpose to which it is employed. Great care is taken
that the recipes, which are considered very valuable, be kept
as much as possible secret among themselves, to prevent
foreign potters availing themselves of them, to the injury of
our manufacture.
Raw glazes are employed for the common pottery, such as
toys, jugs, tea- ware, &c. They are generally composed of
white-lead, Cornish-stone, and flint, ground by a hand-mill.
We have seen a few raw glazes for porcelain of a very good
quality ; but fritt glazes are mostly used, and are of excellent
quality.
Fritt is derived from a certain combination of different
materials being well mixed together, ov fritted, and then cal-
cined 3 which procures a union of all the parts, and a solidity
and purity not otherwise attainable. The fritt is generally
placed where it can be affected by a sufficient heat to fuse all
its ingredients, without volatilizing the uncombined alkali.
Lynn sand is occasionally one of the ingredients em-
ployed in the fritt. Some persons use soda, to render the
fritt more fluent while being fired. In some instances, com-
mon salt is used along with a portion of potash, which decom-
poses it, and drives off part of its impurity. The remaining
impurities are driven away in the process of fritting. Let it
be remembered, however, that brilliancy of glaze is formed
only by lead and that the employment of salts ever produces
',

a poor appearance.
The calcined fritt is pounded, picked, sifted, and ground to
an impalpable powder, after which it is mixed with certain
proportions of white-lead and flint, and again ground in a very
powerful mill. The finer it is ground, the more serviceable
it is for the purpose ; the glaze is every way better, is more
level on the ware, more readily and easily fired, of greater
brilliancy, and scarcely ever liable to craze.
The lead causes the other components to vitrify at a certain
iieat : and accordingly as more or less is used, the glazo
 AND MACHINIST. 473
Oecomes harder or softer. Many
objections have been made
to its employment those in reference to vessels for domes-
:

tic purposes we have already noticed j and in reference to the

dippers being subject to paralysis (which is supposed to
result from the lead,) every aid is afibrded by preventives,
and where attention is paid to personal cleanliness, and the
water and towel placed for their use are employed, deleterious
elfects can seldom be experienced.
The materials being well-ground and in a state of fluidity,
are next put into the dipping tub. As the materials are heavy
it is requisite to keep the powder suspended, and uniformly

dispersed through the mass, which w^eighs about 32 oz. per

ale-pint. By the side of this tub stands the dipper, and a boy,
his assistant. The boy is employed in brushing the articles,
and delivering them, one by one, to the dipper, who dips them
quickly into the liquid, and as soon as he takes them out,
turns them rapidly about, that the thickness of the liquid
may be equal in all the parts. The water is imbibed by the
porosity of the biscuit, and there is left a coating of the sub-
stances, sufficiently hard to continue affixed until the article
be placed in the sagger. The article is then placed on a
board, another is similarly dipped, and thus it proceeds until
the quantity be finished, when the whole are put into saggers.
When a flat piece has been dipped, it is placed on a board,
in which are a number of nails, about an inch above the sur-
face ; the superfluous compound runs ofl^ the remainder
quickly dries, and soon admits of being moved ; which effects
a saving in fuel and materials, and the articles are better
glazed.
flollow pieces and blue-printed ware, are placed on hair
sieves, or on four pieces of sheet iron, from two to three feet
long, called a fiddle ; in three minutes the dipped articles
are sufficiently dry to be removed to the board, and a few
minutes afterwards to be placed in the saggers.
In the inferior earthenware certain metallic oxides, as of
copper. See. are mixed with the glaze. These kinds of glazes
are distinguished by the name of dips. When the article has
been thus dipped, it is finished on a turners lathe, to mark
what is to be white, and when the appendages are affixed it
is dried in the oven.
The articles are again put into the saggers to fuse the glaze,
and as in this process each would attach itself to the other,
were they to come in contact, pieces of clay of different sizes
and shapes, called stilts, cockspurs, rings, pins, bats, &c
are put to keep them apart.
4/4 THK OPERATIVB MECHANIC
The saggers are, as before, piled in the gloss-ovoi, which
seldom holds more than one half the quantity of ware fired in
the biscuit-oven. The gloss-Jireman raises the temperature
as quickly as possible to a height sufficient to fuse the glaze,
which is much lower than the heat of the biscuit-oven and
usually keeps it fired from 16 to 19 hours. Trials made of
native red clay, are found very essential in this operation, to
prevent the ware being more intensely heated than the biscuit
body will bear ; for as clay contracts by every addition of heat,
were the heat of the gloss-oven to exceed the heat used
for the biscuit, the articles would be further contracted, and
would be either crooked in shape, or injured in the glaze.
The coating of glaze which adhered to the biscuit is, by this
firing, uniformly spread over the surface, the particles are
fused altogether, and the ware, when cold, appears to be
covered with perfect gloss.
As the gloss-oven is sometimes fired to a greater degree of
heat than some colours will bear, another process is employed,
called enamelUngy because the designs are more elegant in
their execution and form, and the colours are burnt into the
glaze of the pottery. These designs are of the finest descrip-
tion, and are most delicately executed upon the glossy surface.
The colours used are generally of a mineral or metallic
nature. For blacks^ oxide of umber and cobalt, and a little
oxide of copper. The best oxide of iron is produced by
causing heated air to act upon iron.
ov purples and violets precipitate of cassius, and oxide of
gold.
For greens^ oxide of copper, and precipitate of copper.
And for hluesy oxide of cobalt.
These oxides are all in an impalpable powder, and are mixed
with a certain powder as a flux, and are so prepared as never
to spread beyond their lines, or injure the drawing while
being fired.
Each colour is ground with a muller on a large hard stone,
and is incorporated with acid of tar, oil of turpentine, or
whatever oil may be deemed suitable, and is evaporative.
Camel-hair pencils are used to lay the colours on the pottery.
As both males and females are employed in this branch, the
men are c?\\Qd painters the women paintresses but in blue-
painting, where no men are employed, the women are called
blue-painters.
This is the finest and most durable species of painting, and
it is capable of being employed for the most elegant and valu
able embellishments, as neither air, nor wear, can affect
 AND MACHINIST.

either the beauty of the design, or the brilliancy of the

colours.
Gilding requires the precipitate of gold from its solution
to be properly mixed with oil of turpentine, and great pains
must be taken in laying it on the pieces, which is done in a
manner similar to the preceding. When the article is heated,
the oxygen flies off and leaves on the ware the gold in a metal-
lic state ] but the natural brilliancy of the gold is wanting,
consequently, a burnisher of agate, blood-stone, or steel, is
applied to the gold, first moistened with flint-water, to pro-
cure the bright and shining property of the precious metal,
which is, by that means, quickly brought in view. This, when
the gold is not too much lowered by fluxing, will scarcely
ever tarnish.
Black-printing is a very distinct and curious process. The
tvorl^man boils a quantity of glue to a certain consistence,
and pours it on very smooth dishes, to the thickness of an
eighth or a quarter of an inch, according to the size of the
plate he may have to use. This, when cold, is cut into sizes
lor the plate, called papers ; and he makes as many as he can
conveniently use in his routine of working.
Then taking a copper-plate, properly engraved, he rubs
into it some well-boiled oil, and having properly cleansed the
plate, forcibly presses the glue-paper against it ;
the latter
being firmly fastened to a piece of wood to be held in one
hand, and the paper being laid on a boss or cushion held in
the other. The oil in the plate adheres by the pressure to the
glue-paper, and he carefully, but firmly, presses it and the
piece of pottery together 5 then separates them, and with fine
cotton slightly sprinkles the colour (which is in an impalpable
powder) upon the design left by the oil. After a certain time
the oil has evaporated sufficiently to permit all superabundant
colour to be 'wiped off, which is done with much delicacy and
attention, by using old silk rags, and the black printed pot-
tery is placed in the enamel- kiln, where the glaze and colour
fuse and incorporate.
The enamel-kiln is commonly made in the shape of a
chemists muffle, from about six to ten feet long, and three to
five feet wide ; having from one to four mouths, according to
the size of the kiln, and the purposes to which it is applied ;
these mouths are made for the admission of fuel. In this kiln
the articles are verj^ carefully placed in layers, or thin bats,
until the whole be filled ; the mouth is then stopped, and the
kiln fired for about eight or ten hours.
The articles, when painted, gilded, or blitck printed, are
476 THE OPERATIVE MECHANIC
subjected to a third firing in the enamel-kiln, which fuses both
the glaze and the colours, and the mineral or metallic particles
flow and become incorporated into the glassy surface.
Lustre ivare consists of an inferior quality of the materials
worked into the usual forms, and having the hue of gold,
platina, or copper, &c. fixed on the glaze, whose great
brilliance, when first made, occasioned it to be thus named.
The very easy method of performing the operation, and the
quick sale which the articles obtain, has caused it to become
so common, and of a quality so inferior, as to be little esteemed
by potters.
The pottery to receive lustre is made and glazed for the
purpose. That for gold lustre is made of the red clay of the
district, and when fired gloss, has just a sufficient tint left to
give to the articles that peculiar shade of colour observable on
viewing them. A very common article of cream-colour is
commonly used for the silver lustre.
The oxide used for lustre, as gold, platinum, &c. is mixed
with some essential oil by the application of heat, and the
fluid is brushed over the surface of the articles. Sometimes
ornaments are formed on the surface. For this purpose, a
thick fluid of soot or lamp-black is laid on the articles, by
brushes, according to the patterns, and the articles are then
heated in a veiy hot iron oven, and afterwards have the lustre
brushed over them. When dry, they are placed in a kiln,
similar to that for enamel ware ; which, being carefully fired,
dissipates the oxygen, loosens the ornamental article, and re-
stores the metallic lustre to a degree almost equal to its primi-
tive brilliance ; but in some cases it is of a coppery and
steely brilliance.
In Messrs. Rileys shining black biscuit porcelain, the ware
is of a jet black jasper, or porcelain body^ having undergone
a high degree of vitrification, which elicits a lustre, or bright
vitrified polish on the surface, of the appearance of black
coral, without a glaze, which is of considerable importance in
point of durability, elegance, and usefulness. It is warranted
never to change its elegant quality by time or use, and will
clean with water, equal to a piece of the finest porcelain. It
has a decided advantage over the dry body, or common
Egyptimi black, which is generally scoured and oiled to give
the surface a smooth appearance, by which it imbibes dust
and becomes offensive, and the substance of which it is com-
posed being of a porous nature, it becomes saturated with the
li(]uids poured into it, which eventually prove unwholesome,
as well as disagreeable to the hands and sight ) the whole of
 AND MACHINIST. 477

these disadvantages obviated by Messrs. Rileys black

is

lustre, which, being perfectly vitrified, allows no liquid to be

imbibed.
The manufacture of pottery
direful effects of using lead in the
are manifest by severe cholics, paratysis of the limbs, and
often the untimely death of the workmen ; and yet this dan-
gerous mineral forms the glaze of the common red pottery, in
which much of the food of the lower classes is prepared.
Lead is slightly soluble in animal oil, more copiously in the
acids of our common fruits, and more especially when their
action is aided by the heat required in cookery. It is not
improbable that many of the visceral disorders of the poor,
who use such potterj^, are attributable to this little suspected
source ; and that it is to procure the temporary removal of the
pain occasioned by the action of the lead, that they habituate
themselves to the deleterious use of distilled spirits.
It was on this view of the subject that the Society for the
Encouragement of Arts, Manufactures, and Commerce, were
induced to offer their largest honorary premium for the dis-
covery of a glaze for such red pottery, composed of materials
not any way prejudicial to the health, and which from its
cheapness, and fusibility at the comparatively low temperature
required by red pottery, might supersede the use of lead in
that branch of manufacture.
This important object was eventually discovered by
J. Meigh, Esq. of Shelton, who was well persuaded of the
possibility of its accomplishment, and who, without any
other stimulus than a desire to benefit mankind, first fully
ascertained what particular objects were contemplated by the
Society, and then communicated his successful process ; by
which any makers of red pottery, who may choose to depart
from long-established usage, which is but too often the
greatest obstacle to improvement, may easily remove the
source of the mischief, and considerably improve the quality
of the ware, and effect a saving in materials in fuel.
After this view of the subject, we shall not be required to
apologize for giving the process in Mr. Meighs own language.
The common coarse red pottery, being made of brick-
clay, is very porous, and is fired at as low a temperature as
possible, to save the expense of fuel, and to avoid fusion, or
variation of shape, which would result from highly firing
' common clay consequently there is needed a glaze to fill up
;

the pores, that the vessel may contain fluids. This glaze
must be very fusible, and cheap ; hence, for transparent
vessels, litharge, and for black opaque, common lead ore, are
 478 THE OPERATIVE AIECHANIC
used. A glaze of lead, whether altogether or in part, is
objectionable, because, first, when quickly raised to the tem-
perature of boiling water, it cracks from different expansibility
of the clay and the glaze, so that the liquid permeates the
body of the vessel ; and secondly, the glass of lead, whether
alone or mixed with small proportions of earthy matter, is
very soluble in vinegar, in the acid juices of fruits, and in
animal fat when boiling.'
The injurious effects arising from these have been already
stated. Mr. Meigh therefore proposes, that a mixture of red
marl, which can be easily ground in water to an impalpable
paste, and will remain suspended therein for a long time^
be employed to dip the vessel in, so that its pores may be
filled with the fine particles of the marl, preparatory to
glazing; which is performed with a mixture, of the con-
sistence of cream, of equal parts of black manganese, glass,
and Cornish-stone, (chiefly felspar,) well ground and mixed
together ; in a white glaze the manganese is omitted. After
undergoing this process, the ware is well dried and fired, as
usual.
Mr. Meigh also proposes a substitute for the materials of
the common red pottery, consisting of four parts common
marl, one part red marl, and one part brick- clay. The ware
made in this way is of a reddish cream-brown, harder, more
compact, and less porous, than the red pottery ; more econo-
mic^ to the potter, and calculated to contribute in no incon-
siderable degree to the health of the lower classes who use
the red pottery.
The aim of the principal manufacturers has been to obtain
the composition of a clay and glaze for porcelain, which,
when fired, should be very fine in its tejcture, extremely white
in colour, possess considerable transparency, and at the same
time be able to bear different degrees of heat and cold. That
the reader may understand more fully the several peculiarities
which are considered by manufacturers as essential to perfect
porcelain, we shall state.
That the first and most important quality is a superiority
in the whiteness of the porcelain ; appearance be free
that its
from any specks, and that it be covered with a rich and very
v'hite glaze of almost velvet softness in appearance, and of
best flint-glass smoothness to the touch.
That the second important and essential quality is dura-
hilitj/, or a substance whose components will bear, without
being injuriously affected, a sudden and rapid increase of
temperature, and particularly to sustain unaltei*ed, the action
of boiling water.
 and machinist. 479
T^at the third essential quality is transparency^ which is
"admitted to be, in some measure, requisite, but certainly not
entitled to that high degree of preference so frequently given
to it, the best porcelain being a shade less transparent than
n kind much inferior.
Formerly, connoisseurs very highly estimated porcelain
of a fine granular texture ; but this criterion of excellence
cannot always be relied on.
To ascertain the texture of an article, it must be fractured,
and thereby tacitly destroyed ; the semi-vitrification and
closeness of texture observable in one piece will not be so
obvious, but there will be a varied appearance in different
pieces, though all be fabricated at the same time, and from
the same mass of materials.
Stone-china is formed of a compound of Cornish-stone and
clay, blue clay, and flint ; and with a glaze, consisting of lead,
bullet-glass, Cornish-stone, and flint. It is very dense and
durable, but less transparent than bone-china ; and is very
much used for jugs, and the larger sorts of vessels.
Iron-stone china is not very transparent ; but possesses
great strength, compactness, density, and durability. It is
not much used for tea- ware, but has very suitable properties
for dinner and supper services, jugs, and ornaments. It was
discovered by Messrs. G. and C. Mason, and has been
more productive than any other species of pottery or
porcelain.
Felspar china, which has been only very recently intro-
duced, is the most noted of all the porcelains ; it results from
the introduction of certain proportions of a fresh material into
both the clay and glaze.
Cornish-stone is a species of granite in a state of decom-
position, and contains much felspar. Cornish-clay is found
in situations where this decomposition is in progress. The
decomposing granite is broken up with pickaxes, and the
fragments are thrown into running water, whose action washes
off, and keeps in suspension, the slight argillaceous particles

miscible with that fluid. The water is discharged into pans

or pits, where the particles subside, and the water is evapo-
rated, formerly by the atmosphere, but now by heated flues
passing under the reservoirs. When the water is evaporated,
the substance is cut out in square lumps, and placed on shelves
to dry, when it becomes extremely white, and in the state of
an impalpable powder. It is then packed up in casks, and
forwarded to the manufacturers.
The clay of the best felspar porcelain is formed of certain
480 THE OPERATIVE MECHANIC
proportions of china- stone and felspar ; the mixing of th^
proportions requires much attention, for an excess of felspar
would cause the vessels to shrink in the biscuit-oven, prior
to the fusion of the clayey particles, which causes its trans-
parency; and an excess of china-clay would increase the
opaqueness. In both cases, the glaze would expand and con-
tract in a ratio differing from that of the biscuit, and cause
the pieces to be crazed. The fusibility of native felspar is
owing to its containing about 13 per cent, of potash, which
causes it to be one of the best materials for glazing porcelain.
Calcined bone is used, and renders the clay very white ; but
it should be employed with judgment, as its great con-
tractibility causes the articles wherein it is used to excess, to
crack on sudden changes of temperature.
Beside the porcelain or china-clay already noticed, the
manufactures use four other kinds ; the two first from Devon-
shire, the two last from Dorsetshire.
The black clay is remarkable for thefact, that the bituminous matter
which gives the colour whence derives its name, flies off by firing ; and
it

the blacker the clay when first dug, the whiter will be the pottery.
The cracking clay is used because of its extremely beautiful whiteness
when fired ; but it requires very exact proportions of flint, otherwise the
ware will crack during the firing of the biscuit.
The brown clay burns very white without cracking, and some manufac-
turers use much of it ; but as the ware does not so readily imbibe the
particles of melting glaze, the liability of the ware to craze causes others to
reject it altogether. This clay is with difficulty sifted through the lawn, re-
quires much longer weathering, or exposure to the action of the atmosphere,
for the separation of its particles, and to prevent crazing, different propor-
tions of other materials ; but the greatest objection to it is, that some of the
kind sent within these few years has always burned inferior in colour to what
it formerly did.

The blue clay is the best, and the most expensive. It forms a very
white and solid body, and requires a much greater proportion of flint, which
considerably improves the quality of the ware ; but the proportions require
very strict attention, and a higher degree of biscruit-fire.

The cream-coloured i^ottery has its name from the tint of

its colour being that of new cream. It is, when well made,
and properly fired, very sonorous, sufficiently hard to elicit
sparks by the application of steel, and vrill contain liquids
without being permeated by them. When it is of good quality,
it will resist the action of nitre, glass of lead, and other fluxes,
which renders it of great utility in all domestic and chemical
processes where great heat is used. Care must be paid to
the current of air while the pottery is in contact with fire,
otherwise its hardness and density, by preventing its sudden
contraction or expansion, renders it very lialile to break.
Wedgwoods cream-coloured pottery is allowed to retain
 AND MACHINIST. 481

its superiority, neither failing nor crazing through age ;

while
much of the pottery made by persons of small capital is very
subject to both these defects.
Cream colour is formed, according to the views of the
manufacturers 3 of various proportions of blue and porcelain
clays, flint, and Cornish-stone; others add black, or brown,
and cracking clays, with little flint and stone. Recent expe-
riments prove that pottery of very good quality may be made
by mixing from 30 to 40 per cent, of the native clay with
bine and porcelain clays, and flint and stone.
The glaze for cream-coloured pottery is formed of white
lead. Cornish-stone, and flint. The excess of lead renders
the glaze more or less yellow, which is remedied by the
application of other materials ; the flint gives consistence to
the lead during vitrification, and prevents its great fluidity,
wliich else would cause it to run down the sides of the ware,
and leave certain parts without glaze.
The deleterious effects arising from the employ of white
lead in the fabrication of vessels used for condiments have
been pointed out, as has also the importance of a substitute ;
but as the best manufacturers use much Cornish- stone and
flint in their glaze, and more especially for those vessels called
bakers, the cause of complaint does not attach itself to their
pottery. All persons, therefore, who wash their pickles and
preserves to be unaffected by this poisonous mineral, should
resolve on purchasing their jars from the dealers who have
their goods from the most respectable manufacturers, who
will readily vouch for the excellence of their articles.
It is not sufficiently known, that most of the earthenware
sold by hawkers, or pedlars, is of a very inferior and dangerous
quality. The components of the clay of which this common
earthenware is made, will not bear a fair degree of heat, and
in addition to the w'are being short-fired in the biscuit, the
glaze is too soft and short-fired; hence, when such earthenware
has been used a few times, the hot ^vater requisite for cleans-
ing it will cause all its defects to be obvious, and ere long it
becomes so crazed as to resemble a rotten substance.
This soft and *soft-glazed pottery is easily scratched by a
knife ; oily matters standing on it will stain and render it
dull ; and vinegar, and other weak acids, will attack and dis

solve the lead.

The proper cream colour will bear all of these uninjured,
and so small a quantity of lead is used, that, when properly
glazed, pernicious effects need not be apprehended*
It is the opinion of some very intelligent potters, that the?
2 i'
482 THE OPERATIVE MECHANIC
total rejection of lead is not compatible with perfection in
pottery.
The blue-printed pottery is a very popular kind, and most
persons who have seen it placed near the preceding, must
have remarked that it is of a finer kind, with a very different
tint or colour.
The best species is in considerable demand for dinner,
dessert, tea, and supper services while its cheapness has
3

caused it to supersede almost every kind of ware.

The difference is caused by two peculiarities ; one in the
clay, arising from the employment of a greater proportion of
blue and porcelain clays and flints ; the other in the glaze,
from certain components being mixed together, and calcined
into a frit, which is often picked and sifted, then ground
together with glass and white lead, and mixed with certain
proportions of Cornish-stone and flint.
One kind of this pottery has its glaze varied to capacitate
it for enamelling. The blue printed tea-w^are has recently
obtained the name of semi-china^ owing to its being, when wxll
fired, very fine, white and neat, and possessing some degree
of traiisparency.
The chalky pottery is a very excellent and beautiful kind,
having a delicate white appearance, of fine texture, and glassy
smoothness. The nature of the ciay and the glaze renders it
very proper for enamelling, as smalts are introduced, in ac-
cordance with the views of the maker, to effect the tints.
The'clay is boiled on a plaster-kiln, and consists of certain
proportions of porcelain, blue and Welsh clays, pulverized,
calcined, or raw flints, Cornish-stone, white enamel, tinged
with smalts and some persons add calcined bone and plaster
;

of Paris. This ware requires a most ardent fire for the biscuit.
The glaze is composed of a frit of glass, Cornish-stone,
flint, borax, nitre, red-lead, potash, Lynn sand, soda, and
cobalt calx. After fritting, and being well fired, it is ground
and mixed together wdth white-lead, glass, flint, and Cornish-
stone.
fine red pottery is formed of almost equal proportions
of yellow brick-clay and the red from Bradwall-wood ; an
inferior sort is made for lustre-ware.
In the Hall-field colliery, east side of Henley, is found a
marl, which, wdien properly prepared, by levigating and drying,
will alone form a very beautiful light red, of four distinct
shades, according to the intensity of the firing. This was
discovered by Mr. G. Jones, in 1814, who commenced a manu-
facture of this kind of ornamental pottery for Messrs. Burnett,
 AND MACHINIST, 483

to be shipped to Holland but the sudden return of Napoleon

:

from Elba so disconcerted the arrangements^ that the elder

Mr. Burnett died suddenly, and Jones did not long survive
the disappointment he experienced.
The introduction of ochre will change the red to a brown
colour.
The bamboo, or cane-coloured pottery, is a very beautiful
kind, employed chiefly for ornamental articles, and the larger
vessels of tea-services. It is never glazed outside, though
one kind has the outside vitrified. The insides of tea-ware
are well washed with a liquid which forms, when fired, a thin
coating of glass. The colour varies from that of a light
bamboo to almost a buff but the prevalent colour is nankeen.
:

The best clay or body is formed of proportions of black marl,

brown clay, Cornish-stone, and shavings of cream-coloured
potteryi
The jasper pottery was invented by Mr. J. Wedgwood. It
is extremely beautiful ; and is formed of blue and porcelain
clay, Cornish-stone, Cork- stone, (sulphate of barytes,) flint,
and a little gypsum, tinged with cobalt calx.
The pottery is a superb kind for elegant and tasteful
ornaments, and is so much valued, that the workmen are
usually locked up, and employed only on choice articles. The
components of the clay are blue and porcelain clay, Cornish-
stone, a little glass, and red-lead. This forms the best body
for apothecaries mortars ; but it is more expensive, and more
durable, than the common mortar body.
The black F^gyptian pottery is now so very popular for
tea-services, that few persons are ignorant of what is meant
by this denomination. Its components are cream-coloured slip,
manganese, and ochre ; sometimes glazed with, lead, Cornish-
stone, and flint ; and the inside is washed with white-lead,
flint, and manganese. It w'as the custom formerly to grease
the outside with butter or suet, to give it a bright appearance.
The ochreous material is obtained from the water that is
pumped out of the collieries. This water is carried along
channels in which are placed small weirs, to afford an oppor-
tunity for the precipitation of the sediment. When a sufficient
quantity has accumulated, the w^ater is diverted, the weirs
are emptied, and the thick fluid is thrown into small pools,
called sun-pans, whence the moisture is evaporated by the
solar heat. This substance is afterwards burned with small-
coal, which renders it proper for use.
The unpleasantness of the grease, requisite to give bright-
ness to the black, having been a subject of general complaint,
2 I 2
484 THU OPERATIVE MECHANIC
Messrs. Rilc\^j of Burslem, were induced to attempt to remedy^
it ;
the result of which was, the invention of a new black
porcelain, with a bright burnished, vitrescent appearance,
superior to any other kind of dry-body pottery. It never
imbibes dust, or absorbs moisture; and it can be cleaned with
water equally as well as the finest porcelain, and always retains
the appearance of a beautiful black coral.
The drah pottery is useful for articles which require strength
to be united to ornament, as fiower-pots, water-jugs, &c.
It is formed of blue, porcelain, and Bradwall-wood clays,
Cornish- stone, and black marl, mixed with nickel ; one kind
is made of turners shavings of cream-coloured ware made
into slip, and mixed with nickel. The inside is rendered
white by a wash of slip, flint, and porcelain clay.
It has for some time been usual for ladies of taste and
acquirements in the fine arts, to purchase porcelain in its^
glazed state, for the exercise of their talents and ingenuity
in ornamenting their own tea-services. This very pleasing
amusement is often aided by manufacturers, who readily
afford every assistance in their power to facilitate the easy
enamelling of such services ; they supply proper mineral
colours, and the rectified oil of amber, for the best purposes,
and the best oil of turpentine for others ; and they attend to
the proper firing of the enamel, burnish the gold, and dress
off the whole for the table.
Tlie different combinations of materials appear to be of
less importance in the fabrication of good pottery, than due
regard to weli-determined proportions. All clays have some
proportions, more or less, of metallic matter, which cause
great difference in their appearance, and the effects produced
on them by fire. All clays vary in colouring according
to the ardency of the fire ; hence the oven-mans greatest care
is, to place the saggars in the most appropriate parts.
Iffie chief ingredients are clay and flint ; for no pottery
will be perfect unless made of suitable clay, with a definite
proportion of flint. The great difficulty is to unite beauty
and goodness in the same composition. If too much flint be
used, the pottery, after being fired, wffll crack on exposure to
the air ; and if too little, the glaze will not be retained on it
after firing. Every kind of clay that is dried alone will crack;
for if pure argillaceous earth be made sufficiently soft to be
wrought on the potters wheel, it will, while drying, shrink
one inch in tw^elve, which will inevitably cause it to craze.
Pure clay (alumina) is always opaque, and the flint (silica)
always transparent ; but both are prepared previously to
 AND MACHINIST. 485

being used. Alumina will unite with silica in the humid

way, and form a paste, which, when dry, will resist decom-
position by atmospheric affection.
Experienced manufacturers know that they can easily
compound clays which will fire very white, be beautifully
semi-transparent for porcelain, and bear to be covered with a
shining glaze ; but they will prove deficient in tenacity for
working, want proper compactness and density, break by
sudden applications of heat and cold, and the glaze, because
too soft, will crack, become rough, and lose its lustre. Again,
they compound clays which have suitable tenacity for working,
become very hard and dense without fusing by being fired,
sustain, uninjured, sudden changes of excess of temperature,
and are yet deficient in the requisite whiteness, fineness of
texture, beauty, and transparency. Some clays of this descrip-
tion are manufactured.
Having proceeded thus far, the reader may feel surprised
that we have not accompanied our observations with recipes
for the manufacture of the several kinds of pottery, as is cus-
tomary in works of this description ; but these, w^e can assure
him, are, as far as we have seen, erroneous ; and, indeed, the
manufacturers are so very silent upon this head, that the
exact proportions of the components of bodies, glazes, and
colours, cannot easily be obtained. We shall therefore con-
clude this article by stating, that the district called the
Potteries, is an extensive tract of comitry in the hundred
of North Pyrehill and county of Stafford, comprehending an
area of about eight miles long, and six broad ; and that the
principal towns and hamlets contained wdthin the limits of
the Pottery are Stoke, Henley, Shelton, Golden-hill, New-
field. Smith-field, Tunstall, Long-port, Burslem, Cobridge,
Etruria, Lune-End, Lower Lune, and Lune- Delft.
 486 THE OPERATIVE MECHANIC

HOROLOGY
In the early ages, time was measured either by the sun-
or clepsydra ; in the former, by the shadow of a wire, or
jdial

of the upper edge of a plane, erected perpendicularly on the

dial, falling upon certain lines meant to indicate the hour ; in
the latter, by the escape of water from a vessel through a
small orifice, which vessel had certain marks upon it to
show the time the vessel was discharging.
These modes are now superseded by the use of clocks,
watches, and chronometers, which indicate time by the move-
ment of machinery.
Under this general head of Horology, therefore, we propose
to treat of the structure of the several kinds of machines now
used for the exact measurement of time ; in doing which, the
article will of necessity be divided into three sub-heads.
Clocks, Watches, and Chronometers ; and to them will be
annexed two others, treating of some of the best kinds of
pendulums and escapements.

CLOCKS.
Clocks are certain machines, constructed in such a manner,
and so regulated by the uniform action of a pendulum, as to
measure time, in larger or smaller portions, with great exact-
ness
Fig. 489 represents the profile of a clock. P is a weight suspended by a
rope that winds about the cylinder or barrel C, which is fixed upon the axis
a a; the pivots b b go into holes made in the plates TS, T S, in wliich they
turn freely. These plates are made of brass or iron, and are connected by
means of four pillars Z Z, and the whole together is called the frame.
The weight P, if not restrained, would necessarily turn the barrel C with
an uniformly accelerated motion, in the same manner as if the weight were
from a height ; but the barrel is furnished with a ratchet-wheel
falling freely
K K, the right sides of whose teeth strike against the click, which is fixed
with a screw to the wheel D D, as represented in fig. 490, so that the action
of the weight is communicated to the wheel D D, the teeth of which act
upon the teeth of the small wheel d, which turns upon the pivots c c. The
communication or action of one wheel with another is called the pitching ;
a small wheel like d is called a pinion^ and its teeth the leaves of the pinion.
Several things are requisite to form a good pitching, the advantages of which
are obvious in all machinery where teeth and pinions are employed. The.
teeth and pinion-leaves should be of a proper shape, and perfectly equal
among themselves ; the size also of the pinion should be of a just proportion
to thewheel acting upon it ; and its place must be at a certain distance
from the wheel, beyond or within which it will make a bad pitching.
The wheel E E is fixed upon the axis of the pinion d and the motion
communicated to the wheel D D
by the weight is transmitted to the pinion
ft StoMey sc 3St StrsAd
 AND MACHINIST. 487
d, coi^equently to ttie whesl E E, as likewise to the pinion e, and wheel
FF which moves the pinion/, upon the axis of which the crown or balance
wheel GH is fixed. The pivots of the pinion / play in holes of the plates

L M, which are fixed horizontally to the plates T S. In short, the motion

begun by the w'eight is transmitted from the wheel G II to the pallets I K,
vUnd by means of the fork UX, rivetted on the pallets, communicates motion
to the pendulum A B, which is suspended upon the hook A. The pendulum
A B describes, round the point A, an arc of a circle, alternately going and
returning ; if, therefore, the pendulum be once put in motion by a push of
the hand, the weight at B will make it return upon itself, and it will continue
to go alternately backward and forv/ard till the resistance of the air upon
the pendulum, and the friction at the point of suspension at A, destroys the
originally impressed force. But as, at every vibration of the pendulum, tlie
teeth of the balance-wlieel G H act so upon the pallets I K, (the pivots upon
the axis of these pallets play in two holes of the potence s t,) that after one
tooth, H, has communicated motion to the pallet K, that tooth escapes,
then the opposite tooth, G, acts upon the pallet I, and escapes in the same
manner ; and thus each tooth of the wheel escapes the pallets I K, after
having communicated their motion to the pallets in such a manner that the
pendulum, instead of being stopped, continues to move.
The wheel E E revolves in an hour. The pivot c of the wheel passes
through the plates, and is continued to r ; upon the pivot is a wheel N N,
with a long socket fastened in the centre ; upon the extremity of this socket,
r, the minute-hand is fixed. The wheel N N acts upon the w^heel O, tlie
pinion, p, of which acts upon the wheel g g, fixed upon a socket which
turns along with the wheel R. The wheel gg makes its revolutions in
twelve hours, upon the socket of which the hour-hand is fixed.
From the foregoing description it is evident^ first, that the
weight P turns all the wheels, and at the same time continues
the motion of the pendulum ; secondly, that the quickness of
the motion of the wheels is determined by that of the pen-
dulum ; and thirdly, that the wheels point out the parts of time
divided by the uniform motion of the pendulum.
When the cord from which the weight is suspended is
entirely run down from off the barrel, it is wound up again ];y
means of a key, which goes on the square end of the arbor
at Q, by turning it in a contrary direction from that in which
the weight descends. For this purpose, the inclined side of the
teeth of the wheel II, fig. 490, removes the click C, so that
the ratchet-wheel, K, turns while the wheel is at rest ; but D
as soon as the cord is wound up, the click falls in between
the teeth of the wheel D, and the right side of the teeth
again act upon the end of the click, which obliges the wheel
T> to turn along with the barrel, and the spring A keeps the
click between the teeth of the ratchet-wheel R.
We shall now explain how time is measured by the pen-
dulum ; and how the wheel E, upon the axis of which the
minute-hand is fixed, makes but one precise revolution in an
hour. The vibrations of a pendulum are performed in a
shorter or longer time in proportion to the length of the pen-
 488 THE OPERATIVE MECHANIC
dulum itself. A
pendulum of 3 feet French lines in length
makes 3,600 vibrations in an hour, that is, each vibration is
performed in a second of time, and for that reason it is called
R seco7uls pendulum ; but a pendulum of 9 inches 2\ French
lines makes 7j200 vibrations in an hour, or two vibrations in
a second of time, and is called a half-second pendulum.
Hence, in constructing a wheel whose revolution must be
performed in a given time, the time of the vibrations of
the pendulum, which regulates its motion, must be consi-
dered. Supposing, then, that the pendulum A B makes
7^200 vibrations in an hour, let us consider how the wheel E
shall take up an hour in making one revolution. This entirely
depends on the number of teeth in the wheels and pinions.
If the balance-wheel consists of SO teeth, it will turn once in
the time that the pendulum makes 60 vibrations ; for at every
turn of the wheel, the same tooth acts once on the pallet I,
and once on the pallet K, which occasions two separate
vibrations in the pendulum ; and the wheel having 30 teeth,
it occasions twice 30 or 60 vibrations. Consequently, this
wheel must perforin 120 revolutions in an hour, because 60
vibrations, which it occasions at every revolution, are con-
tained 120 times in 7/200, the number of vibrations performed
by the pendulum in an hour.
In order to determine the number of teeth for the wheels E F, and
the pinions e/, it must be remarked, that one revolution of the wheel E
must turn the pinion e as many times as the number of teeth in the pinions
is contained in the number of teeth in the wheel. Thus, if the wheel E
contains 72 teeth, and the pinion e six, the pinion Vv'ill make 12 revolutions
in the time that the wheel makes one ; for each tooth of the wheel drives
forward a tooth of the pinion, and when the six teeth of the pinion are
moved, a complete revolution is performed; but the wheel E has by that
time only advanced six teeth, and has still 66 to advance before its revolu-
tion be completed, which will occasion 11 more revolutions of the pinion.
For the same reason, the wheel F having 60 teeth, and the pinion/ six, the
pinion will make 10 revolutions while the wheel performs one. Now the
wheel F, being turned by the pinion <?, makes 12 revolutions for one of the
wheel E; and the pinion / makes 10 revolutions for one of tlie wheel F ;
consequently the pinion / performs 10 times 12, or 120 revolutions in the
time the wheel E performs one. But the wheel G, which is turned by the
pinion/, occasions 60 vibrations in the pendulum each time it turns round;
consequently, the wheel G occasions 60 times 120, or 7,200 vibrations of
the pendulum, w'hile the w'heel performs one revolution ; but 7,200 is the
number of vil)rat!ons made by the pendulum in an hour, and consequently
the wheel E performs but one revolution in an hour ; and so of the rest.
From this reasoning, it is easy to discover how long a clock
may be made to go for any length of time v/ithoiit winding
i)p 1 by increasing the number of
: . teeth in the wheels ;

2 by diminishing the number of teeth

. by
in the pinions ;
3.
increasing the length of cord that suspends the weight
f

tlvO'TlKS
From t90 to

ifetU it StoekU^ sc ^Sz Simnd

ij

,
 AND MACHINIST. 489
4, by increasing' the length of the pendulum ; and 5. by
adding to the number of the wheels and pinions. But^ in
proportion as the time is augmented, if the weiglit continues
the same, the force which it communicates to the last wheel,
G H, will be diminished.
It only now remains for us to take notice of the number of
teeth in the wheels which turn the hour and minute hands.
The wheel E
performs one revolution in an hour ; the wheel
NN, which is turned by the axis of the wheel E, must like-
wise make only one revolution in the same time ; and the
minute-hand is fixed to the socket of this wheel. The wheel
N has 30 teeth, and acts upon the wheel O, which has like-
wise 30 teeth, and the same diameter; consequently the
wheel O takes one hour to a revolution. Now the wheel Q
carries the pinion />, which has six teeth, and which acts upon
the wdieel gg, of teeth ; consequently the pinion p makes
12 revolutions while the wheel makes one, and of course
gg
thewheel^'^ takes 12 hours to one revolution; and upon
the socket of this wheel the hour-hand is fixed. Ail that has
been here stated concerning revolutions is equally applicable
towatches as to clocks.
Clock-work, properly so called, is that part of the move-
ment which strikes the hours, &c. on a bell ; in contradis-
tinction to that part of the movement of a clock or ^vatch
which is designed to measure and exhibit the time on a dial-
plate, and v/hich is termed watch-work.
Fig. 491 represents the clock part. II is the first or great wheel, moved
by means of the weight or spring at the barrel G. In 16 or 34 hour clocks,
this wheel has usually pins, and is called the piii-ivheel; and in eight-day
pieces, the second wheel, I, is commonly the pin-wheel, or striking-wheel,
and is moved by Next the striking-wheel is the detent-wheel,
the former.
or hoop-wheel, K, having a hoop almost round it, wherein is a vacancy at
which the clock locks. The next is the third or fourth wheel, according to
its distance from the first, called the tvarning-wheel, L. TJie last is the
flying-pinion, Q, with a fly or fan, to gather air, and so bridle the rapidity
of the clocks motion. To these must be added the pinion of report, which
drives round the locking-wheel, called also the count-ivheel, which has, in
general, eleven notches, placed at unequal distances, to make the clock
strike the hours.
Besides the wheels, to the clock part belongs the rash or ratch, which is a
kind of wheel with twelve large fangs, running concentrical to the dial-wheel,
and serving to lift up the detents every hour, and make the clock strike
the detents, or stops, which being lifted up and let fall, lock and unlock the
clock in striking ; the hammer, as S, which strikes the bell ; R
the hammer-
tails, as T, by which the striking-pins draw back the hammers latches,
;
whereby the work is lifted up and unlocked ;
and lifting-pieces, as P, which
lift up and unlock the detents.

We shall now proceed to give a description of an ingenious

 490 THE OPERATIVE MECHANIC
clock, contrived by the late Dr. Franklin, of Philadelpina,
that showed the hours, minutes, and seconds, with only three
wheels and two pinions in the whole movement.
The dial-plate of this clock is represented by fig. 492. The hours
are engraved in spiral places, along two diameters of a circle, containing
four times 60 minutes. The index A goes round in four hours, and counts
the minutes from any hour it has passed by to the next following hours.
The time as appears in the figure is either 32 minutes past 12, or past 4,
or past 8 ; and so on in each quarter of the circle, pointing to the number of
minutes after the hours the index last left in its motion. Now, as one
can hardly be four hours mistaken in estimating the time, he can always
tell the true hour and minute by looking at the clock, from the time he
rises till the time he goes to bed. The small hand B, in the arch at top, goes
round once in a minute, and shows the seconds as in a common clock.
Fig. 493 shows the wheel-work of the clock. A is the first or great
wheel; it contains 160 teeth, goes round in four hours, and the index A
(fig. 492) put upon its axis, and moved round in the same time. The
is

hole in the index is round ; it is put tight upon the round end of the axis,
so as to be carried by the motion of the wheel, but may be set at any time
to the proper hour and minute, without affecting either the wheel or its axis.
This wheel of 160 teeth turns a pinion, B, of ten leaves ; and as 10 is but
a sixteenth part of 160, the pinion goes round in a quarter of an hour. On
the axis of this pinion is the wheel C of 120 teeth ; it also goes round in a
quarter of an hour, and turns a pinion D, of eight leaves, round in a
minute ; for there are 15 minutes in a quarter of an hour, and 8 times
15 is 120. On the axis of this pinion is the second-hand B, (fig. 492, and
also the common wheel E, fig. 493, of 30 teeth, for moving a pendulum (by
pallets) that vibrates seconds, as in a common clock.

This clock is not designed to be wound up by a winch,

but to be drawn up like a clock that goes only thirty hours.
For this purpose, the line must go over a pulley on the axis
of the great wheel, as in a common thirty-hour clock.
One inconvenience attending this clock is, that if a person
wake in the night, and look at the clock, he may possibly be
mistaken in the four hours, in reckoning the time by it, as
the hand cannot be upon any hour, or pass by any hour,
without being upon, or passing by, four hours at the same
time. In order, therefore, to avoid this inconvenience, tlie
ingenious Mr. Ferguson contrived the following method.
In 494, the dial-plate of such a clock is represented ; in which there
fig.

is h c d, below the centre. Through this opening, part of a flat

an opening, a
plate appears, on which the 12 hours are engraved, and divided into
quarters. This plate is contiguous to the back of the dial -plate, and turns
round in 12 hours ; so that the true hour or part thereof, appears in the
middle of the opening, at the point of an index. A, which is engraved on
the face of the dial-plate. B is the minute-hand^ as in a cdmmon clock,
going round through all the 60 minutes on the dial in an hour ; and in that
time, the plate seen through the opening abed shifts one hour under the
fixt, engraven index A. By these means the hour and minute may be
always known at whatever time the dial-plate i? viewed. In this plate is
another opening, efgh, through which the seconds are seen on a fiat
 AND MACHINIST. 491

movable ring, almost contiguous to the back of the dial-plate, and as the
ring turns round, the seconds upon it are shown by the top point of a
fleur-de-lis C, engraved on the face of the dial-plate.
Fig. 495 represents the wheels and pinions in this clock. A is the first

or great wheel; it contains 120 teeth, and turns round in 12 hours. On

its axis is the plate on which the 12 hours
above-mentioned are engraved.
This plate is not fixed on the axis, but is only put tight upon a round part
thereof, so that any hour, or part of an hour, may be set to the top of the
fixed index A, fig. 494, without affecting the motion of the wheel. For this
purpose, twelve small holes are drilled through the plate, one at each hour,
among the quarter divisions and by putting a pin into any hole in viewg
;

the plate may be set, without affecting any part of the w^heel-work. This
great wheel A, of 1 20 teeth, turns a pinion B, of ten leaves, round in an
hour; and the minute-hand B, fig. 494, is on the axis of this pinion, the
end of the axis not being square but round, that the minute-hand may he
turned occasionally upon it without affecting any part of the movement.
On the axis of the pinion B is a wheel C of 120 teeth, turning round in
an hour, and turning a pinion D, of six leaves, in three minutes for three
;

minutes is a twentieth part of an hour, and 6 is a twentieth part of 120.

On the axis of this pinion is a wheel E of 90 teeth, going round in three
minutes, and keeping a pendulum in motion that vibrates seconds, by
pallets, as in a common clock, where the pendulum-wheel has only 30 teeth,
and goes round in a minute. But as this wheel goes round only in three
minutes, if it be wanted to show the seconds, a thin plate must be divided
into 3 times 60, or 180 equal parts, and numbered 10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60
10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60; 10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60; and fixed upon the same
axis with the wheel of 90 teeth, so near the back of the dinl-plato, as
only to turn round without touching it and these divisions will show tlie
:

seconds through the opening efgli in the dial-plate, as they slide gradually
round below the point of the fixed fleur-de-lis C.

As the great wheel A, and pulley on its axis, over wliicli

the cord goes, (as in a common thirty-hour clock,) turns round
only once in twenty-four hours, this clock will go a week witli
a cord of common length, and always have the true hour, or
part of that hour, in sight at the upper end of the fixed index
A on the dial-plate.
There are two advantages which Mr. Ferguson's clock has
beyond Dr. Franklin's but it has two disadvantages of which
:

his clock is free. For in this, although the twelve-hour wheel

turns the minute index B, yet if that index be turned by hand
to set it to the proper minute for any time, it wall not move
the twelve-hour plate to set the corresponding part of the
hour even with the top of the index A
and therefore, after
:

having set the minute index B right by hand, the hour-plate

must be set right by means of a pin put into the small hole
in the plate just below the hour. It is true there is no great
disadvantage in this ; but the pendulum -wheel having ninety^
teeth instead of the common number thirty, may probably
make some difference to the scapement, on account of the
smallness of the teeth ; and it is certain that it will cause the
 492 THE OiERATIVE MECHANIC
pendulum-ball to describe but small arcs in its vibrations,
Some men of science think small arcs are best but where- ;

fore we know not. For whether the ball describes a large or

a small arc^ if the arc be nearly cycloidal, the vibrations will
be performed in equal times the time therefore will depend
;

entirely on the length of the pendulum-rod, not on the length

of the arc the ball describes. The larger the arc is, the
greater the momentum of the ball; and the greater the
momentum is, ib.e less will the time of the vibrations be

affected by any unequal impulse of the pendulum- wheel upon

the pallets.
The greatest objection to Mr. Fergusons clock is, that
the weight of the fiat ring on which the seconds are engraved,
'
will load the pivots of the axis of the pendulum-wheel with a
great deal of friction, which ought by all possible means to
be avoided ; and yet one of these clocks, recently made, goes
very well, notwithstanding the weight of this ring. This
objection, however, can easily be remedied by leaving it out;
for seconds are of very little use in common clocks not made
for astronomical observations; and table clocks never have
them.
Having thus described this clock, we shall next proceed to
give a description of a clock, by the same ingenious mechanic,
for showing the apparent daily motions of the sun and moon,
the age and phases of the moon, with the time of her coining
to the meridian, and the times of high and low water, by
having only two wheels and a pinion added to the common
movement.
Mr. Ferguson s clock for exhibiting the apparent daily
motions of the sun and moon^ and state of the tides, B^c.
The dial-plate of this clock is represented by fig. 496. It contains all
the twenty-four hours of the day and night. S is the sun, which serves as
an hour index, by going round the dial-plate in twenty-four hours ; and M
is the moon, which goes round in twenty-four hours fifty minutes and a
half, from any point in the hour circle to the san\e point again, which is
equal to the time of the moons going round in the heavens, from the
meridian of any place to the same meridian again. The sun is fixed to
a circular plate, as fig. 497, and carried round by the motion of the plate,
on which the twenty-four hours are engraven, and within them is a circle
divided into twenty-nine and a half equal parts for the days of the moons
age, accounted from the time of any new moon to the next after ; and
each day stands directly under tlie time (in the twenty-four hour circle)
of the moons coming to the meridian, the twelve under the sun standing
for mid-day, and the opposite tv^elve for mid-night. Thus, when the moon
is eight days old, she comes to the meridian at half an hour past six in the
afternoon ;
and when she is sixteen days old, she comes to the meridian at
one oclock in the morning. The moon M, fig. 496, is fixed to another
circular plate, of the same diameter with that which carries the sun; and
496 FL.74
 AND MACHINIST. 493
tliis moon-plate turns round in twenty-four hours fifty minutes and a halfi

It is cut open, so as to show some of the hours and days of the moons
age ; on the plate below it that carries the sun, and across this opening at
a and h are two short pieces of small wire in the moon-plate. The wire a
shows the day of the moons age, and time of her coming to the meridian,
on the plate below it that carries the sun ; and the ware h shows the time of
high water for that day, on the same plate. These wires must be placed as
far from one another, as the time of the moons coming to the 'meridian
dilfers from the time of high-water at the place where the clock is intended
to serve. At London-bridge it is high water when the moon is two hours
and a half past the meridian.
Above this plate that carries the moon, there is a fixed plate N, supported
by a wire A, the upper end of which is fixed to that plate, and the lower
end is bent to a right angle, and fixed into the dial-plate at the low'ermost
or midnight twelve. This plate may represent the earth, and the dot at L,
London, or any other place at which the clock is designed to show the
limes of high and low water.
Around this oiate is an elliptical shade upon the plate that carries the
moon M the highest points of this shade are marked High Water and the
;

lowest points Low Water as this plate turns round below the fixed plate N,
:

the high and low water points come successively even with L, and stand
just over it at the times when it is high or low water at the given placed
which times are pointed out by the sun S, among the twenty-iour hours on
the dial-plate and, in the atch of this plate, above twelve at noon, is a
:

plate H, that rises and falls as tlie tide does at the given place. Thus, when
it is high water, (suppose at London,) one of the highest points of the

elliptical shade stands just over L, and the tide place II is at its greatest
height and w hen it is low W'ater at London, one of the lowest points of the
:

elliptical shade stands over L, and the tide place 11 is quite down, so as to
disappear beyond the dial-plate. As the sun S goes round the dial-plate
in 24 hours, and the moon M
goes round it in 24 Irours 50 minutes, the
mmon goes so much slower than the sun as only to make 28f revolutions
in the time the sun makes 29f ; and therefore the moons distance from
the sun is continually changing; so that at whatever time the sun and
moon are together, or in conjunction, in 29i- days afterwards they will be
in conjunction again. Consequently the plate that carries the moon moves
so much slower than the plate that carries the sun, as always to make the wire
a shift over one day of the moons age on the suns plate in 24 hours.
In the plate that carries the moon, there is a round hole ?a, through which
the phase or appearance of the moon is seen on the suns plate, for every
day of the moons age from change to change. When the sun and moon
are in conjunction, the whole space seen through the hole m is black
when the moon is opposite to the sun (or full) all that space is white ; when
she is in either of her quarters, the same space is half black and halfwhite;
and different in all other positions, so as the white part may resemble the-
visible or enlightened part of the moon for every day of her age.
To show these various appearances of the moon, there is a black shaded
space, fig. 497, as N /F
i, on the plate that carries the sun. Wl\en the sun
and moon are in conjunction, the whole space seen through tne round hole
is black, as at N when the moon is full, opposite to the sun, all the space
;

seen through the round hole is white,- as at F ; when the moon is in her
first quarter, as at
f, or in her last quarter, as at I, the hole is only half
shaded and more or less accordingly for each position of tne moon, with
;

regard to her age as is abundantly plain by the figure.

;

The wheel-work and tide-work of this clock arc represented by fig. 498,
 494 THE OrERATIVE MECHANIC
iu which A
and B are two vvheels of equal diameters. A has 57 teelli,
its axis hollow, it comes through the dial of the clock, and carries the
is

sun-plate with the sun, S, in fig 496. B has 59 teetli, its axis is a solid
spindle, turning within the hollow axis of A, and carrying the moon-plate
W'itli the moon, M, in fig. 496. A pinion C, of 19 leaves, takes into the
teeth of both the wheels, and turns them round. Tliis pinion is turned
round, by the common clock-work, in eight hours, and as 8 is a third
part of 24, so 19 is a third part of 57 and therefore the wdieel
; Aof 57 teeth,
that carries the sun, will go round in 24 hours exactly. But as the same
pinion C (that turns the wheel A of 57 teeth) turns also the w'heel B of 59
teeth, this last wheel will not turn round in less than 24 hours 50 ^ minutes
of time ; for as 57 teeth are to 24 hours, so are 59 teeth to 24 liours 50
minutes, very nearly.
On the back of the moon-wheel of 59 teeth is fixed an elliptical ring D,
which, as it turns round, recoils and lets down a lever EF, whose centre of
motion is on a pin at F ; and this, by means of an upright bar G, raises and
lets down the tide-plate H, twice in the time of the moons revolving from
the meridian to the meridian again. The upper edge of this plate is shown
at H, in fig. 496, and it moves betv/een four rollers, RRR R, in fig. 498.
Mr. Ferguson states that he made one of these clocks to go
by the movement of an old watch in the following manner:
to the end of the axis of the first or great wheel of a
watch, which goes round in four hours, he put a wheel of
20 teeth to turn a wheel of 40 teeth on the axis of the
pinion C by which means, that pinion turned round in eiglit
:

hours, the wheel A in 24 hours, and the wheel B in 24 hours

50:V minutes.
The writer of the different branches of 14 orology in Dr. Rees s
Cyclopccdia states, that there is an inaccuracy in the numbers
of the wheel-work adopted in the dial-work of this clock,
which would render it too imperfect to be used for a consider-
able length of time without a new rectification, even provided
the motions of the sun and moon, or, more properly speaking,
of the earth and moon, were quite equable, as the construc-
tion supposes, which inaccuracy, he states, may thus be
explained.
As tlie pinion of 19 drives both the wheels of 57 and 59, when the former
has performed a revolution in a solar day, the latter falls two teeth short of
a revolution, which it completes not until two teeth of the second revolution
of the wheel 57 have been again impelled, so that in every 24 hours the
little moon loses of its revolution, which is a part of a relative retrograde
motion, as it regards any point for instance, the upper hour xii, in the solar-
plate, so that as often as 2 are contained in 59, so many day-spaces
must there be on tlie solar-plate, figured in a retrograde direction, as the
figures regard the principal plate ; but the value of is 294 exactly, which

number of days measures the lunation according to these wheels exactly :

there is, therefore, a monthly error of 44 3 almost, which will amount to

nearly an entire day in the short space of about 32 lunations.
But there is, moreover, a practical objection to the two wheels, 57 and
59, being both driven by the same pinion of 19, which is, that being of the
same diameter, the distance between their teeth is not the same in both, one
 AND MACHINIST. 495
behio- and the other of a semicircle, supposing their teetli and
:

spaces to be respectively equal to one another, but if both wheels are cut in
the cutting-engine by the same cutter, the inequality will fail in the teeth
entirely ; in either cases, the action of one of the teeth must be bad if the
other is properly proportioned, and periodic jerks vrill be the consequence,
which, in wheel-work going by a clock or watch movement, ought to be
avoided. Whether or not Mr. Ferguson had the dial of the clock at
Hampton Court in his eye when he contrived the simple mechanism of this
clock, we will not undertake to affirm; but we think it extremely probable
that he had, particularly as he has copied the position of the annular train
in another of his clocks. Being in the habit of calculating numbers proper
for representing given periods of time in clocks, watches, orreries, &c. w e
have turned our thoughts towards the improvement of this clock, as well
as of other pieces of mechanism, so far as relates to accuracy ; and beg
leave to lay before the reader the alteration that has occurred to us, for
rendering the clock before us more perfect than it is in the state above described.
When describing the Hampton Court clock, we endeavoured to prove
that when the moons age indicated by the difference of the velocities of
is

the two hands, moving in the same direction, and representing the sun
and moon, the latter ought to pass the xii oclock point, on each day 50
473 nearly later than on the preceding day ; but by Mr. Fergusons calcu-
lations we see the daily retrogradation is 50 526, and the difference
.053 amounts to an entire days motion in a little more than 952 days or ;

somewhat upwards of 32 lunations, as we have stated. What therefore

we want, in this case, is a couple of divisible numbers that shall be to
each other very nearly in the ratio of 24^ to 24^' 50 473, which numbers, by
a peculiar arithmetical process become farhiliar to us by practice, wm have
determined to be 2368 2451. These are the nearest possible numbers
:

that can be got without ascending higher in the scale of continual ratios, and
are luckily capable of reduction into composite numbers thus 2368 taken
;

as a product is equal to 74 x 32 and 2451 = 57 x 43 ; therefore the train

X fA wall be the wheel-work required ; the solar wffieel of 74 teeth being
made to revolve with a tube as an arbor in 24 hours, by the clock move^
ment, must impel the wheel of 43 placed on a stud, or otherwise on the
front plate of the frame, at one side of it, and this wheel of 43 must have
the next driver, 32, pinned to it, to impel the last wheel, 57, or lunar
wheel, placed on a solid arbor, concentrically behind the solar wheel,
according to Mr. Fergusons position, and the dials and other designs of
the clock face may remain precisely as described ; so that instead of the
pinion of 19 impelling two unequal wheels at once, we shall have a pair of
small w'heels pinned together, one impelled by, and the other impelling its
fellow, where the motion must be taken from an arbor of twelve hours,
carrying a wheel of 37 to actuate the 74 in twenty-four hours, instead of
from one of eight hours, as Mr. Ferguson proposed ; w'hich mode is equally
practicable.
As a proof of the accuracy of our calculation, we have by direct propor-
tion as 2368 2451
; : 24^: 24 ^ 50 4729729, &c
hence the deviation from
:

the data is here only 0000271 of a minute in each lunar day, which will
not amount to an error of an entire day in less than 1,862,472 such days,
and therefore, may be assumed as no bad substitute of the truth itself ; see-
ing the clock will never be expected to go so long without clearing or stop-
page from some external cause.
Should it occur to the reader that 32 lunations constitute a period long
enough for the clock of Mr, Ferguson to go, before a new rectiheation, we
beg leave to suggest to him, that in the space of a lunar day there are two
406 THE OPERATIVE MECHANIC
tides and two ebbs, consequently an error of three-quarters of an hour in eacli
lunation will place the tide-plate H, three hours wrong in the space of about
four months, and in nearly eight months an high water will be changed into
low water, and the reverse in the next eiglit months, which is certainly an
indispensable error.
That the clock-maker may not be at a loss how to apply the remedy we
have proposed for the inaccuracy of Mr. Fergusons solar and lunar wheels,
we shall conclude our description of the clock before us with an account of
the exact dimensions of the parts proposed to be substituted. If we take
tire wiieel of communication of 37 teeth at 12 per inch, measured at the

pitch line, its geometrical diameter will be 98 or of an inch, and its

practical diameter, with the addendum for the ends of the teeth, 1*04; the
wheel of 74 being double will have its geometrical diameter equal to 1-96,
and its practical one 2-02 ; tlie fellow of this last or solar-wheel has its
geometrical diameter by the same proportion, 1.14, and its practical one
1.20 the distance of the stud from the centre of motion of the solar and
:

lunar wheels, must necessarily be the sum of the geometrical radii of these
two wheels, namely, 196 + 1 .14-f-2^ which is =1*55; again the sum
last
of geometrical radii of the remaining two wheels, 32 and 57, must be
tlie

also equal to 155, in order that the centres of motion of the solar and lunar
wheels may exactly coincide ; but a wheel of a geometrical diameter equal to
f-oo or 3.10 inches and of 32 + 57^ or 89 teeth, wall have only about
nine teeth per inch, and the practical diameters of wheels 32 and 57, by the
same, will be respectively 1-21 and 2-1. The calliper suitable for these
]u-oportions and dimensions is given, of their full size and dimensions, in
.hg. 498*, which needs no farther explanation, except that the wheels 43 and

32 are so nearly of a size that one circle represents both, as pinned together,
and revolving with a contemporary motion round a stud or screw in their
centre, going into the front plate of the clock-frame. The small wheel of 32
acts deeper into the teeth of its fellow than the 43, by reason of having larger
teeth than tlie other, though the wheel is of the same size.

Ill the year 1803, the Society for tlie Encouragement of Arts,

&c. presented to Mr. John Prior, of Nessfield, Yorkshire, a

reward of thirty guineas on account of his contrivance for the
striking part of an eight-day clock. As this invention is
likely to be useful we shall describe it here. It consists of a
wheel and fly, with six turns of a spiral line, cut upon the
wheel for the purpose of counting the hours. The pins below
this spiral elevate the hammer, and those above are for the
use of the detent. This single wheel serves the purpose of
count- wheel, pin-wheel, detent- wheel, and the fl}^- wheel, and
has six revolutions in striking the twelve hours. If we suppose
a train of wheels and pinions used in other striking parts to be
made without error, and that the wheels and pinions would
turn each other without shake or play, then, allowing the above
supposition to be true, (though every mechanic knows it is not^)
Mr. Priors striking part would be found six times superior to
others, in striking the hours 1, 2,5,7? 10, II ; twelve time?
superior in striking 4, 6, 8 and eighteen times in striking 3
;

9, and 12. In striking 2, the inventor purposely made an

 AND MACHINIST 497
imperfection equal to the space of three teeth of the wheel
and in striking 3, an imperfection of nine or ten teeth ; and
yet both these hours are struck perfectly correct. The flies in
clocks turn round at a mean^ about sixty times for every knock
of thehammer, but this turns round only three times for the
same purpose and suppose the pivots were of equal diameters,
:

the influence of oil on them would be as the number of

revolutions in each. It would be better for clocks if they
gave no warning at all, but the snail piece to raise a weight
somewhat similar to the model Mr. P. sent for the inspection
of that respectable society.
The striking part of this clock is represented in fig. 499.
A, the large wheel, on the face of which are sunk or cut the six turns of a
spiral.
B, the single worm screw, wliich ads on the above wheel, and moves
the fly C.
D, the spiral work of the wheel A. The black spots show the grooves
into which the detents drop on striking the hour.
E, the groove into which the locking piece F drops when it strikes 1,
and from which place it proceeds to the outward parts of the spiral in the
progressive hours, being thrown out by a lifting piece H
at each hour ; the
upper detent G
being pumped oflf with the locking piece F, from the pins on
the wheel A.
In striking the hour of 12, the locking piece, having arrived at the outer
spiral at H, rises up an inclined plane, and drops by its own weight into
the inner circle, in which the hour 1 is to be struck, and proceeds on in a
progressive motion through the different hours till it comes again to 12.
I, the hammer-work made in the common way, which is worked by thirteen
pins on the face of the spiral.
Fig. 500, K. the thirteen pins on the face of the spiral, which work the
hammer-work.
^
L, the outer pins which lock the detent.

M, the pump spring to the detent.

In the fourth century, an artist named James Dondi con-

structed a clock for the city of Padua, which was long con-
sidered as the wonder of the period. Besides indicating the
hours, it represented the motions of the sun, moon, and
planets, as well as pointed nut the different festivals of
the year. On this account Dondi obtained the surname of
Horologio, which became that of his posterity. A short time
after, William Zelander constructed for the same city a
clock still more complex ; which was repaired in the sixteenth
century by Janellin Turrianus, the mechanist of Charles V.
But the clocks of the cathedrals of Strasburgh and of Lyons
are much more celebrated. That of Strasburgh was the work
of Conrad Dayspodius, a mathematician of that city, who
finished it about 1573. The face of the basement of this
clock exhibits three dial-plates ; one of which is round, and
consists of several concentric circles ; the two interior ones of
2 K
 49B THE OPERATIVE MECHANIC
which perform their revolutions in a year, and serve to mark
the days of the year, the festivals, and other circumstances of
the calendar. The two lateral dial-plates are square, and
serve to indicate the eclipses both of the sun and the moon.
Above the middle dial-plate, and in the attic space of the
basement, the days of the week are represented by different
divinities, supposed to preside over the planets from which
their common appellations are derived. The divinity of the
current day appears in a car rolling over the clouds, and at
midnight retires to give place to the succeeding one. Before
the basement is seen a globe borne on the wings of a pelican,
around which the sun and moon revolved ; and which in that
manner represented the motion of these planets, but this
part of the machine, as well as several othei-s, has been de-
ranged for a long time. The ornamental turret, above this
basement, exhibits chiefly a large dial in the form of an astro-
labe ; which shows the annual motion of the sun and moon
through the ecliptic, the hours of the day, &c. The phases
of the moon are seen also marked out on a particular dial-
plate above. This work is remarkable also for a considerable
assemblage of bells and figures, which perform different mo-
tions. Above the dial-plate last mentioned, for example, the
four ages of man are represented by symbolical figures one
;

passes every quarter of an hour, and marks the quarter by

striking on small ])ells ; these figiiies are followed by Death,
wlio is expelled by Jesus Christ risen from the grave : who,
however, permits it to sound the hour, in order to warn man
that time is on the wing. Two small angels perform move-
ments also one striking a bell with a sceptre, whilst the
;

other turns an hour-glass at the expiration of an hour. In

the last place, this work is decorated with various animals,
which emitted sounds similar to their natural voices ; but
none of them remain, except the cock, which crows imme-
diately before the hour strikes, first stretching out its neck
and clapping its wings. Indeed it is to be regretted that a
great part of this curious machine is now entirely deranged.
The clock of the cathedral of Lyons is of less size than that
of Strasburgh, but is not inferior to it in the variety of its
nxovements it has the advantage also of being in a good con-
;

dition. It is the work of Lippius de Basle, and was exceed-

ingly well repaired in the last century by an ingenious clock-
maker of Lyons, named Nourisson. Like that of Strasburgh-,
it exhibits, on different dial-plates, the annual and diurnal
progress of the sun and moon, the days of the year, their
length, and the whole calendar, civil as well as ecclesiastic.
 AND MACIUNIST. 499

The days of the week are indicated by symbols more analo-

gous to the place where the clock is erected ; the hours are
announced by the crowdng of a cock, three times repeated, after
it has clapped its wings, and made various
otlier movements.

When the cock has done crowing, angels appear, who by

striking various bells, perform the air of a hymn ; the annun-
ciation of the virgin is represented also by moving figures, and
by the descent of a dove from the clouds ; and after this
mechanical exhibition the hour strikes. On one of the sides of
the clock is seen an oval dial-plate, where the hours and
minutes are indicated by means of an index, which lengthens
or contracts itself, according to the length of the semidiametcr
of the ellipsis over which it moves.
A very curious clock, the work of Martinot, a celebrated
clock-maker of the seventeenth century, was formerly to
be seen in the royal apartments at Versailles. Before it
struck the hour, two cocks on the corner of a small edifice
crowed alternately, clapping their wings ; soon after, two
lateral doors of the edifice opened, at which appeared two
figures bearing cymbals, beat upon bj^ a kind of guards with
clubs. When these figures had retired, the centre door was
thrown open, and a pedestal, supporting an equestrian statue
of Louis XIV., issued from it, wLile a group of clouds separat-
ing, gave a passage to a figure of Fame, which came and
hovered over the statue. An air was then performed by bells ;
after which the two figures reentered, the two guards raised
up their clubs, which they had lowered as if out of respect to
the presence of the king, and the hour was then struck.
While, however, we have thought it right to describe these
ingenious performances of foreign artists, we must not neglect
to mention the equally ingenious workmanship of some of our
own countrymen. We now refer to two clocks made by
English artists, as a present from the East India Company to
the Emperor of China. These two clocks are in the form of
chariots, in each of which a lady is placed in a fine attitude,
leaning her right hand upon a part of the chariot, under which
appears a clock of curious workmanship, little larger than a
shilling, which strikes and repeats, and goes for eight days.
Upon the ladys finger sits a bird, finely modelled and set
with diamonds and rubies, with its wings expanded in a flying
posture, and which actually flutters for a considerable time by
touching a diamond button below it the body of the bird, in
;
which are contained the wheels that animate it as it were, is
less than the 16th part of an inch. The lady holds in her
2k2
 500 THE OPERATIVE MECHANIC
left hand a golden tube, little thicker than a large pin, on
the top of which is a small round box, to which is fixed a
circular ornament not larger than a sixpence, set with dia-
monds, which goes round in or near three hours in constant
regular motion. Over the ladys head is a double umbrella,
supported by a small fluted pillar the size of a quill, and
under the larger of which a bell is fixed, at a consider-
able distance from the clock, with which it seems to have
no connection, but from which a communication is secretly
conveyed to a hammer that regularly strikes the hour, and
repeats the same at pleasure, by touching a diamond button
fixed to the clock below. At the feet of the lady is a golden
dog.
In a work like the present, however we may wish to pursue
this interesting subject through its progressive steps of im-
provement, and to do justice to the numerous scientific and
ingenious men who have from time to time effected those
improvements, we are compelled to confine ourselves within
certain limits, which preclude us from entering more fully
into detail in this article ;
we therefore refer such of our
readers, who wish to pursue the subject, to the catalogue ol
writings in Dr. Youngs Natural Philosoph}^
We shall next proceed to give a description of the mecha-
nism of an ordinary watch, and to annex thereto a useful set
of tables, published originally by Mr. W. Stirt.

WATCHES.
Figure 501 represents the interior works of an ordinary watch with the
crown-wheel escapement, as they remain on the pillar-plate when the uppei
part of the frame, shown by fig. 505, is unpinned and removed ; and fig. 50?,
which is a section of the whole frame and its contents, shows the connection
of all the parts, as though the calliper were in one right line. These two
figures, by having the same letters of reference, mutually explain each other.
The mainspring which actuates all the wheels and pinions, that are called,
in one general term, the movement, is contained in the circular box a, seen
in the different views in the separate figs. 501, 502, and 508, in the last of
which its parts are given in a detached state, viz. the box ; the relaxed spring
immediately above lying in a spiral form the arbor with its pin, on which
;

the interior end of the spring is hooked, and the lid through which the
pivot of the arbor penetrates; this spring is forced into the box by a tool on
purpose when it is strong ; and then the exterior end is hooked to a pin in
the circular edge of the box, so that if the box is made to turn round while
the arbor is held fast, the spring begins to coil at the centre, and is thereby
said to be wound up. The same effect would be produced if the box were
held fast, and the arbor only were turned ; but in the latter case the chain,
which requires to be uncoiled from the spring-box as this spring is wound up,
would remain unmoved ; it is necessary therefore that the box be tumeci
while the arbor is at rest, which is thus effected one end of the chain is
:
 WATCHJES
n.75
5ol From 501 to 509 505

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 AND MACHINIST. 301

made fast to the side of the spring-box, and th other to the fusee h, after
being coiled several times round the circumference of the box ; then as the
square end of the spring-box arbor is held by the small ratchet and click
c seen on the reversed face of the pillar-plate in fig. 507, so that it cannot
revolve, it is obvious that inserting a key on the square of the fusee arbdr,
and turning it in a proper direction, will wind the chain upon the spiral
groove of the fusee, while it is unwound from the box ; and during this
operation, the spring will be coiled up to the centre of the box, or put into its
state of greatest tension for pulling the fusee back again. The rapid motion
which the fusee would have in a retrograde direction when pulled by the
whole force of the coiled spring, is prevented by the train of wheel-work and
balance, thus the great w'heel d is not fast to the thick end of the fusee, as
:

appears in the drawings, but carries a click and click-spring Zy as seen in

%. 503, while the ratchet-wlieel, seen in fig. 504, is made fast to the fusee
the consequence of which contrivance is, that while a key applied to the
fusee arbor winds up the watch and fills the fusee groove with the chain,
until the guard driven by it catches the beak at the small end of the fusee, the
click, in fig. 503, slides over the teeth of the ratchet in fig. 504, without acting
on them, and thus leaves the great wheel d at rest, in connection wdth the
pinion e on the centre or minute wheel arbor ; but when the spring acts on ,

the fusee in a contrary direction, the click attached to the great wheel is
laid hold of by the teeth of the ratchet, which thu^ makes it fast to the end
of the fusee ; or in other words, until the spring wants winding up again,
which usually happens once in 28 or 30 hours : but it is commonly wound
up once in 24 hours more or less. The action of the great wheel d, on the
pinion e, is that of a long lever driving a short one ; or this wheel may be
said to act under a mechanical disadvantage, when an increase of velocity,
but a loss of power, is experienced by the pinion ; again, on the same cen-
tral arbor of this pinion e is rivetted the centre wheel/, which revolves in an
exact hour, as we shall see presently, and this wheel drives the pinion g-,
on the arbor of the third wheel A, also with a mechanical disadvantage, for
the force it imparts to the pinion i, on the arbor of the contrate wheel, is
again diminished in the ratio of the diameter of the wheel to that of its
pinion; thus the force of the mainspring is continually diminishing, as it is
transmitted through the train, and when the contrate wheel comes to be
actuated, it has just force enough to drive the horizontal pinion on the
balance wheel /, so that the alternate impulse given by its teeth to the pal-
lets of the balance verge are just sufficient to perpetuate the oscillation from
right to left, under all the obstacles of friction, dirt, wear, and the airs
resistance. It is a curious fact that the crown-wheel escapement, though the
oldest that w^e know of, is still the most in use in common watches, probably
from the facility with which it is constructed ; for certainly it is more under
the influence of the irregularities of tl)e mainsprings force than any other
escapement. The properties and action of this escapement have been
minutely explained in page 516 of the article Escapement, with reference
to fig. 523, to which explanation and figure we request our readers
attention.

In order that the force applied to pallets of the verge at

each oscillation may not sensibly vary, it was found necessary
to equalize, as much as possible, the variable forces of the
mainspring in its different states of tension ; and the most
practical way of doing this has been found, to convert the
cylinder on the arbor of the great wheel, which would have
502 ^I Hii OI'ERAliVli: MKCHANIC
been proper for a gravitating body, used as a maintaining
power, into a figure of a parabolic form, that is, into a srdid,
generated by the revolution of a parabola, in order that, as
the force of the spring becomes greater by increased tension,
its action on the great wheel might be lessened in a similar
proportion, by a gradual decrease of the radius of the fusee,
round which the chain is wound, to impart the force thus
modified. Every separate spring, therefore, has not only its
average force proportioned to the balance it is destined to
actuate, when diminished by transmission through a given
train, but requires its scale of varying forces to be nicely
counteracted in every degree of tension by the shape of the
fusee ; and this is done by means of a tool, called a fusee ad-
justing tool, which is nothing more than a lever with a sliding
weight, attached to the square end of the fusee arbor, as re*
presented in fig. 509; for when the weight on the lever is
an exact counterpoise to the force of the mainspring in every
part of the successive revolutions of the fusee, as the spring is
wound up by the lever instead of a key, then the shape of the
fusee is proper, but not otherwise. Hence, whenever a new
mainspring is put to a watch, the fusee ought to be adjusted
in the fusee engine according as the adjusting tool determines.
The comparative forces of the spring at the extreme ends
of the fusee may be adjusted by the small ratchet c, on the
back of the pillar-plate in fig. 507, but when the spring is put
to a suitable degree of tension to act well at both extremities
of the fusee, it must not be altered by the ratches click, but
the intermediate forces must be equalized by a due shape
given to the fusee. We
have insisted the more on this part
of the mechanism being attended to, because, as the primmn
mobile, it is the basis of all other motions. The number of
rounds that the spiral of the parabolic fusee may be cut into
depends on the length of the pillars of the frame, or, which is
the same thing, the shallowness of the watch. The French
frequently leave out the fusee, and attempt to equalize the
forces of the mainspring by tapering it ; and wdth detached
escapements, this mode may sometimes answer tolerably, but
with the crown-wdieel escapement a fusee is indispensable.
Again, the number of teeth in the great wheel, and in the centre
pinion, depends on the number of rounds in the spiral of the
fusee,
a thirty-hours watch, with six turns of the fusee, the great wheel must
[ti

have or five times as many teeth as the centre pinion ; so that if this has
SIX leaves, the wheel must have 5 x G liO teeth ; but if eight, then 5 x 8 40;
if the spiral lias seven turns, the great wheel 48, and tlie pinion 12, then tlie
 AND MACHINIST. 503
time of going will be x7=28 hours; also, if there be 5^ turns on the
fusee, 50 teeth in the wheel, and 10 leaves in the pinion, the period of
going will be 27^ hours, or ^
x =5 x 5f = 27^ ; but if 24 hours only
were"required as the period, with six turns and a pinion of 12, the great
wheel would be required to have 48.
Thus when an alteration is made in either the pinion^ the
wheel, or the turns in the fusee, a corresponding variation
may be made in the others, to produce the same period of
going, but still the centre wheel revolves once in an hour.
In the commonest watches the pinions have only six leaves
each, which do not act so well as pinions of higher numbers ;
but in the best watches, and in all chronometers, the leaves
and teeth are more numerous. The pivot-holes, particularly
of the verge and escapement arbor, have jewels for tlie pur-
pose of diminishing the friction, in the best watches ; but de-
tached and remontoire escapements are the best correctives of
the unequal impulses given through the medium of the train
in the different states of its foulness.
The potence m, and small or counter potence n, that hold the pivots of
the balance-wheel, are small cocks seen in fig. 502, both in their attached
and detached states, and are screwed to the top or upper plate within the
frame ; but the springs, buttons, and joints of the case, are not exhibited,
as forming no part of the movement.. Fig. 505 represents the outer face of
the upper plate, with the balance p, the cock o, and balance-spring s, called
the pendulum-spring, from its having the properties of the pendulum; by
means of this spring, not only is the regulation made steady, but the adjust-
ment for time is effected. In every balance-spring there is a certain length,
to be taken as the effective length, by which the going of the watch to
which it is applied is limited to exact performance ; and when this length
is determined by experiment, a pin is put in the stud that holds the exterior
ends, as at 4, in fig. 505, to prevent its being altered ; but as the variation
of temperature will alter the momentum of the moving-balance, the effect
thereby produced is a loss of time in the rate, in hot weather, and a gain
in cold weather, by an alternate increase and decrease in the dimensions of
the balance itself, as well as by some alteration in the spring. To remedy
this defect, in an ordinary w'atch, the contrivance shown in fig. 506 is intro-
duced ; the wheel t is placed under the graduated circle r, seen in fig. .505,
and a circular rack u, fig. 506, that holds the curb or slit-piece 5, seen in
both figures, is moved by a sliding motion given to it, when a key is applied
to the squared arbor cf the figure circle, and thus the effective length of the
spiral spring is limited by the position of the curb 5 ; and according as the
key is turned forwards or backwards, towards the words fast^ or slow'
engraved on the cock, the shortened or lengthened spring alters the rate of
going, till the proper length is found that suits the season in question.

Ill Harrisons time-piece the curb was moved by an expan-

sion-lever of two metals, that acted by means of the change
of temperature ; but in the best chronometers of more recent
dates, the compensating levers constitute the three portions
into which the rim of the balance is divided,* and the adjust-
 504 THE OPERATIVE MECHANIC
ment for time, as well as compensation for temperature, are
by means of heavy screws, which form a part of the moving
balance. In these more perfect machines, the length of the
spring, which is now made helical or cylindrical, is first
determined such, that the long and short vibrations are per-
formed in the same time, and this is called the isochronal
lengths, which is not afterwards altered by subsequent adjust-
ments.
watch which demands our explanation is the dial-
Tlie last portion of the
work, producing the hours and minutes ; this will be easily understood
for
by reference to figs. 502 and 507. When the pinion called the cannon-
pinion, seen near the minute-hand in fig. 502, is inserted on the arbor of
the hour or centre wheel, to which it fits rather tight by friction, it revolves
therewith in an hour, and receives the minute or hour hand on its protruding
squared end ; then this pinion drives the wheel x round a stud on the pillar-
plate, and with it a pinion w made fast to its centre ; which pinion again
drives a second wheel, v, round the tube of the cannon-pinion in twelve
hours ; and to this the hour-hand is attached. This diminution of twelve
revolutions from the cannon-pinion to the hour-wheel might be effected by
one pinion driving a single wheel of twelve times its number of teeth ; but
as the motion must be brought back to the centre of the dial again, two
more wheels, or a wheel and pinion, are necessary to be introduced,- and.,
these are therefore made a part of the train, and no large wheel or smalb>
pinion is wanted, for the ratio 12; 1 may be more conveniently obtained
by two factors, viz. 4 1 and 3 : 1 ; thus, suppose the cannon-pinion
:

to have 15 leaves, its wheel may have 4x15=60 teeth for wheel x^ i |

60
and if wheel v be the same, its pinion will be -^^ = 20, and the train '
3 .'V

60
T5
60
^ 20
= =
360
30 6
72
5
or
1
60 12
or 12 ;
,
so that
,
when ,
the pinions
^
. . .
are fixed
,
^

upon for the dial-work, the wheels are readily determined, and vice versa. \

The following Tables, somewhat differently arranged, were

published by W. Stirt, an ingenious balance-wheel and fusee
cutter. J
f|
A TABLE OF TRAINS FOR WATCHES ; ^
Showing the Number of Turns on the Fusee and Teeth in the Balance-
|*
wheel, with the Beats in an Hour, and the number of Seconds in which
the Contrate or Fourth Wheel revolves; for the easy Timing of Watches
by the Vibrations of the Pendulum.

9 Teeth in the Balance-wheel

Second wheel 58 6 Third wheel pin. 60 8 60 6 60 6 60 6 60 6 64 6 64 8

Third wheel 56 6 Contrate pin. .. 56 7 58 6 58 6 60 6 60 6 60 6 60 8
Contrate wheel 54 6 Balance pin. .. 80 6 52 6 56 6 54 6 60 6 54 6 80 6
Beats 14,616 in an hour 14,400 15,080 16,240 16,200 18,000 17,280 14,400
. Seconds 39 -^, in which the 4th 1 60
60 3/| 3/| 36 36 331
wheel revolves
J
 AND MACHINIST, 505
A Table of Trains for Watches continued. i

1 1 Teeth in the Balance-ivheel.

: Second wheel 48 6 Tliird wheel pinion. . 54 6 54 6

. 56 7 56 6 56 6
1, Third wheel 45 6 Contrate pinion 45 6 50 6 45 6 54 6 56 6

Contrate wheel 70 6 Balance pinion 65 6 60 6 78 6 54 6 55 6

'| Beats 15,400 in an hour 16,087 16,500 17,160 16,632 17,567
1 Seconds 60, in which the 4th wheel revolves 534 48 60 42f 414

58 6 58 6 58 6 58 6 58 7 60 6 60 6 60 6 60 6 60 6 60 6
1
52 6 54 6 54 6 56 6 56 6 50 6 52 6 54 6 54 6 54 6 55 6
!
52 6 52 6 54 6 54 6 56 6 52 6, 52 6 50 6 52 6 54 6 52 6
15,973 16,588 17,226 17,817 15,879 15,888 16,520 16;500 17,160 17,820 17,477
42i 44 44 39i 544 43 414 40 40 40 39

60 6 60 7 60 8 60 6
60 8 60 8 60 7 62 6 62 7 63 6 63 6
"
56 6 56 6 56 7 60 6
56 7 60 6 60 7 54 6 58 6 54 6 56
50 6 56 6 78 6 48 6
74 6 56 6 60 6 52 6 52 6 50 6 56 6
17,111 16,426 16,280 17,160 17,553 15,400 16,163 17,935 16,324 17,325 17,248
S8i 40 60 60 36 48 49 384 45 38 42i

64 6 64 6 70 7
65 7 70 8
72 8 72 7 80 8 75 10 72 9 72 9
50 6 52 6 62 7
63 7 54 7
63 7 64 7 72 8 72 9 66 8 60 B
50 6 52 6
59 7 58 7 54 6
68 6 58 7 68 8 66 8 60 6 54 6
16,296 17,625 15,250 16,830 16,408 16,035 17,142 16,830 13,200 13,200 11,880.
40^ 39 434 5.3^ 40 444 384 40 60 66 60

13 Teeth in the Balance-wheel.

Second wheel 48 6 Third wheel pinions . 48 6 52 6 54 6 54 6 54 6

i Third wheel 45 6 Contrate pinion
<
45 6 52 6 50 6 52 6 52 6
Cnnfrnf-f' 66 6 Rflianpp nininn .
68 6 52 6 50 6 48 6 50 6
Bpat.s17.160 in an linnr.. . 17,680 16,925 16,274 16,224 16,900
Seconds 60, in which the 4th wheel revolves 60 464 48 46 46

54 6 54 6 56 7 56 6
55 6 56 6 56 6 56 6 56 6 58 6 58 6
52 6 52 6
6 45 651 50 6 50 6 52 6 52 6 54 6 48 6 50 6
51 6 52 6
51 6 66 6 50 6 51 6 48 6 50 6 49 6 52 6 50 6
17,238 17,576 17,219 17,160 16,851 17,188 16,824 17,525 17,836 17,425 17,453
46 46 46| 60 46 464 444 444 424 464 4^1
1

60 6' 60 8 60 6 60 7
60 6 60 6 60 7 60 8 60 7 60 8 60 6
48 6 48 6 50 6 54 6
50 6 54 8 56 7 56 7 58 7 58 6 60 7
48 6 66 6 48 6 52 6
46 6 60 6 56 6 66 6 56 6 56 6 48 6
16,640 17,160 16,611 17,333 17,382 17,550 16,640 17,160 17,234 17,593 17,828
"
45 60 43 43 46| 54 524 60 50| 494 42

60 8 60 662 7 63 7 63 7 64 7 64 7 64 8 64 8 65 7 70 8
60 6 60 756 7 52 6 60 7 52 6 60 7 60 8 64 8 62 7 60 7
54 6 56 7 56 6 51 6 60 7 50 6 60 7 66 6 72 7 58 7 52 6
17,550 17,828 17,194 17,238 17,191 17,168 17.464 17,160 17,115 17,717 16,900
48 42 50| 46| 46| 46 454 60 564 43f 48

70 8 72 8 72 8 74 8 74 8 75 10 75 10 80 10 96 12 96 12 90 10
66 8 52 6 70 8 64 8 68 8 72 9 72 9 60 8 75 10 75 10 90 10
64 7 52 6 68 8 S3 7 68 8 70 7 72 9 60 8 80 8 88 8 90 10
17,160 16,673 17.403 17,316 17,400 15,600 12,480 15,600 15,600 17,160 18,954
50 44| ,52* 484 60 60 60 60 60 60 44^
 506 THB orJiKATIVE MECHANIC
A Table of Trains for Watches continued.

15 Teeth in the Balance-ivheel.

Second wheel 48 6 Third wheel pinion. 48 6 48 6 54 6 54 6

. . 54 6
Third wheel 45 6 Contrate pinion 45 6 45 6 48 6 48 6 48 C ^

Contrate wheel 54 6 Balance pinion 58 6 60 6 ,46 6 48 6 64 8

Beats 16,200 in an hour . 17,400 18,000 16,560 17,280 17,280
Seconds 60, in which the 4th wheel revolves 60 60 50 50 50

54 6 56 7 56 7 56 7 56 6 56 7 58 6 58 6 60 8 60 8 60 8
50 6 45 6 45 6 45 6 48 6 60 8 48 6 50 8 48 6 48 6 56 7
48 6 56 6 58 6 60 6 46 6 60 6 46 6 58 6 58 6 60 6 48 6
18,000 16,800 17,400 18,000 17,173 18,000 17,786 17,520 17,400 18,000 14,400
48 60 60 60 48 60 46f 59i 60 60 60

60 8 60 7 60 8
60 8 60 8 60 6 60 6 60 6 60 6 60 10 60 G
56 7 56 7 56 7
56 7 56 7 60 8 60 10 60 8 60 10 60 6 60 10
56 7 58 7 60 6
58 6 60 7 48 6 48 6 56 7 58 6 60 6 64 8
14.400 17,044 17,400 18,000 15, .386 18,000 14,400 18,000 17,400 18,000 14,400
60 52 60 60 60 48 60 48 60 60 60

60 8 60 8 62 8 63 7 63 7 64 8 64 8 64 8 64 6 65 7 70 6
64 8 64 8 60 8 54 7 56 7 45 6 60 8 60 8 60 10 56 7 60 10
66 7 70 7 60 6 50 6 56 7 56 6 58 6 60 6 70 8 56 7 48 6
16,971 18,000 17,437 17,356 17,280 16,800 17,400 18,000 16,800 17,828 16,800
60 60 61| 51f 50 60 60 60 56^ 48| 51 |

70 7 70 8 70 8 70 10 72 6 72 8 72 8 72 8 72 8 75 8 81 9
60 10 64 8 64 8 65 8 60 10 64 8 64 8 64 8 65 8 64 8 72 9
70 7 50 6 58 7 60 6 48 6 50 6 54 7 64 8 64 8 64 8 72 9
i
18,000 17,500 17,400 17,062 17,280 18,000 16,662 17,280 17,550 18,000 17,280
60 51i 51i 56| 50 50 50 50 49 48 50

17 Teeth in the Balance-icheel.

Second wheel 48 6 Third wheel pinion .... 56 7 60 8 64 8

Third wheel 45 6 Contrate pinion 45 6 56 7 60 8
Contrate wheel 50 6 Bal ance pinion 53 6 52 6 60 7
Beats 17,000 in an hour . . 18,020 17,828 17,485
.

Seconds 60, in which the 4th wheel revolves 60 60 60

o.w. S.W. P. r. N. s.
'

G.w. ;
s. vv. P. T. N, S. G.W. s. w. p. T.N.S.
48 10 60 10 5 55 12
50 10 6 62 10 4| 56 12
52 10 H 64 10 58 12
54 10 48 12 60 12 6
6 '71
55 10 5 50 12 * 62 12
56 52 12 ^>41 64 12
58 10 54 12 6|

If we divide double the product of all the four wheels by the product of
all the three pinions, the quotient will be the number of beats, as given in
any of the trains contained in this table ; also, if we take the second and
third w'heels, and their pinions respectively, as a compound fraction of an
hour, they will give the seconds in which the contrate-wheel, attached to the
latter pinion, will revolve ; thus, of^^ of of 60*"= ^
or 60*, which numbers
 AND MACHINIST. 507

are consequently proper for a watch

that indicates the seconds ; and if the
beats be 18,000, or 14,400, there wall be
five or four beats respectively in
for measuring fractional parts of a second.
a second, which are the best trains
CHRONOMETERS.
Chronometers differ from an ordinary watch principally in
the escapement and balance. These machines deserve more
than usual attention, as well from their practical utility in
navigation, as from the principles on which they are con-
structed, in which the irregular f^srces both of impulse and
resistance are greatly diminished by the exactness of form
and dimension.
In the reign of queen Anne, the British parliament passed
an act, offering a reward of 10,000/. for any method of
determining the longitude within the accuracy of one degree
of a great circle ; of 1 5,000/. within the limit of forty
geographical miles ; and of 20,000/. within the limit of thirty
such miles, or half of a degree ; provided such method should
extend more than eighty miles from the coast. The hope
of obtaining this reward stimulated a watch-maker named
Harrison to be indefatigable in his endeavours to effect the
required improvement, which eventually led him to apply
the principle of the apposite expansions of different metals
to a watch to effect a self-regulating curb, for limiting the
effective length of the spiral pendulum-spring to correspond
to the successive changes of heat and cold, w'hich changes
were now known to alter the force of this spring, and the
momentum of the balance.
After Harrison had by his industry and perseverance ob-
tained the large reward, the act was repealed, and another
substituted, offering separate rewards to any person who
should invent a practicable method of determining, within
circumscribed limits, the longitude of a ship at sea ; for a
time-keeper, the reward held forth to the public is 5,000/.
for determining the longitude to or within one degree 5
7,500/. for determining the same to forty geographical miles
and 10,000/. for a determination at or within half a degree.
This act, notwithstanding its abridged limits and diminished
reward, has produced several candidates ; of whom Mudge,
the two Arnolds, and Earnshaw, have had their labours
crowned with partial success.
Although, in respect to Mudges time-keeper, great ex-
pectations were at first raised, it has, from the complexity
of the machinery, and consequent expense attendant upon
making it, gradually fallen into disrepute, and is now seldom
or ever made. Such of our readers who wish to see its
508 THK orjiRATIVE MECHANIC
manner of construction and performance, we must refer to
The Description of Mr. Mudge's Time-keeper/ published
in 1709, by Thomas Mudge, jun.
The chronometer we purpose to lay before our readers is
that constructed by Mr. Earnshaw, as we are strongly dis-
posed to conclude, from various documents we have seen,
and from the similarity so evident in the construction of the
escapement, that Mr. Arnold derived the knowledge of his
principle from Mr. EarnsK>;w.
In Mr.Earnshaws chronometer the escapement is detached,
which is the best for the equal measurement of time, because
the vibrations of the balance are free from the friction of the
wheels, excepting about one-twelfth part of the circle, while
the scape-wheel is acting on the pallet to keep up the motion
of the balance, which is done with considerably more power
and less friction than by any other escapement, as it receives
but one blow from the wheel, whilst other escapements receive
two ; it has also an equal advantage of the same quickness of
train, and when the impulse is given to the balance by the
wheel, it is given in a similar direction, and not in opposition,
as most escapements are which produce a recoil.
The pivots of the balance-axis should be the
size of the verge-pivots of a good sized pocket-
w'atch, and of the annexed shape, which v/ill greatly
add to their strength, the extreme end, or acting
part, only being straight; the jewel-hole should be
as shallow as possible, so as not to endanger cutting
the pivot, and the part of the action of the hole made quite
back, with only a very shallow chamber behind to retain the
oil ; deep holes are very bad, for when the oil becomes
glutinous, it will make the pivots stick, so as to prevent the
balance from its usual vibration. The pallet should be half
the diameter of the wheel, or a little larger, for if smaller, or
one-fourth the diameter, as is the case in Arnolds, the
wheel will have too much action on it, which will increase
friction most considerably, and likewise cause the balance to
swing so much farther to clear the wheel ; consequently,
a check in the motion of the balance may stop the watch,
and cause time-keepers so constructed to stop. The face of
^he pallet should run in a line of equal distance between the
centre of the pallet and its extremity, and not in a right line
to its centre, as this causes an increase of friction, and a loss
of that power which is obtained by the wheel, acting on the
^'xtremity of the pallet. The scape-wheel teeth should form
the same direction as the face of the pallet, under-cut for
 AND MACHINIST. 509

the purpose of avoiding friction, and maintaining the pov/er,

and for safe unlocking. The points of the wheel-teeth must
not be rounded off, but left as sharp as possible. The pivots
of the scape-wheel are to be a very little larger than the
balance-pivots.
The wheel locked by a spring, instead of a detent with
is
ivots, as the French have made them ;
for those pivots must
E ave oil, and when the oil thickens, the spring of the pivot-
detents become so affected by it, as to prevent the detent
from falling into the wheel quick enough, which causes irre-
gular time, and ultimately a stoppage of the watch.
When the spring is planted on the side of the wheel, the
part on which the wheel rests should be a little short of a
right angle, so that the wheel may have a tendency to draw
the spring into it ; for if sloped the other way, or beyond
a right angle, it will have a tendency to push the spring out,
in which case the wheel will have liberty to run. The wheel
should take no more hold on the spring than just sufficient
to stop it, otherwise the friction will be increased. The
small return-spring should be as thin as possible at the end
fastened to the other spring, but at the outer end a little
thicker ; the spring should be planted down as close to the
wheel as to be just free of it the discharging pallet about
:

one-third, or near one-half the size of the large or main

pallet, the face of it in a right line to the centre, the back of
it a little rounding off from the centre. Great care must
be used, in taking off the edges of this discharging piece to
make it round, to prevent cutting the spring, nor can it be
made too thin, provided it does not cut ; the end of it nearest
the balance should be a little more out from the centre of the
balance-axis than the lower part of it towards the potence,
for counteracting the natural tendency of the spring down-
wards from the pressure of the scape-wheel ; and that part
of the spring on which the wheel rests should be sloped a
little down, to give the wheel a tendency to force it up, to
counteract the natural inclination which the wheel has to
draw it down by its pressure on it.

The balance is to be made of the best steel, and turned from

its own centre to the proper size, and then put into a crucible
with as much of the best brass as will, when melted, cover it.
The brass will adhere to the steel, and when set, is to be
turned to its proper thickness, and hollowed out, so as to
leave the steel rim about the thickness of a repeating-spring
to a small sized repeating-watch. The brass is to be turned
to near twice or three times the thickness of the steel ; cross
510 THE OPERATIVE MECHANIC
it out with only one arm straight across the centre, and at
each end of the arm fix two screws, opposite to each other,
through the rim of the balance, to regulate the watch to time.
The diameter of the heads of these screws must be about
equal to the thickness of the balance, a little more or less is
not material. The compensation-weights should be made of
the best brass, and well hammered, and a groove turned to let
the rim of the balance into it ; this should be cut into four-
teen equal parts, which will leave seven pair of pieces of
equal size and weight, one of which pair, being screwed on
the rim of the balance at equal distances, will produce an
equilibrium. In making balances, great care must be taken
that they get no bruises or bendings; for if a bruise be made on
one side so as to indent the metal, that part will be less affected
by the atmospheric agency of heat and cold than those parts
whose pores have not been closed by the same violence.
Balances are likewise spoiled by bending the compensation-
pieces, as bending cracks and destroys the compact body of
the metal. The soldering up those cracks with a metal very
different in expansion to the metal cracked is hurtful, as it is
not then possible to bend the compensation-pieces into a
true circle, in which case they form so many parts of different
circles, that nothing regular can be produced.
To adjust the balance in heat and cold, put the watch into
about 85 or 90 degrees of heat by the common thermometer,
mark down exactly how much it gains or loses in twelve
hours, then put it into as severe a cold as you can get for
twelve hours ; and if it gain one minute more in twelve hours
in cold than in heat, move the compensation-weights farther
from the arm of the balance about one-eighth of an inch
and if it gain one minute more in twelve hours in heat than
in cold, move the weights one-eighth of an inch nearer to the
arm of the balance, and so on in like proportion, trying it
again and again, till you find the watch go the same in what-
ever change of heat or cold you put it in.
Mr. Earnshaw has found out a method of obviating the
difficulties attendant in making time-keepers go nearly the
same in whatever position they might be put. It merely
consists in having the balance-spring well and properly made
but if the spring be made as hereafter described, it only re-
quires that the balance should be of equal weight, and it will
go, within a few seconds per day, in all positions alike ; and
if it vibrate not more than 1^ circle, will, by applying a
small weight to that part of the balance which is downwards
when in the position that it loses most, correct it with gi*eat
 AND MACHINIST. 511

accuracy. If it vibrate more than 1 J circle, it will require

the weight to be above, instead of below ; and after the watch
has been going a few months, and its vibrations shorten to
1| circle, it will go worse and worse by reason of the weight
being in the wrong place ;
therefore, to avoid this evil, it is

absolutely necessary to confine the vibrations to IJ circle,

which will produce the most steady performance.
The greatest difficulty with which Mr. Earnshaw had to
contend in the construction of his chronometers was, to find
out the invisihle properties of that apparent simple part of the
machine, called the balance-spring. He found, in reasoning
on bodies, that watch-springs, when kept constantly in mo-
tion, relax and tire like the human frame. In proof of this,
let a watch, that has been going a few months, go down ; let
it remain down for a week or two, and then set it going, when

it will, if it be a good time-keeper, and not affected by the

weather, go some few seconds per day faster than it did when
it was let down ; but it will again lose its quickness in a
gradual manner, gaining less and less till it comes to its
former rate. Finding, therefore, that isochronal springs
would not do, and having made s]3rings of such shape as
would render long and short vibrations equal in time, and
which constantly lost the longer the watch went, Mr. Earn-
shaw made them of such shape as to gain in the short
vibrations about five or six seconds per day more than the
long ones, which quantity could only be found by long expe-
rience ; an^ the way he adopted to prove this, was to try the
rate of the watch with the balance vibrating about one-third
of a circle, then tried its rate vibrating IJ circle; and if the
short vibrations went slow^er than the long ones, he found
that the watch would lose in its rate ; and if equal, it would
likewise lose, but that only from relaxation ; he found also,
if it gain in the short vibrations more than five or six seconds

in twenty-four hours, it will in thelong rtin gain on its rate ;

but ifnot more than that quantity, and the time-keeper is
perfect in heat and cold in every other part, the above pro-
perties will render it deserving the name of a perfect time-
keeper. Mr. Earnshaw found the common relaxation of
balance- springs to be about five or six seconds per day on
their rates in the course of a year ; therefore, if the short
vibrations are made by the shape of the spring to go about
that quantity faster than the long ones, and as the spring
relaxes in going by time, so the watch accumulates in dirt
and thickening of the oil, which shortens the vibrations, the
512 THE OPERATIVE MECHANIC
*5hort ones then being quicker, compensated for the evil of
relaxation of the balance-spring.
Having thus given our readers Mr. Earnshavv's prefatory
observations to the Board of Longitude, we shall, in the next
place, proceed to give a general description of the dilfeient
parts of his chronometer.
Fig. 510 represents the time-keeper put together.
Fig. 511, the pillar-plate from which the calliper may be taken; a, the
height of the pillars.
Fig. 512, the barrel and main-spring; 5, side view of the barrel.
Fig. 513, the fusee and great wheel, with ratchet to keep it going whilst
winding up ; c, side view of fusee.
Fig. 514, second wheel and pinion; d, side view of second wheel.
Fig. 515, third wheel and pinion ; e, side view of it.
Fig. 51 6, fourth wheel and pinion ; f, side view of it.
Fig. 517 represents the upper plate, with the escapement on it, from
which the calliper may be taken. In this figure the draftsman has not
placed the pallet near enough the wheel ; but this is of no consequence, as
a proper and exact draft of the escapement on a much larger scale is given
in fig. 522 ; the escapement, therefore, is to be understood from that figure
this only show's the sizes of the wheels.
Fig. 518 represents a side view of the scape-spring which locks the wheel.
Fig. 519, one of the brass weights to be fixed on the rim of the balance
for the compensation for heat and cold; the groove cut in it to receive
the rim of the balance. The rim of the balance is cut through in two places
in opposite directions, as in fig. 510, and two of these w'eights are to be
placed on the balance-rim, at equal distances, as there represented, and
fastened by the screw as at /^. These weights are to be moved backwards
or forwards on the rim of the balance, to make the watch go faster or
slower in heat or in cold, as by trial may be found necessary.
Fig. 520 is a side view of said brass weights ; the groove to receive
the rim of the balance ; its depth shows the breadth for balance-ring.
Fig. 521, the cylindrical balance-spring. The only advantage attending
the cylindrical shape is, that it is rather easier made, being a saving of about
one hour of time ; for if the real body or form of the spring be like the shape
of the stem of a feather, or common writing quill, it is of no consequence
whether it be turned into a spiral or cylindrical figure.
The model, from which the four following figures were taken, contains,
besides the parts necessary to explain the nature of the escapement, a box
enclosing a spring, which, when wound up, communicates, by means of
some more wheels, a force to the balance-wheel sufficient, when the balance
is put in motion, to keep it in action for some time. These wheels are
contained between two brass plates, fastened together by four upright pil-
lars. The uppermost of these plates is that which is represented in fig. 522,
where P Q R S are the four screws that take into the heads of the four pillars
above-mentioned, and connect it to the remaining part of the model. The
plate P QR S contains, however, the whole of the parts necessary for the
present purpose. The side of this plate represented to view, is the under-
most when fixed in the model ; so that the figure represents this plate as
taken off, with the side next to the balance laid upon a table, and the eye ii
supposed to be placed perpendicularly over it.
In the plate PQKS is an opening, or a piece taken out, represented hy
iTetU AStodcUy sc 3Sz Strand.
1
 AND MACHINIST. 513
T U W X Y Z. In this opening the balance-wheel A B C D, pallet M S K,
and part of the balance TJ V, are seen. The balance-wheel is supported by
two pieces of brass, O N H, O I ; the piece O N II is screwed to the side of
the plate nearest to view by a strong screw, V, and made firm by small
pins, represented by ttit tt tt tt tt ; these pins are called steady -pins ; they
are rivetted fast into the supporting-piece O H, and take into holes in the
plate P Q R S, made exactly to fit them. The part O N of this supporting-
piece is supposed to be raised above the part 0 II by a joint or bend at N
the otlier supporting-piece O I is fastened to the opposite side of the plate
and between these two pieces the balance-wheel turns freely and steadily
in the direction of the letters A BC D. The small wheel M K
S is called

the large pallet ; it is a cylindrical piece of steel, having a notch or piece

cut out of it at I h I against the side of this notch is a square, flat piece of
ruby, or any hard stone, h I, ground and polished very smooth, and fixed
into the pallet. The cylinder is so placed, with respect to the -balance-
wheel, that it may not be more than just clear of two adjoining teeth. EF
is a long, thin spring, which is made fast at one end, by being pinned into
a stud G, and made to bear gently against the head of an adjusting screw,
m the otlier end is bent a little in the form of a hook ; to this spring there
is fixed anotlier very slender spring at 7, which projects to a small distance
beyond it. This small spring lies on the side of the thick spring nearest to
the balance-wlieel. The adjusting screw m takes into a small brass cock at
ap, which is screwed fast to the upper plate by a strong screw. Upon the
spring E F there is fixed a semi-cylindrical pin, which stands up perpen-
dicularly upon it, and of a sufficient length to fall between the teeth of the
balance-wheel A B CD. This pin is called the locking-pallet, and is placed
on the opposite side of the spring represented to view. Through the centre
of the cylindrical pallet M S K, a strong steel axis passes, called the verge
the pallet is made fast to this axis, which also passes through the centre of
the balance, and is made fast to it ; it has two fine pivots at its extremities,
upon which it turns very freely, between two firm supporting pieces of
brass, screw'ed firmly, and made as permanent as possible, by steady-pins,
to the principal plate. A above the cylindrical pallet
little M
S K, is fixed
a small cylindrical piece of steel, i w, having a small part projecting out at i,
through which the verge also passes ; this is called the lifting-pallet, and is
from one-third to half the diameter of the large pallet it fixes upon the verge
;

like a collar, and is made fast by a twist, so as to be set in any position

with respect to the large pallet M
S K. The end E G of the long spring
E F being made very slender, if a small force be applied at the point 0 to
press that end out from the wheel A B C D, it yields easily in that dire(i
tion, turning, as it were, upon a centre at G ; it is also made to slide in a
groove made in this stud, in such a manner that the end 0 may be placed at
any required distance from the centre of the verge.
Having described the several parts as they appear in the figure, we next
come to their situation or connection with respect to each other. Let the
long spring EF be supposed to be so placed, that the end of the slender
spring y i may project a little way over the point of the lifting-pallet i n,
but not so close but that the point of the pallet may pass by the hooked end
of the spring EF without touching it; the head of the adjusting-screw m is
ajso supposed to bear gently on the inner side of the said spring E F, or
that nearest to the wheel, and at the same time the locking-pallet is so
placed, that one of the teeth, D, of the balance-wheel, may just take hold
of it. This pallet is not visible in its proper place in the figure, being
covered from sight by the screw ni, and part of the spring E F ; its. position
is therefore represented by the dot on the opposite side of the wheel,
 514 TflK OPERATIVE MECHANIC
having the tooth Ajust bearing up against it. From the above description
of the several parts of the escapement, and their connection with each other
it will be easy to see the mode of its action, which is as follows :

A force being supposed to be applied to the balance-wheel, so as to cause

it to move round in the direction of the letters A
B C D, one of the teeth, as
D, will come against the locking-pallet (as represented at A, and the lockino--
pallet by k.) The wheel is then said to be locked, being prevented from
being moved forward by this pin. Let the balance be now supposed to
rest in its quiescent position, and it will have the situation represented in
the figure ; the lifting-point i of the pallet i n will be just clear of the pro-
jecting end of the slender spring, the face, h I, of the large pallet M
S K will
fall a little below the point of the tooth B, and the balance, having its spiral
or helical (meaning cylindrical) spring applied to it, remains perfectly at
rest in this position. Now, as the balance, and the two pallets S M Kand
i n, are fixed to the verge, it is plain they must all move together let, there-
;

fore, the balance be carried a little way round in the direction of the letters
M S K by this motion, the end i of the lifting-pallet i n will be brought to
;

press up against the projecting end of the slender spring, and as this spring
is fixed on the side of the spring E F, nearest to the balance-wheel, the
point i will press the two springs together out of the balance-wheel ; then,
as only the point of the tooth D(see its position at k) touches the locking-
pallet when the spring EF was at rest against the head of the screw m, it
will, by the spring being pressed out from the tooth, have slipped oft; (for
the locking-pallet, which was before supposed at k, will now be at a, clear
of the tooth Aof the balance-wheel ;) the wheel being now at liberty, will
move round by the force supposed to be applied to it ; but as the point i of
the lifting-pallet moves on and presses out the spring, the point, I, of the
large pallet approaches towards the point of the tooth B of the balance-
wheel, so that when the spring E F is sufficiently pushed out to unlock the
wheel, the point I of the large pallet will be got to d, and in this position
the point of the tooth B of the balance-wheel will fall upon it, at the same
time the point of the tooth D has just dropped off from the locking-pallet
m the force of the wheel, being by this means applied to the top of the
pallet h I, gives an increased momentum to the balance, and assists it in its
motion in the same direction, and by the continued motion of the large
pallet in the direction M S K, the point of the tooth B, which keeps pressing
and urging it forward, moves up towards the bottom of the face of the pallet
towards h, until the plain fiat surfaces of the tooth and pallet come into
contact ; by this time the end o of the slender spring has dropped off from
the point i of the lifting-pallet, and the two springs have returned again
into their quiescent position, the spring E F gently bearing against the head
of the adjusting screw, m, and the locking-pallet, in a position to receive the
next tooth, C, of the balance-wheel. When the two surfaces of the tooth
and pallet are thus in contact, the greatest force of the wheel is exerted upon
the pallet, and of course upon the balance moving with it. The tooth still
pressing against the face of the pallet, and the pallet moving in the direction
M S K, it at ,last drops off, leaving the balance at perfect liberty to move
on in the same direction in which it was going. Just as the point of the
tooth B, which has been pressing the large pallet round, is ready to leave
it, the next tooth, C, of the wheel is almost in contact with the locking-

pallet m, so that the instant the tooth B drops off, the wheel is again locked,
and the action of that tooth on the balance is finished. As the balance
moves with the greatest freedom upon its pivots, the force of the tooth has
given it a considerable velocity, so that the balance still keeps moving on
in the same direction, after the pressure of the tooth is removed by slipping
 AND MACHINIST. 515
off from the pallet, until the force of the pendulum-spring, (which is not
represented in the figure,) being continually increased by being wound up,
overcomes the momentum of the balance, which for an instant of time is
then stationary, but immediately returns by the action of the pendulum-
spring, which exerts a considerable force upon it in unwinding itself. As
the balance returns, the point i, of the lifting-pallet i n, passes by the ends
of two springs, EF Y
and O, and, in passing by, pushes the projecting end o
of the slender spring in towards the balance-wheel, until it has passed it
after this, the projecting end o again returns, and applies itself close to the
hooked end of the spring E F as before. The spring yo is made so slender,
that it gives but little resistance to the balance, during the time the point i
of the lifting-pallet is passing it, and of course causes but little, if any, de-
crease in its momentum. During the time the point i of the lifting-pallet
is pressing in the small spring y o, the long spring E F remains steadily
bearing against the head of the adjusting screw m, as the hooked end at o
just lets the end of the lifting-pallet pass by without touching it. As the
spring has now been continually acting upon the balance, from the extremity
of its vibration in the direction M
S K, it has given it the greatest velocity
when the point i of the lifting-pallet is passing the end o of the slender
spring; for at this instant the spring which was wound up by the contrary
direction of the balance, is now unwound again, or in the same state as it
was in its quiescent position at first, and of course has no effect at all upon
the balance in either direction ; but the balance, having now all the velocity
it would acquire from the unwinding the spring, goes on in the direction

S MK until the force of this spring again stops it, and brings it back again,
moving in the same direction as at first, with a considerable velocity. By
this return of the balance, the point i of the lifting-pallet comes up again to
the projecting end o of the slender spring, pushes back the long spring E F,
and unlocks the wheel ; and another tooth falling upon the face of the pallet
A Z, gives fresh energy to the balance ; and thus the action is carried on as
before.

ESCAPEMENT, OR SCAPEMENT.
The motions of a clock or watch are regulated by a pen-
dulum or balance, which serves as a check, without which,
the wheels impelled by the weight in the clock, or spring in
the watch, would run round with a rapidly accelerating
motion, till this should be rendered uniform by friction, and
the resistance of the air ; if, however, a pendulum or balance
be put in the way of this motion, in such manner that only
one tooth of a wheel can pass, the revolutions of the wheel
will depend on the vibration of the pendulum or balance.
We know that the motion of a pendulum or balance is
alternate, while the pressure of the wheels is constantly
exerted in the same direction. Hence it is evident that some
means must be employed to accommodate these different
motions to each other. Now, when a tooth of the wheel has
given the pendulum or balance a motion in one direction, it
must quit it, that the pendulum or balance may receive an
impulsion in the opposite direction. This escaping of the
tooth has given rise to the term escapement
2 L 2
 516 THE OPERATIVE MECHANIC
The ordinary
scapenient is extremely simple, and may be thus illustrated.
Let 523, represent a horizontal axis, to which the pendulum is
x'y, fig.

attached by a slender rod. This axis has two leaves, c and rf, one near
each end, and not in the same plane, but so that when the pendulum hangs
perpendicularly at rest, c spreads a few degrees to the right, and d as much
to the left. These are called the pallets. Let afb represent a wheel,
turning on a perpendicular axis, e o, in the order af eh. The teeth of this
wheel are in the form of those of a saw, leaning .forward in the direction of
the rims motion. This wheel is usually called the crown-ivheel, or in
watches the halance-wheel. It in general contains an odd number of teeth.
In the figure the pendulum is represented at the extremity of its excursion
towards the right, the tooth a having just escaped from the pallet e, and b
having just dropped on d.
Now it evident, that while the pendulum is moving to the left, in the
is
arc jt) g, the tooth h still presses on the pallet d, and thus accelerates the
pendulum, both in its descent along p h, and its ascent up kg, and that
when d, by turning round the axis x y, raises its point above the plane of
the wheel, the tooth b escapes from it, and i drops on c, now nearly perpen-
dicular. Thuspressed to the right, and tlie motion of the pendulum
c is

along gp is Again, while the pendulum hangs perpendicularly

accelerated.
in the line h, the tooth b, by pressing on d, will force the pendulum
to the left, in proportion to its lightness, and if it be not too heavy, will
force it so far from the perpendicular, that b will escape, and i will catch
on and force the pendulum back to p, when the same motion will be
c,

repeated.This effect will be the more remarkable if the rod of the pen-
dulum be continued through .r y, and have a ball q, on the other end, to
balance p.
When b escapes from d, the balls are moving with a certain velocity and
momentum, and in this condition the balance is checked when i catches
on c. It is not, however, instantly stopped, but continues to
a little move
to the left, forced a little backward by the pallet c. It cannot make
and i is
its escape over the top of the tooth i, as all the momentum of the balance
was generated by the force of b, and i is of equal power. Besides, when
i catches on c, and the motion of c, to the left, continues, the lower point

of c is applied to the face of i, which now acts on the balance by a long

lever, and soon stops its motion in that direction, and, continuing to press
on c, urges the balance in the opposite direction. In this, it is evident that
the motion of the wheel is hobbling and unequal, by which this escapement
has received the appellation of the recoiling \scapement.

In considering the utility of the following improved scape-

ment for clocks, we must keep in mind the following propo-
sition, which, after the above illustration, scarcely requires
any proof. It is, that the natural vibrations of a pendulum
are isochronous, or are performed in equal times. The great
object of the ^scapernent is to preserve this isochronous
motion of the pendulum.
As the defect of the recoiling scapenient was long ap-
parent, several ingenious artists attempted to substitute in
its place a scapenient that should produce a more regular
and uniform motion. Of these, the scapenient contrived by
Mr. Cuinming appears to be one of the most ingenious in its
construction, and most perfect in its operation. The follow-
JESCAFJEMJENTS Tl.77.
 AND MACHINIST. ^>17

lug construction is similar to that of Mr. Gumming, but

rendered rather less complex for the purpose of shortening
the description.
Let ABC,fig. 524, represent a portion of the swing-wheel, of which O

is and A one of the teeth, and Z the centre of the crutch, the
the centre,
pallets, and pendulum. The crutch is represented of the form of the letter
A, having in the circular cross-piece a slit i k, which is also circular, Z being
the centre. The arm Z F forms the first detent, and the tooth A is repre-
sented as locked on it at F. D is the first pallet on the end of the arm Z d,
movable round the same centre with the detents, but independent of them.
The arm, d e, to which the pallet D is attached, lies wholly behind the arm Z F
of the detent, being fixed to a round piece of brass, efg, having pivots
turning concentric with the axis of the pendulum. To the same piece of
brass is fixed the horizontal arm c H, carrying at its extremity the ball H,
of such size that the action of the tooth A on the pallet D is just able
raise it up to the position represented. Z P/r represents the fork, or pen-
dulum-rod, behind both detent and pallet. A pin p projects forward,
coming through the slit i k, without touching either margin of it. Attached
to the fork is the arm m n, of such length that, when the pendulum-red is
perpendicular, the angular distance of nq from the rod e q H is just equal
to the angular distance of the left side of the pin p from the left end i of the
slit i k.

Now thenatural position of the pallet Dis at S, represented by the dotted

lines, restingon the back of the detent F. It is naturally brought into this
position by its own weight, and still more by the w'eight of the ball II.
The pallet D, being set on the foreside of the arm at Z, comes into the same
plane with the detent F and the swing-wheel, though represented in the
figure in a different position. The tooth C of the wheel is supposed to have
escaped from the second pallet, on which the tooth A immediately seizes
the pallet 1), situated at 5,forces it out, and then rests on the detent F, the
pallet D
leaning on the tip of the tooth. After the escape of C, the pen-
dulum, moving down the arch of semi-vibration, is represented as having
attained the vertical position. Proceeding still to the left, the pin p reaches
the extremity i of the slit i k; and, at the same instant, the arm n touches
the rod e II in q. The pendulum proceeding a hairs-breadth further, with-
draws the detent F from the tooth, which now pushes off the detent, by
actin<r on the inclining face of it.
The wheel being now unlocked, the tooth, following C on the other side,
acts on its pallet, pushes it off, and rests on its detent, which has been
rapidly brought into a proper position by the action of A on the inclined
face of F, By a similar action of C on its detent at the moment of escape,
F was brought into a position proper for the wheels being locked by the
tooth A. As the pendulum still goes on, the ball II, and pallet connected
with it, are carried by the arm m 7i, and before the pin p again reaches the
end of the slit, which had been suddenly withdrawal by the action of A on
F, the pendulum comes to rest. It now returns towards the right, loaded
with the ball II on the left, and thus the motion lost during the last vibration
is restored. When the pin p, by its motion to the right, reaches the end k
of i k, the wheel on the right side is unlocked, and at the same instant the
weiglit H, being raised from the pendulum by the action of a tooth like B
on the pallet D, ceases to act.
In this ^scapementj both pallets and detents are detached
from the pendulum^ except in the moment of unlocking the
wlieel^ so that, excepting during this short interval, the pen
518 TH15 CrPEUA'nVE mechaotc
dulum may be said to be free during its whole vibration, and
of course its motion must be more equable and undisturbed.
The constructing of a proper "scapement for watches
requires peculiar delicacy, owing to the small size of the
machine, from which the error of of an inch has as much
effect as the error of a whole inch in a common clock.
From the necessary lightness of the* balance too, it is ex-
tremely accumulate a sufficient quantity of regu-
difficult to
lating power. This can only be done by giving the balance
a great velocity, which is effected by concentrating as much
as possible of its weight in the rim, and making its vibrations
very wide. The balance-rim of a tolerable watch should
pass through at least ten inches in every second.
Jn considering the most proper scapements for w^atches,
we may assume the following principle ; viz. that the oscil-
:

lations of a balance urged by its spring, and undisturbed by

extraneous forces, are isochronous.
In ordinary pocket-watches, the common recoiling scape-
ment of clocks is still employed, and answers the common
purposes of a watch tolerably well, so that, if properly exe-
cuted, a good ordinary watch will keep time within a minute
in the day. These watches, however, are subject to great
variation in their rate of going, from any change in the powet
of the wheels.
The following is considered as the best construction of the common water,
scapement, and is represented by fig. 525, as it appears when looking straigli.
down on the end of the balance arbor. C marks the centre of the balance
and verge ; C A represents the upper pallet, or that next the balance, and
D
C B the lower pallet; F and are two teeth of the crown-wheel, moving
from left to right ; E G are two teeth in the lower part, moving from right
to left. The tooth D appears as having just escaped from the point of C A,
and the tooth Eas having just come in contact with C B. In practice, the
scapement should not be quite so close, as, by a small inequality of the teeth,
D might be kept from escaping at all. In the best proportioned watches, the
G
distance between the front of the teeth, that is, of F E D, and the axis C of
the balance, is ^ of F A, the distance between the points of the teeth. The
length C A, C B, of the pallets is | of the same degrees, and the front D H,
or F K of the teeth makes an angle of 25" with the axis of the crown-wheel.
Tlie sloping side of the tooth must be of an epicycloidal form, suited to the
relative motion of the tooth and pallet.
It appears from these proportions, that by the action of the tooth D,
the pallet A can throw out till it reach a, 120 from C L, the line of the
crown-wheel axis. To this if we add B C A =95, we shall have L C a = 120.
Again, B will tlirow out as far on the other side. Now, if from 240, the
sum of the extent of vibration of both pallets, we take 95, the angle of the
pallets, the remainder 145 will express the greatest vibration which the
balance can make without striking the front of the teeth. From several
causes, however, this measure is too great, and 120 is reckoned a sufficient
vibration in the l)est ordinary scapement. Encydopci'dki BriUunika.
 AND MACHINIST. 5i9
In 1812^ Mr. Prior, jim. was rewarded by the Society of
Arts for the construction of a remontoirc escape which pos-
sesses considerable merit.
The advantage of this escapement is such as will give an
exact and equal impulse to the pendulum without any friction,
and which cannot be at all affected by any irregularities or
variations arising by the clogging and increasing of
of oil
friction from the train, except during the very small part of
the vibration that the pendulum is removing the spring detents
from off the points of the teeth of the escape-wheel, the effect
of which can never be discovered in the rate by any variation
the oil on the pivots and the increase of friction can ever
produce, as long as the wheels will be able to wind up the
renovating spring, which will be nearly as long as they can
move at all, as the renovating spring has not either to be
wound up quick, or to be pushed beyond any catch or spring to
keep it in its proper situation, nor can there ever be any increase
of friction in winding up the renovating spring, as it is formed
in nearly as right a line as possible ; consequently must go
almost endlessly without cleaning, and will never require any
oil.

The swing-wheel A, figs. 526 and 527*, has thirty teeth cut in its peri-
phery, and is constantly urged forward by the maintaining power, which is
supplied by a small weight X, figs. 527 and 527* ; C D are two spring-
detents catching the teeth of the wheel alternately, these are, at the proper
intervals, unlocked by the parts marked 2 and 3, fig. 526, upon the pen-
dulum rod H, intercepting small pins aft, fig. 527, projecting from the
detents, as it vibrates towards the one or the other; E is the renovating or
remontoire spring, fixed to the same stud F, as the detents ; it is wound up
by the highest tooth of the wheel, as seen in fig. 526, (its position when un-
wound being shown by the dotted line.) This being a case, suppose a tooth
of the wheel is caught by the detent D, which prevents the wheel from
moving any further, and keeps the renovating spring from escaping off the
point of the tooth ; in this position, the pendulum is quite detached from
the wheel ; now, if the pendulum be caused to vibrate towards G, the part
of it marked 2 comes against the pin h, fig. 527, projecting from the renovat-
ing spring E, and pushes this spring from the point of the wheels tooth
on vibrating a little further, it removes the detent D, which detained the
wheel, by the part 3 striking the pin a, fig. 2, which projects from the detent
the maintaining power of the clock causes the wheel, thus unlocked, to ad-
vance, until detained by a tooth resting upon the end of the detent C, on
the opposite side ; by this means the renovating spring w ill be clear of the
tooth of the wheel as it returns with the pendulum, and gives it an impulse,
by its pin b pressing against the part 2 of the pendulum, until the spring
comes to the position shown by the dotted line, in w'hich position it is un-
wound, and rests against a pin fixed in the cross bar of the plate ; the pen-
dulum continues vibrating towards I, nearly to the extent of its vibration,
when the part 1 meets the pin in the detent C, and removes it from the
wheel, and unlocks it ; the maintaining pow'er now carries it forward,
pushing the renovating spring E before it, until another tooth is caught by
 520 THE OPERATIVE. MECHANIC
Ihe detent D, which detains the wheel in the |)osition first described, the
renovating spring being wound up ready to give another impulse to the
pendulum.
The pin h, fig. 527, is not fixed to the renovating spring itself, but is part of
a of brass, which is screwed fast to the renovating spring, and is made
})iece
very slender near the screw which fastens it ; this permits the renovating spring
to give way, if, by the weight being taken off the clock, or any otlier ac-
cident, the escape-wheel should be wound backwards, so as to catch on the
detents improperly.
in this escapement it is necessary to attend to the following
observations
1st. That the renovating and detent springs must spring
from one centre, and as similarly as possible.
2dly. That the force applied to the train must be so mucli
more than what will wind up the renovating spring, as will
overcome the influence of oil and friction on the pivots of the
machine.
3dly. That the renovating spring, when unwound, must rest
against the point of the tooth of the wheel, which will be an
advantage, as it thereb)" takes as much force olF the tooth of
the wheel resting against the detent spring as is equal to the
pressure of the renovating spring C, against the face of the
tooth of the wheel.
4thly. The detent springs must be made as slender and
light as possible, though whatever force they take from the
pendulum by their elasticity in removing them to unlock the
wheel, so much force they return to the pendulum in follow-
ing it, to where it removed them from, therefore action and
reaction will be equal in contrary directions.
5thly. That it is necessary for the pendulum to remove the
detents or renovating springs, much further than it is neces-
sary to free the teeth of the wheel, as it will always vibrate
on the same arc ; in table clocks it ought to remove them
further, so that it can go when not placed exactly level, or
what is generally termed out of the beat.
The following description of a clock escapement, contrived
by Mr. Reid, about twelve or fifteen years ago, is extracted
from the Edinburgh Encyclopaedia :

Fig. 528. S W
is the swing-wheel, whose diameter may be so large as to

be sufficiently free of the arbor of the wheel that runs into its pinion, wliich
in eight-day clocks is the third. The teeth of this swing-wheel are cut thus
deep, in order that the wheel may be as light as possible, and the strength of
the teeth little more than what is necessary to resist the action or force of a
common clock weight through the wheels. They are what niay be called
the locking-teeth, as will be more readily seen from the use of them after-
wards to be explained. Those called the impulse-teeth, consist of very
small tempered steel pins, inserted on the surface of the rim of the wheel on
one side only. ITiey arc nearly two-tenths of an inch in height; and the
 :E S r T
_From 52S to 536.
o^O

JTetle i- StofJtUu.tejs^J-tr^nd,
 AND MACHINIST. 62 i
smaller they are so much more room will be given for the tliickness of the
pallets. If they have strength to support about 80 or 100 grains, they
will be strong enough. There is no rule required for placing them relatively
to the locking-teeth, only they may as well be opposite to these teeth
as any where else. PP whose centre of motion is the same
are the pallets
as tiiat at These pallets are formed so as to have the arms
the verge at a.
sufficiently strong, and at the same time as light as may be. That part
where the arms meet at the angle at a, has a steel socket made out of the
same piece as the arms, being forged together in this manner. The socket
is made to fit well on the verge, on which it is only twisted fast, and is

turned pretty small on the outside, in order to allow the arbors of the detents to
be laid as close to the verge as may be, so that their centres of motion may
coincide as nearly as possible. A perfect coincidence of the centres might
be obtained by using a hollow cylinder for the verge, with the detent-arbors
running inside of it, but this would have occasioned more trouble. Tliat
part of the pallet frame, as it may be called, in which is set the stone for
receiving the action or impulse of the small pin teeth, is formed into a rect-
angular shape, so as to allow room for a dove-tail groove, into which the
stone pallets are fixed, as may be seen at P P, fig. 528, and P, fig. 529,
which also gives a side view of the verge at a, and where the socket of the
pallets is seen as fixed on the verge. At B, fig. 529, is seen the outer end
of one of the stone pallets made flush with the steel. That part of the stone
pallets upon which the pin teeth act, may be seen in fig. 528, where they
are represented in their respective positions relative to the pin teeth. Their
shape or form is exactly that which gives the dead beat. In fig, 528 are
seen the detents d d, whose centre of motion is at c c. They are fixed on
their arborsby a thin steel socket, made as forged with the detents, much
in the same w'ay as the pallets were, as may be seen at c, fig. 530, which
gives a side view of one of the detents and its arbor. The screws
e e,ff, in
the arms of the detents, have a place made to receive them, which is more
readily seen in fig. 530, than in fig 528. The screws e e serve for the pur-
pose of adjusting that part of the scapement connected with the pallets
pushing the detents out from locking the wheel, by means of locking the
teeth. The endsof the screws e e, on the unlocking, are met by the ends of
the stone pallets, one of which is represented at b, fig. 529. The screws ff
seem to adjust the locking of the wheel-teeth on the detents ; g g are brass
rectangular pieces, or studs, which are fixed to the inside of the pillar frame
plate, and maybe near an inch high. The ends of the screws rest on f
the side of these studs, and according as they are more or less screwed
through at the ends of the detents, so much less or more hold will the de-
tent piece have, of the teeth. These holding pieces of the detents are not
represented in the drawing, as tliey would have made other parts of it rather
obscure. They are made of stone, and are fitted in by means of a dove-
tail cut in a piece left for that purpose, on the inside of the detent-arms, as

may easily be conceived from the drawing, where it is represented in part at

e, fig. 530
;
and is in the line across the arm with the screw c, which is
close by the edge of the detent stone piece, which projects a little beyond
the end of the screw. Having described the parts of the scapement, we
shall now' explain their mode of action. On the left-hand side the pin tooth
is represented as having just escaped its pallet, as seen in fig. 528 but
;

previous to its having got on to the flanch of this pallet, let us conceive that the
back of the pallet, or end piece b of it, had come, in consequence of the
motion of the pendulum, to that side, and opposing the screw <?, which is
in the detent arm, pushes or carries it on with it, and consequently unlocks
the tooth of the wheel, w'hich then endeavours to get forward, but the pin
 522 THE OPERATIVE MECHANIC
tooth at instant of unlocking, meeting with the flanch of the pallet at the
tliis

lower edge inside, and pushing forward on the flanch, by this means im-
pels the pendulum, and after having escaped the pallet, the next locking
tooth is received by the detent, on the right-hand side, where the wheel is now
again locked. In the mean time, while the pendulum is describing that part of
its vibration towards the left hand free and detached, as the pallets are now at
liberty to move freely and independently of the small pin teeth, on the return
of the pendulum to the right-hand side, the detent, by means of the pallet on
that side, is pushed out from locking the wheel, and at the instant of unlock-
ing, the wheel gets forward, and the pin tooth is at the same instant ready
to get on the flanch of its pallet, and gives new impulse to the pendulum, as
is obvious by what is represented in the drawing, fig. 528. After the pin
tooth has escaped the pallet, the wheel is again locked on the opposite or
left-hand side ; the pendulum moves on to the right freely and independently
till the next locking on the left takes place, and so on. It may be observed,
that the unlocking takes place when the pendulum is near the lowest point,
or point of rest, and of course where its force is nearly a maximum.

Without attaching any thing to the merits of this ^scape-

ment, we may remark that the clock was observed from time
to time by a very good transit instrument, and, during a
period of eighty-three days, it kept within the second, with-
out any interim apparent deviation. This degree of time-
keeping seemed to be as much a matter of accident as other-
wise ; and cannot reasonably be expected from this or any
other clock as a fixed or settled rate.
This scapement being a detached or free scapement, can at
pleasure be converted into a recoiling or dead beat one, without
so much as once disturbing or stopping the pendulum a
single vibration. To make dead beat of it, put in a peg of
wood, or small wire, to each, so as to raise the detents free of
the pallets ; and these being left so as to keep them in the
position, the pin-teeth will now fall on the circular parts of
the pallets, and so on to the flanch, and the 'scapement is
then, to all intents and purposes, a dead beat one. To make
a recoiling one of it, let there be fixed to each arbor of the
detents, a wire to project horizontally from them about 3i or
4 inches long ; the outer ends of the wires must be tapped
about half an inch in length ; provide two small brass balls,
half an ounce weight each, having a hole through them, and
tapped so as to screw on the wires ; the balls can be put
more or less home, and be adjusted proportionably to the
force of the clock on the pendulum. No recoil will be seen on
the seconds hand ; yet these will alternately oppose and
assist the motion of the pendulum, as much as any recoiling
pallets can possibly do ; and as their efforts on the pendulum
will be exactly the same, it may be considered as a good
recoiling scapement. This sort of detached scapement, by
becoming a dead beat, or a recoiling one, at any time when
 AND MACHINIST. 523

required, makes it convenient for making various experiments

with the different scapements.
Another ^scapement, in which a considerable degree of
ingenuity is united with comparative simplicity, is that of
Mr. De Lafons. The inventors description, and some of his
observations, as presented to the Society of Arts, are as
follows :

Although the giving of an equal impulse to the balance has been

already most ingeniously done by Mr. Mudge and Mr. Haley, (from whose
great merit I would not wish to detract,) yet the extreme difficulty and
expense attending the first, and the very compound locking of the second,
render them far from completing the desired object.
The perfections and advantages arising from my improvements on the
remontoire detached scapement for chronometers, which gives a perfectly
equal impulse to the balance, and not only entirely removes whatever
irregularities arise from the different states of fluidity in the oil, from the
train of wheels, or from the mainspring, but does it in a simpler way than
any with which I am acquainted. I trust it will not be thought improper
in me to answer some objections made at the examinations before the
committee, as I am fully persuaded the more mathematically and critically
the improvements are investigated, the more perfect they will prove to be.
It was first observed, that my method did not so completely detach
the train of w^heels from the balance as another ^scapement then referred
to. I beg leave to remark, that the train of wheels in mine is prevented
from pressing against the locking by the whole power of the remontoire-
spring ; so that the balance has only to remove the small remaining pressure,
which does away that objection, and also that of the disadvantage of
detents, as this locking may be compared to a light balance turning on
fine pivots, without a pendulum-spring ; and has only the advantage of
banking safe at two turns of the balance, and of being firmer, and less
liable to be out of repair, than any locking where spring-work is used, but
likewise of unlocking with much less power. It was then observed, it
required more power to make it go than usual. Permit me to say, it
requires no more power than any other remontoire-scapement, as the
power is applied in the most mechanical manner possible. And, lastly, it
was said, that it set or required the balance to vibrate an unusually large
arch before the piece would go. Tliis depends on the accuracy of the
execution, the proportionate diameter and weight of the balance, the
strength of the remontoire-spring, and the length of the pallets. If these
circumstances are well attended to, it will set but little more than the most
generally detached scapements.^
A
shows the scape-wheel, fig. 534.
B, the lever-pallet, or an arbor with fine pivots, having at the lower
end,
C, the remontoire or spiral spring fixed with a collar and stud, as
pendulum-springs are.
D, the pallet of the verge, having a roller turning in small pivots for the
lever-pallet to act against.
E, pallets to discharge the locking, with a roller between, as in fig. 535.
arm of the locking-pallet continued at the other end to make it
F, the
poise, having studs and screws to adjust and bank tlie quantity of motion.
a and b, the locking-pallets, being portions of circles, fastened on an
arbor turning on fine pivots.
524 THE OPERATIVE MECHANIC
G,the triple fork, at the end of the arm of the locking-pallets.
The centre of the is in a right line between
lever-pallet in the draft,
the centre of the scape-wheel and the centre of the verge, though in the
.model it is not :but may be so or not, as best suits the calliper, &c.
The scape-wlieel A, with the tooth 1, is acting on the lever-pallet B,
and has wound up the spring C ; the verge pallet D
(turning the way
represented by the arrow) tlie moment it comes within the reach of the
lever-pallet, the discharging pallet E, taking hold of one prong of the fork,
iemoves the arm b", and relieves the tooth 3 from the convex part of the
lock a. The wheel goes forward a little, just sufficient to permit the lever-
pallet to pass, while the other end gives the impulse to the balance the :

tooth 4 of the wheel is then locked on the concave side of the lock d,
and the lever-pallet is stopped against the tooth 5, as in fig. 536. So
far the operation of giving the impulse, in order again to wind the
remontoire-spring, (the other pallet at E, in the return, removing the arm F
the contrary direction,) relieves the tooth 3 from the lock I/. The wheel
again goes forward, almost the whole space, from tooth to tooth, winds the
spiral spring again, and comes into the situation of fig 534, and thus the
whole performance is comjjleted. The end of the lower pallet B resting on
the point of the tooth 1, prevents the wheel exerting its full force on the
lock , as in fig. 534. The same effect is produced by the pallet lying on
the tooth 5, by preventing the wheel from pressing on 5 ; and thus the
locking becomes the tightest possible. This scapement may be much
simplified by putting a spring with a pallet made in it, as in fig. 534,
instead of the lever-pallet and spiral spring. The operation will be in
other respects exactly the same, avoiding the friction of the pivots of the
lever-pallet. This method I prefer for a piece to be in a stale of rest, as a
clock, but the disadvantage, from the weight of the spring in different
positions, is obvious. The locking may be on tiny two teeth of the wheel,
as may be found most convenient.

PENDULUMS.
The pendulum is simple ponderous body, so suspended,
ii

that it may swing backvrards and forwards, about some fixed

point, by the mere force of gravity.
These alternate ascents and descents of the pendulum are
called its oscillations^ or vibrations each oscillation being
the arc which the pendulum describes from the highest point
on one side to the highest point on the other side. The point
round wliich the pendulum moves, or vibrates, is called the
axis of suspoision, or centre of motion ; and a right line drawn
through the centre of motion, parallel to the horizon, and per-
pendicular to the plane in which the pendulum moves, is called
the axis of oscillation. There is also a certain point within
every pendulum, into which, if all the matter that composes
the pendulum were collected, or condensed, as into a point,
tlie times in which the vibrations would be performed would
not be altered by such condensation ; and this point is called
the centre of oscillation. The length of the pendulum is
always estimated by the distance of this point below the
centre of motion, being usually near the bottom of the pen-
 AND MACHINIST.
duluni; but in a slender cylinder, or any other uniform prism
or 1*0(1 suspended at the top, it is at the distance of one-third

from the bottom, or two-thirds below the centre of motion.

The length of a pendulum, so measured to its centre of
osciiiation that it will perform each vibration in a second of
time, thence called the seconds pendulum, has, in the latitude
of London, been generally taken at 39vV or 39^ inches ;
but by some very ingenious and accurate experiments, the
late celebrated Mr. George Graham found the true length to
be 39Vo-oV inches, or 39^ inches very nearly.
Tlie length of the pendulum vibrating seconds at Paris
was found by^Varin, Des Hays, De Glos, and Godin, to be
440^ lines by Picard, 440J lines; and by Mairan, 440^^ lines.
;

As all woods and metals are more or less affected by changes

of temperature, many ingenious contrivances have been re-
sorted to, to counteract the effects of heat and cold, in length-
ening or shortening a pendulum-rod.
The first person who observed that, by change of tempera-
ture, metals changed their length, was Godfroi VVendelinus
and he who first endeavoured to take advantage of this know-
ledge, to counteract the effects of heat and cold upon a pen-
dulum, was Graham, who, in the year 1713, suggested that
a combination of rods or wires of different metals would have
a tendency to that effect ; but being of opinion that this would
not be quite adequate to the desired purpose, he did never,
we believe, put it in execution. Still continuing his observa-
tions, he, a short time afterwards, conceived that mercury,
from its great expansion by heat, was more adapted to the
end he was pursuing, and accordingly we find, that, by the
9th of June, 1722, he had constructed a clock which had a
pendulum upon this principle, and which he kept continually
going, without having either the pendulum or the hands
altered, for the space of three years and four months, during
which he found the errors of his were but about one-eighth
part of those of one of the best sort of common clocks, with
which he had compared it. This pendulum, which is called
the mercurial pemdiilum^ consists of a rod of brass, branched
towards the lower end, so as to embrace a cylindric glass jar
13 or 14 inches long, and about two inches diameter ; which,
being filled about 12 inches deep with mercury, forms the
weight or ball of the pendulum. In adjusting this pendulum,
if the expansion of the rod be too great for that of the mer-

cury, more mercury must be poured into the vessel ; but if

the expansion of the mercury exceed that of the rod, so as
to occasion the clock to go fast with heat, some of the mercury
52G THE OPERATIVE MECHANIC
must be taken out^ to shorten the column. This pendulum,
though troublesome to construct, because any filling in or
taking out of the mercury from the cylinder or glass jar, to
bring about the compensation, will cause a change of place
in the index-point on the graduated arch or index-plate, if
such a thing be used, is, notwithstanding some defect may
arise from the expansion of the mercury commencing sooner
than that of the rod, of much practical excellence. The mer-
curial pendulum has been much improved by Reid ; for an
account of which we must refer our readers to the article
Horology, written
by this gentleman, and inserted in the
Edinhurgh EncyclopcBdia,
Mr. Harrison, of whom we have already spoken under the
article Chronometers, some time previous to 1726, constructed
a pendulum in which the compensation was effected by the
opposite contraction of different metals. This pendulum,
called the gridiron-pendidum, from, we suppose, its bearing
a near resemblance to the culinary implement of that name,
was made of five steel and four brass rods, placed in alternate
order, the middle rod, by which the pendulum-ball is sus-
pended, being of steel. These rods are so connected with
each other at their ends, that while the expansion of the steel
rods has a tendency to lengthen the pendulum, the expansion
of the brass rods, acting upwards, tends to shorten it, so that
by the combined effect the pendulum is invariably preserved
of the same length. This is a very ingenious and simple
contrivance, and the only objections we have heard urged
against this mode of compensation are, 1st. the difficulty of
exactly adjusting the length of the rods ; 2dly. of propor-
tioning their thickness, so that they shall all begin to con-
tract or expand at the same instant ; 3dly. the connecting
bars of a pendulum thus constructed are apt to move by starts;
4thly. this kind of pendulum is more exposed to the air's
resistance than a simple pendulum.
Other modes of constructing pendulums on the principle of
the opposite contraction of metals have been contrived by
other ingenious artists, among whom we may notice Ellicott,
Cumming, Troughton, Reid, and Ward.
In Ellicotts pendulum the ball was adjustable by levers,
thence called the lever -pendulum^ which can never be equal
to those in which the expansion and contraction act by con-
tact in the direct line of the pendulum-rod ; the construction
nevertheless evinced great ingenuity. The rod of this pen-
dulum was composed of two bars, one of brass, and the other
of steel. It had two levers,. each sustaining its half of the
 AND MACHINIST. 527
ball or weight, with a spring under the lower part of the ball
to relieve the levers from a considerable part of its weight,
and so to render their motion more smooth and easy. These
levers were placed within the ball, and each had an adjusting
screw to lengthen or shorten the lever, so as to render the
adjustment the more perfect. See the Philos. Transact.
voL xlvii. p. 479 ; where Mr. Ellicotts methods of construc-
tion are described and illustrated by figures.
This pendulum was much improved by Gumming, who
conceived that where there were two bars only, a flexure and
unequal bearing w'ould take place, and consequently an exact
compensation could not be eftected. To remedy this, he
constructed a pendulum of one flat bar of brass, and two bars
of steel, and used three levers within the ball of the pendulum,
wEereas Mr. Ellicott used only two. Among many other
ingenious contrivances for the more accurate adjusting of this
pendulum to mean time, it is provided with a small ball and
screw below the principal ball or weight, one entire revolu-
tion of which on its screw will only alter the rate of the
clocks going one second per day ; and its circumference is
divided into 30, one of which divisions will therefore alter its
rate of going one second in a month.
Troughtons tubular-pendulum, which acts on the prin-
ciple of the gridiron-pendulum, is a very neat and ingenious
contrivance. It is constructed of an exterior tube of brass,
reaching from the bob nearly to the top, within which is
another tube, and five brass wires in its belly, so disposed as
to produce altogether, (like Harrisons gridiron-pendulum,)
three expansions of steel dowTiw'ards, and two of brass up-
wards, whose lengths being inversely proportioned to their
dilatation, when properly combined, destroy the whole effect
that either metal w^ould have singly. The small visible part
of the rod, near the top, is a brass tube, wEose use is to cover
the upper end of the middle wire, which is single, and other-
wise unsupported. Drawings of this pendulum may be seen
in Nicholson s Journal, No. 36, N.S.
Reids pendulum is composed of a zinc tube, and three long
and one short steel rods, connected by means of traverses.
Two of these long rods are inserted at one end in the ball of
the pendulum, and terminate at the other in the upper tra-
verse, which keeps them exactly parallel with respect to each
other. At the lower ends of these rods, not far above the
ball, is another traverse, in the middle of which the short
steel rod is pinned, descending thence through the centre of
the ball. Another traverse is placed a little above this, on
 52S HIK OPERATIVK MKCHANIC, &C.

the centre of which the zinc tube rests, extending upwards,

and pressing against, or rather pressed by the upper traverse.
The third or centre steel rod passes through a hole in the
upper traverse, equidistant from each of the other two steel
rods, thence down the zinc tube, and finally is pinned to the
second traverse, or that traverse on which the zinc tube rests.
By this means, the centre steel rod, when lengthened by heat,
will make the lower end of the zinc tube descend wdth it
but the same cause which lengthens the steel rod downwards
will expand the zinc tube upwards, and this will carry up the
two outside steel rods with which the ball of the pendulum is
connected ; their expansion downwards, as well as that of
the centre rod, is compensated by the upward expansion of
the zinc tube. In constructing a pendulum upon this prin-
ciple, it would be proper to have a few holes in the tube, for
the purpose of admitting air more freely to the centre rod.
Wards pendulum consists of two flat bars of steel, and one
of zinc, connected together by three screws. The description
which has been given of it in the Transactions of the Society
of Arts, &c. for the year 1807, the pamphlet which
Mr. Ward published at Blandford in 1808, contain sufficient
details to enable any common clock-maker to copy it.
Before we conclude this article, we shall briefly notice the
sympathy or mutual action of the pendulums of clocks.
It is now nearly a century since it was known that when
two clocks are set agoing on the same shelf, they will disturb
each other ; that the pendulum of the one will stop that of
the other ;
and that the pendulum which was stopped will,
after a while, resume its vibrations, and, in its turn, stop that
of the other clock, as was observed by the late Mr. John
Ellicott. When two clocks are placed near one another, in
cases very slightly fixed, or when they stand on the thin
boards of a floor, it has been long known that they will affect
a little the motions of each others pendulum. Mr. Ellicott
observed, that two clocks resting against the same rail, which
agreed to a second for several days, varied T 86'^ in twenty-
four hours when separated. The slower having a longer
pendulum, set the other in motion in 16 V minutes, and
stopped itself in 36-i- minutes.
 AND MACHINIST. 5S9

BUILDING.

Under this general term, which implies the construction

of an edifice according to the rules laid down by the differ-
ent artificers employed, we purpose to treat of the respect-
ive business of the Mason, Bricklayer, Carpenter, Joiner,
Plasterer, Plumber, Painter, and Glazier; previous to which
it will be necessary to consider the sinking of the foundation,
the due mixture of the ingredients which compose the
mortar, and the art of making bricks ; upon the whole of
which materially depends the stability of an edifice.
As firmness of foundation is indispensable, wherever
it is intended to erect a building, the earth must be pierced

by an iron bar, or struck with a rammer, and if found to

shake, must be bored with a well-sinkers implement, in
order to ascertain whether the shake be local or general.
If the soil is in general good, the loose and soft parts, if
not very deep, must be excavated until the labourers arrive
at a solid bed capable of sustaining the pier or piers to be
built. If not very loose, it maybe made good by ramming
into it very large stones, packed close together, and of a
breadth proportionate to the intended weight of the build-
ing ; but where very bad, it must be piled and planked.
In places where the soil is loose to any great depth, and
over which it is intended to place apertures, such as doors,
windows, &c. while the parts on which the piers are to
stand are firm, .the best plan is to turn an inverted arch un-
der each intended aperture, as then the piers in sinking will
carry with them the inverted arch, and by compressing the
ground compel it to act against the under sides of the arch,
which, if closely jointed, so far from yielding, will, with
the abutting piers, operate as one solid body ; but, on the
contrary, if this expedient of the inverted arch is not
adopted, the part of the wall under the aperture, being of
less height, and consequently of less weight than the piers,
will give way to the resistance of the soil acting on its base>
and not only injure the brick- work between the apertures^
but fracture the windcAV-heads andcills.
2m
530 THE OPERATIVE MECHANIC
In constructing so essential a part as the arch, great at-
tention must be paid to its curvature, and we strongly re-
commend the parabolic curve to be adopted, as the most
effectual for the purpose ; but if, in consequence of its
depth, this cannot conveniently be introduced, the arch
should never be made less than a semi-circle. The bed of
the piers should be as uniform as possible, for, though the
bottom of the trench be very firm, it will in some degree
yield to the great weight that is upon it, and if the soil be
softer in one part than in another, that part which is the
softest, of course will yield more to the pressure, and cause
a fracture.
If the solid parts of the trench happen to be under the in-
tended apertures, and the softer parts where piers are want-
ed, the reverse of the above practice must be resorted to ;
that is, the piers must be built on the firm parts, and have
an arch that is not inverted between them. In performing
this, attention must be paid to ascertain whether the pier
will cover the arch ; for if the middle of the pier rest over
the middle of the summit of the arch, the narrower the
pier is, the greater should be the curvature of the arch at
its apex. When suspended arches are used, the intrados
light to be kept clear of the ground, that the arch may
have its due effect.
When the ground
is in such a state as to require the foun-

dation merely to be rammed, the stones are hammer- dress-

ed, so as to be as little taper as possible, then laid of a
breadth proportioned to the iveight that is to be rested upon
them, and afterwards well rammed together. In general,
the lower bed of stones may be allowed to project about a
foot from the face of the wall on each side, and on this bed
another course may be laid to bring the bed of stones on a
level with the top of the trench. The breadth of this
upper bed of stones should be four inches less than the lower
one ; that is, projecting about eight inches on either side
of the wall. In all kinds of walling, each joint of every
course must fall as nearly as possible in the centre, be-
tween two joints of the course immediately below it ; for
in all the various methods of laying stones or bricks, the
principal aim is to procure the greatest lap on each other.

MORTAR.
In making mortar, particular attention must be paid
to the quality of the sand, and if it contain any propor-
 AND MACHINIST. 531

lion of clay or mud^ or is brought from the sea-shore and

contains saline particles, it must be washed in a stream
Df clear water till it be divested of its impurities. The
necessity of the first has been clearly proved by Mr. Smeaton,
ivho, in the course of a long and meritorious attention to
lis profession of an engineer, has found, that when mortar,
:hough otherwise of the best quality, is mixed with a small
3roportion of unburnt clay, it never acquires that hardness
vhich, without it, it would have attained 5 and, with respect
o the second, it is evident, that so long as the sand contains
ialine particles it cannot become hard and dry. The sharper
ind coarser the sand is the better for the mortar, and the less
be quantity of lime to be used; and sand being the
cheapest of the ingredients which compose the mortar,
tis more profitable to the maker. The exact proportions
)f lime and sand are still undetermined but in general no
;

nore lime is required than is just sufficient to surround

he particles of the sand, or sufficient to preserve the
lecessary degree of plasticity.
Mortar, in which sand forms the greater portion requires
ess water in its preparation, and consequently is sooner
let. Jt is also harder and less liable to shrink in drying,
lecause the lime, while drying, has a greater tendency to
brink than sand, which retains its original magnitude.
The general proportions given by the London builders is H
jwt., or 37 bushels, of lime to loads of sand ; but if
iroper measures be taken to procure the best burnt lime
ind the best sand, and in tempering the materials, a greater
portion of sand may be used. There is scarcely any
uortar that has the lime well calcined, and the com-
position well beaten, but that will be found to require
:wo parts of sand to one part of unslacked lime ; and it is
ivorthy of observation, that the more the mortar is beaten
be less proportion of lime suffices.
Many experiments have been made with a view to obtain
the most useful proportion of the ingredients, and among
the rest Dr. Higgins has given the following :

Lime newly slacked one part.

Fine sand three parts ; and
Coarse sand four parts.

He also found that one-fourth of the lime of bone-ashes

greatly improved the mortar, by giving it tenacity, and ren-
dering itless liable to crack in the drying.
It is best to slack the lime in small quantities as required
2 M2
 THE OPERATIVE MECHANIC
for 11 se^ about a bushel at a time, in order to secure to the

mortar such of its qualities as would evaporate were it

aUlowed to remain slacked for a length of time. But if the
mortar be slacked for any considerable time previous to
being used, it should be kept covered up, and when wanted
be re-beaten. If care be taken to secure it from the action
of the atmosphere, it may thus remain covered up for a
considerable period without its strength being in the least
affected ; and, indeed, some advantages are gained, for
it sets sooner, is less liable to crack in the drying, and is

harder when dry.

Grout, which is a cement containing a larger proportion
of water than the common mortar, is use'd to run into the
narrow interstices and irregular courses of rubble-stone
walls and as it is required to concrete in the course of a
;

day, composed of mortar that has been a long time

it is

made and thoroughly beaten.

Mortar, composed of pure lime, sand, and water,
may be employed in the linings of reservoirs and aque-
ducts, provided a sufficient time is allowed for it to dry
before the water is let in ; but if a sufficient time is not
allowed, and the water is admitted while the mortar is wet,
it will soon fall to pieces. There are, however, certain in-
gredients which may be put into the common mortar to
make it set immediately under the water; or, if the quick-
lime composing the mortar contain in itself a certain por-
tion of burnt clay, it will possess this property. For further
information on this head the reader is referred to the
s ui) -h ead Plastering,
BRICKS.

The earth best adapted for the manufacture of brick is of

a clayey loam, neither containing too much argillaceous mat
ter, which causes it to shrink in the drying, nor too much
sand, which has a tendency to render the ware both heai^
and brittle. It should be dug two or three years before it
is wrought, that it may, by an exposure to the action of the
atmosphere, lose the extraneous matter of which it is pos-
sessed when first drawn from its bed ; or, at least, should
be allowed to remain one winter, that the frost may mellow
and pulverize it sufficiently to facilitate the operation of
tempering. As the quality of the brick is greatly dependent
upon the tempering of the clay, great care should be taken
to have this part of the process well done. Formerly the
manner of performing it consisted in throwing the clay into
 AND MACHINIST. 633

shallow pits, and subjecting it to 'the tread of men and

oxen ; but this method has of late been superseded by the
clay or pug mill, which is a very eligible, though simple
machine.
The clay or pug mill consists of a large vertical cone,
having strong knives with a spiral arrangement and inclina-
tion fixed on its internal surface. Passing through the
centre, and terminating in a pivot at the bottom, is a strong
perpendicular shaft with similar radiating knives, so that
the knives by the revolution of the shaft, cut, separate, and
purify the clay, till it be reduced to a homogeneous paste,
which passes through an orifice at the bottom into a receiver
placed for that purpose. The clay is taken from the re-
ceiver to the moulders bench, and is, either by a lad or a
woman, cut into pieces somewhat larger than the mould,
and passed on to the moulder, who works it into a mould,
previously dipped in sand, and strikes off the superfluous
parts with a flat smooth piece of wood. In this country the
mould used is about ten inches in length, and five inches in
breadth, and the bricks when burnt are about nine inches
long, four and a half inches broad, and two and a half inches
thick. The degree of sh ringing, however, is various, ac-
cording to the temper and purity of the clay, and the de-
gree of heat attained in the burning. A handy moulder is
calculated to mould from about 5000 to 7000 per day. From
the moulders bench the bricks are carried to the hack, and
arranged somewhat diagonally, one above the other, and two
edgewise across, with a passage between the heads of each
for the admission of air, till they be eight bricks in height.
They are then left to dry. The time they take ere they re-
require shifting depends entirely upon the weather, which
when fine will be but a few days they are then turned and
;

re-set wider apart, and in six or eight days are ready for the
clamp or kiln.
Clamps are generally used in the vicinity of London.
They are made of the bricks to be burnt, and are commonly
of an oblong form. The foundation is made either with the
driest of the bricks just made, or with the coanmonest kind
of brick, called place bricks. The bricks to be burnt are
arranged tier upon tier as high as the clamp is intended to
be, and a stratum of breeze or cinders to the depth of two
or three inches is strewed between each layer of bricks, and
the whole is finally covered with a thick stratum of breeze.
At the west end of the clamp a perpendicular fire-place of
about three feet in height is constructed, and flues are formed
534 iHfi OPERATIVE MECHANIC

by arching the bricks over so as to leave a space of about

a brick in width. The flues run straight through the clamp,
and are filled with a mixture of coals, wood, and breeze,
which are pressed closely together. If the bricks are re-
quired to be burnt off quickly, which can be accomplished
in the space of from twenty to thirty days according to the
state of the weather, the flues must not exceed six feet dis-
tance apart ; but if there is no urgent demand, the flues
need not be nearer than nine feet, and the clamp may be
allowed to burn slowly.
Coke has been recommended as a more suitable fuel for
bricks than either coal or wood, as the dimensions of the
flues and the stratum of the fuel are not required to be so
great, which, since the measurement of the clamp has been
restricted to certain limits by the interference of the legis-
lature, is a point of some consideration ; besides, the heat
arising from the coke is more uniform and more intense than
what is produced by the other materials, so that the burn-
ing of the bricks is more likely to be perfect through-
out. The saving which is thus produced may be calculated
at about 32 per cent.
Kilns are also in common use, and are in many respects
preferable to the clamp, as less waste arises, less fuel is
consumed, and the bricks are sooner burnt. A kiln will
burn about 20,000 bricks at a time. The walls of a kiln are
about a brick and a half thick, and incline inwards towards
the top, so that the area of the upper part is not more than
114 square feet. The bricks are set on flat arches, with
holes left between them, resembling lattice-work ; and,
when the kiln is completed, are they covered with pieces of
broken bricks and tiles, and some wood is kindled and put
in to dry them gradually. When sufficiently dried, which
is known by the smoke changing from a dark to a light
transparent colour, the mouths of the kiln are stopped
with pieces of brick, called shmlog, piled one upon ano-
ther, and closed over with wet brick-earth. The shinlogs
are carried so high as just to leave room for one faggot to
be thrust into the kiln at a time, and when the brush-wood,
furze, heath, faggots, &c. are put in, the fire is kindled,
and the burning of the kiln commences. The fire is kept
up till the arches assume a white appearance, and the
flames appear through the top of the kiln ; upon which the
fire is allowed to slacken, and the kiln to cool by degrees.
This process of alternately heating and slacking the kiln is
continued till the bricks are thoroughly burnt, which, in
 AND MACHINIST. 535

general, is in the space of forty-eight hours. The practice

of steeping bricks in water after they have been burned,
and then. burning them again, has the effect of considerably
improving the quality.
Bricks are of several kinds, the most usual of which are
marls, stocks, and place bricks ; but there is little dif-
ference in the mode of manufacturing them, except that
great care is taken in preparing and tempering the marls.
The finest marls, called firsts, are selected /or the arches
of doorways, &c. and are rubbed to their proper form and
dimensions : and the next best, called seconds, for the
principal fronts. The colour, a light yellow, added to the
smooth texture, and superior durability of the marls, give
them the precedence of the other descriptions of brick.
Grey stocks are somewhat like the seconds, but of infe-
rior quality.
Place bricks, sometimes called pickings, sandal, or samel
bricks, are such as from being the outermost in the clamp
or kiln, have not been thoroughly burned, and are, in con-
sequence, soft, of uneven texture, and of a red colour.
There are also burrs or clinkers, arising from the bricks
being too violently burned, and sometimes several bricks are
found run together in the kiln. They derive their colour from
the nature of the soil of which they are composed, which,
in general, is very pure. The best kind are used as cutting
bricks, and are called red rubbers. In old buildings they
are very frequently to be seen ground to a fine smooth sur-
face, and set in putty instead of mortar, as ornaments over
arches, windows, door-ways, &c. ; but though there are
many beautiful specimens of red brick-work, yet these
bricks cannot be judiciously used for the front walls of build-
ings. This objection arises from the colour being too heavy,
and fi'om its conveying to the mind, in the summer months,
an unpleasant idea of heat ; to which may be added, that as
the fronts of the buildings have a greater or less proportion
af stone and painted wood-work, the contrast in the colours
is altogether injudicious. The colour of grey stocks,
on the contrary, assimilates so much with the stones and
paint, that they have obtained, in and near London, univer-
sal preference.
At the village of Hedgerley, near Windsor, red bricks
are made which will stand the greatest heat : they are called
Windsor bricks.
Bricks used for paving, are generally about an inch and a
half in breadth ; and, beside these, there are paving tiles.
636 THE OPERATIVE MECHANIC
which are made of a stronger clay, and are of a red colour.
The largest are about twelve inches square, and one inch
and a half thick the next, though called ten-inch tiles, are
:

about nine inches square, and one inch and a quarter thick.
About the year 1795, a patent was obtained by Mr. Cart-
wright, for an improved system of making bricks, of
which the following extract will furnish the reader with
allnecessary information.
Imagine a common brick, with a groove or rabate on each side down
the middle, rather more than half the width of the side of the brick ; a
shoulder will thus be left on either side of the groove, each of which will
be nearly equal to one quarter of the width of the side of the brick, or to
one half of the groove or rebate. A course of these bricks being laid
shoulder to shoulder, they will form an indented line of nearly equal
divisions, the grooves or rebates being somewhat wider than the ad-
joining shoulders, to allow for the mortar or cement. When the course
js laid on, the shoulders of the bricks, which compose it, will fall into
grooves of the first course, and the shoulders of the first course, will fit
into the grooves or rabates of the second, and so with every succeeding
course. Buildings constructed with this kind of brick, will require no
bond timbers, as an universal bond runs through the whole building, and
bolds all the parts together ; the walls of which will neither crack nor
bilge without breaking through themselves. When bricks of this con-
struction are used for arches, the sides of the grooves should form the
radii of the circle, of which the intended arch is a segment ; yet if the
circle be very large, the difference of the width at the top and bottom will
be so very trifling, as to render a minute attention to this scarcely if at all
necessary. In arch-work, the bricks may either belaid in mortar, or dry,
and the interstices afterwards filled up by pouring in lime, putty, plaster of
Paris, &c. Arches upon this principle, having any lateral pressure, can
neither expand at the foot, nor spring at the crown, consequently they
want no abutments, requiring only perpendicular walls to be let into, or
to rest upon ; neither will they want any superincumbent weight on the
crown to prevent their springing up. The centres also may be struck
immediately, so that the same centre, which never need be many feet
wide, may be regularly shifted as the work proceeds. But the most
striking advantage attending this invention is, the security it affords
against the ravages of fire ;
for, from the peculiar properties of this
kind of arch, requiring no abutments, it may be laid upon, or let into
common walls, no stronger than what is required for timbers so as to ad-
mit of brick floorings.
Having said thus much on the laying of the foundation,
the mixing of the mortar, and the manufacture of the
brick, we shall next proceed to treat on the principles of
the art of masonry, as practised in the present day.

MASONRY,
:Is the art of cutting stones, and building them into a
mass, so as to form the regular surfaces which are required-
^
in the construction of an edifice.
 AND MACHINIST. 537
The chief business of the mason is to prepare the stones,
make the mortar, raise the wall with the necessary breaks,
projections, arches, apertures, &c., and to construct the
vaults, &c. as indicated by the design.
Awall built of unhewn stone, whether it be built with
mortar or otherwise, is called a rubble ivalL Rubble work
is two kinds, coursed and uncoursed. In coursed rub-
of
ble the stones are gauged and dressed by the hammer,
and thrown into different heaps, each heap containing stones
of equal thickness and the masonry, which may be of dif-
;

ferent thicknesses, is laid in horizontal courses. In un-

coursed rubble the stones are placed promiscuously in the
wall, without any attention being paid to the placing them
in courses ; and the only preparation the stones undergo,
is that of knocking off the sharp angles with the thick
end of a tool called a scahling hammer. Walls are ge-
nerally built with an ashlar facing of fine stone, averaging
about four or five inches in thickness, and backed with rub-
ble work or brick.
Walls backed with brick or uncoursed rubble, are liable
to become convex on the outside, from the great number
of joints, and the difficulty of placing the mortar, 'which
shrinks in proportion to the quantity, in equal portions,
in each joint ; consequently, walls of this description are
much inferior to those where the facing and backing are
built of the same material, and with equal care, even though
both of the sides be uncoursed. When the outside of a
wall is faced with ashlar, and the inside is coursed rubble,
the courses of the backing should be as high as possible,
and set within beds of mortar. Coursed rubble and brick
backings are favourable for the insertion of bond timber ;
but, in good masonry, wooden bonds should never be in
continued lengths, as in case of either fire or rot the wood
will perish, and th6 masonry will, by being reduced, be
liable to bend at the place where the bond was inserted.
When timber is to be inserted into walls for the purposes
of fastening buttons for plastering, or skirting, &c., the
pieces of timber ought to be so disposed that the ends of
the pieces be in a line with the wall.
In a wall faced with ashlar, the stones are generally about
2 feet or 2^ feet in length, 12 inches in height, and 8 inches
in thickness. It is a very good plan to incline the back of
each stone, to make all the backs thus inclined run in the
same direction, which gives a small degree of lap in the
setting of the next course ; whereas, if the backs are paral
538 THE OPERATIVE MECHANIC
lei tothe front, there can be no lap where the stones run of
an equal depth in the thickness of the wall. It is also ad*
vantageous to the stability of the wall to select the stones, so
that a thicker and a thinner one may succeed each other
alternately. In each course of ashlar facing, either with
rubble masonry, or brick backing, thorough-stones should
occasionally be introduced, and their number be in pro-
portion to the length of the course. In every succeeding
course, the thorough stones should be placed in the middle
of every two thorough-stones in the course below ; and
this disposition of bonds should be punctually attended to
in all cases where the courses are of any great length.
Some masons, in order to prove that they have introduced
sufficient bonds into their work, choose thorough-stones of
a greater length than the thickness of the wall, and after-
wards cut off the ends ; but this is far from an eligible plan,
as the wall is not only subject to be shaken, but the stone is
itself apt to split. In every pier, between windows and
other apertures, every alternate jamb-stone ought to go
through the wall with its bed perfectly level. When the
jamb-stones are of one entire height, as is frequently the
case when architraves are wrought upon them, upon the
lintel crowning them, and upon the stones at the ends of
'

the courses of the pier which are adjacent to the architrave-

jamb, every alternate stone ought to be a thorough-stone:
and if the piers between the apertures be very narrow, no
other bond-stone is required ; but where the piers are wide,
the number of bond-stones are proportioned to the space.
Bond-stones must be particularly attended to in all long
courses below and above windows.
All vertical joints, after receding about an inch with a close
joint, should widen gradually to the back, thereby forming hol-
low spaces ofa wedge- like figure, for the reception of mortar,
rubble, &c. The adjoining stones should have their beds and
vertical joints filled, from the face to about three quarters
of an inch inwards, \vith oil and putty, and the rest of the
beds must be filled with well-tempered mortar. Putty ce-
ment will stand longer than most stones, and will even
remain, permanent when the stone itself is mutilated. All
walls cemented with oil-putty, at first look unsightly ; but
this disagreeable effect ceases in a year or less, when, if
care has been taken to make the colour of the putty suitable
to that of the stone, the joints will hardly be perceptible.
In selecting ashlar, the mason should take care that each
stone invariably lays on its natural bed; as from caeless-
 AND MACHINIST. 539
Dess in this particular^ the stones frequently flush at the
joints, and sooner admit the corrosive power of the atmos-
phere to take effect.
Itought also to be observed, that, in building walls, or
insulated pillars of small horizontal dimensions, every
stone should have its bed perfectly level, and be without
any concavity in the middle ; because, if the beds are con-
cave, the joints will most probably flush when the pillars
begin to sustain the weight of the building. Care should
also be taken, that every course of masonry in such piers
be of one stone.
Having thus given to the practical mason an outline
of the subject of walling, we will proceed to the con-
sideration of the more difficult branches of the art, that
of constructing arches and vaults.

DEFINITIONS.
An arch^ in masonry, is that part of a building which is
suspended over a given plane, supported only at its extre-
mities, and concave towards the plane.
The upper surface of an arch is called the extrados ; and
the under surface, or that which is opposite the plan, the
intrados.
The supports of an arch are called the spring tvalls.
The springing lines, are those common to the supports
and the intrados ; or the line which forms the intersection
of the arch with the surface of the wall which supports it.
The chord, or span, is a line extending from one springing
line to the opposite one.
Section of the hollow of the arch, is a vertical plane, sup-
posed to be contained by the span and the intrados.
The height, or rise of the arch, is a line drawn at right
angles from the middle of the chord, or spanning line, to
the intrados.
The crown of the arch is that part which the extremity of
the perpendicular touches.
The haunches, or flanks, of the arch, are those parts of
the curve between the crown and the springing line.
When the base of the section, or spanning line, is paral-
lel to the horizon, the section will consist of two equal and
similar parts, so that when one is applied to the other, they
willbe found to coincide.
Arches are variously named according to the figure of the
section of a solid that would fill the void, as tircular, ellip
540 THE OPERATIVE MECHANIC
tical, cycloidal^ catenarian, paraholical, &c. There are also
pointed, composite, and lancet, or Gothic arches.
A rampant arch is when the springing lines are of two
unequal heights.
When the intrados and extrados of an arch are parallel, it

is said to be extradossed.
There are, however, other terms much used by masons
for example, the semicircular are called perfect arches, and
those less than a semicircle, imperfect, surhused, or dimi-
nished arches.
Arches are also called surmounted, when they are higher
than a semicircle.
A vault is an arch used in the interior of a building,
overtopping an area of a given boundary, as a passage, or
an apartment, and supported by one or more walls, or pil-
lars, placed without the boundary of that area.
Hence an arch in a wall is seldom or never called a vault
and every vault may be called an arch, but every arch can-
not be termed a vault.
A groin vault, is a complex vault, formed by the intersec-
tion of two solids, whose surfaces coincide with the intra-
dos of the arches, and are not confined to the same heights.
Anarch is said to stand upon splayed jambs, when the
springing lines are not at right angles to the face of the wall.
In the art of constructing arches and vaults, it is neces-
sary to build them in a mould, until the whole is closed
the mould used for this purpose is called a centre. The in-
trados of a simple vault is generally formed of a portion of
a cylinder, cylindroid, sphere, or spheroid, that is, never
greater than the half of the solid and the springing lines
:

which terminate the walls, or when the vault begins to

rise, are generally straight lines, parallel to the axis of the
cylinder, or cylindroid.
A
circular wall is generally terminated wdth a spherical
vault, which is either hemispherical, or a portion of a
sphere than an hemisphere.
less
Every vault which has an horizontal straight axis, is call-
ed a straight vault and in addition to what we have already
said, the concavities which two solids form at an angle, re-
ceive likewise the name of arch.
An arch, when a cylinder pierces another of a greater dia-
tneter, is called cylindro-cylindric. The term cylindro is
applied to the cylinder of the greatest diameter, and the
term cylindric to the less.
JBUIjlbINO
n.78
From 55ito 554

y^cU iiStcdda 3c SizSsroTid

 AND MACHINIST. 541

If a cylinder intersect a sphere of greater diameter than

the cylinder, the arch is called a sphero- cylindric arch ; but
on the other hand, if a sphere pierce a cylinder of greater
diameter than the sphere, the arch is called a cylindro- sphe-
ric arch.
If a cylinder pierce a cone, so as to make a complete per-
foration through the eone, two complete arches will be
formed, called cmo- cylindric arches but, on the contrary,
if a cone pierce a cylinder, so that the concavity made by
the cone is a conic surface, the arch is called cylindro-conic
arch.
If, in a straight wall, there be a cylindric aperture con-

tinuing quite through it, two arches will be formed, called

piano- cylindric arches.
Every description of arch is, in a similar manner to
the above, denoted by the two preceding words ; the
fcrmer ending in o, signifying the principal vault, or sur-
face cut through ; and the latter in ic, signifying the de-
scription of the aperture which pierces or intersects the wall
or vault. .

When groins are introduced merely for use, they may be

built either of brick or stone; but, when introduced byway
of proportion or decoration, their beauty will depend on the
generating figures of the sides, the regularity of the sur-
face, and the acuteness of the angles, which should not be
obturided. In the best buildings, when durability and
elegance are equally required, they may be constructed of
wrought stone ; and, when elegance is wanted, at a trifling
expense, of plaster, supported by timber ribs.
In stone-cutting, a narrow surface formed by a point or
chisel, on the surface of a stone, so as to coincide with a
straight edge, is called a draught.

The formation of stone arches has always been considered

a most useful and important acquisition to the operative
mason ; in order, therefore, to remove any difficulties
which might arise in the construction of arches of different
descriptions, both in straight ana circular walls, we shall here
introduce a few examples, which, it is hoped, with careful
examination, will greatly facilitate a knowledge of some of
the most abstruse parts of the art.

Fig^. ,551, No. 1. To find the moulds necessary for the construction of
a semicircular arch, cutting- a straight wall obliquely.
 542 THE OPERATIVE MECHANIC
Let ABCDEFGH be tite plan of the arch ; IKLM the outer line;
and NOPQ the inner line on the elevation.
abode, on the elevation, shows the bevel of each joint or bed from the
face of the wall and abed e below, gives the mould for the same, where
;

xy on the elevation corresponds with x y ?tia.

The arch mould, fig. 551, No. 2, is applied on the face of the stone,
and on being applied to the parts of the plan, gives, of course, the beve
of each concave side of the stone with the face, that is K to O, on the ele-
vation.
Fig. 552. To find the mould for constructing a semicircular arch in a
circular wall.
No. 1 is the elevation of the arch; and No. 2 the plan of the bottom
bed from q to r.
to 5 is what the arch gains on the circle from the bottom bed ko tol;
and cto d is the projection of the intrados to p, on the joint 1. p.
Nos. 2, 3, 4, are plans of the three arch-stones, 1, 2, 3, in the eleva-
tion ; and Nos. 5 and 6 are moulds to be applied to the beds of stones
1 and 2, in which s c equals s c in No. 2, and t w equals tw in No. 3.
In No. I, kip 0 is the arch or face mould.

When the reader is thoroughly proficient in the construc-

tion of arches, under given datas, as the circumstances of
the case may point out, he may proceed to investigate the
principles of spherical domes and groins.

Figs. 553 and 554 show the principles of developing the soffits of the
arches in the two preceding examples. In each the letters of reference
are alike, and the operation is precisely the same.
LetABDE be the plan of the opening in the wall ; and AFB the
elevation of the arch: produce the chord AB to C, divide the semicircle
AFB into any number of parts, the more the better, and with the com-
passes set to any one of these divisions, run it as many times along AC
as the semicircle is divided into ; then draw lines, perpendicular to BC,
through every division in the semicircle and the line CA, and set the dis-
tance lb, 2 d, 3 f, &c. respectively equal to ab, c d, ef, &c.and then by
tracing a curve through these points, and finding the points in the line
GD, in the same manner, the soffit of the arch is complete.
Fig. 555, shows the method of constructing spherical domes.
No. 1 mould is applied on the spherical surface to the vertical joints ;
and No. 2 mould on the same surface to the other joints; and in both
cases, the mould tends to the centre of the dome.
3, 4, 5, 6, 7, and 8, are moulds which apply on the convex surface to
the horizontal joint, the lines ab, c d, ef, &c. being at right angles to
the different radii, b c, dc,fc, &c. and produced until they intersect
the perpendicular a c ; the different intersections are the centres which
give the circular leg of the mould, and the straight part gives the hori-
zontal joint.
Fig. 55G exhibits the plan of a groined vault.
Lay down the arch, either at the full or half size, on a floor or piece of
floor-cloth, then divide and draw on the plan the number of joints in the
semicircular arch, and from the intersections with the diagonals, draw the
transverse joints on the plan, and produce them till they touch the in-
triidoes of the elliptical arch, the curve of which may be found by setting
the corresponding distances from the line of the base to the curve ; thus
a b equal to a b. This being accomplished, draw the joints of the ellipti-
BlTIOLBIING f

From 556 to 551 FI. 79

556

hTa4U &.Stcddev scdbzStrVLZ

 !

I
 AND MACHINIST. 543
cal arch in the manner ot which we give e t/,as a specimen. To draw the
joint c d, draw the chord e c and bisect it, draw a line from the centre c,
through the bisecting point, and produce it till it touches the perpendicu-
lar e f; and c d, being at right angles to e f, will be the joint required. In
the same manner the others are found.
By examination, it will be seen, that a rectangle circumscribing the
mould 3, 3, gives the size of the stone in its square state, and, that if each
stone in both arches be thus enclosed, the dimensions for each will be
found, as also the position in which the moulds must be placed. The
dark lines give the different bevels which must be carefully prepared and
applied to the stones in the manner represented in the figure.
Fig. 557. To draw the joints of the stones for an elliptical arch in a
wall, &c.
The curve is here described by the intersection of lines, which, cer-
tainly, gives the most easy and pleasing curve, as segments of circles
apply only under certain data* or in the proportion which the axis major
has to the axis minor, while the intersection of lines apply to any descrip-
tion of ellipsis. Find the foci F. In an ellipsis the distance of either
focus from one extremity of the axis minor is equal to the semi-axis ma-
jor ; that is, DF is equal to c C. Then to find any joint, a b, draw lines
from both foci through the point 6, as F e, d, and bisect the angle db e
by the line a 6, which is the joint required.
Having thus given a general outline of the principles of
masonry, and accompanied the same with a few examples
on the most abstruse parts of the art, we shall conclude
this part of our treatise with the methods employed in the
mensuration of masons" work.
Rough stone or marble is measured by the foot cube but :

in measuring for workmanship, the superficies or surface,

for plain work, is measured before it is sunk. In measuring
ashlar, one bed and one upright joint are taken and con-
sidered plain work. In taking the plain sunk, or cir-
cular work, and the straight moulded, or circular moulded
work, particular care is required to distinguish the different
kinds of work in the progress of preparing the stone. In
measuring strings, the weathering is denominated sunk
work^ and the grooving throatings.
Stone cills to windows, &c. are, in general, about 4|
inches thick and 8 inches broad, and are weathered at the
top, which reduces the front edge to about 4 inches, and the
horizontal surface at the top to about I J inch on the inside ;
so that the part taken away is 6 inches broad and three
quarters of an inch deep. Cills, when placed in the wall,
generally project about inches. The horizontal part left
on the inside of the cill is denominated plain work; and
the sloping part sunk work and in the dimension book
are entered thus,
644 THE OPERATIVE MECHANIC

U
4
Si

8 inches the breadth of the plain work in the dll

according- to the above dimensions, then
8 2 8 Plain work.

4
H 2 2 Sunk work.

2 s
4 6 Plain to ends

4 0 of throating-.
No account is taken of the sawing.

Cornices are measured by girthing round the moulded

parts, that is, the whole of the vertical and under parts,
called moulded work
for example, suppose a cornice pro-
:

ject one foot, girth two feet, and is 40 feet in length, then
the dimensions will be entered as under,

40
2 80 Moulded work.

40
1 40 Sunk work at top.

All the vertical joints must be added to the above.

Cylindrical work is measured in the girth ; and the sur-

face is calculated to be equivalent to plain work twice
taken.
For example, suppose it be required to measure the plain
work or a cylinder, 10 feet long, and 5 feet in circumference,
the dimensions would then be entered

^5 Sup', plain work, double measure.

0
Paving-slabs and chimney-pieces are found by superficia.
measure, as also are stones under two inches thick.
The manner in which the dimensions of a house are
taken, vary according to the place and the nature of the
agreement.
In Scotland, and most parts of England, if the builder
engages only for workmanship, the dimensions are taken
round the outside of the house for the length, and the
height is taken for the width, and the two multiplied
 AND MACHINIST. bio
together gives the superficial contents. This, however,
applies only when the wall is of the same thickness all the'
way up ;
and when not, as many separate heights are taken
as there are thicknesses. This mode of measuring gives
something more than the truth, by the addition of the four
quoins, which are pillars of two feet square ; but this is not
more than considered sufficient to compensate the workmen
for the extra labour in plumbing the quoins.
If there be a plinth, string, course-cornice, or blocking
course, the height is taken from the bottom of the plinth
to the top of the blocking course, including the thickness of
the same ; that is, the measurer takes a line or tape and be
gins, we will suppose, at the plinth, then stretching the line
to the top, bends it into the offset, or weathering, and,
keeping the corner tight at the internal angle, stretches the
line vertically upon the face of the wall, from the internal
angle to the internal angle of the string ; then girths round
the string to the internal angle at the top of the string, and
keeping the line tight at the upper internal angle, stretches
it to meet the cornice ; he then bends it round all the
mouldings to the internal angle of the blocking course,
from which he stretches the string up to the blocking course,
to the farther extremity of the breadth of the top of the
same so that the extent of the line is the same as the
vertical section stretched out this dimension is accounted
:

the height of the building.

With respect to the length, when there arc any pilasters,
breaks, or recesses, the girth of the whole is taken at the
length. This method is, perhaps, the most absurd of any
admitted in the art of measuring ; since this addition in
height and length, is not sufficient to compensate for the
value of the workmanship on the ornamental parts.
The value of a rood of workmanship must be first ob-
tained by estimation, that is, by finding the cost of each
kind of work, such as plinth, strings, cornices, and archi-
traves, &c. and adding to them the plain ashlar work, and
the value of the materials, the amount of which, divided
by the number of roods contained in the w^hole, give the
mean price of a single rood. When the apertures or open-
ings in a building are small, it is not customary to make
deductions either for the materials or workmanship which
are there deficient, as the trouble of plumbing and return-
ing the quoins, is considered equivalent tor the deficiency of
fliaterials occasioned by such aperture.
546 THE OPERATIVE MECHANIC
Elsams Gentleman's and Builders Assistant^ gives the
following information on the practice of measuring rough
stone work.
To find the number of perches contained in a piece of
rough stone-work.
If the wall be at the standard thickness, that is, 12 inches high, IS
inches thick, and 21 feet long, divide the area by 21, and the quotient, if
any, will be the answer in perches, and the remainder, if any, is feet.
If the wall be more or less than 18 inches thick, multiply the area of the
wall by the number of inches in thickness, which product, divided by 18,
and that quotient by 21, will give the perches contained.
Exam^Ae, A piece of stone-work is 40 feet long, 20 feet high, and 24

inches thick, how many perches are contained in it?

40 length.
20 height.

800
24

3200
1600
21 ) P. P. In.
18) 19200 (1066 ( 50 16 8
18 105

120 16
108

120
108

12 equal to 8 inches.

The method last described, of finding the value of masons

work, is usually adopted, the perch being the standard of
the country ; but the most expeditious way of ascertaining
the value, is to cube the contents of the wall, and to charge
the work at per foot. To ascertain the value of common
stone- work, a calculation should be made of the prime cost
of all the component parts, consisting of the stones in the
quarry, the expense of quarrying, land-carriage to the place
where it is to be used, with the extra trouble and consequent
expense in carrying the stone one, two, three, or more
stories higher. Also the price of the lime when delivered, to-
gether with the extra expense of wages to workmen, if in the
<ountry ; all these circumstances must be taken into consi-
deration in finding the value of a perch of common stone-
work, the expense of which will be found to vary according to
 AND MACHINIST. 547
local circumstances, in degrees scarcely credible ; wherefore
a definite price cannot, with propriety, be fixed.

BRICKLAYING
In building upon an inclined plane, or rising ground, the
foundation must be made to rise in a series of level steps,
according to the general line of the ground, to insure a firm
bed for the courses, and prevent them from sliding ; for if
this mode be not adopted, the moisture in the foundations in
wet weather, will induce the inclined parts to descend, tc
the manifest danger of fracturing the walls and destroying
the building.
In walling, in dry weather, when the work is required to
be firm, the best mortar must be used ; and the bricks must
be wetted, or dipped in water, as they are laid, to cause
them to adhere to the mortar, which they would not do if
laid dry ; for the dry sandy nature of the brick absorbs the
moisture of the mortar and prevents adhesion.
In carrying up the wall, not more than four or five feet of
any part should be built at a time ; for, as all walls shrink im-
mediately after building, the part which is first carried up will
settle before the adjacent part is carried up to it, and, con-
sequently, the shrinking of the latter will cause the two
parts to separate ; therefore, no part of a wall should be
carried higher than one scaffold, without having its contin-
gent parts added to it. In carrying up any particular part,
the ends should be regularly sloped off, to receive the bond
of the adjoining parts on the right and left.
There are two descriptions of bonds ; English bond, and
Flemish bond. In the English bond, a row of bricks is laid
lengthwise on the length of the wall, and is crossed by ano-
ther row, which has its length in the breadth of the Avail,
and so on alternately. Those courses in which the lengths
of the bricks are disposed through the length of the wall,
are termed stretching courses, and the bricks stretchers : and
those courses in which the bricks run in the thickness of
the lengths of the walls, heading courses, and the bricks
headers.
ITie other description of bond, called Flemish bond, con-
sists in placing a header and a stretcher alternately in the
same course. The latter is deemed the neatest, and most
elegant ; but, in the execution is attended with great incon-
venience, and, in most cases, does not unite the parts of a
548 THE OPERATIVE MECHANIC
wall with tne same degree of firmness as the English bond.
In general, it may be observed, that, whatever advantages
are gained by the English bond in tying a wall together in
its thickness, they are lost in the longitudinal bond ; and
vice-versa. To remove this inconvenience, in thick walls,
some builders place the bricks in the cone at an angle of
forty-five degrees, parallel to each other, throughout the
length of every course, but reversed in the alternate
courses ; so that the bricks cross each other at right an-
gles. But even here, though the bricks in the cone have
sufficient bond, the sides are very imperfectly tied, on ac-
count of the triangular interstices formed by the oblique
direction of the internal bricks against the flat edges of those
in the outside.
Concerning the English bond, it may be observed, that,
as the longitudinal extent of a brick is nine inches, and its
breadth four and a half, to prevent two vertical joints from
running over each other at the end of the first stretcher
from the corner, it is usual, after placing the return corner
stretcher, which occupies half of the length of this stretcher,
and becomes a header in the face, as the stretcher is bj-
low, to place a quarter brick on the side, so that the two
together extend six inches and three-quarters, being a lap
of two inches and a half for the next header. The bat thus
introduced is called a closer. A similar effect may be ob-
tained by introducing a three-quarter bat at the corner of
the stretching course, so that the corner header being laid
over it, a lap of two inches and a quarter will be left, at
the end of the stretchers below, for the next header, which
being laid on the joint below the stretchers, will coincide
with its middle.
In the winter, it is very essential to keep the unfinished
wall from the alternate effects of rain and frost for if it is
exposed, the rain will penetrate into the bricks and mortar,
and, by being converted into ice, expand, and burst or
crumble the materials in which it is contained.
The decay of buildings, so commonly attributed to the
effects of time, is, in fact, attributable to this source ; but
as finished edifices have only a vertical surface, the action
and counter-action of the rain and frost extend not so ra-
pidly as in an unfinished wall, where the horizontal sur-
face permits the rain and frost to have easy access into the
body of the work. Great care, therefore, must be taken as
soon as the frost or stormy weather sets in, to cover the iwi-
 AND MACHINIST. 549

finished walls, either with straw, which is the most com-

mon, or weather boarding.
When weather boarding is employed, it is advisable to
have a good layer of straw between the work and the board-
ing, and to place the boarding in the form of stone-coping,
to throw the water off equally on both sides.
A number of very pleasing cornices and other ornaments
may be formed in brick-work, by the mere disposition of
the bricks, Avithout cutting ; and if cut, a simple chainpher
will be sufficient. A great defect, however, is very often
observable in these ornaments, particularly in the bulging
of arches over windows ; which arises from mere careless-
ness, in rubbing the bricks too much on the inside ; where-
as, if due care Avere taken to rub them exact to the gauge,
their geometrical bearings being united, they Avould all tend
to one centre, and produce a Avell- proportioned and pleasing
effect.
In steining Avells, it is necessary first to make a centre,
consisting of a boarding of inch or inch and a half stuff,
ledged within with three circular rings, upon which the bricks,
all headers, are laid. The vacuity betAveen the bricks towards
the boarding, are to be filled in with tile or other pieces of
brick. As the w^ell-sinker proceeds to excavate the ground,
the centre with its load of bricks sinks, and another similarly
charged is laid upon it, and another upon that, and so on till
the wall is complete, the centreing remaining with the
brick- work. This plan is generally adopted in London, at
least where the soil is sandy and loose ; where it is firm,
centreings are not requisite. In the country, among many
other methods, the following is most approved :
rings
of timber, without the exterior boarding, are used ; upon the
first ring, four or five feet of bricks are laid, then a second
ring, and so on. But the mode before described is by far
the most preferable ; as in the latter the sides of the brick-
work are apt to bulge in sinking, particularly if great care be
not taken in filling and ramming the sides uniformly, so as
to keep the pressure regular and equal. In steining wells
and building cesspools, a rod of brick-work will require at
least4760 bricks.
As the construction of AA^alls, arches, groins, &c. in
brick-work, approximates so nearly to that of stone-Avork, i

and as the same observations generally apply, further infor-

mation would, perhaps, be considered superfluous ; we
shall, therefore, conclude this article with some practical
observations on the measuring of brick-AVork.
550 THE OPERATIVE MECHANIC
Brick-work is measured and valued by the rod. The con-
tents of a rod of brick-work is 16^ feet simarc ; consequent-
ly, the superficial rod contains 2/2*25, or 272J square
feet; but as the quarter has been found troublesome in cal-
culation, 2/2 superficial feet has been admitted as the
standard.
The standard thickness of a brick wall is brick laid
lengthwise ; therefore, if 272 square feet be multiplied by
13 inches, the result will be 306 cubic feet, or a rod.
A rod of standard brick-work, making the necessary allovr-
ance for mortar and waste, will require 4500 bricks ; but
this quantity is of course ruled by the size of the brick, and
the closeness of the joints.
A foot of reduced brick-work requires 17 bricks ; a foot
superficial of marl facing, laid in Flemish bond, 8 bricks ;
and a foot superficial of gauged arches, 10 bricks. In paving,
a yard will require 82 jiaving bricks, or 48 stock bricks, or
38 bricks laid flat.
A square of tiling contains 100 superficial feet ; and re-
quires of plain tiles, 800 at -a six-inch gauge, 700 at a seven-
inch gauge, or 600 at an eight- inch gauge.
The distances between the respective laths must depend
on the pitch of the roof ; and one roof may require a 6,
7, and 8 inch gauge. For instance, akirt roof will require,
in the kirt part, a 74 or 8 inch gauge, and in the upper part
6, 64, or 7 inch, the gauge decreasing in the ratio of the
angle of elevation.
A square of plain tiling will require a bundle of laths,
more or less, according to the pitch; with two bushels of
lime, one bushel of sand, and a peck of tile- pins.
Laths are sold by the thousand, or bundle ; and each
bundle is supposed to contain 100 laths, though the exact
number depends on the length ; the 3 feet containing 5
score, the 4 feet 4 score, the 5 feet 3 score, and so on in
proportion.
A square of pan -tiling requires 180 tiles, laid at a ten-
inch gauge ; and one bundle, containing 12 laths, ten feet
long.
In lime measure, 25 struck bushels, or 100 pecks, make a
hundred of lime ; 8 gallons, a bushel dry measure ; and 268
cubic inches, one gallon.
In measuring sand, 24 heaped, or 30 struck bushels make
one load ; and 24 cubic feet weighs one ton.
A load of mortar, which ought to contain half a hundred ot
lime, with a proportionate quantity of sand, is 27 cubic feet.
 AND MACHINIST. 551

Excavations of the earth are measured by the number ot

cubic yards which they contain, therefore, to find the number
of cubic yards in a trench, find the solidity of the trench in
cubic feet, and divide it by 27 , the number of cubic feet in
a yard, and the quotient, is the number of cubic yards, and
the remainder the number of cubic feet.
For example, the length of a trench is 60 feet, the depth 3 feet, and
the breadth2 feet.
60
3

180
2
yds, ft.
27 ) 360 ( 13 9 the answer.
27

90
81

In the horizontal dimensions, if the trench be wider at the

top than it is at the bottom, and equal at the ends, take
half the sum of the two dimensions for a mean breadth ;
and if the breadth of one end of the trench exceed that of
the other, so as to have two mean breadths, differing from
each other, take half the sum of the two added together, as
a mean breadth of the whole.'
In measuring the footing of a wall, multiply the length
and the height of the courses together ; then multiply
the product by the number of half bricks in the mean
breadth, divide the last product by 3, and the quotient is
the answer in reduced feet. Instead of measuring the
height of the footing, it is customary to allow three inches
to each course in height, or multiply the number of courses
by 3, which gives the height in inches.
To find the contents in rods of a piece of brick work.
Case 1. If the wall be of the standard thickness, divide the area of tlie
wall by 272, and the quotient is the number of rods, and the remainder
the number of feet ; but if the wall be either more or less than a brick
and a half in thickness, multiply the area of the 'wall by the number of
half bricks, that is, the number of half lengths of a brick ; divide the
product by 3, Avhich will reduce the wall to the standard thickness of 1^
brick, then divide the quotient by 272, and it vvill give the number of rods,
Case II. Divide the number of cubic feet contained in the wall by 303 ;
the quotient will give the number of rods, and the remainder the number
of cubic feet.
Case III. Multiply the numter of cubic feet in a wall by 8 ; divide the
552 THE OPERATIVE MECHANIC
product by 9 ; and the quotientwill give the area of the wall at the
standard divide this standard area by 272, and the quotient will give
:

the number of rods ; the remainder the reduced feet.

Example. The length of a wall is 0 feet, the height 20 feet, and the
thickness equal to the length of three bricks ; it is therefore required
to know how many rods of brick-work is contained in the said wall ?
Bv Case I. 60
20

1200
6

3 ) 7200

272 ) 2400 ( 8 rods 224 feet the answer.

2176

224

Case il 60
20

1200
2.3 thickness of wall

2100
300

303 ) 2700 ( 8 rods 252 feet the answer,

2448

252

Case III. 60
20

1200
2.3

2400
300

2700
8

9 ) 21600

272 ) 2400 ( 8 rods 224 feet, as in Case I

2176
 AND MACHINIST. 553
In the calculation of brick-work, where there are several
walls of different thicknesses, it will be quite unnecessary
to use the divisors 3 and 272, as will be hereafter shown.
In taking dimensions for workmanship, it is usual to
allow the length of each wall on the external side, to com-
pensate for plumbing the angles ; but this practice must not
be resorted to for labour and materials, as it gives too much
quantity in the height of the building or story by two pil-
lars of brick ; and in the horizontal dimensions by the
thickness of the walls.
In measuring walls, faced with bricks of a superior qua-
lity, most surveyors measure the whole as common work,
and allow an additional price per rod for the facing, as the
superior excellence of the work, and quality of the bricks
may deserve.
Every recess or aperture made in any of the faces must
be deducted ; but an allowance per foot lineal should be
made upon every right angle, whether external or internal,
excepting when two external angles may be formed by a
brick in breadth, and then only one of them must be al-
lowed .

Gauged arches are sometimes deducted and charged se-

parate ; but as the extra price must be allowed in the for-
mer case, it will amount to the same thing.
In measuring walls containing chimneys, it is not custom-
ary to deduct the flues ; but this practice, so far as re-
gards the materials, is unjust, though, perhaps, by taking
the labour and materials together, the overcharge, with
respect to the quantity of bricks and mortar, may, in some
degree, compensate for the loss of time : on the other hand,
if the proprietor finds the materials, it is not customary to

allow for the trouble of forming the flues, which, conse-

quently, is a loss to the contractor who has engaged by
task-work or measure.
If the breast of a chimney project from the face of the
wall, and is parallel to it, the best method is, to take the
horizontal and vertical dimensions of the face, multiply them
together, and multiply the product by the thickness, taken
in the thinnest part, without noticing the breast of the
chimney; then find the solidity of the breast itself, add
these solidities together, and the sum will give the solidity of
the wall, including the vacuities, which must be deducted
for the real solidity. Nothing more is necessary to be said
of the shaft, than to take its dimensions in height, breadth,
and thickness, in order to ascertain its solidity.
554 THE OPERATIVE MECHANIC
If a chimney be placed at an angle, with the face of tne,
breast intersecting the two sides of the wall, the breast of
the chimney must be considered a triangular prism. To
take the dimensions :
-from the intersections of the front of
the breast into the two adjacent walls, draw two lines on
the floor, parallel to each adjacent wall ; then the triangle
on the floor, included between the front and these lines, will
be equal to the triangle on which the chimney stands, and,
consequently, equal to the area of the base. To attain the
area of the triangular base, the dimensions may be taken in
three various ways, almost equally easy ; one of which is,
to take the extent of the base, which is the horizontal di-
mension of the breast, and multiply it by half of the per-
pendicular ; or multiply the whole perpendicular by half
the base : but, as this calculation would, in cases of odd
numbers, run somewhat long, a more preferable method is,
to multiply the whole base by the whole perpendicular, and
take half of the product, which will give the area on which
the chimney stands ; and which, multiplied by the height,
gives the solid contents of the chimney. From this contents
is to be deducted the vacuity for the fire-place.
A row of plain tiles, laid edge to edge, with their broad
surfaces parallel to the termination of a wall, so as to pro-
ject over the wall at right angles to the vertical surface, is
called single plam tile creasing and two rows, laid one
above the other, the one row breaking the joints of the
other, arc called double plain tile creasing.
Over the plain tile creasing a row of bricks is placed
on edge, with their length in the thickness of the wall, and
are called a barge course^ or cope.
The bricks in gables, which terminate with plain tile
creasing coped with bricks, in order to form the sloping bed
for the ])lain tile creasing, must be cut, and the sloping of
the bricks thus, is called cut splay.
Plaiii tile creasing and cut splay are charged by the foot
run ; and the latter is sometimes charged by the superficial
foot.
A brick wall built in pannels between timber quarters is
called brick 7iogging ; and is generally measured by the yard
s(piarc, the quarters and nogging pieces being included in
the measure.
Pointing is the filling up the joints of the bricks after the
walls arc'built. It consists in raking out some of the mor-
tar from the joints, and filling them again with blue mor-
tar, and in one kind of pointing, the courses are simnlv
 AND MACHINIST. 655
marked with the end of a trowel, called flat-joint pointing ;
but if, in addition to flat -joint pointing, plaster be inserted
in the joint with a regular projection, and neatly paved to
a parallel breadth, it is termed hick pointing, or hick-joint
pointing, or formerly, hick, and patt. Pointing is measured
by the foot superficial, including in the price, mortar, labour,
and scaffolding.
Rubbed and gauged work is set in putty or mortar ; and
ismeasured either by the foot superficial, or the foot run,
according to the manner in which it is constructed.
In measuring canted bow windows, the sides are con-
sidered as continued straight lines ; but the angles on the
exterior side of the building, whether they be external or
internal, are allowed for in addition, and paid for under the
denomination of run of birds mouth. All angles within the
building, if oblique, from whatever cause they are made,
either by straight or circular bows, or the splays of windows,
are allowed for, under the head Oi run of cut splay.
Brick cornices are measured by the leiical foot ; but as
various kinds of cornices require more or less difficulty in
the execution, the price must depend on the labour and the
value of the material used.
Garden walls are measured the same as other walls, but if
interrupted by piers, the thin part may be measured as in
common walling, and the piers by themselves, making an
allowance, at per foot run, for the right angles The coping
is measured by itself, according to the kind employed.

Paving is laid either with bricks, or tiles, and is measured

by the yard square. The price, per yard, is regulated by the
manner in which the bricks or tiles are laid, whether flat or
edge-ways, or whether any of them be laid in sand or mortar.
The circular parts of drains may be reduced either to the
standard, or the cubic foot ; and the number of rods may, if
required, be taken. The mean dimensions of the arch
may be found, by taking the half sum of the exterior and in-
terior circumferences ; but, perhaps, it were better to make
the price of the common measure, whether it be a foot,
yard, or rod, greater as the diameter is less ; but as the re-
ciprocal ratio would increase the price too much in small
diameters, perhaps prices at certain diameters would be a
sufficient regulation.
The following tables will be found an acquisition to <hose
persons to whom a saving of time is an object:
556 THE OPERATIVE MECHANIC

TABLE I.

This Table shews what quantity of bricks are necessary to construct a

piece of brick-work of any given dimensions, from half a brick to two
bricks and a half in thickness ; and by which the number for any tliick-
ness may be found.
This Table is at the rate of 4500 bricks to the rod of reduced brick-
work, including waste.

Area of The number of bricks thick and the quantity required.

the face
of wall. J brick. 1 brick. li brick. 2 bricks. 2J bricks.

1 5 1 1 16 22 27
2 11 22 33 44 55
3 16 33 49 66 82
4 22 44 66 88 no
5 27 55 82 no 137
6 S3 66 99 132 165
7 38 77 115 154 193
8 44 88 132 176 220
9 49 99 148 198 288
10 55 no 165 220 275
20 1 10 220 330 441 551
SO 165 330 496 661 827
40 220 441 661 882 1102
50 275 551 827 1102 1378
60 330 661 992 1323 1655
70 386 772 1158 1544 1930
80 441 882 1323 1764 2205
90 496 992 1488 1985 2480
100 551 1102 1654 2205 2757
200 1102 2205 3308 4411 5514
300 1654 3308 4963 6617 8272
400 2205 4411 6617 8823 n,029
500 2757 5514 8272 11,029 13,786
600 3308 6617 9926 13,235 16,544
700 3860 7720 11,580 15,441 19,301
800 4411 8823 13,235 17,647 22,058
900 4963 9926 14,889 19,852 24,816
1000 5514 11,029 16,544 22,058 27,573
2000 11,029 22,058 33,088 44,117 55,147
3000 16,544 33,088 49,632 66,176 82,720
4000 22,058 44,117 66,176 88,235 110,294
5000 27,573 55,147 82,720 110,294 137,867
6000 33,088 66,176 99,264 132,352 165,441
7000 38,602 77,205 1 15,808 154,411 193,014
8000 44,117 88,235 132,352 176,470 220,588
9000 49,632 99,264 148,896 198,529 248,161
10,000 55,147 110,294 165,441 220,588 275.735
20,000 110,294 220.588 330,882 441,176 551,470
10,000 165,441 330,882 496,323 661,764 827,205
40,000 220,588 441,176 661,764 882,352 1,102,940
50,000 275,735 551,470 827,205 1,102,940 1,378,675
60,000 330,882 661,764 992,646 1,323,528 1,654,410
70,000 386,029 772,058 1,158,087 1,544,116 1,930,145
80,000 441,176 882,352 1,323,528 1,764,704 2,205,880
90,000 496,323 992,646 1,488,969 1,985,292 2,481,615
 AND Machinist, 557
The left-hand column contains the number of superficial
feetcontained in the wall to be built the adjacent columns :

shew the number of bricks required to build a wall of the

different thicknesses of ^
1,11, 2, and 2| bricks.
Example. Suppose be required to find the number of bricks neces-
it

sary to build a wall 1 brick thick, containing" an area of 5760 feet ?

First look for 5000 in the left hand column, and you will find that it takes
55,147 bricks, add to this quantity, the number necessary for each of the
other component parts, and we shall have the following
5000 will require 55147
700 .... 7720
60 . . . . 661

5760 63,528

TABLE II.

Shews the number of rods contained in any number of superficial feet,

from 1 to 10,000, and from ^ a brick to 2^ bricks and thence by addi- ;

tion, to any number, and to any thickness, at the rate of 4500 bricks to
the rod.
Feet
brick. 1 brick. 1 .]
brick. 2 bricks. 24 bricks.
sup.

R. Q ,F. In. R. Q .F. In. R. Q .F. In. R. Q .F. In. R. Q..F. In.
1 0 0 0 4 0 0 0 8 0 0 1 O' 0 0 1 4 0 0 1 8
2 0 0 0 8 0 0 1 4 0 0 2 0 0 0 2 8 0 0 3 4
3 0 0 1 0 0 0 2 0 0 0 S 0 0 0 4 0 0 0 5 0
4 0 0 1 4 0 0 2 8 0 0 4 0 0 0 5 4 0 0 6 8
5 0 0 1 8 0 0 3 4 0 0 5 0 0 0 6 8 0 0 8 4
6 0 0 2 0 0 0 4 0 0 0 6 0 0 0 8 0 0 0 10 0
7 0 0 2 4 0 0 4 8 0 0 7 0 0 0 9 4 0 0 11 8
8 0 0 2 8 0 0 5 4 0 0 8 0 0 0 10 8 0 0 13 4
9 0 0 3 0 0 0 6 0 0 0 9 0 0 0 12 0 0 0 15 0
10 0 0 3 4 0 0 6 8 0 0 10 0 9 6 13 4 0 0 16 8
11 0 0 3 8 0 0 7 4 0 0 11 0 0 0 14 8 0 0 18 4
12 0 0 4 0 0 0 8 0 0 0 12 0 0 0 16 0 0 0 20 0
13 0 0 4 4 0 0 8 8 9 0 13 0 0 0 17 4 0 0 21 8
14 0 0 4 8 0 0 9 4 0 0 14 0 0 0 18 8 0 0 23 4
15 0 0 5 0 0 0 10 0 0 0 15 0 0 0 20 0 0 0 25 0
16 0 0 5 4 0 0 10 8 0 0 16 0 0 0 21 4 0 0 26 8
17 0 0 5 8 0 0 11 4 0 0 17 0 0 0 22 8 0 0 28 4
18 0 0 6 0 0 0 12 0 0 0 18 0 0 0 24 0 0 0 SO 0
19 0 0 6 4 0 0 12 8 0 0 19 0 0 0 25 4 0 0 31 8
'

20 0 0 6 8 0 0 13 4 0 0 20 0 0 0 26 8 0 0 S3 4
21 0 0 7 0 0 0 14 0 0 0 21 0 0 0 28 0 0 0 35 0
22 0 0 7 4 0 0 14 8 0 0 22 0 0 0 29 4 0 0 36 8
23 0 0 7 8 0 0 15 4 0 0 23 0 0 0 30 8 0 0 38 4
24 0 0 8 0 0 0 16 0 0 0 24 0 0 0 32 0 0 0 40 0
25 0 0 8 4 0 0 16 8 0 0 25 0 0 0 33 4 0 0 41 8
26 0 0 8 8 0 0 17 4 0 0 26 0 0 0 34 8 0 0 43 4
27 0 0 90 0 0 18 0 0 0 27 0 0 0 36 0 0 0 45 0
28 0 0 9 4 0 0 18 8 0 0 28 0 0 0 37 4 0 0 46 8
29 0 0 9 8 0 0 19 4 0 0 29 0 0 0 38 8 0 0 48 4
30 0 0 10 0 0 0 20 0 0 0 SO 0 0 0 40 0 0 0 50 0
31 0 0 10 4 0 0 20 8 0 0 31 0 0 0 41 4 0 0 51 8
658 THE OPERATIVE MECHANIC
Feet
3 brick. 1 brick brick. 2 bricks. 2^ bricks.
sup.

R. Q F. In. R.Q. F. In. R. Q .F. In. R. Q:.F. In. R. Ql.F. In.

S2 0 0 10 8 0 0 21 4 0 0 32 0 0 0 42 8 0 0 53 4
S3 0 0 11 0 0 0 22 0 0 0 33 0 0 0 44 0 0 0 55 0
34 0 0 11 4 0 0 22 8 0 0 34 0 0 0 45 4 0 0 56 8
S5 0 0 11 8 0 0 23 4 0 0 35 0 0 0 46 8 0 0 58 4
36 0 0 12 0 0 0 24 0 0 0 36 0 0 0 48 0 0 0 60 0
37 0 0 12 4 0 0 24 8 0 0 37 0 0 0 49 4 0 0 61 8
88 0 <> 12 8 0 0 25 4 0 0 38 0 0 0 50 8 0 0 63 4
89 0 0 13 0 0 0 26 0 0 0 S9 0 0 0 52 0 0 0 65 0
40 0 0 13 4 0 0 26 8 0 0 40 0 0 0 53 4 0 0 66 8
41 0 0 13 8 0 0 27 4 0 0 41 0 0 0 54 8 0 1 0 4
42 0 0 14 0 0 0 28 0 0 0 42 0 0 0 56 0 0 1 2 0
43 0 0 14 4 0 0 28 8 0 0 43 0 0 0 57 4 0 1 3 8
44 0 0 14 8 0 0 29 4 0 0 44 0 0 0 58 8 0 1 5 4
45 0 0 15 0 0 0 30 0 0 0 45 0 0 0 60 0 0 1 7 0
46 0 0 15 4 0 0 30 8 0 0 46 0 0 0 61 4 0 1 8 8
47 0 0 15 8 0 0 31 4 0 0 47 0 0 0 62 8 0 I 10 4
48 0 0 16 0 0 0 32 0 0 0 48 0 0 0 64 0 0 1 12 0
49 0 0 16 4 0 0 32 8 0 0 49 0 0 0 65 4 0 1 13 8
50 0 0 16 8 0 0 33 4 0 0 50 0 0 0 66 8 0 1 15 4
60 0 0 20 0 0 0 40 0 0 0 60 0 0 1 12 0 0 1 32 0
70 0 0 23 4 0 0 46 8 0 1 2 0 0 25
1 4 0 48
1 8
80 0 0 26 8 0 0 53 4 0 1 12 0 0 1 38 8 0 1 65 4
90 0 0 30 0 0 0 60 0 0 1 22 0 0 1 52 0 0 2 14 0
IdO 0 0 33 4 0 0 66 8 0 1 32 0 0 1 65 4 0 2 30 8
200 0 0 66 8 0 1 65 4 0 2 64 0 0 3 62 8 1 0 61 4
300 0 32 1 0 0 2 64 0 1 0 28 0 1 1 60 0 1 S 24 0
400 0 1 65 4 0 3 62 8 1 1 60 0 1 3 57 4 2 54 8
I

500 0 2 30 8 I 0 61 4 1 3 24 0 2 1 54 8 3 0 17 4
600 0 2 64 0 1 1 60 0 2 0 56 0 2 3 52 0 3 2 48 0
700 0 3 29 4 1 2 58 8 2 2 20 0 3 1 49 4 4 1 10 8
800 0 3 62 8 1 3 57 4 2 3 52 0 3 3 46 8 4 3 41 4
900 1 0 28 0 2 0 56 0 3 1 16 0 4 1 44 0 5 2 4 0
1000 1 0 61 4 2 1 54 8 3 2 48 0 4 3 41 4 6 0 34 8
2000 2 1 54 8 4 3 41 4 7 1 28 0 9 3 14 8 12 1 1 4
3000 3 2 48 0 7 1 28 0 11 0 8 0 14 2 56 0 18 1 36 0
4000 4 3 41 4 9 3 14 8 14 2 56 0 19 2 29 4 24 2 2 8
5000 6 0 34 8 12 1 1 4 18 I 36 0 24 2 2 8 30 2 37 4
6000 7 1 28 0 14 2 56 0 22 0 16 0 29 1 44 0 36 3 4 0
7000 8 2 21 4 17 0 42 8 25 2 64 0 34 1 17 4 12 3 38 8
8000 9 3 14
1
8 19 2 29 4 29 1 44 0 39 0 58 8 19 0 5 4
9000 ill 0 8 0 22 0 16 0 33 0 24 0 44 0 32 0 55 0 40 0
10000 |12 1 1 4 24 2 2 8 36 3 4 0 49 0 5 4 |61 1 6 8
The left-hand column contains the area of the wall in superficial feet
the adjacent columns the quantity, reduced to the standard thickness, ac-
cording- to the difierent thicknesses on the top.
Example. What is the quantity of reduced brick-work in a wall contain-
ing- '^540 superficial feet, 2 bricks thick ?
Divide the number as in the preceding- table, into its component parl^^
Bay 4540= 4000 -j- 600 40, then by the table.
R. Q. F. In.
4000 contains 19 2 29 4
500 ... 2 1 54 8
40 ... 0 0 53 4

82 1 14
 AND MACHINIST. 559
Tlie game by rule.
4540
4 number of half bricks.

3)18150( R. Q. F. In. as above.

272) 60,53 + 4(2? 1 1 4

,544

613
541

^ of a rod 68) 69 (1
68

TABLE III.

Shews the^ value of reduced brick- work per rod, calculated at the se-
veral prices of 3 5s. 3 10.9. 3 15s. 4 Os. 4 5s. and 4 10s. per rod
for mortar, labour, and scaffolding ; and of bricks from 1 10s. to 3
Os. per thousand ; allowing 4500 bricks to the rod.

Mortar and Mortar and Mortar and Mortar and Mortar and Mortar and
Bricks per Labour Labour Labour Labour Labour Labour
thousand. 3/. 5s, 3^. IOj. 31. 15s. 4/. 05. 41. 5s. 4/. 105.
per rod. per rod. per rod. per rod. per rod. per rod.

. s. d. . s. d. . s. d. . s. d. . s. d. . s. d. . .5. d.
1 10 0 10 0 0 10 5 0 10 10 0 10 15 0 11 0 0 11 5 0
I .12 0 10 9 0 10 14 0 10 19 0 11 4 0 11 9 0 11 14 0
1 14 0 10 18 0 11 3 0 11 8 0 11 13 0 18
11 0 12 3 0
1 16 0 11 7 0 11 12 0 11 17 0 12 2 0 12 7 0 12 12 0
1 18 0 11 16 0 12 1 0 12 6 0 12 11 0 12 16 0 13 1 0
2 0 0 12 5 0 12 10 0 12 15 0 13 0 0 13 5 0 13 10 0
2 2 0 12 14. 0 12 19 0 13 4 0 13 9 0 13 14 0 13 19 0
2 4 0 13 3 0 13 8 0 13 13 0 13 18 0 14 3 0 14 8 0
2 6 0 13 12 0 IS 17 0 14 2 0 14 7 0 14 12 0 14 17 0
2 8 0 14 1 0 14 6 0 14 11 0 14 16 0 15 1 0 15 6 0
2 10 0 14 10 0 14 15 0 15 0 0 15 5 0 15 10 0 15 15 0
2 12 0 14 19 0 15 4 0 15 9 0 15 14 0 15 19 0 16 4 0
2 14 0 15 8 0 15 13 0 15 18 0 16 3 0 16 8 0 16 13 0
2 16 0 15 17 0 16 2 0 16 7 0 16 12 0|16 17 0 17 2 0
2 18 0 16 6 0 16 11 0 16 16 0 17 1 0 17 6 0 17 11 0
3 0 0 16 15 0 17 0 o;i7 5 0 17 10 0,17 15 0 18 0 0

Exatnple. What is the price ofa rod of brick-work, when the rate of bricks
is 2
2s. per thousand, and the price of mortar 4 5s. per rod ?
Look from the given column of bricks until you come under 4 5s. the
given price of labour and mortar, and you will find 13 14s. the price of
the rod.
560 THE OPERATIVE MECHANIC

CARPENTRY.

This branch of building comprises the art of employing

timber in the construction of edifices.
The art of employing timber in building may be classed
under two distinct branches^ Carpentry and Joinery.
Carpentry comprehends the large and rough description
of work^ or that which is requisite in the construction and
stability of an edifice ; and Joinery^ the fittings up and de-
corative work, so necessary to the completion of a building.
Carpentry is, in general, valued by the cubical foot ; and
joinery by the superficial foot.
The principal operations which timbers have to undergo,
from the time of their arrival in the carpenter's yard to
their final destination in an edifice, may be classed under
two general heads ; those which respect individual prices,
and those which respect their dependence on others.
Under the former of these heads is the pit-saw, by means
of which, whole pieces of timber are divided, and reduced
into their respective sized scantlings.
The term scantling implies dimensions in breadth and
thickness, without any regard to length.
Planing, is the operation by which wood is reduced to a
smooth and uniform surface, by means of an instrument
called a plane, which takes a thin shaving off the surface of
the wood, as it is moved backwards and forwards in a
straight line by the hands of the workmen. There are,
however, other operations of the plane besides that of re-
ducing timber to an uniform and smooth surface, termed
g7'ooving, rehating, and moulding,
Groovmg is forming a channel on the surface of a piece
of wood, by taking away so much of the solid as is of
the shape and size of the groove required.
Rabathig or rebating, is reducing a piece by taking away
from the angles a prism of the shape and size of the rabate
required, so as to form an internal angle, and generally a
right angle. This operation is frequently required in con-
structing door cases, and the frames of casement windows
the rabate, or groove, being intended as a ledge for the door
or casement to rest in.
The pieces being cut into their proper scantlings, the next
operation is the joining them together.
 'and machinist. 561

In this department we shall treat first, of the most approved

methods of lengthening beams, by w^hat is termed scarfing,
or joiningthem in pieces secondly, of the strengthening
;

of beams by trussing ; thirdly, of the methods of joining

two timbers at angles, in any given direction ; and lastly, of
the modeof connecting several timbers in order to com-
plete the design, and to effect certain powers respectively
required by each individual piece.
To lengthen a piece of timber implies the act of joining
or fastening tw^o clistinct pieces, so that a part of the*^ end of
one shall lap upon the end of another, and the surfaces
of both, being one continued plane, form a close joint,
called by w^orkmen a scarf. It is manifest, that two bodies,
joined together and intended to act as one continued piece,
in a state of tension, or compression, cannot, by any possi-
ble means, be so strong as either pieces taken separately.
It, therefore, requires much attention, and careful discri-
mination, in the choice and selection of such methods as
are the most applicable to the peculiar circumstances o*
the case. Every two pieces of timber joined in the manner
thus described, and, indeed, in most other cases, require
some force to compress them equally on each side, and
more particularly udien the pieces are light ; for this pur-
pose iron bolts are used, wdiich act as a tie, and possess the
same effect as two equal and opposite forces would have in
compressing the beam on each side the joint and as the co-
:

hesive power of iron is very great, the hole, which is made

to receive the bolt, may be of such dimensions as will not,
in the least degree, tend to diminish the strength of the
timber. When wooden pins are used, the bore is larger, and
the joints weaker ; consequently the two pieces, thus con-
nected, are not held together by any compression of the pin,
but merely by the friction of the individual pieces.
No specific distance can be laid down for the length of the
scarf, though, in general, it may be observed, that, a long
scarf has but little effect in diminishing the cohesive strength
of a compound piece of timber ; on the contrary, it affords
an opportunity of increasing the number of bolts.

Fig. 558 shows the method of joining two pieces of timber by means
of a single step on each piece.

By this method more than one-half the power is lost ; and

this scarf is not calculated to resist the force of tension
equal to a single piece sawed half through its thickness from
the opposite side, at a distance equal to the leqgth of the
2 o
562 THE OPERATIVE MECHANIC
scarf ; by the application of straps, however, it may be made
to resist a much greater force.

Fig". 559 represents a scarf with parallel joints, and a sing-le table upon
each piece.
In this the cohesive strength is decreased in a greater
degree than the preceding example, by the projection of the
table ; but this affords an opportunity of driving a wedge
through the joint between the ends of the tables, and there-
by forcing the abutting parts to a joint.
A scarf of this description to be longer than those which
have no tables, and the transverse parts of the scarf, must
be strapped and bolted.
Fig. 5GO presents us with the same opportunity of wedging as before.
In this figure, if the parts LM
and NO
be compressed together by bolts
as firmly as if they were but one piece, and if the projection of the tables
be equal to the transverse parts of the joints L and O, the loss of strength,
compared with that of a solid piece, will be no more than what it w'ould
be at L and O.
Strapping across the transverse part of the joint is much
the best and most effectual way of preventing the pieces
from being drawn from each other, by the sliding of the
longitudinal parts of the scarf, and, therefore, giving to the
bolts an oblique position.
Fig. 561 is a scarf formed by several steps.

In this, if all the transverse parts of the steps be equal,

and the longitudinal parts strongly compressed by bolts, the
loss of strength will only be a fourth, compared to that of a
solid piece, therebeing four transverse parts, that is, the
part which the end of the steps is of the whole.

Fig. 562 is a scarf w ith a bevel joint, and equally as eligible for or-
dinary purposes as any in use.
Figs. 561 and 563. Scarfs intended for longer bearings than the pre-
ceding one.
Fig. 564 represents the method of constructing a compound timber,
when tw'o pieces are not of adequate length to allow them to lap, by
means of a third piece joined to both by a double scarf, formed by several
gradations or steps, the pieces abutting upon each other with the middle of
the connecting piece over their abutment.

lliat which shall next claim our attention is a consider-

ation of the principles and the best methods of strengthen-
ing beams by trussing.
When girders are extended beyond a certain length, they
bend under their own weight, and the degree of curvature
increases in a proportion far greater than that of their
lengths. The besl method to obviate this saggmg^ as it is
 FL8o
Trum 558 to 566

556

559

r'

560

1
^P=5 ^
562

562

563

564

9 a a a a a a /^|
1

[^
V
 AND MACHINIST. 563
termed, without the support of posts, &c. is to make the
beam in two equal lengths, and insert a truss, so that when
the two pieces are confined together by bolts, the truss may
be included between them, and cause them to act as a tie.
To prevent any unfavourable results from natural tendency
of the timbers to shrink, the posts of the truss may be made
of iron, and screwed, and nutted at the ends ; and to give
a still stronger abutment, the braces may be let in with
grooves into the side of each flitch, or piece, which form
the beam. The ends of the abutments are also made of
iron, screwed, or nutted, at each of the ends, and bolted
through the thickness of both pieces, with a broad part in
the middle, that the braces may abut upon the whole di-
mension of their section ; or, otherwise, the abutments are
made in the form of an inverted wedge at the bottom, and
rise cylindrically to the top, where they are screwed and
nutted.
These methods may be constructed either with one king-
bolt in the middle, or with a truss-bolt at one-third of the
length from each end. When two bolts are applied, they
include a straining place in the middle. The two braces
may be constructed of oak, or cast or wrought iron ; but
the latter material is seldom used for, as all metals are
:

liable to contract, wood is considered the best material.

With respect to the bolts, iron is indispensable. *

The higher the girder is, the less are the parts liable to
be effected by the stress ; and, consequently, the risk of
their giving way under heavy weights, or through long bear-
ings, is less.
Figs. 565 and 566 are two examples of girders calculated from their
rise to sustain very heavy weights. If the tie beam be very strong, the
abutments may be wedged ; but the wedges ought to be very long, and
a little taper, that there may be no inclination to rise. The excess of
length may afterwards be taken off.

In joining two timbers together, in any given direction,

the joinings, as practised by carpenters, are almost infinitely
various ; and though some are executed with a view merely
to gratify the eye, the majority have decided advantages,
and each, in peculiar cases, is to be preferred. In this
treatise, our limits will not permit us to enter upon a de-
scription of such as yield no substantial benefit, or are em-
ployed only in connecting small work ; but, even in these,
the skill of the workman may at all times be discovered by his
selection of materials. It may here be observed, that, as
all timber is either more or less, according to the dryness^

2o2
564 THE OPERATIVE MECHANIC
and the quality of the timber used, subject to shrink, the
carpenter should very carefully consider how much the di-
mensions of his framings will be affected by it, and so
arrange the inferior pieces that their shrinkage shall be
in the same direction as the shrinkage of the framing, and
80 conduce to the greater stability of the whole. If this be
not attended to, the parts will separate and split asunder.
Two pieces of timber may be connected either by making
both planes of contact parallel with or at right angles to
the fibres, or by making the joint parallel with the fibres of
the one piece, and at right or oblique angles to the other, or
at oblique angles to the fibres of both pieces.
If two pieces of timber are connected, so that the joint
runs parallel with the fibres of both, it is called a longitudi-
nal joint but when the place of the joint is at right angles
to the fibres of both, an abutting joint. Butting and mitre
joints are seldom used in carpentry.
When two pieces of timber are joined together at one or
more angles, the one piece will meet the other and form
one angle, or by crossing it make two angles, or the two
pieces will cross "each other and form four angles.
In all the following cases of connecting two timbers-,
it is supposed, that the sides of the pieces are parallel with

the fibres, or, when the fibres are crooked, as nearly so as

possible ; and that each piece, the four sides being at right
angles to each other, has at least one of its surfaces in the
same plane with those of the other. The angle or angles
so formed will be either right or obtuse.

Fig. 537, is an example of a notched joint, which is the most common

and simple form, and, in some cases, the strongest for joining two timbers
at one or more angles, particularly when bolted at the joint. The form
of the joint may be varied, according to the position of the sides of the
pieces, the number of angles, the quantity and direction of the stress on
the one or both pieces, or by any combination of their circumstances.
Notching admits two pieces to be joined at from one to four angles ;
but
joining by mortise and tenon admits only from one to two angles.

In joining by mortise and tenon, four sides of the mortise

should, if possible, be at right angles to each other, and to
the surface whence it is recessed, and two of these sides
parallel with each of the sides which forms a right angle with
tiie side from which the mortise is made the fifth plane, that
:

is, the bottom of the mortise, is parallel with the top or sur-

face iVom which the mortise is made. Four sides of the tenon
ho'iid b? parallel to the four sides of the piece ; but there
aicMuary cases where a digression is unavoidable*
 AND MACHINIST.
In the application of timbers to buildings, we will here
suppose, that all pieces cut for use have a rectangular sec-
tion, and when laid down, have their sides perpendicular
to, and parallel with, the horizon. If two pieces of timber,
therefore, are to be joined at four angles, cut a notch in one
piece equal to the breadth of the other, so as to leave the
remaining part of the thickness sufficiently strong, and in-
sert the other piece in the notch ; or, if the work is required
to be very firm, notch each piece reciprocally to each others
breadth, and fasten them together by pins, spikes, or bolts,
as the case may require. This form is applicable when the
pieces are equally exposed to a strain.

Fig-. 568 will fully elucidate this description of joint.

The framing of timber by dove-tail notching is principal-

ly applicable to horizontal framing,where the lower timber
is sufficiently supported. Where the lower timber is unsup-
ported it is common to use mortise and tenon, w hich does
not materially weaken the timber ; but when the timber is
notched from the upper side, the operation reduces its thick-
ness, and consequenlly impairs its strength, though, if the
solid of one piece fill the excavation of the other, and both
be lightly driven or forced together, according to Du Hamel,
it will, if not cut more than one third through, rather increase

than decrease in strength. It may, however, be observed,

that in large works, where heavy timbers are employed, it
is difficult, and almost impossible, to fit the mortise and

tenon with due accuracy ; and even if the joints were closely
fitted at first, the shrinking would occasion cavities on the
sides, that w^ould render the tenons of no avail, because the
axis of fracture would be nearer to the breaking or under-
side of the supporting piece. What has been here said
with respect to timbers placed horizontally, applies to fram-
ing in every position, when the force is to fall on the plane
of the sides ; and if a number of pieces thus liable to lateral
pressure on either side, are to be framed into two other stiff
pieces, the mortise and tenon will prove best for the purpose.
If it be required to connect two pieces of timber so as to
form two right angles, and t be immovable, when the
transverse is held or fixed fast, and the standing piece pulled
in a direction of its length, cut a dove-tail notch across the
breadth of the transverse piece, and notch out the vertical
sides of the standing piece at the end, so as to form a si-
milar and equal solid. In some kinds of work, besides the
dove-tail, an additional notch is cut to receive the shoulder
 606 '
n'HE OPERATIVE MECHANIC
of the lower piece. If the position of these pieces be hori-
zontal,and the upper is of sufficient weight, or is press-
ed down by any considerable force, when the pieces are
placed together, the dove- tail will be sufficiently strong
without the assistance of pins, spikes, or bolts. This con-
struction requires the timbers to be well seasoned 5 for
otherwise the shrinking will permit the standing piece to be
drawn out of the transverse, and thus defeat the purpose of
the construction.
In introducing binding joists, which will, as they have to
support the bridging joists and boarding of the floor, be
framed into girders, there will be a considerable strain at
the extremities, so that it is necessary, in order to make
the tenons sufficiently strong, to have a shorter bearing te-
non attached to the principal tenon, with a sloping shoulder
above, called a tusk^ which term is likewise applied to this
tenon, called the tusk tenon.
When two parallel pieces, which are quite immovable,
are to have another piece framed between them, the prin-
ciple is, to insert the one end of the tenon of the piece to be
framed in a shallow mortise, and make a long mortise in the
opposite side of the other timber ; so that when the cross
piece is moved round the shoulder of the other extremity as
a centre, it may slide home to its situation. This mode of
framing a transverse piece between two others, is employed
in trimming in ceiling joists, which joists are seldom or
never cut and fitted into the binding joists before the build-
ing is covered over. The binding joists are always mortised
before they are disposed in the situation to receive the ceil-
; ing joists.
'

When a transverse piece of timber is to be framed be-

tween two parallel joists, whose vertical surfaces are not pa-
i rallel, turn the upper edge of the transverse piece downwards
;
upon the upper horizontal surface of the joists, mark the in-
terval, or distance between them, upon the surface of the
transverse piece now under ; then placing the edge over the
place where it is intended to let down, turn the transverse
piece in the way it is intended to be framed, apply a straight
edge to the oblique surface of the joist, and slide the trans-
verse piece so as to bring the mark on the upper side of it on
a line with the straight edge, which being done, proceed
in the same manner with the other end, and the two lines
drawn on the vertical sides of the intermediate piece will
give the shoulders of the tenons. This act of framing a
transverse joist between two others is termed tumbling in
 AND MACHINIST. 5G7

joists ; and is particularly useful when the timber is warped

or twisted.
In order that the reader may the more fully understand the
preceding description of the joinings of timbers, we have
annexed a plate (to which the subjoined description refers,)
of the best methods now m practice.
Fi^. 457. No. 1 and 2, and 3 and 4, exhibit two methods of a simple
joint, where the two pieces are halved upon each other ; in both of which
the end of one piece does not pass the outer surface of the other. No. S
and 4 represent the two pieces before put together.
Fig. 568, is a method of joiuing timber, when the end of one piece
passes the end of the other at a small distance. No. 1 represents the
pieces before joined.
Fig. 569 shews how two pieces may be joined by what is termed a
niche. In this case, the two pieces should be fixed to another by a bolt at
right angles to the niche joint.
Fig. 570. How one piece of timber may be joined to another, when one
of the pieces is extended on both sides of the other piece. Nos. 1 and 2
show the pieces before put together.
Fig. 571 shows the manner of joining the binding joists and girders.'
No. 1. The binding joist preparedforbeing joined to the girder.
Fig. 572 is the general and most approved method of framing the rafter
foot into the girder.
Fig. 573 is a section of the beam, shewing the different shoulders of
the rafter foot.
Fig. 574 is another example, preferable to the former, because the
abutment of the inner part is better supported. In this the beam, when
no broader than the rafter is thick, may be weakened, in which case, it
would require a much deeper socket than is here given ; and perhaps an
advantage would be gained by introducing a joint like fig. 575.
Fig. 576 is the method of introducing iron straps to confine the foot of
the rafter to the tie-beam.

When it is found necessary to employ iron straps for

strengthening a joint, considerable attention is required to
place them properly. The first thing to be ascertained is
the direction of the strain. We
must then endeavour, as
near as we can, to resolve this strain into a strain parallel
to each piece, and another perpendicular to it. Then the
strap which is to be made fast to any of the pieces, must be
so fixed that it shall resist in the direction parallel to the
piece.
The strap which is generally misplaced, is that which
connects the foot of the rafter with the tie-beam. It binds
down the rafter; but does not act against its horizon-
tal thrust. It should be placed farther back on the beam,
and have a bolt through it, to allow it to turn round ; and
should embrace the rafter almost horizontally near the foot,
and be notched square with the back of the rafter. The
example given in No. 10 combines these requisites. By
568 tH OPliRATIV^B MECHAlSlc

moving round the eye-bolt^ it follows the rafter, and can

not pinch and cripple it, which it always does in its ordi-
nary form. Straps which have eye-bolts on the very angles,
and allow motion round them, are considered the most
perfect.
Fig. 577 exhibits two methods of connecting the struts of a roof, or par-
tition,&c. with the king-post.
If the action of a piece of timber on another does not ex^
tend, but compress, the same, there is no difficulty whatever
in the joint, indeed joining is unnecessary : it is enough
that the pieces abut on each other ; and we have only to
take care that the mutual pressure be equally borne by all
the parts, and that no lateral pressure, which may cause
one of the pieces to slide on the butting joint, be produced.
At the joggle of a king-post, a very slight mortise and
tenon, with a rafter, or straining beam, is sufficient. It is
generally best to make the butting plain, bisecting the angle
formed by the sides, or else perpendicular to one of the
pieces. For instance, the joint a is preferable to 5, and,
indeed, to any uneven joints, which never fail to produce
very unequal pressures, by which some of the parts are
crippled, and others splintered off.
Fig. 578 is the method of securing the tie-beam and principals, when
the king-post is made of an iron rod.
Fig. 579 shows a method of joining the principals with the king-post by
means of an iron dove-tail, which is received in a mortise at the head of
each principal.
Trusting that the reader will be able, from the above de-
scription, to comprehend the best methods of joining tim-
bers, we shall next proceed to describe the modes of con-
necting several timbers, in order to complete the design,
and to effect certain powers respectively required by each
individual piece.
In framing centres for groins, the boarding which forms
the interior surface is supported by transverse ribs of tim-
ber, which are either constructed simply, or with trusses,
according to the magnitude of the work ; and, as a groin
consists generally of two vaults intersecting each other, one
of them is always boarded over the same as a plain vault,
without any respect to the other, which is afterwards ribbed
and boarded so as to make out the regular surface.
Timbers inserted in walls, and at returns, or angles, are
joined together where the magnitude of'the building or ex-
posure to strain may require. There are three denomi^
iiations, yiz. hand timbery linteU, and wall^piates.
 n.
From 51)7 1o58o

y^e^^Stocid^ xcSSlStraftd.
 V -<f*
'

..i'-C.

'
'

' V"
'"'1

t
 AND MACHINIST. 569
Flooring supported by one or more rows of parallel
is
beams, called naked, or carcase Jioonng, and is denominated
cither single or double. During the construction of the
building, the flooring, if not supported by walls or parti-
tions, must be shored. The framing of flooring, whether
single or double, depends upon the magnitude of the build-
ing, the horizontal dimensions of the apartments, or the
stress with which the surface of the boarding is likely to be
affected. When the flooring is intended to be veiy stiff and
firm, it is necessary to introduce truss girders. Naked
flooring, for ball-rooms, should be framed very strong, and
the upper part contrived with a spring, to bend with the im-
pression of the force, while the lower part, w^hich sustains
the ceiling, remains immovable.
Partitions are constructed of a number of pieces of tim-
ber, called scantling, placed vertically, at a specified dis-
tance from each other, dependent on the purposes for which
it is intended to answ'er. If to support girders, they should
be trussed, and afterwards filled in with parallel pieces,
called studs.
The framing ought to be so contrived, as to supersede the
necessity of hanging up the floor, in whatever situation the
doors may be placed. Truss partitions are also of the
greatest utility in supporting floors which are above them.
The rafters which support the covering in a roof are sus-
tained by one, two, or several pieces of framing, called a
pair of principals, placed at right angles to the ridge of the
roof. In roofing, many ingenious contrivances are resorted
to, their application depending upon the pitch of the roof,
the number of compartments into which it may be divided,
and the introduction of tie-beams. In cases where apart-
ments are required to be within the framing of the roof,
and it is inconvenient to introduce tie-beams, the sides of
the roof may be prevented from descending, by arching them
with cast-iron, or trussing them with wood in the inclined
planes of their sides. To restrain the pressure of the raf-
ters, which would be discharged at the extremities of the
building, a strong wall-plate, well connected in all its parts,
must be introduced, to act as a tie, and prevent the lateral
pressure from forcing out the walls.
In this construction, as well as in the former, the rafters
would have a tendency to become hollow, so that it is
necessary, in order to counteract this tendency, to introduce
straining beams at convenient heights ; and if it be requisite
to occupy very little space by the wood-work, cast-iron
570 THB OPERATIVE MECHANIC
arches, abutting upon each other, and screwed with their
planes upon the upper sides of the rafters, are best adapted
for the purpose. If this and the former principle were adopt-
ed, the combined effect would be very great.
We shall now present the reader with a few practical ob-
servations.
Timber, except it stand perpendicular to the horizon, is
much weakened by its own weight. The bending of timber
is nearly in proportion to the weight laid on it. No beam
ought to be trusted for any long time, with above one-third
or one-fourth part of the weight it will absolutely carry
for experiments prove, that a far less weight will break a
piece of timber when hung to it a considerable time, than
is sufficient to break it when first applied.
The strain occasioned by pulling timber in the direction
of its length, is called tension. It frequently occurs in roofs,
and is therefore worthy of consideration.
The absolute strength of a fibre, or small thread of tim-
ber, is the force by which every part of it is held together,
and is equal to the force that would be required to pull it
asunder. The force required to tear any number of threads
asunder, is proportional to that of their sum ; but the areas
of the sections of two pieces of timber, composed of fibres
of the same kind, are as the number of fibres in each
therefore, the strength of the timber is as the areas of the
sections. Hence all prismatic bodies- are equally strong
that is, they will not break in one part rather than in another.
Bodies which have unequal sections, will break at their
smallest part ; therefore if the absolute strength required to
tear a square inch of each kind of timber be known, we
shall be able to determine the strength of any other quan-
tity, whatever.
The wood next to the bark, commonly called white or
hleOy is also weaker than the rest : and the wood gradually
increases in strength as we recede from the centre to the
blea. .

The heart of a tree is never in its centre, but always near-

er to the north side, and on that side the annual coats of
wood are thinner. In conformity to this, it is a general
opinion among carpenters, that that timber is strongest
whose annual plates are thickest. The Trachece^ or 2>-
vessels, are weaker than the simple ligneous fibres. These
air-vessels make the separations between* the annual plates,
and are the same in diameter, and number of rows, in
all trees of the same species
5 consequently,
when these
 Bi'CLirc^S
TI .82
Tram oSl to o83
 AND MACHINIST. 571
are thicker, they contain a greater proportion of the simple
ligneous fibre.
The wood is stronger in the middle of the trunk than at
the springing of the branches, or at the root ; and the wood
of the branches is weaker than that of the trunk.
The part of the tree towards the north, in the European
climates, is the weakest, and that of the south side the
strongest : and the difference is most remarkable in hedge-
row trees, and such as grow singly.
All description of wood is more tenacious while green ;
and loses very considerably by drying, after the tree is
felled.
We shall now conclude these remarks with the follow-
ing useful problem.
Fig-. 580. To cut the strongest beam possible out of a round tree whose
section is a given circle. Let ab c dhe the section of the tree ; draw
the diameter c h, divide it into three equal parts, e and f, and from one of
them, as /, draw' /a
perpendicular to the diameter c h ; draw ah and

a c, b d and d c, and ab c d\% the strongest piece that can be cut out
of the tree. From this it is manifest, that the strongest beam which can be
cutout of a round tree, does not contain the most timber, for the greatest
rectangle that can be inscribed in a circle is a square, and therefore the
square ghik greater than the rectangle a b c dt and yet is not the
strongest.
Fig. 581. Plan of a floor.
1. Girder resting upon the walls.
2. Bridg-
ing-joists.
3. Binding-joists.
4. Trimmers,
Nos. 1 and 2, sections of the floor. . _
Fig. 582. A
trussed partition with an opening in the middle for folding
doors. 1. Head. 2. Sill.
3. Posts.
4<. Braces.
5. Studs.-6. Door-

head. This partition, as may be seen, supports itself.
Fig. 583. Asimple trussed roof.

DEFINITIONS.
Wall-platespieces of timber laid on the wall, in
order to distribute equally the pressure of the roof, and to
bind the walls together. They are sometimes called raising
plates.
Tie-beam ; a horizontal piece of timber, connected to
two opposite principal rafters ; it answers a two-fold pur-
pose, viz. that of preventing the walls from being pushed
outwards by the weight of the covering, and of supporting
the ceiling of the rooms below. When placed above the
bottom of the rafters, it is called a collar^heam.
Principal rafters ; two pieces of timber in the sides of
the truss, supporting a grated frame of timber over them, on
which the covering or slating rests.
Purlines horizontal pieces of timber notched on the
principal rafters.
572 THE OPERATIVE MECHANIC
Common rafters pieces of timber of a small section,
placed equidistantly upon the purlines, and parallel to the
principal rafters : they support the boarding to which the
slating is fixed.
Pole-plat es
; pieces of timber resting on the ends of
the tie-beams, and supporting the lower ends of the com-
mon rafters.
Kmg-post an upright piece of timber in the middle of
a truss, framed at the upper end into the principal rafters,
and at the lower end into the tie-beam this prevents the
;

tie-beam from sinking in the middle.

Struts ; oblique straining pieces, framed below iiito the
king-posts, or queen-posts, and above into the principal raf-
ters, which are supported by them ; or sometimes they have
their ends framed into beams, that are too long to support
themselves without bending, they are often called braces.
Other pieces of timber are introduced in roofs of a greater
span ; which we shall here describe.
Queen-posts ; two upright pieces of timber, framed be-
low into the tie-beam, and above into the principal rafters ;
placed equidistantly from the middle of the truss, or its
extremities.
Puncheons ; short ti*ansvcrse pieces of timber, fixed be-
tween two others for supporting them equally ; so that
when any force operates on the one, the other resists it
equally ; and if one break the other will also break. These
are sometimes called studs.
Straining-beam a piece of timber placed between two
others, called queen-posts^ at their upper ends, in order to
withstand the thrust of the principal rafters.
Straining-cill a piece of timber placed upon the tie-
beam at the bottom of two queen-posts, in order to Muth-
stand the force of the braces, which are acted upon by the
weight of the covering.
Camber-beam ; horizontal pieces of timber, made on the
upper edge sloping from the middle towards each end in
an obtuse angle, for discharging the water. They are placed
above the straining-beam in a truncated roof, for fixing the
boarding on which the lead is laid their ends run three or
;

four inebes above the sloping plane of the common rafters,

in order to form a roll for fixing the lead.
Auxiliary rafters ; pieces of timber framed in the same
vertical plane with the principal rafters, under, and parallel
to them, for giving additional support. They are sometimes
called principal braces, and sometimes cushion rafters^, /
 AND MACHINIST. 573
Joggles ; the joints at the meetings of struts, with king-
posts, queen-posts, or principal rafters ; or at the meeting
of principal rafters with king and queen- posts: the best
form is that which is at right angles to the struts.
Cocking, or Cogging ; the particular manner of fixing the
tie-beams to the wall- plates.
There are a variety of roofs differing in form, according
to the nature of the plan, and the law of the horizontal and
vertical sections.
The most simple form of a roof is that which has only
one row of timbers arranged in an inclined plane, and
throws the rain entirely on one side. This description of
roof is termed a shed-roof, or lean-to.
If the plan of the roof be a trapezium, and the tops of
the walls properly levelled, the roof cannot be executed in
plane surfaces, so as to terminate in a level ridge; con-
sequently, the sides, instead of being planes, are made to
wind, in order to have the summit parallel to the horizon ;
but the best plan is, to make the sides of the roofs planes,
enclosing a level space or flat, in the form of a triangle or
trapezium, at the summit of the roof. Roofs which are flat
on the top, are said to be truncated they arc chiefly em-
ployed with a view to diminish the height, so as not to pre-
dominate over that of the walls.
If all the four sides of the roof are formed by inclined
planes, it is said to be hipped, and is therefore called a
hipped-roof and the inclined ridges, springing from the
angles of the walls, are called hips.
Roofs on circular bases, with all their horizontal sections
circular, the centres of the circles being in a straight line,
from the centre of the base perpendicular to the horizon,
are called roofs of revolution or rev olved-r oofs.
When the plan of the roof is a regular polygon, circle,
or an ellipsis, the horizontal sections being all similar to the
base, and the vertical section a portion of any curve, which
is convex on the outside, the roof is called a dome.

In roofs of rectangular buildings, when a saving of ex-

pense is of consequence, instead of a lead flat, which
must be covered with lead or copper, a valley is introduced,
which makes the vertical section in the form of the letter M,
or rather an inverted W ;
hence it has obtained the name
of M roof.
The pitch of a roof, or the angle which its inclined side
forms with the horizon, is varied according to the climate
and the nature of the covering.
 574 THE OPERATIVE MECHANIC
The inhabitants of cold countries make their roofs very
high ; and those of warm countries^ where it seldom rains
or snows^ very flat. But even in the same climate the pitch
of the roof is greatly varied. Formerly the roofs were
made very high, probably with the notion that the snow
would slide off easier; but where there are parapets, a high
roof is attended with very bad effects, as the snow slips
down and stops the gutters, and an overflow of water is
the consequence ; besides, in heavy rains, the water descends
with such velocity, that the pipes cannot convey it away
soon enough to prevent the gutters from being overflowed.
The height of roofs at the present time is very rarely
above one- third of the span, and should never be less than
one-sixth. The most usual pitch for slates is that when the
height is one-fourth of the span, or at an angle of 26;^ de-
grees with the horizon. Taking this as a standard, the fol-
lowing table will show the degree of inclination which may be
given for other materials :

Inclination Height of
Kind of covering. to the hori- roof in Weight upon a
zon in de- parts of square of roofing.
grees. Span.
1

Deg. Min.

Copper or lead .... 3 50 *

/copper 100
4'8
\ lead 700
Slates large 22 0 i , 1120
Ditto ordinary 26 33 1 / from 900
Ito 500
Stone slate 29 41 9.
7 2380
Plain tiles
'

29 41 4

Pan-tiles
T 1780
24 0 3 .
9 650
Thatch of straw, reeds. 45 h

A roof for a span of from 20 to 30 feet may have a truss

of the form shown in Fig. 583. Within this limit, the
pur-
lines do not become too wide apart, nor the
points of sup-
port of the tie-beam.
For spans exceeding 30 feet, and not more than 45 feet,
the truss shown in Fig. 584 is well adapted. Each pnrline
IS supported, consequently, there are no
cross strains on the
principal rafters 5 and the points of support divide the
tie-
beams into three comparatively short bearings. The sag-
ging, which usually takes place from the shrinking
of the
heads of the queen- posts, may be avoided by letting the end
of the principal rafter abut against the end of the
straining
 BnXiBINO n.83
Jhom to o8 7

'

1
684 \

1 j

^.1;
;

S h

^SOtekleji *c SS%SfTYU*ii
 AND MACHINIST. 575
beam A, and notching pieces and bolting them together in
pairs at each joint.
When the span exceeds 45 feet, and is not more than 60 feet, the truss
shown in Figf. 585 is sufficiently strong for the purpose, and leaves a con-
siderable degree of free space in the middle. For this span the tie-beam
will most likely require to be scarfed, and as the bearing of that portion
of the tie-beam between a and h is short, the scarf should be made there.
The middle part of the tie-beam may be made stronger by bolting the
straining cill c to it.

It often occurs, that the centre aisles ornaives of churches

are higher than the side aisles ; a similar effect, as when the
tie-beam continues through, may be produced by connect-
ing the lower beams to the upper one, by means of braces,
so that the whole may be as a single beam. To illustrate
this mode of construction, we have given a design for a roof
of a church, somewhat similar to St. Martins in the fields,
London.
Fig. 586, the lower ties, AA, are so connected with the principal tie-
beam, B, by means of the braces, a, a, that the foot of the principal raf-
ters, e, c, cannot spread without stretching the tie-beam, B. The iron
rods, b, b, perform the office of king-posts to the ties. A, A, and are much
better than timber, in consequence of the shrinkage, which in this situa-
tion would be very objectionable.
Fig. 587 is a design for a roof of a church, or other building, requiring
a semicircular arched ceiling.
Domes derive their names according to the plans on
which they are built, circular, elliptical, or polygonal of :

these, the circular may be

spherical, spheroidal, ellipsoidal,
hyperboloid al, paraboloidal, &c. Those which rise higher
than the radius of the base, are called surmounted domes ;
those that are of a less height than the radius, diminished^
or surhased'^, and such as have circular bases, cupolas.
The most usual form for a dome is the spherical, in which
case, the plan is a circle, and the section a segment of a
circle.
The top of a large dome is often finished with a lantern,
supported by the framing of the dome.
The interior and exterior forms of domes are seldom
alike, and in the space between them, a staircase to the
lantern is usually made. According to the space left be-
tween the external and internal domes, the framing must
be designed. Sometimes the framing may be trussed with
ties across the opening ; but generally the interior dome rises
so high that ties cannot be obtained.
Fig. 588, No. 1, shows the construction of a dome without ties. This
isthe most simple method, and one which is particularly applicable to
domes of ordinary dimensions. This example consists in placing a num-
 fi/G THE PKRATIVi: MECHANIC
her of curved ribs, so that the lower ends stand upon and are well framed
into the kirb at the base, and the upper ends meet at the top, or are
framed into the upper kirb on which the lantern is placed.
When it occurs, as it generally does, that the pieces are
so long, and so much curved, that they cannot be cut out of
timber without being cut across the grain, so much as will
weaken them, they should be put together in thicknesses,
with the joints crossed, and well bolted together.
No. 2, shows the ribs fixed, and bolted together, with horizontal rafters
to receive the boarding on the exterior, and the laths on the interior,
These ribs should be placed about two feet, or two feet six inches apart
at the base, and be composed of three or four thicknesses of one and a half
inch-deal, about 11 or 12 inches wide, M-hich, when carefully bolted
together with the joints judiciously broken, will stand exceedingly firm
and well.
To construct the ribs of a spherical dome, with eight
axal ribs, and one purline in the middle.
(Fig. 589.) No. 1. Let ABCDE be the plan of half the dome, udiich di-
vide into four equal parts at BCD and E, these points of division will
mark the centre of the back, or convex sides of the ribs. This being done,
let B 6, C c, D fi, be the plans of these ribs, with the points of division

in the centre. F, G, H, I, K, are the seats of the upper ends of the rilis ;
on the upper kirb draw a? y. No. 2, parallel to AE, then from tlie dif-
ferent seats of the ribs on the plan draw' perpendiculars cutting ^ y.
DraAv the cill, x y, its intended thickness, and complete the elevation of
the front and back ribs. The front ribs are quadrants, forming a semi-
circle on the upper side of the wall-plate, which, of course, is the diame-
ter. The curves of the sides of each of the other ribs are the quadrants
of an ellipsis of the same height with the front rib. Place the purlines
ill their intended situation, and having drawn the elevation and plan, as

shown by the dotted line, the construction is complete.

The ribs of an elliptical dome are found precisely on the
same principle.
Given the plan of a polygonal dome, and one of the axal
ribs, at right angles toone of the sides, to find the curve of
the angle rib and the covering.
Fig. 590. Let A, B, C, D, E, F, G, H, be the plan of an octangular
polygonal dome, and cab the given rib ; produce c to d, divide the
curve line a BA h into any number of equal parts, the more the better, in
this case four, 1, 2, 3, h, which extend on the line a d ; the first from a
to 1, the second from 1 to 2, &c. from the points of division, 1, 2, 3, 5,
:

draw lines parallel to B e, cutting C c, and from these points draw lines,
parallel to c d, or at right angles to B e, and through the points, 1, 2, 3,
draw k I, m n, o p, and tracing a curve through the points d, p, n, I ,
and making d o m k B similar, then the space comprehended between the
curve lines dJi e ; and the side BC of the plan, will give the form of the
whole covering, for each side of the dome.

To find the hip- line of the angle-rib, whose base is C c.

Draw CE, 2e, If, at right angles to C e, and make CE equal to eb.
2^eeU &Stoc^d^ scJ:> z Sntmd
1

I
 and machinist. ^77
2 (? equal S-'S, and 1 /equal to 1, 2, &c. and trace the curve through these
points, and it will give the angle-rib.

The method of covering spherical domes is, to suppose

them polygonal, and the principle the same as the foregoing
operation for an octangular dome.
A in carpentry, is the wood-work to be lathed over
for plastering. The general construction of niches is with
cylindrical backs and spherical heads, called cylindro-sj^heric
niches the execution of which depends upon the principles
;

of spheric sections.
As every section in a sphere is a circle, and that section
passing through its centre is equal, and the greatest that
can be formed by cutting the sphere ; it is evident, that if
the head of a niche is intended to form a spherical surface,
the ribs may be all formed by one mould, whose curvature
must be equal to that of the greatest circle of the sphere
viz. one passing through its centre ; but the same spherical
surface may, though not so eligible, be formed by ribs of
wood, moulded from the sections of lesser circles, in a
variety of ways.
The reason why these latter spherical surfaces are not so
eligible as those of greater circles is, because their dispo-
sition for sustaining the lath is not so good, and the trouble
of moulding them to different circles, and of forming the
edges according to different bevels, in order to range them
in the spherical surface, is very great, compared with those
made from great circles.
Tne disposition of the ribs of niches is generally in a
vertical plane, parallel to each other, or intersecting each
other in a vertical line. When the line of intersection
passes through the centre of a sphere, all the ribs are great
circles ; but if the line of intersection does not pass through
the centre of the sphere, the circles which form the sphe-
rical surface are all of different radii. When the ribs are
fixed in parallel vertical planes, their disposition is either
parallel the face of the wall, or parallel to a vertical
to
plane, passing through the centre of the sphere, perpendi-
cular to the surface of the wall ; but this method is not so
eligible for the purposes of lathing.
Another method is, by making the planes of the ribs pa-
rallel to the horizon this is not only attended with great
;

labour in workmanship, but is incommodious for lathing.

The various positions in which the ribs of a niche may be
placed, are very numerous ; but the regular positions, al-
2 p
578 THE OPERATIVE MECHANIC
ready enumerated, ought to be those to which the carpenter
should direct his attention.
To get out the ribs for the head of a niche, all of them being
hi vertical planes passing through the centre of the sphere,
Fi^. 591, No. 1. From the centre C draw the ground-plan of the ribs,
and set out as many ribs upon the plan as you intend to have in the head
of the niche. With the foot of your compasses in C, and from the ends of
each rib, at k and /, draw the small concentric dotted circles round to the
centre rib, at o and p, and draw o m, and p w, parallel to a b, the face of
the wall ; then from r round to s on the plan is the length and sweep of
the centre rib to stand over ; and from n round to s the length and curve
of the rib that stands from b to g ; and from m round to s, the curve of
the shortest rib, that stands from A: to A on the plan.

Uotu tofind the bevel of the ends of the back ribs against
the front rib.
The back ribs are laid down distinct by themselves, at AB and C from
the plan. Take b 1, in No. 1, and set it to A 1, at B, draw the perpen-
diculars, and when they intersect the rib, it will show the bevel required.
The same operation being done to C, the bevel is found in the same manner.
The places of the back-ribs when fixed upon the front-
rib are ascertained by drawing perpeiiu eulars, and com-
pleting the elevation of the niche No. 2 from the plan.
To find the radius of curvature of the ribs of a spherical
niche, tvhen the ribs all meet in a vertical line, which di-
vides the front rib into two equal parts.
Fig. 592, No. 1. Complete the circle, of which the inside of the plan is
an arc ;
produce the middle line of the plan of any rib, as of a A, to meet
the opposite side of the circumference in A ; on the whole line a A, as a
diameter, describe a semicircle, and from the point c, when the ribs in-
tersect, draw a perpendicular to c </, to meet the arc a rf at which arc
is the curve of the rib, whose seat is d. The other rib, as AD, is found
in the same manner. No. 2 is the elevation of the niche.
Pendentive cradling, is a cove bracketing, springing from
the rectangular walls of an apartment upwards to the ceil-
ing, so as to form the horizontal part of the ceiling into a
complete circle or ellipsis.
The proper criterion for such bracketing, if the walls are
out by horizontal planes through the coved parts, is, that
all the sections through such parts will be portions of cir-
cles, or of ellipses, and have their arcs proportioned to the
sides of the apartment, so that each section will be a
compound figure. Besides having four curvilinear parts, it
will have four other parts, which are portions of the sides
of the rectangular apartment : and the axis of the ellipsis
will bisect each side of the rectangle.
Fig. 593. Let ABCD be the plan of a room, or stair-case, to be brack-
 AND MACHINIST. 579
A
ted, so as to form tlie surface of a peiidentive ceiling- ; and let D
6 c be
the section across the diagonal ; it is required to find the curvature of the
springing ribs ?
Draw C d perpendicular to AC, meeting AC, take the distance from C
to tJie line AC, and set it from Con the line CA, and from this point draw
a perpendicular to meet the curve \ I eD of the diagonal rib ; make the
versid sine of the segment A </ C equal to this perpendicjjlar, and describe

the segment A d C, which is the springing line required. If from the

centre C an arc be described, with a radius equal to the length of the seat
of a rib, to meet the seat of the diagonal rib AD ;
and, if from the point
of meeting a perpendicular be drawn to meet the curve A b, the portion of
the arc of the diagonal rib, intercepted between A and the perpendicular,
will give the length of the rib, corresponding to the seat which was taker..
Fig. 594. The diagonal rib is a semicircle: the operation is exactly the
same, and may be described in the same words.

MENSURATION OF CARPENTERS* WORK.

All largeand plain articles in which an uniform quantity
of materials and workmanship is expended, are generally
measured by the square of 100 superficial feet.
Piles used in the foundations are valued at per piece, and
driven by the foot run, according to their diameter, and
the quality of the ground.
Keepers and planking are measured by taking the super-
ficial contents in yards or squares.
Plain centreing is measured by the square ; but as the

ribs and boarding are two different qualities of work, they

ought to be measured and valued separately ; one dimension
of the boarding being taken by girting it round the arch,
the other being the length of the vault.
Centreing for groins should be measured and valued as
common centreing ; but in addition thereto, the angles
should be paid for by the foot run, that is, the ribs and
boarding ought to be measured and valued separately, ac-
cording to the exact superficial contents of each ; and the
angles by the lineal foot for workmanship, in fitting the
rib and boards, and for the waste of wood occasioned by
the operation.
Wall-plates, lintels, and bond-timbers, are measured by
the cubic foot, under the denomination of fir-in-bond.
Naked flooring may either be measured by the square,
or by the cubic foot, according to the description of the
work, and the quantity of timber employed. In forming
an estimate of its value, it should be observed, that in equal
cubic quantities of small and large timbers, the small tim

2 p 2
 ;

:>8o THE OPERATIVE MECHANIC

bers will have more superficies than the large ones^ and,
therefore^ the saving will not be in a ratio with the solid
contents ; consequently the value of the workmanship will
not follow the cubic quantity, or said ratio. The difficulty
of handling timbers of the same length increases with the
weight or solidity, as the greater quantity requires greater
power to handle it, and consequently more time.
In naked flooring, where girders are introduced, the uni-
formity of the \vork is interrupted by mortises and tenons,
so that the sum ascertained by the cubic quantity of the
girders, at the same rate per foot as the other parts, is not
sufficient ; not only on account of the great difference of
size, but the great disparity in the quantity of workman-
ship, occasioned by its being cut full of mortises to receive
the tenons of the binding-joists ; the best method, there-
fore, to value the labour and materials is, to measure and
estimate the whole by the cubic quantity, and allow an addi-
tional rate upon every solid foot of girders ; or, if the bind-
ing-joists are not inserted in the girders, at the usual dis-
tances, a fixed price for every mortise and tenon, in pro-
portion to their size, which will keep a ratio with the area
of the end of the girder.
Partitions may be measured by the cubic feet ; but the
cills, top-pieces, and door-heads, should be measured by
themselves, according to the solid quantity, at an additional
rate ; because, both the uniform solidity, and the uniform
quantity of workmanship are interrupted by them. In
trussed partitions, the braces should be rated by the foot
cube, at a superior price to that of the quarterings, for the
trouble of fitting the ends of the uprights upon their upper
and lower sides, and for forming the abutments at the ends.
The timbers in roofing should be measured by the cubic
foot, classed as the difficulty of execution, or as the waste
occasioned, may require.
Battening to walls is best measured by the square, ac-
cording to the dimensions and distances in the clear of the
battening.
It w'ould be endless to enumerate the various methods
of measuring each particular species of carpenters' work
the leading articles only need be noticed.
When the shell of a building is finished, that is, previous
to the floors being laid, or the ceilings lathed, all the timbers
should be measured, that no doubt may arise as to the actual
scantlings of the timbers, or of the description of the work-
manship. In taking dimensions it must be observed that,
 AND MACHINIST. '581

alJpieces which have tenons^ must be measured to the extre-

mities of the tenons.
It is impossible to determine on any proper rate, includ-
ing both materials and workmanship, as the one may be
stationary, while the other is variable. With respect to
materials, the value of any quantity may be easily ascer-
tained, whatever be the price per load ; but the difficulty is
far greater in fixing proper rates of \vorkmanship ; however,
were the time of executing every species of work known,
there would be no difficulty in establishing certain uniform
quantities^ which would give the real value.

JOINERY.
Is the next branch of art which comes under our con-
sideration, and comprises the practice of employing wood in
the external and internal finishings of houses.
In the execution of this branch of building, it is almost
unnecessary to observe that, as joinery is employed princi-
pally by way of decoration, and is liable to close inspection,
it is one of the departments which demands the strictest

care and attention in the ^vorkmen; and it requires the

greatest ingenuity, skill, and experience, to become fully
master of every subject under the joiners consideration.
The first and most important thing to be attended to, is
the judicious selection of materials ; as, without a strict ob-
servance of this particular, the care, ingenuity, and ex-
ertions of the workman will be wholly frustrated.
As the temperature of the atmosphere has a great influ-
ence on wood, and more particularly in the winter sea-
son, it would be advisable to put that which is to be
used in fine work over an oven for a day or two. In the
different descriptions of joint used by the joiner, a hot
tenacious liquid, called glue^ is almost universally used, and
when applied, the two surfaces of the wood, which have been
previously rendered smooth, are rubbed together until the
glue is nearly all forced out. One piece is then set to its
situation with respect to the other.
For outside work, such as gates, dobrs, &c. white-lead is
used in all the joints.
When a frame, consisting of several pieces, is required,
the mortises and tenons are fitted together, and the joints
glued all at one time, then entered to their places, and forced
together by the assistance of an instrument called a cramp.
682 THE OPERATIVE MECHANIC
The operation of rendering a rough surface smooth, by
taking away the superfluous wood, is called planing ; and
the tools used for this puipose are called planes.
The planes used by joiners in the primary operation of
their work are called jack-planes^ trying-planes, long-
planes, and smoothing-planes ; the respective uses of which
are as follow :
^The jack-plane is used for taking away the
rough occasioned by the saw, and removing all superfluous
and other uneven parts. The trying-plane more par-
ticularly to bring the surface perfectly level and true : the
long plane succeeds, when the surface is long, and is re-
quired to be very straight, as in jointing long boards for
the purpose of gluing them together; and the smoothing-
plane is used to smooth and clean off the work.
In addition to the above, termed hench-planes, others are
occasionally used in forming any kind of prismatic surfaces,
viz. rehating-planes, grooving-pflanes, moulding-planes, &c.
under which head is included the fillister and plough,
Rehating-planes arc used for cutting out rebates, a kind
of half groove, upon the edge of a board, or other piece of
wood, formed by taking down or reducing a small part of
the breadth of the board to half, more or less, of the general
thickness. By this means, if a rebate be cut on the upper
side of one board, and the lower side of another, the two
may be made to overlap each other, without making them
any thicker at the joint.
Rebates are also used for ornamenting mouldings, and for
many other purposes in joiners^ work. The planes for cut-
ting them are of different kinds, some having the cutting
edge at the side of the iron and stock ; others at the bottom
edge of the iron and the face of the stock ; and others cut-
ting in both these directions. The former are used to
smooth the side of a rebate, and therefore are called side
rehating-planes ; the others for smoothing the bottom. A
third sort of rebate-planes, called a fillister, is used for
sinking or cutting away the edge of a piece of wood, to form
the rebate, leaving it for the others to smooth the surfaces
when cut.
The moving fillister a rebating- plane having a ruler of
is
wood, called \\\ct by screws, upon its face, in the
fence, fixed
direction of its length, and exactly parallel to the edge of
the face ; consequently, it covers part of the width of the
cutting edge, and can be fixed at any required distance from
the edge, to leave more or Rss of the cutting edge exposed,
which will be the breadth of the rebate it will cut, because.
 AND MACHINIST. 683

wnen used, the edge of the fence is applied against the edge
of the piece to be rebated, and thus gauges the breadth its
iron should cut away. The cutting-iron of this plane is not
situated at right angles to the length of the stock, but has
an obliquity of about forty-five degrees ; the exposed side
of the iron being more forward than the one next to the
fence. By this obliquity, the plane has a tendency or drift
to run further into the breadth of the wood ; but as the fence
sliding against the edge prevents this, the drift always keeps
the fence in contact with the piece without the attention of
the workman it also causes the iron to cut the bottom of
:

the rebate smoother, particularly in a transverse direction

to the fibres, or where the wood is cross-grained, or where
the edge is perpendicular to the sides of the plane. It is
chiefly used, however, to throw the shaving into a cylindri-
cal form, and thereby make it issue from one side of the
plane. Besides this iron, there is another of smaller di-
mensions, called the toothy which precedes the other, to
scratch or cut a deep crack in the width of the rebate, thus
making the shaving, which the iron cuts up from the bot-
tom, separate sideways from the rest of the wood. The
sash-fillister differs in many particulars from the moving-
fillister : the fence is adapted to be moved to a considerable
distance, not being fixed, as in the moving fillister, by
screws upon the face, but sustained by two bars, fixed fast to
it, passing through the two vertical sides of the stock at

right angles to the sides : these bars, when set to their

intended places, are tightened by small wedges. This kind
of plane is usually employed to rebate narrow pieces of
wood, such as are used in sashes ; and the fence is applied
against the opposite edge to that on which the rebate is to
be formed.
plough is a plane with a very narrow face, made of
iron, fixed beneath a wooden stock, and projecting down
from the wood of the stock ; the edge of the cutting-iron
being the full width of the groove required it is guided by
:

a fence with bars like the sash-fillister, and has also a stop to
regulate the depth intended for the grooves.
Moulding-planes are those which have their faces and
cutting edges curved, to produce all the varieties of orna-
mental mouldings they are known by the names of snipe' s-
:

hills, side snipe* s-hills, beads, hollows, rounds, ovolos, and

ogees. Of these there are a great variety of sizes, with which
every good joiner is furnished.
The whole of these planes have their faces straight in the
584 THE OPERATIVE MECHANIC

direction of their length ; but a section across the face is

the impression or reverse of the moulding they are intended
to make.
The tools employed in boring cylindric holes are a stock
with hits^^ gimlets, and of various descriptions and
sizes. Tne tools used for paring the wood obliquely, or
across the fibres, and for cutting rectangular prismatic ca-
vities, are in general denominated chisels ; those for paring
the wood across the fibres being called firmers, or paring-
chisels, and those for cutting mortises, mortise- chisels. The
best paring-chisels are made entirely of cast steel. Chisels
for paring concave surfaces, are called gouges.
Wood is generally divided or reduced by means of saivs,
of which there are several sorts; as the ripping- saw, for
dividing boards into separate pieces, in the direction of the
fibres ; the hand-saw, for cross-cutting, or for sawing thin
pieces in the direction of their length ; the panel-saw, either
for cross cutting, or cutting very thin boards longitudinally ;
the tenon-saw, with a thick iron back, for making an inci-
sion of any depth below the surface of the wood, and for
cutting pieces opposed to the length of the fibres ; also a
sash-saw, and a dovetail-saw, used much in the same way
as the tenon-saw.
From the thinness of the plates of these three last-men-
tioned saws, it is necessary to stiffen them by a strong piece
of metal called the back, which is grooved to receive the
upper edge of the plate, fixed to the back, and which is
thereby secured and prevented from crippling.
When it is required to divide boards into curved surfaces,
a very narrow saw without a back, called a compass-saw,
is used ; and in cutting a very small hole, a saw of a similar
description is used, called a key-hole-saw Both of these
description of saws are called turning- saws, and have their
plates thin and narrow towards their bottoms, and each
succeeding tooth finer.
The external and internal angles of the teeth of all saws
are generally formed at one angle of 60 degrees, and the
fi out edge teeth slope backwards in a small degree. The
teeth of every description of saw, except turning-saws, are
alternately bent on contrary sides of the plate, so that all
the teeth on the same side are alike bent throughout the
length of the plate, for the purpose of clearing the sides of
the cut made by it in the wood. The foregoing are generally
termed edge-tools.
U^hen it is necessary to ascertain if an angle be exactly
 AND MACHINIST. 585
square, or inclined to any number of degrees, a tool called
a square is used, and in the latter instance, a bevel is set to
the angle ; when any piece is to be reduced to a parallel
breadth or thickness, an instrument, called a gauge, formed
of a square piece with a mortise, having a sliding bar, called
a stem, running through it at right angles, and furnished
with a tooth, projecting a little from the surface, is used ;
so that when the stock of the gauge is applied to the verti-
cal side or edge of the piece, with the toothed side of the
stem upon the horizontal surface, and is pushed and drawn
alternately backwards and forwards by the workman, the
tooth will make an incision from the surface into the wood,
at a parallel distance from the edge to which the stock part
ii> applied.
When is to be made in a piece of wood, the
a mortise
gauge used has two teeth. The construction of this gauge
is the same as that before described, except that the tooth

nearest the stock moves by means of a longitudinal slider

in the stem, wdiich is to be set at a distance from the other
tooth, as occasion may require.
a piece of wood is to be sawn across the fibres, a flat
If
piece of wood, which has two projecting knobs, on opposite
sides, one at each end, called a side-hook, is used, to keep
the piece which has to undergo the operation of the saw
steady ; the knob at one end presses against the piece, while
that at the other end is hooked to the bench. Two of
these are necessary when the pieces are long.

When a piece of wood is required to be cut to a mitre,

that is, to half a right angle, joiners use a trunk of wood
with three sides, like a box that has neither ends nor top, the
sides and bottom being parallel pieces, and the sides of equal
height. Through each of the opposite sides, in a plane per-
pendicular to the bottom, and at the oblique angles of 45
and 135 with the planes of the sides, a kerf is cut ; and
another kei'f is made with its plane at right angles to the
two former. Into this trunk, termed a mitre-hox, the piece
to be cut is put, and the saw, guided by the kerfs, cuts the
wood to the angle required.
In making a straight surface, a strip of wood called a
straight-edge, which has one of its edges perfectly straight,
is frequently applied, to detect the irregularities, and the

piece is accordingly planed with the trying plane until the

surface coincides with the straight-edge.
To ascertain if. the surface of a piece of wood be in one
plane, the joiner takes two slips of wood, each straightened
580 THE OPERATIVE MECHANIC
on one edge, with the opposite edge parallel, and both
pieces of the same height, and places them one at each end,
across the board under operation ; he then looks in the lon-
gitudinal direction of the board over the upper edges of the
slips, and if the two edges and his eye be not in one plane,
the upper parts are planed down until the piece is said to be
out of luind, and the same term is applied to the slips, which
are called winding-sticks. The operation of making the
edge of a board straight is called shooting ; and the edge so
made is said to be shot.
From what has been here said of the application of the
])rincipal tools used by the joiner, we consider any further
account of the primary processes unnecessary 5 we shall,
tlierefore, proceed to lay before the reader the best methods
in use of effecting some of the more difficult and particular
operations. -

To construct the surface of a portion of a cylinder with

wood^ when the fibres are at right angles to the axis of the
cylinder^ such as may he used in a circular dado, or the sof-
fitsof windows.
If the dimension of the cylindric surface, parallel to the
axis, be not broader than a plank or board, this may be
done by gluing several thicknesses of veneer upon each
other ; the first upon a mould, or upon brackets, with their
edges in the surface of the proposed cylinder, parallel to its
axis. This may be effected by means of two sets of brackets
fastened to a board, one convex and of the curve intended,
and the other concave of the curve of the exterior of the
whole thickness of veneers, or somewhat larger ; this last
bracket is then applied on the top of the veneers and fas-
tened to the other bracket, and the veneers are then forced
together by means of wedges between the concave brac-
ket and the veneer. If this operation be carefully done and
the glue properly dried, the wedges may be slackened and
the work will stand well, but it must be observed, that, as
the wood has a natural tendency to unbend itself, the curved
surface, upon which it is glued, should be rather quicker
than that intended to be made.
A second plan is to form a templet or cradle to the sur-
face intended, and lay a veneer upon it ; then to glue a num-
ber of blocks of wood upon its back, closely fitted to its
surface, and the other joints to each other, the fibres of the
veneer being parallel to those of the blocks.
A third method is to make a cradle and place the veneer
upon it, coiifiriing one end; lay the glue between the
 AND MACHINIST. 587

veneers with a brushy and fix a bridle across^ confining its

ends either by nails or by screws ; open the veneers again,
put glue a second time between each, and fix another bridle
across them 5 and in this manner proceed to the other ex-
tremity.
A fourth plan is to cut a number of equidistant grooves
across the back of the board, at right angles to its edges,
leaving only a small thickness towards the face; then to bend
this round a cradle with the grooves outwards, and fill the
grooves with strips of wood, which, after the glue is quite
dry, must be planed down level with the surface of the
board. This may be stiffened by gluing strong canvass on
the back.
To hend a hoard so as to form the frustum of a cone, or
any segmental portion of the frustum of a cone, as the sof-
fit of the head of an aperture.
When the envelope of the covering is found by the rule
laid down under the article Masonry, page 542, and
the mould is made with a thin piece of board, cut out the
board intended to be bent, and run a number of saw kerfs,
or grooves made by a plane, (which are preferable,) equi-
distant from each other, and tending to the centre, and
having fixed it made to the surface of a cone,
to a templet,
finish it in the manner shown in the last method, for a
cylinder.
To glue up the shaft of a column, supposmg it to be the
frustum of a cone.
Prepare as many staves as the circumference may require,
and let the joints of each be so managed as to fall in the fil-
lets, which disposition will be stronger than if they were to fall
in the middle of the flutes. Suppose eight pieces to be suf
ficient to constitute the shaft of a column describe a circle
:

to the diameterof each end; about each circle describe an octa-

gon ; from the concourse of each angle draw aline to the cen-
tre, then draw an interior concentric octagon, with each side
parallel to the respective sides of the corresponding one,
and the distance between these two octagons equal to the
thickness of the staves and thus the section of the staves
;

will be found at each end, and consequently, the bevels will

be obtained throughout the whole length. In order to join
the column, glue two pieces together, and when quite dry,
glue in blockings to strengthen them ; join a third piece to
the former two, and secure it also by blockings. In this
manner proceed to the last piece but one. In fixing the last
piece^ the blockings must be idued to the adjacent sla\es;
588 THE OPERATIVE MECHANIC
and their surfaces, on which the last stave is intended to
rest, must be all in the same plane, that its back may rest
firmly upon them. In closing up the remaining space, the
part of the Qolumn that is glued together should be kept
from spreading by confining it in a kind of cramp, or cra-
dle, while driving the remaining stave to close the joints.
Instead of the foregoing mode, some joiners glue up the
columns in halves and then glue them together. When an
iron core is necessary to support a floor or roof, the column
must necessarily be glued up in halves ; in which case the
two halves are to be dowelled together, and the joints filled
with white-lead. Instead of a cramp, a rope is used,
twisted by means of a lever. In bringing the two halves
together, the percussive force of the mallet must be applied
upon the middle of the surface of one half, while an assist-
ant holds something steady against the middle of the other,
that the opposition may be equal, and by this means the
surfaces will be brought into contact, and form the joint
as desired. In this operation pieces of wood ought to be in*
serted between the column and the rope.
Boards can be connected together at any given angle,
either by pins or nails, mortise and tenon, or by indenting
them together.
This last mode, from the sections of the hollows and pro-
jecting parts being formed like a doves tail, is called dove--
tailing.
There are three sorts of dovetailing}, viz. common, lap,
and mitre. Common dovetailing shews the form of the
projecting parts, as well as of the excavations made to re-
ceive them ; lap dovetailing conceals the dovetail, but shews
the thickness of the lap on the return side j and mitre dove-
tailing conceals the dovetail and shews only a mitre on the
edges of the planes at the surface of the concourse ; that is,
the edges in the same plane, the seam or join being in the
concourse of the two faces, making the given angle with
each other.
Concealed dovetailing is particularly useful where the faces
of the boards are intended to form a saliant angle ; but
when the faces form a re-entrant angle, common dovetailing
is preferable.

There is another simple and expeditious manner of con-

necting the ends of boards together where the faces form a
re-entrant, or internal angle, by means of a groove in the
one, and a tongue in the other ; and if the pieces be pre
 AND MACHINIST. 589

viously nailed so that the nails be not seen in the faces^ inis
will answer every purpose of common -dovetailing.
As various methods are employed in connecting pieces of
wood so as to form an angle, we shall here present the
reader with so.ne of the best examples.
Fi^s. 595 and 596 are methods of connecting two pieces of wood so as
to form two internal right angles.
Figs. 597, 598, 599, 600, 601, and 602, exhibit the joining of boards at
an external angle.
In Figs. 598 and 599 the external angle, being that which is exposed
to sight,is rounded or beaded.
Fig. 600 is the most common of mitres.
Fig. 601, a lapped mitre, which is much stronger than Fig. 600.
Fig. 602, a lapped andtongued mitre.
Fig. 603, dovetailing.
Fig. 601, secret dovetailing.
If several boards are required to be joined together to
form a broad face, they are sometimes strengthened by fix-
ing, with a tongue and groove, or mortise and tenon,
another narrow piece across each end the cross piece is
:

termed a clamp, and the board thus constructed is said to

be clamped.
The most simple description of door is constructed of
several boards simply rebated together, or each edge plough-
ed and tongued ; these are confined together by a transverse
piece, called a ledge nailed a cross, from which the door de-
rives the name of a ledge-door.
When strength, durability, and beauty are to be combined,
a frame, joined by mortise and tenon, is constructed with
one or more openings ; and these openings are filled with
pieces called panels, fitted into grooves, ploughed in the
edges of the frame. The horizontal pieces of the framing are
called, according to their situation, top-rail, bottom-rail,
lock-rail, and frieze-rail. On the lock- rail the lock is either
mortised in, or screwed on ; and the frieze-rail is an interme-
diate rail between the top and middle rail. The extreme
vertical pieces to which the rails are fixed are called stiles ;

and if there be any intermediate piece it is called a

mounting.
Doors derive their names according to the manner in
which they are framed and the number of panels they con-
tain, as one, two, four, six, &c. panelled doors ; and are
further described by the moulding and description of panel.
Jib-doors are those which, when shut, are as much con-
cealed as possible. They are used to preserve the uni-
formity of a room, or to save the expense of a corresponding
590 THE OPERATIVE MECHANIC
door. Doors ought to be made of the best materials, per-
fectly seasoned, and firmly put together ; the mitres or
scribings should be brought together with the greatest ex-
actness, and the whole of their surfaces be perfectly smooth.
The mortising, tenoning, ploughing, and sticking of the
mouldings, ought to be worked correctly to the gauge-lines ;
otherwise the door, when put together, will be out of
truth, and occasion the workman a great deal of trouble,
paring the different parts to make it appear satisfactory
the door will also lose much of its firmness, especially if the
mortises and tenons require to be pared.
In bead and flush doors, make the work square, after-
wards put in the panels, and smooth the whole off to-
gether ; then, marking the panels at the parts of the fram-
ing to \vhich they agree, take the door to pieces, and work the
beads on the stiles, mountings, and rails. If the doors are
tloubie margin, that is, representing a pair of folding doors,
the staff stile, which imitates the meeting-stiles, must be
inserted into the top and bottom rails of the door, by fork-
ing the emls into notches cut in the top and bottom rails.
In the hanging of doors, the chief aim is to clear the car-
pet or ground; which may be accomplished by observing
the following rules. First, let the floor be raised under the
door, according to the intended thickness of the carpet
secondly, let the knuckles of the top and bottom hinges be so
placed, that the top hinge hang, or project, about one
eighth of an inch over the lower ; that is, if the hinge be let
equally into the door and into the jamb, project a little be-
yond the surface of the door ; but if the centre lie in the
surface of the door, it must be placed at the very top, which
is seldom done, except when the door is hung with centres.
Thirdly, let the jamb on which the door hangs, be fixed
about an eighth of an inch out of the perpendicular, the
upper part inclining towards the opposite jamb ; and
fourthly, let the inclination of the rebate be such, that the
door shall, when shut, project at the bottom, towards the
room, about an eighth of an inch.
These several methods, practised on so small a scale, are
not perceptible ; but, nevertheless, will throw the door,
when opened, to a square sufficiently out of the level ; that
is, at least half an inch, when the height of the door is

double the width.

Several kinds of rising hinges have been introduced for
this purpose : some of the best, constructed of brass, are by
no means objectionable, even to the best doors.
 FL.85

nr^l, sc JS I SmmJ
 AND MACHINIST. 591

Before we proceed to the principles of hanging doors, we

shall submit to the reader some information on the subject
of hinging in general.
The placing of hinges depends entirely on the form of the
joint, and as the motion of the door or closure is angular, and
performed round a fixed line as an axis, the hinge must be
so fixed that the motion be not interrupted thus, if the joint
:

contain the surface of two cylinders, the convex one in mo-

tion upon the edges of the closure, and sliding upon the
concave one which is at rest on the fixed body, the motion
of the closure must be performed on the axis of the cylin-
der, which axis must be the centre of the hinges. In this
case, whether the aperture be shut or open, the joint will be
close ; but if the joint be a plane surface, it is necessary to
consider upon what side of the aperture the motion is to be
performed, as the hinge must be placed on the side of the
closure where it revolves.
The hinge made in two parts, movable in any angular
is

direction, the one upon the other.

The knuckle of the hinge is a portion contained under a
cylindric surface, and is common both to the moving part
and the part which is at rest ; the cylinders are indented in-
to each other, and are made hollow to receive a concentric
cylindric pin, which passes through them, and connects the
moving parts together.
The axis of the cjdindrical pin, is called the axis of the
hinge.
When two or more hinges are placed upon a closure, the
axis of the hinges must be in the same straight line.
The
straight line in which the axis of the hinges are placed
iscalled the line of hinges.
We
shall now proceed to the principle of hanging doors,
shutters, or flaps, with hinges.
Thecentre of the hinge is generally put in the middle of the joint, as
at A, Fig. G05, but in many cases there is a necessity for throwing back
the flap to a certain distance from the joint ;
in order to eflect this, sup-
pose the flap when folded back, were required to be at a certain distance
from the joint, as BA, Fig. G05, divide BA in two equal parts at the point
C, and it will give the centre of the hinge. The centre of the hiiige
must be placed a small degree beyond the surface of the closure, other-
wise it will not fall freely back on the jamb, or partition. It must also be
observed, that, the centre of the hinge must be on the same side as the re-
bate, or it will not open without the joint being constructed in a particu-
lar form.
To
hajig two flaps, so that ivhen folded hack, they shall he
at a certain distance from each other.
This is easily accomplished by means of hinges having knees project-
592 I'HK OPERATIVE MECHANIC
ing tohalf that distance, as appears from Fig-. GOT: this sort of hinge is
used in hanging the doors of pews, in order to clear the moulding of the
coping. Fig. 607, No. 2, shows the same hinge opened.

To make a rule joint for a ivindow-shutter, or other fold-

ingflap.
60S, No. 1. Let a be the place of the joint, draw a c at right an-
gles to the flap, shutter, or door, take c, in the line a c, for the centre of
the hinge, and the plain part a b, as may be thought necessary ; or c, with
a radius, c by describe the arc b d then will a b d be the true joint.
The knuckle of the hinge is always placed in the wood ; because the further
it is inserted, the more of the joint will be covered when it is opened to a
right angle, as in Fig. GOG, No. 2; but if the centre of the hinge were
placed the least without the thickness of the wood, it would show an cpen
space, which would be a blemish.

To form the joints of stiles, to he hung together, when the

knuckle of the hinge is placed on the contrary side of the
rebate.
Fig. G08. Let c be the centre of the hinge, m i the joint on the same
side, c h the depth of the rebate in the middle of the thickness of the styles,
perpendicular to i m, and If the joint on the other side, parallel toim;
bisect i I at k, join k c, on k c describe a semicircle c iky cutting i?n at A,
/
through the points h and k draw h k g, cutting 1 aXg; then will gyh my
f
be the true joint.
Fig. GOO represents the common method of hanging shutters together,
the hinge being let the whole of its thickness into the shutter, and not into
the sash-fr.ame. By this mode it is not so firmly hung as when half of it
is let into the shutter, and half into the sash-frame ; but the lining may be
made thinner.
It may here be proper to observe, that the centre of the
hinge must be in the same plane with the face of the shut-
ter, or beyond it, but not within the thickness.

Hoiv to construct a joint for hangmg doors with centres.

Fig. G14. Let a d be the thickness of the door, bisect it in by draw b c
perpendicular to a by make b c equal to b a, or h dy or c, the centre of the
hinge, with a radius c , or c dy describe an arc, a e dy which will give
the joint required.
Another plan is represented in Fig. 613. Draw a b parallel to the jamb,
meeting the other side in by make b d equal to h , and join a d and a c, bi-
sect c by a perpendicular e /, meeting a d in/, then / is the centre of

the liiiige.
Figs. 610, 611, and 612, exhibit different methods of hanging flaps,
&c. These are so very simple, that by a little attention the reader will
y cadily perceive their uses and manner of construction.

We shall now detail the construction of sash-frames,

sashes, and shutters, and the manner of putting the several
parts together.
Fig. 615, No. 1, the elevation No. 2, the plan and No. 3, the section
; ;

of the same ;
showing the manner in which the different parts are eon-
1 ected.
Ir om 6l5 to 6l 7
PIM
b'lo^

StriaU
 AND MACHINIST. 593
No. 1 . A Backi B Flush separated from the back by flush
skirting:,
reeds, and showing: the same depth of plinth as the blocks of the pilas-
ters.
C C Blocks or plinths to pilasters. D D
Pilasters.
E E Patteras.
a a aa Inside bead of sash-frame
b b b rounded edge of boxing-stile.
.

No. 2. Plan of sash-frame, shutters, pilasters, and the difterent parts

are explained in the figures. .

No. 3. a thickness of the pilaster or architrave ; b the rounded edge of

the boxing-stile ; c the breadth of the shutter ; d bead of the sash-frame ;
e under sash ; f top ditto ; parting bead ; h outside lining and bead,
g
t the breadth of* the reveal or outer brick-work ; k k lintels made of strong

yellow deal or oak ; I the head of the ground ; m

the architrave or pilaster
fixed upon the grounds ; n the soffit, tougued into the top of the sash-
frame-head ; and, on the other edge, into the head of the architrave m ;

0 the sash-frame head ; /? the elbow q capping ; r sash-frame cill ; s sash-

cill ; t stone-cill.

The
face of the pulley-stile of every sash-frame ought to
project about three-eighths of an inch beyond the edge of
the brick- work; that is, the distance between the face of each
pulley- stile ought to be less by three quarters of an inch
than in the clear of the reveals on the outside ; so that the
face of the shutters ought to be in the same plane with the
stone or brick-work on the outside.
Fig. 616 shows a plan of a sash-frame and shutter on the same princi-
ple as the foregoing, and which may be applied to a similar window.
As the thickness of the wall is here conceived to be less thfin in the fore-

going example, another back-flap is introduced : a the outside lining ;
b the pulley-stile ; c the inside lining ; d the back lining ; e fiha weights ;
g parting slip of weights ; h parting bead to sashes ; i inside bead ; k
back lining of boxing ; t ground, or boxing-stile, grooved to receive the
plastering ; m
front shutter hung to the inside lining, c, of the sash-
frame by the hinge n ; o p back flaps hinged together at and to the
shutter at r; s architrave or pilaster.
Fig. 617. Is a vertical section of the cill, &c. of the same sash-frame ,
a bottom rail of sash ; b cill of the sash-frame ; c back of recess of win-
dow ; d coping bead, or capping let into the sash-frame cill ; e inside
bead, tongued on the top of the cill ; h outside lining ;f space for the top-*
sash to run in ; g parting bead,

STAIRS.
This is one of the most important subjects connect-
ed with a joiners art, and should be attentively consi-
dered, not only with regard to the situation, but as to the
design and execution. The convenience of the building
depends on the situation ; and the elegance, on the design
and execution of the workmanship. In contriving a grand
edifice, particular attention must be paid to the situation of
the space occupied by the stairs, so as to give thein the
most easy command of the rooms.
With regard to the lighting of a good staircase, a sky-
light, or rather lantern, is the most appropriate for these
;

2q
594 THE OPERATIVE MECHANIC
unite elegance with utility, that is, admit a powerful light,
with elegance in the design ; indeed, where the staircase
docs not adjoin the exterior walls, this is the only light that
can be admitted. Where the height of a stoiy is consider-
able, resting places are necessary, which go under the name
of quarter-paces, and half-paces, according as the passenger
has to pass one or two right-angles ; that is, as he has to
describe a quadrant or semi-circle. In very high stories,
which admit of sufficient head-room, and where the space
allowed for the staircase is confined, the staircase may
have two revolutions in the height of one story, which will
lessen the height of the steps ; but in grand staircases only
one revolution can be admitted, the length and breadth of
the space on the plan being always proportioned to the
heigh,t of the building, so as to admit of fixed proportions.
The breadth of the steps ought never to be more than 15
inches, or less than nine ; the height not more than seven,
or less than five : there are cases, however, wdiich are ex-
ceptions to all rule. When the height of the story is given
in feet, and the height of the step in inches, you may throw
the feet into inches, and divide it by the number of inches
the step is high, and the quotient will give the number of
steps.
It is a general maxim, that the greater breadth of a step
requires less height than one of less breadth : thus, a step
of 12 inches in breadth will require a rise of 5^ inches, which
may be taken as a standard, to regulate those of other di-
mensions.
Though it is desirable to have some criterion as a guide in
the arrangement of a design, yet workmen will, of course,
vaiy them as circumstances may require. Stairs are con-
structed variously, according to the situation and destina-
tion of the building.
Geometrical stairs are those which arc supported by
having one end fixed in the wall, and every step in the as-
cent having an auxiliary support from that immediately be-
low it, and the lowest step from the floor.
Bracket- stairs are those which have an opening or well,
with strings and newels, and are supported by landings and
carriages ; the brackets are mitred to the ends of each riser,
and are fixed to the string-board, which is moulded below
like an architrave.
Dog-lcgged stairs arc those which have no opening, or
well-hole, and have the rail and balusters of both the pro-
gressive and returning flights falling in the same vertical
 AND MACHINIST. 595

planes, the steps being fixed to strings, newels, and car-

riages, and the ends of the steps of the inferior kind termi-
nating only upon the side of the string, without any housing.
In taking dimensions and laying down the plan and section
of stair-cases, take a rod, and, having ascertained the num-
ber of steps, mark the height of the story, by standing the
rod on the lower floor : divide the rod into as many equal
parts as there are to be risers, then, if you have a level sur-
face to work upon below the stair, try each of the risers
as you go on, and this will prevent any excess or defect ; for
any error, however small, when multiplied, becomes of con-
siderable magnitude, and even the difference of an inch in
the last riser, will not only have a bad effect to the eye, but
will be apt to confuse persons not thinking of any such ir-
regularity. In order to try the steps properly by the story
rod, if you have not a level surface to work from, the better
way will be, to lay two rods on boards, and level their top
surface to that of the floor : place one of these rods a little
within the string, and the other near or close to the wall, so
as to be at right angles to the starting line of the first riser,
or, which is the same thing, parallel to the plan of the string
set off the breadth of the steps upon these rods, and num-
ber the risers ; you may set not only the breadth of the
flyers, but that of the winders also. In order to tiy the
story-rod exactly to its vertical situation, mark the same
distances of the risers upon the top edges, as the distances of
the plan of string-board, and the rods are from each other.
In bracket-stairs, as the internal angle of the steps is open
to the end, and not closed by the string as in common dog-
legged stairs, and the neatness of workmanship is as much
regarded as in geometrical stairs, the balusters must be
neatly dove-tailed into the ends of the steps, two in every
step. The face of each front baluster must be in a straight
surface with the face of the riser, and, as all the balusters
must be equally divided, the face of the middle baluster
must stand in the middle of the face of the riser of the pre-
ceding step and succeeding one. The risers and heads are
all previously blocked and glued together, and when put up,
the under side of the step nailed or screwed into the under
edge of the riser, and then rough brackets to the rough
strings, as in dog-legged stairs, the pitching pieces and
rough strings being similar. In glueing up the steps, the
best method is to make a templet, so as to fit the external
angle of the steps with the nosing.
2 q2
59G THE OFERATIVF. MECHANIC
The steps of geometrical stairs ought to be constructed so
as to have a very light and clean appearance when put up
for this purpose, and to aid the principle of strength, the
risers and treads, when planed up, ought not to be less than
one eighth of an inch, supposing the going of the stair,
or length of the step, to be four feet, and for every six inches
in length, another one-eighth may be added. The risers
ought to be dove-tailed into the cover, and when the steps
are put up, the treads are screwed up from below to the
under edge of the risers. The holes for sinking the heads of
the screws ought to be bored with a centre-bit, then fitted
closely in with wood, well matched, so as entirely to con-
ceal the screws, and appear as one uniform surface. Brack-
ets are mitred to the riser, and the nosings are continued
round. In this mode, however, there is an apparent de-
fect ; for the brackets instead of giving support, are them-
selves unsupported, and dependent on the steps, being of no
other use, in point of strength, than merely tying the risers
and treads of the internal angles of the steps together and,
:

from the internal angles being hollow, or a re-entrant angle,

except at the ends, which terminate by the wall at one extre-
mity, and by the brackets at the other, there is a want of
regular finish. Tlie cavetto, or hollow, is carried round the
front of the riser, and is returned at the end, and mitred
round the bracket, and if an open string, that is, the under
side of the stairs open to view, the hollow is continued along
the angle of step and riser.
The best plan, however, of constructing geometrical stairs
is, to put up the strings, and to mitre the brackets to the
risers, as usual, and enclose the soffit with lath and plasteiv
which will form an inclined plane under each flight, and a
winding surface under the winders. In superior staircases,
for the best buildings, the soffit may be divided into panels.
If the risers are made from two inch planks, it will greatly
add to the solidity. The method of drawing and executing
the scroll, and other wreath parts of the hand-rail, will be
given in a subsequent part of this article.
In constructing a flight of geometrical stairs, where the
soffit is inclosed as above, the bearers should all be framed
together, so that when put up, they will form a perfect
staircase. Each piece of frame-work, which forms a riser,
should, in the partition, be well wedged at the ends, lliis
plan is always advisable when strength and firmness are re-
quisite, as the steps and risers are entirely dependent on the
 AND MACHINIST. 597
framed carriages, wliich, if carefully put together, will never
yield to the greatest weight.
Fig-. 619will show the section of this framing firmly put together, and
wedged into the partition, as above described.

In preparing the string for the wreath part, a cylinder

should be made of the size of the well-hole of the stair-
case, which can be done at a trifling expense ; then set the
last tread and riser of the flyers on one side, and the first
tread and riser of the returning flight on the opposite side,
at their respective heights ; then on the centre of the curved
surface of this cylinder, mark the middle between the two,
and with a thin slip of wood, bent round with the ruling
edge, cutting the two nosings of these flyers and passing
through the intermediate height marked on the cylinder,
draw a line, which will give the wreath line formed by
the nosings of the winders ; then draw the whole of
the winders on this line, by dividing it into as many parts
as you want risers, and each point of division is the nosing
of such winder. Having thus far proceeded, and carefully
examined your heights and widths, so that no error may
have occurred, prepare a veneer of the width intended
for your string, and the length given by the cylinder, and
after laying it in its place on the cylinder, proceed to glue a
number of blocks about an inch wide on the back of the
veneer, with their fibres parallel to the axis of the .cylinder.
When diy, this will form the string for the wreath part of
the staircase, to be framed into the straight strings. It is
here necessary to observe, that about five or six inches of
the straight string should be in the same piece as the circu-
lar, so that the joints fall about the middle of the first and
last flyers. This precaution always avoids a cripple, to
which the work would otherwise be subject.
Fig-. 6 IS, No. 1, is a plan of a dog-legged staircase, a the seats of the
newels, c the seat of the upper newel.
No. 2.** The elevation of the same. i

AB. The newels ; the part AC being turned. DE the upper newel.

FG the carriage piece. HI upper string board framed into the newel.
K a joist framed into the trimmer.
To describe the ramps ; produce the horizontal part of the knee to L,
and also the under side of the rail until it meets the face of the first balus-
ter, at c, make c d equal to c D, and upon A rf, and from the point d, draw

the perpendicular d L, and L is the centre for describing the ramps d D.

The story-rod ah'v&K very necessary article infixing the steps ; for, if
a common rule be used for this purpose, the workmen will be very liable
to err and render the stairs extremely faulty, -which cannot take place if the
story-rod be applied to every riser, and the successive risers be regulated
by it.
598 THE OPERATIVE MECHANIC
In the construction of dog- legged staircases, the first
thing is, to take the dimensions of the stair, and the height
of the story, and lay down a plan and section upon a floor
to the full size, representing all the newels and steps ; then
the situation of the carriages, pitching pieces, long and cross
bearers, as also the string boards ; the strings, rails, and
newels, being framed together, must be fixed with temporary
supports. The string-board will show the situation of the
pitching-pieces, which must be put up in order, wedging
one end firmly into the wall, and fixing the other to the
string-board ; this being done, pitch up the rough strings,
and finish the carriage part of the flyers. Having proceeded
thus far, the steps are next applied, beginning at the bot-
tom and working upwards, the risers being all firmly nailed
into the treads.
In the best kind of dog-legged stairs, the nosings are re-
turned ; sometimes the risers are mitred to the brackets, and
sometimes mitred with quaker strings. In the latter case a
hollow is mitred round the internal angle of the under side
of the tread, and the face of the riser. Sometimes the
string is framed into the newel, and notched to receive the
ends of the steps ; the other end having a corresponding
notch-board, and the whole flight being put up like a step-
ladder.
Fig. 619, No. 1 and 2, is a plan and elevation of a geometrical stair-
case. The lower part, No. 2, shows the section of the steps and car-
riages, which are framed together as directed in a former part of this
article.
The methods of finding the different moulds necessary in
the formation of the wreath part of the hand-rail, will be
found in the next plate.
To draw the scroll oj a hand-raiL
Fig. 620. First make a circle inches in diameter, divide the diameter
into three equal parts, make a square in the centre of the circle equal to
one of those parts, and divide each side of the square into six equal parts.
Fig. 4, shows this square on a larger scale, and laid in the same position
as the little square above, with the different centres marked. The centre
at 1 draws from a to A, the centre at 2 from h to c, and the centre at 3
from c to dy &c. which mil complete the outside revolution at A : set the
thickness of the rail from cf and to x, draw the inside the reverse way,
and the scroll will be completed.
To draw the curtail- steps.
Set the balusters in their proper places on each quarter of the scroll,
Fig. 3, the first baluster showing the return of the nosing round the
step, the second placed at the beginning of the twist, and the third a
quarter distant, and straight with the front of the last riser ; then set the
projection of the nosing without, and draw it round equally distant from
the scroll, which will give the form of the curtail.
 n.87
Frayn 618 to 6J2
 AND MACHINIST. 599 ^

As the method of getting a scroll out of a solid piece of

wood, having the grain of the wood to run in the same
direction with the rail, is far preferable to any other method
with joints, being much stronger and more beautiful than
any other scroll with one or two joints, we shall here give the
method of finding a face- mould to apply on the face of the
plank.
Place your pitch board I m n with m n passiag" throus^h the eye of tlie
scroll,then draw ordinates across the scroll at discretion, and take the
leng-th of the line o n, with its divisions, and lay it on o , at Fig. 621, then
the ordinate being drawn, take the different distances 2 x, 8 4 v. See.
and transfer them to 2 y, 3 2;, 4 v, Sec. and the rest of the points being taken
in the same manner, a curve may be traced which will be the face-mould
required.

To find the parallel thickness of the plank.

Fig. 622. Let Imn he the pitch board, and let the level of the scroll
rise one-sixth, that is, divide I m into six equal parts, and the bottom
division is the top of the level of the scroll ; from the end of the pitch
board, set on n to 0 half the thickness of abaluster, t(> the inside ; then set,
,

from 0 to p, half the width of the rail, and draw the form of the rail on
the end at y, the point n being where the front of the riser comes, the
point jo will be the projection of the rail before it draw a dotted line to
:

touch the nose of the scroll, parallel with I n, then the distance between
this dotted line and the under tip of the scroll, will show the exact thick-
ness of planking ; but there is no occasion for the thickness to come quite
to the under side, for if it come to the under side of the hollow' it will be
sufficient, as a little bit glued under the hollow could not be discernible,
and can be no hurt to the scroll. In ordinary cases, where the tread is
about 11 inches, and rise 6^, a scroll can be got out of a piece, about 4.^
inches thick.
To describe a section of a hand-rail^ supposing it to be two
inches deep^ and two and a quarter inches broad^ the usual
dimensions.
Fig. 622. Let ABCD be a section of the rail, as squared ; on AB
de-
scribe an equilateral triangle AB a ; from a, as a centre, describe an arc
to touch AB, and to meet a Aand a B ; take the distance between the
point of section in a A and the point A, and transfer it fiom the point o.
section to k, upon the same line a A, join Dk ; from ky with the distance
between k and the end of the arc, describe another arc, to meetD k ; with
the same distance describe a third arc, of contrary curvature, and draw a
vertical line to touch it ; which will form one side of the section of the
rail, and the counter part may be formed by a similar operation.

The branch of Joinery that falls under our next and last
consideration is that of hand* railing ; which calls into action
all the ingenuity and skill of the workman. This art con-
sists in constructing hand-rails by moulds, according to the
geometrical principles, that if a cylinder be cut in any di-
*ection, except parallel to the axis, or base, the section will
be an ellipsis ; if cut parallel to the axis, a rectangle ; and if
parallel to the base, a circle.
600 TWB OPERATIVE MECHANIC
Now, suppose a hollow cylinder be made to the size of the
well-hole of the stair-case, the interior concave, and the ex-
terior convex ; and the cylinder be cut by any inclined or
oblique plane, the section formed will be bounded by two
concentric similar ellipses ; consequently, the section will
be at its greatest breadth at each extremity of the larger
axis, and its least breadth at each extremity of the smaller
axis. Therefore, in any quarter of the ellipsis there will be
a continued increase of breadth from the extremity of the
lesser axis to that of the greater. Now it is evident that a
cylinder can be cut by a plane through any three points ;
therefore, supposing we have the height of the rail at any
three points in the cylinder, and that we cut the cylinder
through these points, the section will be a figure equal and
similar to the face-mould of the rail ; and if the cylinder be
cut by another plane parallel to the section, at such a dis-
tance from it as to contain the thickness of the rail, this
portion of the cylinder will represent a part of the rail with
its vertical surfaces already worked and, again, if the back
:

and lower surface of this cylindric portion be squared to

vertical lines, either on the convex or concave side, through
two certain parallel lines drawn by a thin piece of wood
which is bent on that side, the portion of the cylinder thus
formed, will represent the part of the rail intended to be
made.
Though the foregoing only relates to cylindrical well-
holes, it is equally applicable to rails erected on any seat
whatever.
face-mould applies to the two faces of the plank, and
is regulated by a line drawn on its edge, which line is ver-
tical when the plank is elevated to its intended position.
This is also called the raking-mould.
The falling-mould, is a parallel piece of thin wood ap-
plied and bent to the side of the rail-piece, for the purpose
of drawing the back and lower surface^ which should be so
formed, that every level straight line, directed to the axis of
the well-hole, from every point of the side of the rail formed
by the edges of the falling mould, coincide with the surface.
In order to cut the portion of rail required, out of the least
possible thickness of stuff, the plank is so turned up on one
of its angles, that the upper surface is no where at right
angles to a vertical plane passing through the chord of the
plane ; the plank in this position is said to be sprung
pitch-hoardi is a right-angled triangular board made
to the rise and tread of the step, one side forming the right
 AND MACHINIST. 601
angle of the width of the tread, and the other of the height
of the riser. When there are both winders and flyers, two
pitch- boards must be made to their respective treads, but,
of course, of the same height, as all the steps rise the same.
The bevel by which the edge of the plank is reduced
from the right angle when the plank is sprung, is termed
the spring of the plank, and the edge thus bevelled is called
the sprung edge.
The bevel by which the face mould is regulated to each
side of the plank, is called the pitch.
The formation of the upper and lower surfaces of a rail is
called the falling of the rail the upper surface of the rail
is termed the hack.
In the construction of hand-rails, it is necessary to spring
the plank, and then to cut away the superfluous wood, as
directed by the draughts, formed by the face-mould ; v^^hich
may be done by an experienced workman, so exactly, with
a saw, as to require no further reduction ; and when set in
its place, the surface on both sides will be vertical in all
parts, and in a surface perpendicular to the plan. In order
to form the back and lower surface, the falling mould is ap-
plied to one side, generally the convex, in such a manner,
that the upper edge of the falling mould at one end, coin-
cides with the face of the plank ; and the same in the
middle, and leaves so much wood to be taken away at the
other end as will not reduce the plank on the concave side
the piece of wood to be thus formed into the wreath or
twist being agreeable to their given heights.
In the following figures, we have given the method o.
finding the moulds necessary for constructing a hand-rail on
a circular plan.
Fi^. 623, is the plan, showing part of the winders, which in this case
are eight, as also the seat of the joint.
Fig. 624. Let AAA, &c. be the outside, and a a a, &c. the inside of the
plan. BCD a line passing through the middle of the breadth, BC being
straight, and CD one-fourth of the circumference of the circle, the ])oint
K in the middle of the arc CD, B at one extremity of the line BCED,
and D at the other.
Divide the quadrant CD into any number of equal parts, which in this
example are four. DraAv the straight line MN, and make MN equal to
the developeraent of the quadrant AAA, &c. on the convex side. Draw
^10 perpendicular to MN, and make MO equal to the height of a step ;
draw OP parallel to MN,and make OP equal in length to the width of a
step, and join PM.
Draw Nsperpendicular to MN. In Ns make N
o equal to the height
of four of the winders, and join o M* curve otf the angle at M, in the
manner shown below, by intersection of lines Through o draw x per-
:
y
pendicular to M
0 , make o x and oy each equal to half the width of the
felling mould, and draw the upper ami lower edges of the mould.
GQ2 THE OPERATIVE MECHANIC
DE. Fig. 624, and produce
Join DE to F. Draw DG and EL. Make
DG equal to one-fourth (or any part of) the heig^ht from Nto the upper
cdg-e of the falling mould, Fig. 625, and EL equal to one-fourth, or the
saine part, of the heig-ht from Q
to the upper ed^e of the falling- mould.
Join (jL and produce it to meet DEin F, join the dotted line BF. Draw
IK, through the centre F, perpendicular to BF. Draw ah^ ah, &c. meet-
ing IK. At any convenient distance from KI draw c d parallel to IK.
Make the perpendicular of the face-mould equal to its corresponding
height on the falling mould, and draw the straight line c e ; then draw
ordinates Ab, Ab, &c. continue them until they meet c e, and from the
points of intersection draw perpendiculars to c e, and set off the distances
as shown by corresponding letters. Then by tracing a curve through
these points the face mould will be completed.
The top line r r r, &c. is left on the falling mould, to regulate its posi-
tion when bent upon the convex surface, as the line r > r, and will fall into
the plane surface of the top of the plank. This line is obtained by making
the perpendiculars fr, 2 r, f r, &c. equal to the corresponding perpeiu
dicularsy* b,fb, &c. Fig. 624. To find the face-mould of a staircase, so
that when set to its proper rake it will be perpendicular to the plan where-
on it stands for a level landing.
Fig. 626. Draw the central line, a b, parallel to the sides of the rail;
on the right line a b apply the pitch-board of a flyer, from b to c dra\i
ordinates n m, o p, qr, s t, uv, at discretion, observing to draw one from
the point r, so that you may obtain the same point exactly in the face-
mould ; then take the parts which the ordinates give on the line a b, and
apply them at Fig. 627, and take the distances m
7i,
p o, &c. and transfer
them to Fig. 627, and a curve through these points will be the face-mould
required.
To find the fallmg mould.
Fig. 626. Divide the radius of the circle into four equal parts, and set
three of these parts from 4 to a; through x y, the extremities of t)ie
diameter of the rail, draw ax and ay, producing them till they touch
the tangent AB; then will ABbe the circumference of the semicircle
X by, which is applied from A
to B, Fig. 628, as a base line. Make A a
the height of a step ; draw the hypotenuse a B, apply the pitch board
of a flyer at a & c, and B e, then curve off the angle by intersection of
lines, and draw a line parallel to it, for the upper edge or the mould.

MEASURES CUSTOMARY IN JOINERs WORK.

Prepared boarding is measured by the foot superficial
the following being the different distinctions edges shot :
edge shot, ploughed, and torigued ; wrought on one side,
and edges shot ; wrought on both sides, and edges shot
wrought on both sides, ploughed, and tongucd ; boards
keyed and clamped, mortise-clamped, and mortise and
mitre-clamped. The prices are regulated according to the
thickness. If the boards be glued, an additional price per
foot is allowed ;
if tongued, still more, according to the
description of tongue. In boarded flooring, the dimensions
are taken to the extreme parts, from which the squares arc
to be computed. Deductions for chimneys, stair-cascs
jbuhlbiko
FIM
From 623 to 623

FTesU ^ sc 35 z StranJL
 AND MACHINIST. (303

^c. are taken from this. The price depends on the sur-
face, whether wrought or plain, the manner of the longi-
tudinal and heading-joints, the thickness of stuff, whether
the boards be laid one after the other, or folded, or whether
the floor be laid with boards, battens, or wainscot.-
Skirting, when wide, is also measured by the foot super-
ficial ; the price depending upon the position, whether level,
raking, or ramping, or upon the manner of finishing, whe-
ther plain, torus, or rebated, or scribed to the floor, or to the
steps, or upon the plan, w^hether straight or circular.
Weather-boarding, is measured by the square of 100 su-
perficial feet.
Boarded partitions are measured by the square, from
which must be deducted the doors and windows, except an
agreement be made to tlie contrary.
The price of all kinds of framing depends on the thick-
ness, or whether the framing be plainer moulded; and if
moulded, the description of moulding, whether struck on the
solid, or laid in, mitred, or scribed ; as also upon the num-
ber of panels in a given height and breadth, and upon the
nature of the plan.
The different kinds of wainscotting, as window linings,
door linings, back linings, partitions, doors, shutters, &c.
are all measured by the superficial foot.
Windows are in general valued by the foot superficial;
though sometimes by the window. When measured, the
dimensions are taken for height, from the top of the cill to
the under side of the head, allowing seven inches for the
head and cill ; and for width in clear of pulley- stiles, allow-
ing eight inches. The sash and frame are either measured
together or separately.
Skylights are measured by the foot superficial, their price
depending on the plan and elevation. Framed grounds at
per foot run.
Ledged doors by the foot superficial, dado by the super-
ficial foot ; the price depending whether the plan be straight
or circular, or the elevation level or inelined.
In measuring stair-cases, the risers, treads, and carriages,
are generally classed together, and measured by the foot su-
perficial: the price varying as the steps are flyers or wind-
ers, as the risers are mitred into the string-board, the treads
dove-tailed for balusters, and the nosings returned, or whe-
ther the bottom of the risers be tongued into the treads. The
curtail step is generally valued as a whole. Returned nosings
at so much each and if circular, double the price of straight
;
604 THE OPERATIVE MECHANJQ
ones. The brackets at so much each, according to the pat-
tern, and whether straight or circular.
Hand-railing is measured by the foot run, the price de-
pending on the materials, the diameter of the well-hole, or
whether ramped, swan- necked, level, circular, or wreathed,
or whether made out of the solid, or in thicknesses. The
scroll is paid at per piece. The joints at so much each, and
three inches of the straight part at each end of the wreath
are included in the measurement. Deal balusters are pre-
pared and fixed at per piece ; as also iron balusters, iron
column to curtail, housings to steps, &c. An extra allowance
is made for the additional labour .in fixing the iron balusters.
The price of string-board is regulated by the foot super-
ficial, according to the manner in which it is moulded, whe-
ther straight, circular, or wreathed, and the manner in
which such string is backed. The shafts of columns are
measured by the foot superficial ; the price depending upon
the diameter, and whether it be straight or curved, or pro-
perly glued and blocked. If the column be fluted or reeded,
the flutes or reeds are measured by the foot run, their price
depending upon the size of the flute or reed The headings
of flutes and reeds are at so much each. Pilasters, straight
or curved, in the height, ai*e measured in the same way, and
the price taken per foot superficial in the caps and bases if
pilasters ; besides the mouldings, the mitres must be so
much each, according to the size.
Mouldings are valued by the foot run, as double-faced ar-
chitraves, base and surbase. The head of an architrave in
a circular wall, is four times the price of the perpendicular
parts, not only on account of the time required to form the
mouldings to the circular plan, but on account of the greater
difficulty of forming the mitres.
All horizontal mouldings, circular upon plan, are three or
four times the price of those on a straight plan ; being
charged more, as the radius of the circle is less housings to
:

mouldings are valued at so much each, according to the size.

The price per superficial foot of mouldings is regulated by
the number of quirks, for each of which an addition is made
to the foot.
The price of mouldings depends also upon the materials
of which they are made, and upon their running figure, whe-
ther curved or raking.
In grooving, the stops arc paid over and above, and so
much more must be allowed for all grooves wrought by
hand, particularly in the parts adjoining the concourse of
 AND MACHINIST. ms
ailangle : circular grooving must be paid still more. Water
trunks are measured by the foot run ; the rate depending
upon the side of their square the hopper-heads and shoes
:

are valued at so much each, as also are the moulded weather

caps, and the joints. Scaffolding, &c. used in fixing, is
charged extra.
Flooring-boards are prepared, that is, planed, gauged, and

rebated to a thickness at so much each, the price depending

upon the length of each board ; if more than nine inches
broad, the rate is increased according to the additional
width ; each board listing at so much per list.
The following is a classification of such articles in joinery
as are usually rated at so much each.
Trusses. Brackets to stairs.
Cantalivers. Curtail step.
Iliile-joints. Clam})-initres.
Cut brackets fur shelves. Mitres of pilasters according to
Housings in gencral. their size.
Housinirs to steps. Mitres of cornices.
Cuttings to standarda. Headings to flutes and reeds'.
Elbow cappings. Hopper-heads and shoes to water-
Returned moulded nosings to steps. trunks.
Caps to hand-rails. Joints to water-trunks.
Scroll of hand-rails. Preparing flooring-boards and bat-
Making and fixing joists of hand- tens.
rails with joint-screws. Fixing locks and fastenings, per
Fixing iron coiunms in curtails. article.
Fixing iron baluster, and prepar- Hole in seat of water-closet.
ing mould. Patteras,
Preparing and fixing deal balusters.
Articles at 'per foot 'unningy or lineal.
Sinking to shelves. on panels.
Fillets mitred
Moulded raisings of panels. Square or beaded angle -staff, re-
All raised panels in the extremity bated.
of the raising to be charged ex- Mouldings.
tra. Single cornice.
Capping to wainscot. Single faced architrave.
Level circular string-boards to Pilasters under four inches wide.
stairs. Boxings to windows.
Hand-rails. Ornamental grooving.
Newels to stairs. Narrow linings.
Moulded planiers in stairs. Legs, rails, and runners of dres-
Sinking in rail for iron rail or ba- sers.
lusters. Border to hearth.
Water-trunks and spouts. Base-moulding.
Skirting and door-grounds. Surbase-rnoulding.
Beads or fillets. Narrow skirting.

Articles at per foot superficiaL

Deals pinned, ploughed, tongued, Skirting.
leacled, glued, and clamped. Sash-frames and sashes.
cm THE OPERATIVE MECHANIC
8ky]i<^hts. Siej)s and rises to stairs, incliidiii"
'Back, cibow, soffits, carriag-es.
Slmtters. Cradling.
Framed or plain back-liniiig-s. Double-faced architraves.
Door-lining's, jambs. Mouldings wrought by hand, if
Wainscotting'. large.
Dado. Shafts of columns.
Partitions.

PLASTERING.
The Plasterer is a workman to whom the decorative part
of architecture owes a considerable portion of its effect^ and
whose art is requisite in every kind of building.
The tools of the plasterer consist of a spade or shovel of
the usual description ; a rake, with two or three prongs,
bent downwards from the line of the handle, for mixing the
hair and mortar together; trowels of various kinds and
sizes ; stopping and picking-out tools; rules called straight-
edges ; and wood models.
The trowels used by plasterers are more neatly made than
tools of the same name used by other artificers. The lay-
ing and smoothing tool consists of a flat piece of hardened
iron, about ten inches in length, and two inches and a half
wide, very thin, and ground to a semicircular shape at one
end, but left square at the other; and at the back of the plate,
near the square end, is rivetted a small iron rod with two
legs, one of which is fixed to the plate, and the other to a
round wooden handle. With this tool all the first coats of
plaster is laid on, as are also the last, or, as it is technically
termed, the setting. The other kinds of trowels are made
of three or four sizes, for gauging the fine stuff and plaster,
used in forming cornices, mouldings, &c. The longest size
of these is about seven inches on the plate, which is of po-
lished steel, about two inches and three quarters broad at
the heel, diverging gradually to a point. To the heel or
broad end a handle is adapted.
The stopping and picking- out tools are made of polished
steel, of different sizes, though most generally about seven
or eight inches in length, and half an inch in breadth, flat-
tened at both ends, and ground somewhat round. These
tools are used in modelling and finishing mitres and re-
turns to cornices ; as likewise in filling- up and perfecting
the ornaments at the joinings.
The straight-edges are for keeping the work in an even,
or perpendicular line ; and the models or moulds are for run-
 AND MACHINIST. 607
iiing plain mouldings, cornices, &c.; of these latter the
plasterer requires a great number as very little of his finish-
ing can be done without them.
Experienced workmen keep their tools very clean, and
have them daily polished by the hawk-boys.
Plasterers have technical divisions of their work, by which
its quality is designated, and value ascertained ; as, lathing
laying ; pricking-up lathing, laying, and set ; lathing, float-
;

ing, and set; screed, set or putty; rendering and set, or

rendering, floated, and set ; trowelled stucco, &c. ; each of
which, hereafter, we shall very minutely explain.
In all the operations of plastering, lime extensively
abounds ; we shall, therefore, first offer some observations
on the properties of this important article.
Ail who have written on the subject of lime, as a cement,
have endeavoured to ascertain what is the due proportion
of sand for making the most perfect cement ;
but with a
little attention evident, that ail prescribed rules must
it is

be so very vague and uncertain, as to be of little utility to

the workman, for, besides the variation which is occasioned
by a more or less degree of calcination, it is a certain fact,
that some kinds of lime-stone are much more pure, and
contain a much smaller proportion of sand than others
consequently, it would be absurd to say, that pure lime
requires as small a proportion of sand, when made into
mortar, as that which originally contained in itself a large
proportion.
The variation thus produced, in regard to the proportion
of sand, is found to be extremely great. It is, however,
stated, that the best mortar which has come under exa-
mination, was formed of eleven parts of sand to one of
lime: to which was added, by measure, between twice and
thrice its own bulk of sand, whieh may be allowed to have
been at least three times its quantity by weight. Supposing,
therefore, that every particle of the lime had been so per-
fectly calcined as to be in a caustic state, there could not be
less than forty-seven parts of sand to one of lime ; but it
is hard to suppose, that above one hundredth part of this

mass, independent of the water, consisted of pure caustic

calcareous earth.
From these considerations it is conceived, that it is im-
possible to prescribe any determinate proportion of sand to
lime, as that must vary according to the nature of the lime,
and other incidental circumstances, which would form an
infinity of exceptions to any general rule. But it would
608 THE OPERATIVE MECHANIC
seem, that it might be safely inferred, that the moderns in

general rather err in giving too little, than in giving too

much sand. It deserves, however, to be noticed, that the
sand, when naturally in the lime-stone, is more intimately
blended with the lime, than can possibly be ever effected by
any mechanical operation ; so that it would be in vain to
hope to make equally good mortar artificially from pure
lime, with so small a proportion of caustic calcareous mat-
ter, as may sometimes be effected when the lime naturally
contains a very large proportion of sand. Still, however,
there seems to be no doubt, that if a much larger propor-
tion of sand than is common were employed, and that more
carefully and expeditiously blended and worked, the mortar
would be made much more perfect, as has been proved by
actual experiments.
Another circumstance, which greatly tends to vary the
quality of cement, and to make a greater or smaller pro-
portion of sand necessary, is, the mode of preparing the
lime before it is beaten up into mortar. When for plaster,
it is of great importance to have every particle of the lime-
stone slaked before worked-up, for, as smoothness of sur-
face is the most material point, if any particles of lime be
beaten-up before sufficiently slaked, the water still continu-
ing to act on them, will cause them to expand, which will
produce those excrescences on the surface of the plaster,
termed blisters. Consequently, in order to obtain a perfect
kind of plaster, it is absolutely necessary that the lime,
before being worked, be allowed to remain a considerable
time macerating or souring in water the same sort of pro-
:

cess, though not absolutely required, would considerably

improve the lime intended for mortar. Great care is re-
quired in the management ; the principal thing being the
procuring of well-burnt lime, and allowing no more lime,
before worked, than is just sufficient to macerate or sour it
with the water the best burnt lime will require the ma-
:

ceration of some days.

It has been almost universally admitted, that the hardest
lime -stone affords the lime which will consolidate into the
firmest cement ; hence, it is generally concluded, that lime
made of chalk produces a much weaker cement than that
made of marble, or lime-stone. It would seem, however,
that, if ever this be the case, it is only incidentally, and not
necessarily. In the making of mortar, other substances are
occasionally mixed with lime, which we shall here proceed
to notice, and endeavour to point out their excellencies and
 AND MACHINIST 609
defects. Those commonly used, besides sand of various
denominations, are powdered sand-stone, brick-dust, and
sea-shells :and for forming plaster, where closeness rather
than hardness is required, lime which has been slaked and
kept in a dry place till it has become nearly effete, and
powdered chalk, or whiting, and gypsum, in various pro-
portions, besides hair and other materials of a similar nature.
Other ingredients have been more lately recommended, such
as earthy balls, slightly burnt and pounded, old mortar
rubbish, powdered and sifted, and various things of the
like kind, the whole of which are, in some respect or other,
objectionable.
Plaster of Paris is employed by the plasterer to give tht
requisite form and finish to all the superior parts of his work.
It is made of a fossile stone, called gypsum, which is ex-
cavated in several parts of the neighbourhood of Paris,
whence it derives its name, and is calcined to a powder, to
deprive it of its water of ciystallization. The best i?
Montmartre.
The stones are burnt in kilns, which are generally of vei7
simple construction, being not unfrequently built of the
gypsum itself. The pieces to be calcined are loosely put
together in a parallelepiped heap, below which are vaulted
pipes or flues, for the application of a moderate heat.
The calcination must not be carried to excess ; as other-
wise the plaster will not form a solid mass w^hen mixed with
a certain portion of water. During the process of calcina-
tion, the water of crystallization rises as white vapour,
which, if the atmosphere be dry, is quickly dissolved in air.
The pounding of the calcined fragments is performed
sometimes in mills constructed for the purpose, and some-
times by men, whose health is much impaired by the par-
ticlesof dust settling upon their lungs.
On the river Wolga, in Russia, where the burning of gyp-
sum constitutes one of the chief occupations of the pea-
santry, all kinds of gypsum are burnt promiscuously on
grates made of wood ; afterwards the plaster is reduced to
powder, passed through a sieve, and finally formed into
small round cakes, which are sold at so much per thousand.
These balls are reduced into an impalpable powder by
the plasterer, and then mixed with mortar. The less the
gypsum is mixed with other substances, the better it is
qualified for the purpose of making casts, stucco, &c. The
sparry gypsum, or selenite, which is the purer kind, is em#-
ployed for taking impressions from coins and medals, and
2 R
610 THE OPERATIVE MECHANIC
for making those beautiful imitations of marble, granite,
and porphyry, known by the name of scagliolcty which is
derived from the Italian word, scagli.
Finely powdered alabaster, or plaster of Paris, when
heated in a crucible, assumes the appearance of a fluid, by
rolling in waves, yielding to the touch, steaming, &c. all of
which properties it again loses on the departure of the
heat if taken from the crucible and thrown upon paper, it
:

will not wet it ; but immediately be as motionless as it was

before exposed to the heat.
Two or three spoonfuls of burnt alabaster mixed up thin
with water, will, at the bottom of a vessel filled with water,
coagulate into a hard lump, notwithstanding the water
that surrounds it. The coagulating or setting property
of burnt alabaster will be very much impaired, or lost,
if the powder be kept for any considerable time, and
more especially in the open air. When it has been once
tempered with water, and suffered to grow hard, it cannot
be rendered of any further use.
Plaster of Paris, diluted with water into the consistence of
a soft or thin paste, quickly sets, or grows firm, and at the
instant of its setting, has its buik increased. This expansive
property, in passing from a soft to a firm state, is one of its
valuable properties ; rendering it an excellent matter for
filling cavities in sundry works, w^here other earthy mix-
tures would shrink and leave vacuities, or entirely separate
from the adjoining parts. It is also probable that this ex-
pansion of the plaster might be made to contribute to the
elegance of the impressions it receives from medals, &c. by
properly confining it when soft, so that, at its expansion, it
would be forced into the minutest traces of the figures.
A plaster of a coarser description, made of a blueish
stone, much like that of which Dutch terras are made,
is sometimes used in this country, for floors in gentlemen's
houses, and for corn-granaries. This stone, when burnt
after the manner of lime, assumes a white appearance, but
does not ferment on being mixed with water when cold, it
:

is reduced to a fine powder. About a bushel of this powder

is put into a tub, and water is applied till it becomes liquid.
In this state it is well stirred with a stick, and used im-
mediately ; for in less than a quarter of an hour it becomes
hard and useless, as it will not allow of being mixed a
second time.
Other cements are used by plasterers for inside work.
The first is called lime and haivy or coarse stuffy and is pre-
 AND MACHINIST. 611

pared as common mortar, with the addition of hair from

the tan-yards. The mortar is first mixed with a requisite
quantity of sand, and the hair is afterwards worked in by
the application of a rake.
Next to this is Jine which is merely pure lime,
slaked first with a small quantity of water, and afterwards,
without any extraneous addition, supersaturated with w^ater,
and put into a tub in a half fluid state, where it is allowed to
remain till the water is evaporated. In some particular cases,
a small portion of hair is incorporated. When this fine
stuff is used for inside walls, it is mixed with very fine
washed sand, in the proportion of one part sand to three
parts of fine stuff, and is then called trowelled or bastard
stucco, with which all walls intended to be painted are
finished.
The cement called gauge stuff', consists of three-fifths of
fine stuff, and one-fifth plaster of Paris, mixed together with
water, in small quantities at a time, to render it more ready

to set. This composition is mostly used in forming cor-

nices and mouldings run with a wooden mould. When
great expedition is required, plasterers gauge all their mor-
tars with plaster of Paris, which sets immediately.
The technical divisions of plasterer's work shall now claim
our attention.
Lathing, the first operation, consists in nailing laths on the
ceiling, or partition. If the laths be of oak, they will require
wrought iron nails ; but if of deal, nails made of cast iron
may be used. Those mostly used in London are of fir, im-
ported from America and the Baltic, in pieces called staves.
Laths are made in three foot and four foot lengths and :

with respect to their thickness and strength, arc either sin-

gle, lath and half, or double. The single are the thinnest
and cheapest ; those called lath and half, are supposed to be
one third thicker than the single ; and the double laths are
twice that thickness. In lathing ceilings, the plasterer
should use both the lengths alluded to, and in nailing them
up, should so dispose them, that the joints be as much
broken as possible, that they may have the stronger key or
tie, and thereby strengthen the plastering with which they

are to be covered. The thinnest laths are used in partitions,

and the strongest for ceilings.
Laths are also distinguished into heart and sap laths : the
former should always be used in plain tiling ; the latter,
which are of inferior quality, are most frequently used by
the plasterer.
2 r2
612 THE OPERATIVE MECHANIC
Laths should be as evenly split as possible. Those that
are very crooked should not be nsed^ or the crooked part
should be cut out ; and such as have a short concavity or.
the one side, and a convexity on the other, not very pro-
minent, should be placed with the concave sides outwards.
The following is the method of rending or splitting laths.
The lath-cleavers having cut their timber into the required
lengths, cleave each piece with wedges, into eight, twelve,
or sixteen pieces, according to the scantling of the timber,
called bolts and then, with dowl-axes, in the direction of
the felt-grain, termed felting, into sizes for the breadth of
the laths ; and, lastly, with the chit, clear them into thick-
nesses by the quarter grain.
Having nailed the laths in their appropriate order, the
plasterers next business is to cover theiri with plaster,
the most simple and common operation of which, is laq-
iug ; that is, spreading a single coat of lime and hair over
the whole ceiling, or partition ; carefully observing to keep
it smooth and even in every direction. This is the cheapest
kind of plastering.
PricJcing wp is performed in the same manner as the fore-
going ; but is only a preliminary to a more perfect kind
of work. After the plaster is laid on, it is crossed all over
with the end of a lath, to give it a tie or key to the coat
which is afterwards to be laid upon it.
Lathing, laying, and set, or what is termed lath and plas-
ter, one coat and set, is, when the work, after being lathed,
is covered with one coat of lime and hair, and afterwards,
when sufficiently dry, a thin and smooth coat spread over it,
consisting of lime only, or, as the workmen call it, putty,
or set. This coat is spread with a smoothing- trowel, used
by the workman with his right hand, while his left hand
moves a large flat brush of hogs bristles, dipped in water,
backwards and forwards over it, and thus produces a sur-
face tolerably even for cheap work.
Lathing, floating, and set, or lath and plaster, one coat,
floated ami set, differs from the foregoing, in having the first
coat pricked up to receive the set, which is here called the
floating. In doing this, the plasterer is provided with a
substantial straight edge, frequently from ten to twelve feet
in length, which must be used by two workmen. All the
parts to be floated are tried by a plumb-line, to ascertain
whether they be perfectly flat and level, and whenever any
deficiency appears, the hollow is filled uj) with a trowel full
or more of lime and hair only, which is imncdifllling out,
 ^AND MACIIINI.ST. 613
and when these preliminaries are settled, the screeds are next
formed. The term screed signifies a style of lime and hair, about
seven or eight inches in width, gauged quite true, by draw-
ing the straight edge over it until it be so. These screeds
are made at the distance of about three or four feet from
each other, in a vertical direction, all round the partitions
and walls of a room. When all are formed, the intervals
are filled up with lime and hair, called by the workmen,
stuff'^ till flush with the face of the screeds. The straight
edge is then worked horizontally on the screeds, by which
all the superfluous stuff, projecting beyond them in the in-
tervals is removed, and a plain surface produced. This
operation is termed floating, and may be applied to ceilings
as well as to partitions, or upright walls, by first forming
the screeds in the direction of the breadth of the apartment,
and filling up the intervals as above described. As great
care is requisite to render the plaster sound and even, none
but skilful workmen should be employed.
The floated-work is performed in a mode similar to
set to
that already prescribed for Laying; but being employed
only for best rooms, is done with more care. About one-
sixth of plaster of Paris is added to it, to make it set more
expeditiously, to give it a closer and more compact ap-
pearance, and to render it more firm and better calculated
to receive the white- wash or colour when dry. For floated
stucco-work the pricking up coat cannot be too dry ; but, if
the floating which is to receive the setting coat be too dry,
before the set is laid on, there will be danger of its peeling
off, or of assuming the appearance of little cracks, or shells,
which would disfigure the work. Particular care and at-
tention therefore must be paid to have the under coats in a
proper state of dryness. It may here be observed, that
cracks, and other unpleasant appearances in ceilings, are
more frequently the effect of weak laths being covered with
too much plaster, or too little plaster upon strong laths,
rather than of any sagging or other inadequacy in the tim-
bers, or the building. If the laths be properly attended to,
and the plaster laid on by a careful and judicious workman,
no cracks or other blemishes are likely to appear.
The next operation combines both the foregoing pro-
but requires no lathing ; it is called rendering and set,
cesses,
or rendering, floated, and set. What is understood by
rendering, is the covering of a brick or stone wall with a
coat of lime and hair, and by set is denoted a superficial
goat of fine stuff or putty upon the rendering. These ope-t
614 THE OPERATIVE MECHANIC
rations are similar to those described for setting of ceilings
and partitions ; and the floated and set is laid on the ren-
dering in the same manner as on the partitions, &c. already
explained, for the best kind of work.
Trowelled stucco, which is a very neat kind of work, nsea
in dining-rooms, halls, &c. where the walls are prepared to
be painted, must be worked upon a floated ground, and the
floating be quite dry before the stucco is applied. In this
process the plasterer is provided with a wooden tool, called
a float, consisting of a piece of half inch deal, about nine
inches long and three wide, planed smooth, with its lower
edges a little rounded off, and having a handle on the upper
surface. The stucco is prepared as above described, and
afterwards well beaten and tempered with clear water.
The ground intended to be stuccoed is first prepared with
the large trowel, and is made as smooth and level as pos-
sible; when the stucco has been spread upon it to the extent
of four or five feet square, the workman, with a float in his
right hand and a brush in his left, sprinkles with water, and
rubs alternately the face of the stucco, till the whole is re-
duced to a fine even surface. He then prepares another
square of the ground, and proceeds as before, till the whole
is completed. The water has the effect of hardening the
face of the stucco. When the floating is well performed, it
will feel as smooth as glass.
Rough casting, or rough walling, is an exterior finishing,
much cheaper than stucco, and, therefore, more frequently
employed on cottages, farm-houses, &c. than on buildings
of a higher class. The wall intended to be rough-cast, is
first pricked-up with a coat of lime and hair ; and when
this is tolerably dry, a second coat is laid on, of the same
materials as the first, as smooth as it can possibly be spread.
As fast as the workman finishes this surface, he is followed
by another with a pail-full of rough-cast, with which he
bespatters the new plastering, and the whole dries together.
The rough-cast is composed of fine gravel, washed from all
earthy particles, and mixed with pure lime and water till
the whole is of a semi-fluid consistency. This is thrown
from the pail upon the wall with a wooden float, about five
or six inches long, and as many wide, made of half-inch
deal, and fitted with a round deal handle. While, with this
tool, the plasterer throws on the rough-cast with his right
hand, he holds in his left a common whitewashers brush,
dipped in the rough-cast also, with which he brushes and
colours the mortar and the rough-cast he has already spread,
 AND MACHINIST. 615
to give them, when finished, a regular uniform colour and
appearance.
Cornices^ are either plain or ornamented, and sometimes
embrace a portion of both classes. The first point to be
attended to is, to examine the drawings, and measure the
projections of the principal members, which, if projecting
more than seven or eight inches, must be bracketted. This
consists in fixing up pieces of wood, at the distance of about
ten or twelve inches from each other, all round the place
proposed for the cornice, and nailing laths to them, covering
the whole with a coat of plaster. In the brackets, the stuff
necessary to form the cornices must be allowed, which in
general is about one inch and a quarter. A beech mould is
next made by the carpenter, of the profile of the intended
cornice, about a quarter of an inch in thickness, with the
quirks, or small sinkings, of brass or copper. All the sharp
edges are carefully removed by the plasterer, who opens
with his knife all the points whieh he finds incompetent to
receive the plaster freely.
These preliminaries being adjusted, two workmen, pro-
vided with a tub of putty and a quantity of plaster of Paris,
proceed to run the cornice. Before using the mould, they
gauge a screed of putty and plaster upon the wall and ceil-
ing, covering so much of each as wWl correspond with the
top and bottom of the intended cornice. On this screed
one or two slight deal straight-edges, adapted to as many
notches or chases made in the mould for it to work upon,
are nailed. The putty is then mixed with about one-third
of plaster of Paris, and brought to a semi-fluid state by the
addition of clean water. One of the workmen, with two or
three trowels-full of this composition upon his hmvk, which
he holds in his left hand, begins to plaster over the surface
intended for the cornice, with his trowel, while his partner
applies the mould to ascertain when more or less is wanted.
When a sufficient quantity of plaster is laid on, the workmen
holds his mould firmly against both the ceiling and the wall, and
moves it backwards and forwards, which removes the super-
fluous stuff, and leaves an exact impression of the mould
upon the plaster. This is not effected at once; for while he
works the mould backwards and forwards, the other work-
man takes notice of any deficiences, and fills them up by
adding fresh supplies of plaster. In this manner a cornice
from ten to twelve feet in length may be formed in a very
short time ; indeed, expedition is essentially requisite, as the
plaster of Paris occasions a very great tendency in the putty
616 THE OPERATIVE MECHANIC'
to set, to prevent which, it is necessary to sprinkle the com-
position frequently with water, as plasterers, in order to
secure the truth and correctness of the cornice, generally
endeavour to finish all the lengths, or pieces, between any
two breaks or projections, at one time. In cornices which
have very large proportions, and in cases where any of the
orders of architecture are to be introduced, three or four
moulds are required, and are similarly applied, till all the
parts are formed. Internal and external mitres, and small
returns, or breaks, are afterwards modelled and filled up by
hand.
Cornices to be enriched with ornaments, have certain in-
dentations, or sinkings, left in the mould in which the casts
are laid. These ornaments were formerly made by hand ;
but now are cast in plaster of Paris, from clay models.
When the clay model is finished, and has, by exposure to
the action of the atmosphere, acquired some degree of firm-
ness, it is let into a wooden frame, and when it has been
retouched and finished, the frame is filled with melted wax,
wdiich, w'hen cold, is, by turning the frame upside down,
allowed to fall off, being an exact cameo, or counterpart, of
the model. By these means, the most enriched and curi-
ously wrought mouldings may be cast by the common plas-
terer. These wax models are contrived to cast about a foot
in length of the ornament at once ; such lengths being most
easily got out from the cameo. The casts are made of the
finest and purest plaster of Paris, saturated with water ; and
the wax mould is oiled previously to its being put in. When
the casts, or intaglios, are first taken from the mould, they
are not very firm ; but being suffered to dry a little, either
in the open air or an oven, they acquire sufficient hardness
to allow of being scraped and cleaned.
Basso-relievos and friezes are executed in a similar man-
ner, only the wax mould is so made, that the cast can have
a back-ground at least half an inch thick of plaster-cast to
the ornament or figure, in order to strengthen and secure
the proportions, at the same time that it promotes the ge-
neral effect.
The process for capitals to columns is also the same, ex-
cept that numerous moulds are required to complete them.
In the Corinthian capital a shaft or belt is first made, on
which is afterwards fixed the foliage and volutes; the whole
of which require distinct cameos.
In running cornices which are to be enriched, the plas-
terer takes care to have proper projections in the runniiig-
 AND MACHINIST. 617
mould, so as to make a groove in the cornice, for the recep-
tion of the cast ornament, which is laid in and secured by
spreading a small quantity of liquid plaster of Paris on its
back. Detached ornaments intended for ceilings or other
parts, and where no running mould has been employed, are
cast in pieces corresponding with the design, and fixed upon
the ceiling, &c. with white-lead, or with the composition
known by the name of iron-cement.
The manufacture of stucco has, for a long time past, at-
tracted the attention of all connected with this branch of
building, as well as chemists and other individuals ; but the
only benefit resulting from such investigation is, a more ex-
tensive knowledge of the materials used. It would seem,
that the great moisture of our climate prevents its being
brought to any high degree of perfection ; though, among
the various compositions which have been tried and pro-
posed, some, comparatively speaking, are excellent.
Common stucco, used for external work, consists of clean
washed Thames sand and ground Dorking lime, which are
mixed dry, in the proportion of three of the latter to one of
the former : when well incorporated together, these should
be secured from the air in casks till required for use. Walls
to be covered with this composition, must first be prepared,
by raking the mortar from the joints, and picking the bricks
or stones, till the whole is indented : the dust and other
extraneous matter must then be brushed oIF, and the wall
W'ell saturated with clean water. The stucco is supersatu-
rated with water, till it has the appearance and consistence
of ordinary white-w'ash, in which state it is rubbed over the
wall with a flat brush of hogs bristles. When this process,
called roughing in, has been performed, and the work has
become tolerably dry and hard, which may be known by its
being more white and transparent, the screeds are to be
formed upon the wall with fresh stucco from the cask, tem-
pered with water to a proper consistency, and spread on the
upper-part of the wall, about eight or nine inches wide ; as
also against the two ends, beginning at the top and proceeding
downwards to the bottom. In this operation, two workmen
are required ; one to supply the stucco, the other to apply
the plumb-rule and straight-edge. When these are truly
formed, other screeds must be made in a vertical direction,
about four or five feet apart, unless apertures in the wall
prevent it, in which case, they must be formed as near toge-
ther as possible. When the scrceding is finished, compo is
prepared in larger quantities, and both the workmen spread
618 THE operative mechanic
itwith their trowels over the wall in the space left between
each pair of screeds. When this operation is complete, the
straight-edge is applied, and dragged from the top to the
bottom of each pair, to remove whatever superfluous stucco
may project above the screeds. If there be any hollow
places, fresh stucco is applied, and the straight-edge is again
drawn over the spot, till the compo is brought even to the
face of the screeds, and the whole is level with the edge of the
rule. Another interval is then filled up, and Ihe workmen
thus proceed till the whole of the wall is covered. The
wall is finished by floating, that is, hardening the surface,
by sprinkling it with water, and rubbing it with the com-
mon wood-float, which is performed similarly to trowelling
stucco.
This description of compo is frequently used by plas-
terers for cornices and mouldings, in the same manner as
described in common plastering; but if the workman finds
it necessary, he may add a small quantity of plaster of Paris,
to make it fix the better while running or working the
mould. Such addition is not, however, calculated to give
strength to the stucco, and is only made through the neces-
sity of having a quick set.
In the year 1796, Mr. Parker obtained a patent for a cement
that is impervious to water, and which may be successfully
employed in ice-houses, cisterns, tanks, &c. In his speci-
fication Mr. Parker states, that nodules of clay, or argil-
laceous stone, generally contain water in their centre, sur-
rounded by calcareous crystals, having veins of calcareous
matter. They are formed in clay, and are of a brown
colour like the clay. These nodules he directs should, after
being broken into small pieces and burnt in a kiln, with a heat
that is nearly sufficient to vitrify them, be reduced to pow-
der : when two measures of water added to five of this
powder, will produce tarras. Lime and other matters may
be added or withheld at pleasure ; and the proportion of
water may be varied.
The term of the patent being now expired, many other
manufactories of this cement have been established, which
produce it of equal goodness, and some of them of rather
better colour, which is of importance, since the fresco-
painting or white- wash, laid on Mr. Parkers composition, is
soon taken off by the rain, and leaves the walls of a dingy
and unpleasant appearance.
The fresco-painting, or staining, is laid on the walls co-
vered with this cement, to give them the appearance of
 AND MACHINIST. 619
stone buildings 5 and
performed by diluting snlphuric acid,
is

{oil of vitriol,) with water, and adding fluid- ochres, &c. of

the required tint.
When stuccowashed over with this mixture, the affinity
is

cement ceas''s; and the acid and

existing in the iron of the
colour suspended in and upon the stucco are fixed. When
dexterously managed, the surface assumes the appearance
of an ashlar bond of masonry.
Scagliola is a distinct branch of plastering, discovered or
invented, and much
used in Italy, and thence introduced
into France, obtained its name : the late Mr. H.
where it

Holland, who introduced it into England engaged artists

from Paris, some of whom, finding a demand for their labour,
remained in this country, and instructed the natives in
the art.
Columns and are executed in this branch of
pilasters
plastering in following manner : A wooden cradle,
the
composed of thin strips of deal, or other wood, is made to
represent the column designed ; but about two inches and a
half less in diameter than the shaft is intended to be when
finished. This cradle is lathed round, as for common plas-
tering, and then covered with a pricking up coat of lime
and hair. When this is quite dry, the artists in scagliola
commence operations, by imitations of the most rare and
precious marbles, with astonishing and delusive effect ; in-
deed, as the imitation takes as high a polish, and feels
as cold and hard as the most compact and solid marble,
nothing short of actual fracture can possibly discover the
counterfeit.
In preparing the scagliola, the w^orkman selects, breaks,
and calcines the purest gypsum, and as soon as the largest
fragments, in the process of calcination, lose their brilliancy,
withdraws the fire, and passes the calcined powder through
a very fine sieve, and mixes it, as required for use, with a
solution of glue, isinglass, &c. In this solution the colours
required in the marble to be imitated are diffused ; but
when the work is to be of various colours, each colour is
prepared separately, and afterwards mingled and combined,
nearly in the same manner as a painter mixes on his palette
the primitive colours to compose his different tints.
When the powdered gypsum is prepared, it is laid on the,
shaft of the intended column, over the pricked- up coat of
lime and hair, and is then floated wdth moulds of wood,
made to the requisite size : the artist uses the colours neces-
sary for the imitation during the floating, by which means
 620 THE OPERATIVE MECHANIC
tliey mingle and incorporate with the surface. To obtain
the glossy lustre, so much admired in works of marble, the
workman rubs the work with one hand with a pumice-stone,
while with the other he cleans it with a wet sponge he :

next polishes it with tripoli, charcoal, and a piece of fine

linen; afterwards with a piece of felt dipped in a mixture
of oil and tripoli, and finally completes the work by the ap-
plication of pure oil. This imitation is, certainly, the most
complete that can be conceived ; and when the bases and
capitals are made of real marble, as is the common practice,
the deception is beyond discovery. If not exposed to the
w^eather, it is, in point of durability, little inferior to real
marble, retains its lustre full as long, and is not one-eighth
of the expense of the cheapest kind.
There is another species of plastering, used in the deco-
rative parts of architecture, and for the frames of pictures,
looking-glasses, &c. which is a perfectly distinct branch of
the art. This composition, which is very strong, and, when
quite dry, of a brownish colour, consists of the proportion
of two pounds of powdered whiting, one pound of glue in
solution, and half a pound of linseed oil, mixed together,
and heated in a copper, and stirred with a spatula, till the
whole is incorporated. When cool, it is laid upon a stone,

covered with powdered whiting, and beaten fill it assumes a

tough and firm consistence; after w^hich it is covered with
wet cloths, to keep it fresh, till required for use.
The ornaments to be cast in this composition, are mo-
delled in clay, as in common plastering, and afterwards a
cameo, or mould, is carved in box-wood. This carving
requires to be done with the utmost care, otherwise the
symmetry of the ornament which is to be cast from it will
be spoiled. The composition, when required for use, is cut
with a knife into pieces of the requisite size, and forced
into the mould ; after which it is put into a press, worked
by an iron screw, and still further compressed. When
the mould is taken from the press, the composition, which
is generally cast about a foot in length, is dislodged from the

mould, and the superfluous parts pared off with a knife, and
cast into the copper for the next supply.
The ornaments thus formed, are glued upon wooden, or
other grounds, or fixed by means of white lead, &c. ; after
which they are painted or gilt, according to the purposes for
which they are intended. This composition is at least 80
per cent, cheaper than carving, and, in most cases, equally
calculated to answer all the purposes of the art.
 AND MACHINIST.

It is much to be wished, that the art of plastering could

be restored to its ancient perfection ; for the Romans pos-
sessed an art of rendering works of this kind much more
firm and durable than can be accomplished at the present
time.
The specimens of ancient Roman plastering still visible,
which have not been injured by force, are found to be firm
and solid, free from cracks or crevices, and as smooth and
polished on the surface as when first applied. The sides
and bottoms of the Roman aqueducts were lined with this
plastering, and endured many ages.
At Venice, some of the roofs of houses, and the floors of
rooms, are covered with a sort of plaster of later date, and
yet strong enough to endure the sun and weather for several
ages, without either cracking or spoiling.
The method of making the Venetian composition is not
known in England ; but such might probably be made by heat-
ing the powder of gypsum over afire, and when boiling, which
it will fluid, mixing it with
do without the aid of water, or other
resin, or pitch, or both together, with common sulphur, and
the powder of sea-shells. If these be mixed together, water
added to it, and the composition kept on the fire till the instant
of its being used, it is not improbable that the secret may be
discovered. Oil of turpentine and wax, which are the com-
mon ingredients in such cements as are accounted firmest,
may also be tried as additions ; as also may strong ale wort,
which is by some directed to be used instead of water, to
make mortar of lime-stone of more than ordinary strength.

SLATING,
This brancn of ouilding, which is principally employed in
the covering of roofs, is not unfrequently combined with
that of plastering. The slates chiefly used in London are
brought from the quarries at Bangor, in Caernarvonshire,
which supply all parts of the United Kingdom. Another
kind of slate, of a pale blue-green colour, is used, and most
esteemed, being brought from Kendal, in Westmoreland,
called Westmoreland slates* These slates are not large;
but of good substance, and well calculated to give a neat
appearance to a roof. The Scottish slate, which assimilates
in size and quality to a slate from Wales, called ladies, is in
little repute.
622 THE OPERATIVE MECHANIC
Slaters class the Welsh slates in the following order
Ft. In. Ft. In.
Doubles, average size, 1 1 by 0 G
Ladies, 1 3 0 S
Countesses, 1 8 0 10
Duchesses, 2 0 1 0
Welsh rags, 3 0 2 0
Queens, 3 0 2 0
Imperials, 2 G 2 0
Patent slate, 2 6 2 0
The doubles, are made from fragments of the larger kinds,
and derive their name from their diminutive size. Ladies
are similarly obtained. Comitesses are a gradation above
ladies and duchesses above countesses.
Slate, like most other stony substances, is separated from
its bed by the ignition of gunpowder. The blocks, thus
obtained, are, by the application of wedges, reduced into
layers, called scantlings, from four to nine inches in thick-
ness, and of any required length and breadth, which arc
afterwards sawn to the respective sizes by machinery. The
blue, green, and purple, or darker kinds of slate, are, in
general, found capable of being split into very thin laminae,
or sheets ; but those of the white or brownish free-stone
kind, can seldom be separated or divided so fine; conse-
quently, these last form heavy, strong, thick coverings, pro-
per for buildings in exposed situations, such as barns, stables,
and other out-houses.
The instruments used in splitting and cleaning slates are,
slate-knives, axes, bars, and wedges ; the three first being
used to reduce the slates into the required thicknesses, and
the last to remove the inequalities from the surface.
Imperial slating is particularly neat, and may be known
by having its lower edge sawn ; whereas all other slates
used for covering are chipped square on their edges only.
Patent slate was first brought into use by Mr. Wyatt, the
architect ; but a patent was never obtained. It derives its
name from the mode adopted to lay it on roofs ; it may be
laid on a rafter of much less elevation than any other, and
is considerably lighter, by reason of the laps being less than

is necessary for the common sort of slating. This slating

was originally made from Welsh rags but is now ver}
frequently made from Imperials, which render it lighter, and
also somewhat neater in appearance.
Westmoreland slate, ivom the experiments made by the late
Bishop of Landaff, appears to differ little in its natural com-
position from that obtained from Wales. It must, however
 AND MACHINIST. 623
be remarked, that this kind of slate owes its lightness, not
so much to any diversity in the component parts of the
stone, as to the thinness to which it is reduced by the work-
men ; consequently, it is not so well calculated to resist
violent winds as those which are heavier.
Slates, when brought from the quarry, are not sufficiently
square for the slaters use ; he therefore picks up and exa-
mines the slates separately, and observes which is the
strongest and squarest end ; then, seating himself, he holds
the slate a little slanting upon, and projecting about an inch
over, the edge of a small block of wood, which is of the
same height as his seat, and cuts away and makes straight
one of its edges; then, with a slip of wood, he gauges, and
cuts off* the other edge parallel to it, and squares the end.
The slate is now considered prepared for use, with the
exception of perforating through its opposite ends two small
holes, for the reception of the nails which are to confine it
to the roof. Copper and zinc nails, or iron nails tinned, arc
considered the best, being less susceptible of oxidation than
nails made of bar iron.
Before we proceed further with the operations necessary
in the slating of building, we shall give some account of the
tools used by this class of artificers.
. Slaters tools are very few, which sometimes are found by
the masters, and sometimes by the men. The tool called
the saixe, is made of tempered iron, about sixteen inches in
length, and two inches in width, somewhat bent at one end,
with a handle of wood at the other. This tool is not unlike
a large knife, except that it has on its back a projecting piece
of iron, about three inches in length, drawn to a sharp
point. This tool is used to chip or cut all the slates to the
required sizes.
The ripper is also of iron, about the same length as the
saixe ; it has a very thin blade, about an inch and three-
quarters wide, tapered, somewhat towards the top, where a
round head projects over the blade about half an inch on
each side it has also two little round notches in the two
:

internal angles at their intersections. The handle of this

tool is raised above the blade by a shoulder, which enables
the workman to hold it firm. This instrument is used in
repairing old slating, and the application consists in thrust-
ing the blade under the slates, so that the head, which pro-
lects, may catch the nail in the little notch at its intersec-
tion, and enable the workman to draw it out. During this
624 THE OPERATIVE MECHANIC
operation the slate is sufficiently loosened to allow of its

being removed, and another inserted in its place.

The hammer, which is somewhat different in shape to the
ordinary tool of that name, is about five inches in height
on the hammer, or driving part, and the top is bent back, and
ground to a tolerably sharp point, its lower or flat end,
which is quite round, being about three-quarters of an inch
in diameter. On this side of the driving part is a small
projection, with a notch in the centre, which is used as a
claw to extract such nails as do not drive satisfactorily.
The shaving-tool is used for getting the slates to a smooth
face for skirtings, floors of balconies, &c. It consists of an

iron blade, sharpened at one of its ends like a chisel, and

mortised through the centre of two round wooden handles,
one fixed at one end, and the other about the middle of the
blade. The blade is about eleven inches long, and two inches
wide, and the handle is about ten inches long, so that they
project about four inches on each side of the blade. In using
this tool, the workman places one hand on each side of the
handle that is in the middle of the blade, and allows the
other to press against both his wrists. In this manner he
removes all the uneven parts from off the face of the slate,
and gets it to a smooth surface.
The other tools used by the slater consist of chisels,
gouges, and files of all sizes ; by means of which he finishes
the slates into mouldings and other required forms.
In slating roofs, it is necessary to form a base or floor for
the slates to lay compactly and safely upon ; for doubles and
ladies, boarding is required, which must be laid very even,
witli the joints close, and properly secured by nails to the
rafters. This being completed, the slater provides himself
with several slips of wood, tilting fillets, dhoxxi ten
inches and a half wide, and three-quarters of an inch
thick on one edge, and chamfered to an arris on the other,
which he nails down all round the extreme edges of the
roof, beginning with the hips, if any, and if not, with the
sides, eaves, and ridge. He next selects the largest of the
slates, and arranges them regularly along the eaves with
their lower edges to a line, and nails them to the boarding.
Til is part of the work being completed, he takes other
slates to form the bond to the under sides of the eaves, and
places them under those previously laid,- so as to cross and
cover all their joints. Such slates are pushed up lightly
under tliose which are above them, and are seldom nailed,
but left dependent for support on the weight of those above
 AND MACHINIST. G-2j

tliem. and their own weight on the boarding. The countessc.^

and all other description of slates^ when intended to be luid
in a good manner, are also laid on boards.
Wdieri the slater has finished the eaves, he strains a line
on the face of the upper slates, parallel to its outer edge,
and as far from it as he cieems sufiTicient for the lap of those
he intends shall form the next course, which is laid and
nailed even with the line, crossing the joints of the upper
slates of the eaves. This lining and laying is continued
close to the ridge of the roof, observing throughout to cross
the different joints, by laying the slates one above another.
The same system is uniformly followed in laying ail the
different sorts of slates, with the exception of those called
patent slates, as are hereafter explained.
Tlie largest kinds of slate, are found to lay firm on hat-^
tens, which are, consequently, much employed, and pro-
duce a very considerable saving of expense in large build-
ings. A batten is a narrow portion of deal, about two
inches and a half, or three inches wide ; four of them being'
commonly procured from an eleven inch board.
For countess slates, battens three-quarters of an inch
thick, will be of adequate substance ; but for the larger and
heavier kinds, inch battens will be necessary. In battening
a roof for slates, the battens are not placed at an uniform
distance from each other, but so as to suit the length of the
slates ; and as tliese vary as they approach the apex, or ridge
of the roof, it follows that the slater himself is the best
judge where to fix them, so as best to support the slates.
A roof, to be covered with patent slates, requires that the
common rafters be left loose upon their purlines, as they
must be so arranged that a rafter shall lie under every one of
the meeting-joints. Neither battening nor bearding is re-
quired for these slates. The number of rafters will depend
on the width of the slates ; hence if they be of a large size,
very few will siiftice. This kind of slating is likewise com-
menced at the caves ; but no crossing or bonding is re-
quired, as the slates are laid uniformly, with each end reach-
ing to the centre of the rafter, and butted up to each other
throughout the length of thereof. When the eaves-course
is laid, the slates which compose it are screwed down to

the rafters by two or three strong inch and half screws at

each of their ends. A line is then strained about two
inches below the upper edge, in order to guide the laying
of the next course, which is laid with its lower edge touch
ing the line. This lining, laying with a lap, and screwed
62(3 THE OPERATIVE MECHANIC
down, is continued till the roof is completely covered. The
joints are then secured by filletting, which consists in cover-
ing all the meeting-joints with fillets of slate, bedded in
glaziers putty, and screwed down through the whole into
the rafters. The fillets are usually about three inches wide,
and of a length proportionate to that of the slates, whose
joints they have to cover. These fillets are solidly bedded
in the putty, and their intersecting joints are lapped similar
to those of the slates. The fillets being so laid, and secured
by one in the middle of the fillet and one in each lap, are
next neatly pointed all round their edges with more putty,
and then painted over with the colour of the slate. The hips
and ridges of such slating are frequently covered by fillets,
which produces a veiy neat effect; but lead, which is not
much dearer, is by far the best kind of covering for all hips
and ridges. The patent slating may be laid so as to be per-
fectly water-tight, with an elevation of the rafters consider-
ably less than for any other slate or tile covering. The rise
in each foot of length in the rafter is not required to be
more than two inches, which, in a rafter of fifteen feet, will
amount to only two feet six inches a rise scarcely percep-
:

tible from the ground.

Slating is performed in several other ways, but the prin-
ciples already explained, embrace the most of them. Some
workmen shape and lay their slates in a lozenge form. This
kind of work consists in getting all the slates to an uniform
size, of the shape of a geometrical square. When laid on
the roof, which must be boarded, they are bonded and lap-
ped as in common slating, observing only to let the elbow,
or half of the square, appear above each slate that is next
beneath it, and be regular in the courses all over the roof.
One nail or screw only can be used for such slating ; hence
it soon becomes dilapitated. It is commonly employed in
{)laces near to tlie eye, or wdiere particular neatness is re-
quired.
has been ascertained, that a slate one inch thick will,
It
in an horizontal jiosition, support as much, in weight, as
five inches of Portland stone similarly suspended. Hence
slates are now wrought and used in galleries, and other pur-
poses, where it is essential to have strength and lightness
combined.
Slates are also fashioned into chimney-pieces ; but are in-
capable of receiving a polish like marble. It makes excel-
lent skirtings of all descriptions, as well as casings to walls,
where dilapidations, or great wear and tear are to be ex-
 AND MACHINIST. 627
pected. For these purposes, it is capable of being fixed with
joints, equally as neat as wood : and may,
if required, be
painted over so as to appear like Stair-cases may also
it.

be executed in slate, which will produce a resemblance of

marble.

MENSURATION OF PLASTERERS* AND SLATERS* WORK.

' Plasterers* work is executed by the yard square ; and the
dimensions are taken in feet and inches.
If a room consists of more than four quoins, the addi-
tional corners must be allowed at per foot run.
In measuring ceilings with ribs, the superficies must be
taken for plain work ; then an allowance must be made for
each mitre, and the ribs must be valued at so much per foot
run, according to the girth ; or by the foot superficial, al-
lowing moulding work.
In measuring common work the principal things to be
observed are as follow :

first, to make deductions for
chimneys, windows, and doors ; secondly, to make deduc-
tions for rendering upon brick work, for doors and windows
thirdly, if the workman find materials for rendering between
quarters, one-fifth must be added for quarters ; but if work-
manship only is found, the whole must be measured as whole
work, because the workman could have performed the
whole much sooner if there had been no quarters ; fourthly,
all mouldings in plaster work are measured by the foot su-
perficial, the same as joiners, by girting over the mouldings
with a line.
Slaters* work is measured and reduced into squares, con-
taining 100 feet superficial. If in measuring the slating on
a roof, it be hipped on all sides with a flat at top, and the
planof the building be rectangular, add thelengthand breadth
of two adjoining sides of the eaves, and the length and
breadth of two adjoining sides at the flat together, multiply
the sum by the breadth of the slope, and the product will
give the area of the space that is covered. Add the number
of square feet produced, by multiplying the girts of the roof
by the length of the slates at the eaves ; to the area also, for
the trouble of putting on the double row of slates, add the
number of square feet produced by multiplying the length
of the hips by one foot in breadth, and the sum 'will be the
whole contents, and yield a compensation for the trouble
and waste of materials. If there be no flats, add the two
adjoining sides and twice the length of the ridge for the
length ; multiply the sum by the breadth of the slips, for,
2s 2
 628 THE OPERATIVE MECHANIC
the area of the space covered^ and add the allowances as
before.
Another plan is to allow in addition to the nett dimen-
sions of the work^ six inches for all the eaves, and four
inches for the hips.
All faced work in slate skirting, stair-cases, galleries, &c.
is charged by the foot superficial, without any addition.

PLUMBING,
Is the artof casting and working in lead, and using the
same and for other purposes in building.
in the covering
To the plumber is also confided the pump-work, as well
as the making and forming of cisterns and reservoirs, large
or small closets, &c. for the purposes of domestic (economy.
The plumber does not use a great variety of tools, because the
ductility of the metal upon which he operates does not re-
quire it.
The tools used, consist of an iron hammer, rather heavier
than a carjienters, with a short thick handle ; two or three
wooden mallets of different sizes ; and a dressing and flat-
ting tool.
This last is of beech, about eighteen inches long, and two
inches square, planed smooth and flat on the under surface,
rounded on the upper, and one of its ends tapered off rouncl
as a handle. With this tool he stretches out and flattens
the sheet-lead, or dresses it to the shape required, using
first the flat side, then the round one, as occasion may re-
quire.
The plumber has also occasion for a jack and trying plane,
similar to that of the carpenter.
With this he reduces the edges of sheet-lead to a straight
line, Avhen the purposes to which it is to be applied re-
(|uire it.

Also a chalk line, wound upon a roller, for marking out

the lead into such breadths as he may want.
His cutting tools consist of a variety of chisels and gouges
as well as knives.
The latter of these are used for cutting the sheet lead into
slips and jiieces after it has been marked out by the chalk
line.
Files of different sizes ; ladles of three or four sizes, for
melting the solder ; and an iron instrument called grazing-
iro7is.
 AND MACHINIST. 629
These grozing-irons are of several sizes, generally about
twelve inches in length, tapered at both ends, the handle
end being turned quite round, to allow of its being firmly
held while in use the other end is a bulb of a spindle, or
:

spherical shape, of a size proportioned to the soldering in-

tended to be exeeuted. They are, when required for use,
heated to redness.
The plumbers measuring rule is two feet in length, di -

vided into three equal parts of eight inches each ; two of

its legs are of box-wood, daodecimally divided ; and the
third consists of a piece of slow tempered steel, attached to
one of the box legs by a pivot on which it turns, and falls,
when not in use, into a groove cut in such leg for its recep-
tion. This steel leg can be passed into places where the others
cannot enter ; and it is also useful for occasionally removing
the oxide or any other extraneous matters from the surface
of the heated metal.
Scales and weights are also necessary ; and he must be
supplied with centre-bits of all sizes ; and a stock to work
them, for the purpose of making perforations in lead or
wood, through which he may want to insert pipes, &c.
Compasses, to strike circular pieces, to line or cover figures
of that shape, are occasionally required.
Lead is obtained from ore, and, from its being generally
combined with sulphur, it has been denominated sulphu-
ret,'' After the ore has been taken from its bed it is smelted,
first being picked, in order to separate the unctuous and rich,
or genuine ore from the stony matrix, and other impurities ;
the picked ore is then pounded under stampers worked by
machinery, and afterwards washed to carry off the remaindeV
of the matrix, which could not be separated in picking. It is
next put into a reverberatory furnace, to be roasted ; during
which operation, it is repeatedly stirred, to facilitate the
evaporation of the sulphur. When the surface begins to
assume the appearance of a paste, it is covered with char-
coal, and well shaken together : the fire is then increased,
and the purified lead flows down on all sides into the basin
of the furnace, whence it runs off into moulds prepared for
its reception. The moulds are capable of receiving 1541bs.
of lead each, and their contents, when cool, are, in the com-
mercial world, called
Lead is of a bluish-white colour, and when newly melt-
ed, or cut, is quite bright ; but it soon becomes tarnished
on exposure to the atmosphere ; assuming first a dirty grey
colour, and afterwards becomes white. It is capable of
630 THE OPERATIVE MECHANIC
being hammered into very thin plates, and may be drawn
into wire ; but its tenacity is very inferior to that of other
metals ; for a leaden wire, the hundred and twentieth part
of an inch in diameter, is only capable of supporting about
18lb. without breaking. Lead, next to tin, is the most fu-
sible of all metals ; and if a stronger heat be applied,
it boils and evaporates. If cooled slowly, it crystallizes.
The change of its external colour is owing to its gradual
combination with oxygen, 'which converts its exterior sur-
face into an oxyd. This outward crust, however, preserves
the rest of the metal for a long time, as the air can pene-
trate but very slowly.
Lead is not acted upon immediately by water, though that
clement greatly facilitates the action of the air upon it : for
it is known that, when
lead is exposed to the atmosphere,
and kept constantly wet, the process of oxidation takes
place much more rapidly than it does under other circum-
stances :hence the white crust that is to be observed on
the sides of leaden vessels containing water, just at the
place where the surface of the w^ater terminates.
Lead is purchased by plumbers, in pigs, and they reduce
it into sheets or pipes, as they have occasion. Of sheet-lead
they have two kinds, cast and milled. The former is used
for covering flat roofs of buildings, laying of terraces, form-
ing gutters, lining reservoirs, &c. ; and the latter, which is
very thin, for covering the hips and ridges of roofs. This
last they do not manufacture themselves, but purchase it
of the lead merchants, ready prepared.
For the casting of sheet lead, a copper is provided, and well
fixed in masoniy, at the upper end of the workshop, near
the mould or casting table, which consists of strong deal
boards, well jointed together, and bound with bars of iron
at the ends. ITie sides of this table, of which the shape is
a parallelogram, vary in size from four to six feet in width,
and from 10 to 18 feet and upwards in length, and are guarded
by a frame or edging of wood, 3 inches thick, and 4 or 5
inches higher than the interior surface, called the shafts,
This table is fixed upon firm legs, strongly framed together,
about 6 or 7 inches lower than the top of the copper. At
the upper end of the mould, nearest the copper, is a box,
called the pan, which is adapted in its length to the breadth
of the table, having at its bottom a long horizontal slit,
from which the heated metal is to issue, when it has been
poured in from the copper. This box moves upon rollers
along the surface of the rim of the table, and is put in mo-
 AND Machinist. 631

tioiiby means of .ropes and pulleys, fixed to beams above.

While the metal is melting, the surface of the mould, or
table, is prepared by covering it with a stratum of dry and
clean sand, regularly smoothed over with a kind of rake,
called a strike, which consists of a board about 5 inches
broad, and rather longer than the inside of the mould, so
that its ends, which are notched about two inches deep, may
ride upon the shafts. This being passed down the whole
length of the table, reduces the sand to an uniform sur-
face. The pan is now brought to the head of the table, close
to the copper, its sides having previously been guarded by a
coat of moistened sand, to prevent its firing from the heat of
the metal, which is now put in by ladles from the copper.
These pans, or boxes, it must be observed, are made to
contain the quantity of melted lead which is required to cast
a whole sheet at one time ; and the slit in the bottom is so
adjusted as to let out, during its progress along the table,
just as much as will completely cover it of the thickness and
weight per foot required. Every thing being thus prepared,
the slit is opened, and the box moved along the table, dis-
pensing its contents from the top to the bottom, and leaving
in its progress a sheet of lead of the desired thickness.
When cool, the sheet is rolled up and i-emoved from the
table, and other sheets are cast, till all the metal in the cop-
per is exhausted. The sheets thus formed are then rolled
up and kept for use.
In some places, instead of having a square box upon
wheels, with a slit in the bottom, the pan consists of a kind
of trough, being composed of two planks nailed together at
right angles, with two triangular pieces fitted in between
them, at their ends. The length of this pan, as well as that
of the box, is equal to the whole breadth of the mould. It
is placed with its bottom on a bench at the head of the table

leaning wdth one side against it to the opposite side is fixed

:

a handle, by which it may be lifted up in order to pour out

the liquid metal. On the side of the pan next the mould
are two iron hooks, to hold it to the table, and prevent it
from slipping while the metal is being poured into the
mould.
The mould, as well as the pan, is spread over, about two
inches thick, with sand, sifted and moistened, and rendered
perfectly level by moving over it the strike, and smoothing it
down with a plane of polished brass, about a quarter of an
inch thick, and nine inches square, turned up on the edges.
. Before they proceed to casting the lead, the strike is made
6132 TUB OPERATIVE MECHANIC
ready by tacking two pieces of old hat on the notches^ or
by covering the notches with leather cases, so as to raise the
under side of the strike, about an eighth of an inch, or
more, above the sand, according to the proposed thickness
of the sheet. The face or under side of tlie strike is then
smeared with tallow, and laid across the breadth of the
mould, with its ends resting on the shafts. The melted lead
is then put into the pan with ladles ; and, when a sufficient
quantity has been put in, the scum is swept off with a piece
of board, and suffered to settle on the coat of sand, to
prevent its falling into the mould, when the metal is poured
out. It generally happens, that the lead, when first taken
from the copper, is too hot for casting ; it is therefore suf-
fered to cool in the pan, till it begins to stand with a shell
or wail on the sand with which the pan is lined. Two men
then take the pan by the handle, or one of them takes it by
means of a bar and chain fixed to a beam in the ceiling, and
turn it down, so that the metal runs into the mould : while
another man stands ready with the strike, and, as soon as
all the metal is poured in sweeps it forward and draws the
residue into a trough at the bottom, which has been prepa-
red to receive it. The sheet is then rolled up, as before.
In this mode of operation, the table inclines in its
length about an inch, or an inch and a half, in the length of
sixteen or seventeen feet, or more, according to the required
thickness of the sheets ; the thinner the sheet the greater
the declivity; and vice versa. The lower end of the mould
is also left open, to admit of the superfluous metal being
thrown off.
When a cistern is to be cast, the size of the four sides is
measured out; and the dimensions of the front having been
taken, sli{5s of wood, on which the mouldings are carved, are
pressed uj)on the sand. Figures of birds, beasts, &c. are
likewise stamped in the internal area, by means of leaden
moulds. If any part of the sand has been disturbed in
doing this, it is made smooth, and the process of casting
goes on as for plain sheets ; except that, instead of rolling
up the lead when cast,it is bent into four sides, so that the
two ends, when they are soldered together, may be joined
at the back ; the bottom is afterwards soldered up.
The lead which lines the Chinese tea-boxes is reduced
to a thinness which our plumbers cannot, it is said, ap-
proach. The following account of the process was commu-
nicated by an intelligent East-lndian, in a letter which ap-
peared in the Gentlemans Magazine. The caster sits by
 AND MACHlNIf.T. G33
a pot, containing the melted metal, and has two large stones,
the lower one fixed and the upper one movable, having
their surfaces of contact ground to each other, directly be-
fore him. He raises the upper stone by pressing his foot
upon its side, and with an iron ladle pours into the opening
a sufficient quantity of the fluid metal. He then lets fall
the upper stone, and thus forms the lead into an extremely
thin and irregular plate, which is afterwards cut into its re-
quired form.
Cast sheet lead, used for architectural purposes, is techni-
cally divided into 51b. 5^lb. 6lb. 6^1b. 71b. 72lh. 8Ib. and
8Ib.; by which is understood, that every superficial foot
is to contain those respective weights, according to the price

agreed upon.
The milled lead used by plumbers is very thin, seldom
containing more than 51b. to the foot. It is by no means
adapted to gutters or terraces, nor, indeed, to any part of a
building that is much exposed either to great wear or to the
effects of the suns rays in the former case, it soon wears
:

away ; in the latter, it expands and cracks. It is laminated

in sheets of about the same size as those of cast lead, by
means of a roller, or flatting- mill.
Lead-pipes, besides the various ways of manufacture de-
scribed in page 362, are sometimes made of sheet lead, by
beating it on round wooden cylinders of the length and
dimensions required, and then soldering up the edges.
Solder is used to secure the joints of work in lead,
which by other means would be impossible. It should be
easier of fusion than the metal intended to be soldered, and
should be as nearly as possible of the same colour. The
plumber therefore uses, what is technically called, soft sol-
which is a compound of equal parts of tin and lead,
melted together and run in to moulds. In this state it is
sold by the manufacturer by the pound.
In the operation of soldering, the surfaces or edges in-
tended to be united are scraped very clean, and brought
close up to each other, in which state they are held by an
assistant, while the plumber applies a little resin on the
joints, in order to prevent the oxidation of the metal. The
heated solder is then brought in a ladle and poured on the
joint ;
after which it is smoothed and finished by rubbing it
about with a red-hot soldering iron, and when completed is
made smooth by filing.
In the covering of roofs or terraces with lead, (the sheets
never exceeding six feet in breadth,) it becomes necessary in
634 THE OPERATIVE MECHANIC
large surfaces^ to have joints ; which are managed several
ways, but in all, the chief object is to have them water-
tight. The best plan of effecting this, is to form laps or
roll joints, which is done by having a roll, or strip of wood,
about two inches square, l)ut rounded on its upper side,
nailed under the joints of the sheets, where the edges lap
over each other ; one of these edges is to be dressed up
over the roll on the inside, and the other is to be dressed
over them both on the outside, by which means the water
is prevented from penetrating. No other fastening is requi-
site than what is required from the hammering of the sheets
together down upon the flat ; nor should any other be re-
sorted to, when sheet lead is exposed to the vicissitudes of
the weather ; because it expands and shrinks, which, if pre-
vented by too much fastening, would cause it to crack and
become useless. It sometimes, however, occurs, that rolls
cannot be used, and then the method of joining by seams is
resorted to. This consists in simply bending the approxi-
mate edges of the lead up and over each other, and then
dressing them down close to the flat, throughout their
length. But this is not equal to the roll, either for neatness
or security.
Lead and gutters should always be laid with a cur-
flats
rent, to keep them dry. About a quarter of an inch to the
foot run is a sufficient inclination.
In laying gutters, &c. pieces of milled-lead, called
ings, about eight or nine inches wide, are fixed in the walls
all round the edges of the sheet-lead, with which the flat is
covered, and are suffered to hang down over them, so as to
prevent the passage of rain through the interstice between
the raised edge and the wall. If the walls have been pre-
viously built, the mortar is. raked out of the joint of the
bricks next above the edge of the sheet, and the flush-
ings are not only inserted into the crack at the upper sides,
but their lower edges are likewise dressed over those of
the lead in the flat, or gutter. When neither of these
modes can be resorted to, the flushings are fastened by
wall-hooks, and their lower edges dressed down as before.
Drips in flats, or gutters, are formed by raising one part
above another, and dressing the lead, as already described,
for covering the rolls. They are resorted to when the gutter
or flat, exceeds the length of the sheet ; or sometimes for
convenience. They are also an useful expedient to avoid sol-
dering the joints.
Sheet lead is also used in the lining of reservoirs, which
 AND MACHINIST. 635
are made cither of wood or masonry. As these conveni-
ences are seldom in places subject to material change of
temperature, recourse maybe had to the soldering, without
fear of its damaging the work, by promoting a disposition
to crack.
The pumps which come under the province of the plum-
ber, are confined generally to two or three kinds, used for
domestic purposes, of which the suction and lifting pumps
are the chief: these, as well as water-closets, are manufac-
tured by a particular set of workmen, and sold to the
plumber, who furnishes the lead pipes, and fixes them in their
places.
Plumbers work is generally estimated by the pound, or
hundred weight; but the weight may be discovered by
measurement, in the following manner sheet-lead used in :

roofing and guttering is commonly between seven and

twelve pounds to the square foot ; but the following table
exhibits the particular weight of a square foot for each of
the several thicknesses.
Thick- Poundsto Thick- Poundsto
ness. a sqr.ft. ness. a sqr. ft.

.10 5.899 .15 8.848

.11 6.489 .16 9.438
9 6.554
1

T 9.831
.12^ 7.078 .17 10.028
7.373 .18 10.618
I

.13 7.668 .19 11.207

.14 8.258 ,

5 11.797
'

T 1
8.427 21 12.387

In this table the thickness is set down in tenths and hun-

dredths, &c. of an inch ; and the annexed corresponding
numbers are the weights in avoirdupois pounds, and thou-
sandth parts of a pound ; so that the weight of a square
foot of 1-lOth of an inch thick, lO-lOOths, is 5 lbs. and 899
thousandth parts of a pound ; and the weight of a square
foot l-9th of an inch in thickness, is 6 pounds and 554
thousandths of a pound. Leaden pipe of an inch bore, is
commonly 13 or 14 lbs. to the yard in length.

GLAZING.
The business of this class of artificers consists in putting
glass into sashes and casements. Glaziers work may be
classed under three distinct heads, sash- work, lead-work,
and fret-work.
636 THE OPERATIVE MECHANIC
The tools requisite for theperformance of the first of these
departments are, a diamond, a ranging lath, a short lath, a
square, a rule, a glazing-knife, a cutting- chisel, a heading-
hammer, a duster, ana sash-tool ; and in addition, for stop-
ping in squares, a hacking-knife and hammer.
The diamond is a speck of that precious stone, polished
to a cutting point, and set in brass on an iron socket, to re-
ceive a wooden handle, which is so set as to be held in the
hand in the cutting direction. The top of the handle goes
between the root of the fore-finger and the middle finger,
and the hinder part, between the point of the fore-finger
and thumb ; there is, in general, a notch in the side of the
socket, which should be held next to the lath. Some dia-
monds have more cuts than one. Plough diamonds have a
square nut on the end of the socket, next the glass, which,
on running the nut square on the side of the lath, keeps it
in the cutting direction.
Glass binders have these plough diamonds without long
handles, as, in cutting their curious productions, they can-
not apply a lath, but direct them by the point of their mid-
dle finger, gliding along the edge of the glass.
The ranging lath must be long enough to extend rather
beyond the boundary of the table of glass.
Ranging of glass is the cutting it in breadths as the work
may require, and is best done by one uninterrupted cut from
one end to the other.
The square is used in cutting the squares from the range,
that they may with greater certainty be cut at right angles.
The glazing knife is used for laying in the putty in the re-
bates of the sash, for binding in the glass, and for finishing
the front putty.
Of the glass used in building, three qualities are in com-
mon use, denominated hest^ second, and third.
The best is that which is the purest metal and free of
blemishes, as blisters, specks, streaks, &c. ; the second is
inferior, from its not being so free from these blemishes ; and
the third are still inferior, both in regard to quality and
colour, being of greener hue.
They are all sold at the same price per crate ; but the
number of tables varies according to the quality. Best
twelve, second fifteen, and third eighteen tables.
These tables are circular when manufactured, and about
four feet in diameter, having in the centre a knot, to which,
in the course of the process, the flashing rod was fixed ; but
for the safety of carriage, and convenience of handling, as
 AND MACHINIST. 0S7
well as utility in practice, a segment cut off about four
is
inches from the knot. The large piece with the knot, stil
retains the name of table the smaller piece is technically
called a slab. From these tables being of a given size, it is
reasonable to suppose that, when the dimensions of squares
are such as cut the glass to waste, the price should be ad-
vanced.
A superior kind of glass may be obtained at some of the
first houses in London, which is very flat, and of large di-
mensions ; some of it being 2 feet 8 inches by 2 feet 1
inch ; these are sold only in squares.
Rough glass is well adapted to baths, and other places of
privacy ; one side is ground with emery or sand, so that no
objects can be seen through it, though the light be sti-ll
transmitted.
The glass, called German-sheet, is of a superior kind, as
it can be had of much larger dimensions than common glass ;

it is also of a purer substance, and for these reasons, is fre-

quently appropriated to picture frames. Squares may be

had at the astonishing size of 3 feet 8 inches, by 3 feet I inch,
and 3 feet 10 inches by 2 feet 8 inches, and under.
The glass is first blown in the form of a globe, and after-
wards flatted in a furnace, in consequence of which it has a
very forbidding appearance from the outside, the surface
being uneven.
Plate-glass is the most superior in quality, substance,
and flatness, being cast in plates, and polished. The
quantity of metal it contains, must be almost, if not al -

together, colourless that sort which is tinged being of an

;

inferior quality. Plate-glass -when used in sashes, is pe-

culiarly magnificent ; and it can be had of larger dimen-
sions than any other kind of glass.
Stained-glass is of different colours, as red, orange, yel-
low, green, blue, and purple.
These colours are fixed by burning, and are as durable as
the glass.
Glass can be bent to circular sweeps, which is much used
in London for shop windows, and is carried to great per-
fection in covers, for small pieces of statuary, &c.
The application of stained glass to the purposes of glazing
is called fret-iuork. This description of work consists of
working ground and stained glass, in fine lead, into different
patterns. In many cases family arms and other devices are
worked in it. It is a branch capable of great improvement
but at present is much neglected. Old pieces are very much
638 THE OPERATIVE MECHANK
esteemed, though the same expense would furnish elegant
modern productions. They are placed in halls and stair-
case windows, or in some particular church windows. In
many instances they are introduced where there is an un-
pleasant aspect, in a place of particular or genteel resort.
Lead- work is used in inferior offices, and is in general
practice all through the country. Frames intended to re-
ceive these lights are made with bars across, to which the
lights are fastened by leaden bars, called saddle bars ; and
where openings are wanted, a casement is introduced cither
of wood or iron. Sometiiiies a sliding frame answers the
same purposes. Church windows are generally made in
this manner, in quarries or in squares.
The tools with which this work is performed are, in ad-
dition to the foregoing, as follow :

Avice, with ditferent cheeks and cutters, to turn out tiic

different kinds of lead as the magnitude of the windoiv or
the squares may require.
The German vices, which are esteemed^ the best, arc
furnished with moulds, and turn out lead in a variety of
sizes. The bars of lead cast in these vices are received by
the mill, which turns them out with two sides parallel to
each other, and about | of an inch broad, with a partition
connecting the two sides together, about g of an inch wide,
forming on each side a groove, nearly -n-r by ^ of an inch,
and about 6 feet long.
Besides a vice and moulds there are setting-hoard, latter^
kin, setting- knife, resin-hox tin, glazing-irons, and clips.
The setting-hoard is that in which the ridge of the light
is marked and divided into squares, struck out with a chalk
line, or drawn with a lath, which serves to guide the work-
men. One side and end is squared with a projecting bead
or fillet.
The
latter kin is a piece of hard wood pointed, to run in
the groove of the lead, and widen it for the easier reception
of the glass.
The setting-knife consists of a blade with a round point,
loaded with lead at the bottom and terminating in a long
square handle. The square end of the liandle serves to
force the square of glass tight in the lead. All the inter-
sections are soldered on both sides, except the outside
joints of the outer sides, that is, where they come to the
outer edge. These lights should be cemented by pouring
thin paint along the lead bars, and filling up the chasms with
dry whiting, to which, after the oil in the paint has se-
 AND MACHINIST. cso

creted a little more dry whiting, or white lead,

little, a
must be added. This will dry hard, and resist the action
of the atmosphere.

MENSURATION OF GLAZIERS* WORK.

Glaziers* work is measured by superficial feet, and the di-
mensions are taken in feet, tenths, &c. For this purpose,
their rules are generally divided into decimal parts, and
their dimensions squared according to decimals. Circular,
or oval windows are measured as if they were rectangular ;
because in cutting squares of glass there is a very great
waste, and more time is expended than if the window had
been of a rectangular form.

PAINTING,
As applied to purposes of building, is the application of
artificial colours, compounded cither with oil or water, in
embellishing and preserving wood, &c.
This branch of painting is termed economical^ and applies
more immediately to the power which oil and varnishes pos-
sess, of preventing the action of the atmosphere upon
wood, iron, and stucco, by interposing an artificial surface ;
but it is here intended to use the term more generally, in
allusion to the decorative part, and as it is employed by
the architect, throughout every part of his work, both ex-
ternally and internally.
In every branch of painting in oil, the general processes
are very similar, or with such variations only, as readily oc-
cur to the workman.
The first coatings, or layers, if on wood or iron, ought al-
ways to be of ceruse or white lead, of the best quality, pre-
viously ground very fine in nut or linseed oil, either over a
stone with a mullcr, or, as that mode is too tedious _for
large quantities, passed through a mill. If used on shut-
ters, doors, or wainscottings, made of fir or deal, it is very
requisite to destroy the effects of the knots ; which are ge-
nerally so completely saturated with turpentine, as to
render it, perhaps, one of the most difficult processes in
this business. The best mode, in common cases, is, to pass
a brush over the knots, with ceruse ground in w^ater, bound
by a size made of parchment or glue; when that is dry,
paint the knots with white lead ground in oil, to which add
some powerful siccative, or dryer, as red lead, or litharge of
C40 THE OPERATIVE MECHANIC
lead ;
about oiic-fourtli part of the latter. These must be
laid very smoothly in the direction of the grain of thewood.
When the last coat is dry, smooth it with pumice-stone,
or give it the first coat of paint, prepared or diluted with
nut or linseed oil ; after which, when sufficiently dry, all
the nail- holes or other irregularities on the surface, must be
carefully stopped with a composition of oil and Spanish
white, commonly known by the name of putty. The work
must then be again painted with wdiite lead and oil, some-
what diluted with the essence of oil of turpentine, which pro-
cess should, if the work be intended to be left of a plain
white, or stone colour, be repeated not less than three or
four times ; and if of the latter colour, a small quantity of ivory
or lamp-black should be added. But if the work is to be
finished of any other colour, either grey, green, See. it
will be requisite to provide for such colour, after the third
operation, particularly if it is to be finished flat, or, as the
])aiiiters style it, dead white, grey, fawn, &c. In order to
finish the work flatted or dead, which is a mode much to be
preferred for all superior works, not only for its apiear-
ance, but also for preserving the colour and purity of tiie
tint, one coat of the flatted colour, or colour mixed up
with a considerable quantity of turpentine, will be found
suflicient; although in large surfaces it will frequently be
requisite to give two coats of the flatting colour, to make it
quite complete. Indeed, on stucco it will be almost a ge-
neral rule.
In all the foregoing operations, it must be observed that,
some sort of dryer is absolutely requisite; a very general
and useful one is made by grinding in linseed, or, perhajis,
prepared oils boiled are better, about two parts of the best
wdiite copperas, which must be well dried with one part of
litharge of lead the quantity to be added, will much de-
:

})cnd on the dryness or humidity of the atmosphere, at the

time of painting, as well as the local situation of the build-
ing. It may here be noticed, that there is a sort of cop-
])eras made in England, and said to be used for some pur-
poses in medicine, that not only does not assist the opera-
tion of drying in the colours, but absolutely prevents those
colours drying, which would otherwise have done so in
the absence of this copperas.
The best dryer for all fine whites, and other delicate tints,
is sugar of lead, ground in nut oil, but being very active, a
small quantity, about the size of a walnut, will be suflicient
for twenty pounds of colour, when the basis is^vhitc lead.
 AND MACHINIST. 611

It will be always necessary to caution painters to keep their

utensils, brushes, &c. very clean, as the colour would other-
wise soon become very foul, so as to destroy the surface of
the work. If this should happen, the colour must be pass-
ed through a fine sieve, or cairvass, and the surface of the
work be carefully rubbed down with sand-paper, or pumice-
stone :the latter should be ground iuAvater, if the paint be
tender, or recently laid on. The above may suffice as to
painting on wood, either on inside or outside work, the
former being seldom finished otherwise than in oil four or
:

five coats are generally sufficient.

It does not appear that painting in oil can be serviceable
in stucco, unless the walls have been erected a sufficient
time to permit the mass of brick-work to have acquired a
sufficient degree of dryness. When stucco is on battened
work, it may be painted over much sooner than when pre-
pared on brick. Indeed, the greatest part of the art of
painting stucco, so as to stand or wear well, consists in at-
tending to these observations, for whoever has observed the
expansive power of water, not only in congelation, but also
in evaporation, must be well aware that when it meets with
any foreign body, obstructing its escape, as oil painting, for
instance, it immediately resists it, forming a number of
vesicles or particles, containing an acrid lime-water, wffiich
forces off the layers of plaster, and frequently causes large
defective patches, not easily to be eradicated.
Perhaps, in general cases, where persons are building on
their own estates, or for themselves, two or three years are
not too long to suffer the stucco to remain unpainted,
though frequently, in speculative works, as many weeks are
scarcely allowed to pass.
The foregoing precautions being attended to, there can be
no better mode adopted for priming, or laying on the first
coat on stucco, than by linseed or nut-oil, boiled with dry-
ers, as before mentioned 5 taking care, in all cases, not to
lay on too much, so as to render the surface rough and irre-
gular, and not more than the stucco will absorb. It should
then be covered with three or four coats of white- lead, pre-
pared as described for painting on wainscotting, allow-
ing each coat a sufficient time to dry hard. If time will
permit, two or three days between each layer, will be ad-
vantageous. When the stucco is intended to be finished in
any given tint, as grey, light green, &c. it will then be pro-
per, about the third coat of painting, to prepare the ground
for such tint, by a slight advance towards it. Grey is made
2 T
042 THli: OPKRATlVii; MECHANIC
with white- lead, Prussian-blue^ ivory-black, and lake; sage-
green, pea, and sea-greens, with white. Prussian-blue, and
fine yeiiows ; apricot and peach, with lake, white, and
Chinese vermilion ; fine yellow fawn colour with burnt
terra sienna, or umber and white; and olive-greens with fined
Prnssian-blues, and Oxfordshire ochre,
Distemper, or painting in water colours, mixed with
size, stucco, or plaster, which is intended to be painted in
oil when finished, but not being sufficiently dry to receive
the oil, may have a coating in Vv^ater colours, of any given
tint required, in order to give a more finished appearance to
that part of the building. Straw colours may be made with
French whites and ceruse, or white lead and masticot, or
Dutch pink. Greys, full, with some whites and refiners
vei ditcr. An inferior grey may be made wdth blue-black,
or bone-black and indigo. Pea-greens with French green,
Olympian green, &c. Fawn-colour with burnt terra de
sienna, or burnt umber and white, and so of any interme-
diate tint. The colours should all be ground very fine, and
mixed with whiting and a size made with parchment, or
some similar substance. Less than two coats will not be
sufficient to cover the plaster, and bear out with an uniform
appearance. It must be recollected, that when the stucco
is sufficiently dry, and it is desirable to have it painted in
oil, the whole of the water-colours ought to be removed,
which may easily be done by washing, and when quite dry,
proceed with it after the direction given on oil-painting in
stucco.
If old plastering has become disfigured by stains, or other
blemishes, and it be desired to have it painted in distem-
per, it is, in this case, advisable to give the old plastering,
when properly cleaned off and prepared, one coat, at least,
of white-lead ground in oil, and used with spirits of tur-
pentine, which will generally fix old stains ; and, when quite
dry, take water-colours very kindly.

MENSURATION OF PAINTERs WORK.

Painters w^orkis measured by the yard square, and the
dimensions are taken in feet, inches, and tenths. Every
part which the brush has passed over is measured, conse-
quently the dimensions must be taken with a line, that girts
over the mouldings, breaks, &c. All kinds of ornamental
work produces an extra price, according to the nature of
the imitations, &c. Carved work is also valued according
to the time taken in painting it
 Ax\D MACHINIST. 643

RAIL-ROADS
AND

LOCOMOTIVE ENGINES.

Amidst the various speculations of the day, perhaps none

have more deservedly excited the public interest than that
,

of the numerous projected lines of rail-road for diminish-

ing the friction of carriages, and for propelling carriages on
them by either gas or steam power.
The lessening the friction, produces a consequent diminu-
tion in the power which otherwise would be required to
propel a given weight ; and therefore, is, in a commercial
nation, like that of the united kingdom, a subject worthy of
the highest consideration.
Railways were originally made of wood, and appear to
have been first introduced between the river Tyne and some
of the principal coal-pits, as early as the year 1680. The
scarcity of this material, and the expense of frequent re-
pairs, soon suggested an idea that iron might be more
advantageously employed. At first, flat rods of bar-iron
were nailed upon the original wooden rails, or, as they were
technically called, sleepers; which, though an expensive
process, was found to be a great improvement. But as the
wood on which these rested was liable to rot and give way,
these railings were soon after superseded by others made
entirely of iron.
These tram or rail-roads have, for a considerable length
of time, been much used in the colliery and mining districts
and some few have been carried from one town or manufac-
turing district to another. The principal of these latter in
England and Wales are, the Cardiff and Merthyr, 26f miles
longj running near the Glamorganshire canal ; the Caer-
marthen ; the Lexhowry, 28 miles, in the counties of Mon-
mouth and Brecknock ; the Surrey 26 miles ; the Swansea,
71 miles ; one between Gloucester and Cheltenham ; besides
several in the north of England.
Railways are of two kinds, arising from the disposition of
2t2
644 THE OPERATIVE MECHANIC
tlie flaiich that is to guide the wheels of the carriage, and
prevent it from ruiiiiiiig off In the one, the llanch
the rail.
is at right angles, and of one piece with the
flat surface of
the rail in the other, the flat surface of the rail is raised
:

above the level of the ground, and the flanch is fixed on the
wheel of the carriage, at right angles to the tyre, or iron
])laccd on the circumference of the wheel, to strengthen it.
Beside these, another kind of railway has lately been intro-
duced by Mr. Palmer, which consists of a single rail, sup-
ported some height from the surface of the ground on this, :

two wheels confined in sufficient frame- work, are placed,

suspending the load equally balanced on either side. This
arrangement certainly seems to ensure the grand principle
of lessening friction, and doubtless will, in many situations,
be found a great improvement.
Previously to entering upon the probable advantages like-
ly to result from a general introduction of railways, we
shall give the substance of the specification of a patent, ob-
tained in Sept. 1816, by Messrs. Losh and Stephenson, both
of whom are well known to those interested in the subject.
These gentlemen preface a description of their method of
facilitating carriages along tram and railways, with an ob-
servation, that there are two kinds of railways in general
use ; the one consisting of bars of cast iron, generally of
the shape of that described by a, fig.631 , the other of the
shape of that described by figs. 630 and^631. That shewn at a,
fig. 629, is known in different situations by the denomina-
tion of the edge rail, round-top rail, fish-backed rail, &c.
That shewn at figs. 632 and 633, by the denomination of
the plate-rail, tram-way plate, barrow-way plate, &c. The
first we shall distinguish by the name of the edge railway 5
the second, by that of the plate railway.
In the construction of edge railways, Messrs. Losh and
Stephensons objects are, first, to fix both the ends of the
rails, or separate pieces, of which the ways are formed,
immovable, in' or upon the chairs or props by which they
are supported secondly, to place them in such a manner,
;

that the end of any one rail shall not project above or fall
below the correspondent end of that with which it is in con-
tact, or with which it is joined thirdly, to form the join-
;

ings of the rails, with the pedestals or props which support

them, in such a manner, that if these props should vary
from their perpendicular position in the line of the way,
(which in other railways is often the case) the joinings of
the rails with each other v/onld remain as before such varia-
 AND MACHINIST 645

tion, and so that the bear upon the props as firm-

rails shall
ly as before. The formation of the rails or plates of which
a plate railway consists, being different from the rails of
which the edge railways are composed, they are obliged to
adopt a different manner of joining them, both with each
other, and with the props and sleepers on which they rest.
But in the joining these rails or plates upon their chairs and
sleepers, they fix them down immovably, and in such a
manner that the end of one rail or plate does not project
above, or fall below the end of the adjoining plate, so as to
present an obstacle, or cause a shock to the wheels of the
carriages which pass over them, and they also form the
joinings of these rails or plates in such a manner as to pre-
vent the possibility of the nails, which are employed in
fixing them in their chairs, from starting out of their places
from the vibration of the plates, or from other causes.
In what relates to the locomotive engines and their car-
riages, which may be employed for conveying goods or
materials along edge railways or plate-railways, or for
propelling or drawing after them the carriages or waggons
employed for that purpose, their invention consists in sus-
taining the weight, or a proportion of the weight, of the
engine, upon pistons, movable within cylinders, into which
the steam or the water of the boiler is allowed to enter, in
order to press upon such pistons ; and which pistons are, by
the intervention of certain levers and connecting rods, or
by any other effective contrivance, made to bear upon the
axles of the wheels of the carriage upon which the engine
rests. In the formation of the wheels it is their object to
construct them in such a manner, and to form them of such
materials, as shall make them more durable and less ex-
pensive in the repairs than those hitherto in use. This is
accomplished by forming the wheels either with spokes of
malleable iron, and with cast iron rims, or by making the
wheels and spokes of cast iron, with hoops, tyres, or trods,
of malleable iron, and in some instances, particularly for
wheels of very small diameters, instead of spokes of mallea-
ble iron, employing plates of malleable iron, to form the
junction between the naves and the cast iron rims of fhe
wheels.
The advantages gained by this method of constructing
railways are, first, that the separate pieces of which they
consist are, ccEteris parihus, rendered by this mode of joining
them, capable of sustaining a much heavier pressure than
those which are joined in the usual way. Secondly, by this
646 VIIE OPERATIVE MECHANIC
mode of joining the rails^ they remove the liability to which
rails joined in the usual plan, (where the end of one rail is
seldom in the same plane with the correspondent end of the
next) arc exposed, of receiving blows and shocks from the
carriages which move over them, and to which blows and
shocks the great breakage which often occurs in railways,
when not made of enormous weight, may generally be re-
ferred ; and as action and re-action are mutual and con-
trary, if they prevent the communication of shocks to the
rails, they at the same time preserve the wheels, the car-
riages, and engines which move over them, from the re-
action which is often destructive to them. As the centre of
gravity in a loaded coal-waggon is, from its shape, much
elevated, there is generally a great waste of coal from the
shaking of the waggons, to which that circumstance (the
position of the centre of gravity) makes them more liable
when they encounter obstacles, as they do at the junction
of almost every two rails on the common railways. On
Losh and Stephensons railways, the loss thus arising is,
if not entirely prevented, at least considerably diminished,
by the steady and regular motion of the waggons. The
usual method of fixing down the plates, of which the plate
railways employed in coal-mines, and there called tram
and rolley-ways, are formed, is by a single nail, nearly at
each end of each plate ; which nail passes through a hole in
the plate, and fixes it to a sleeper of wood. These nails,
from the vibration of the plate, or the motion of the sleeper,
or some other cause, generally very soon start up, and con-
sequently the plates work loose, and very frequently the
nails come entirely out. The delay of work, the breakage
of plates, wheels, &c. and the injury which the horses re-
ceive from the loose nails which result from the mode of
fixing the plate railways, are generally complained of, and
therefore the advantages of a plan which will remove these
inconveniences must be apparent.
When locomotive steam-engines are employed as the
jnoving or propelling power on railways, these gentlemen
have, from much practice, found it of the utmost impor-
tance, that they should move steadily, and as free as possi-
ble from shocks or vibrations, which have the effect of
deranging the working parts of the machinery, and lessening
their power. It is therefore to produce that steadiness of
motion, and to prevent the engines from receiving shocks,
and to preserve their equilibrium, that they employ the
'loaling pisloiis, which, acting on an clastic Iltiid, [)roduce
 AND MACHINIST. 647
the desired effect with much more accuracy than could be
obtained by employing the finest springs of steel to suspend
the engine. The wheels which are constructed on this plan
will be found, when compared with those already in use
(the weights of both being equal) to be more durable ; for
the arms, when made of malleable iron, being infinitely
less liable to be broken by shocks or concussions, than
those of cast iron, may be of less weight, and in fewer
numbers, so that the excess of weight of the extra arms of
the cast iron wheels may be applied on the rims of these
wheels, and thus add to the substance of that part which
alone suffers from the friction of the rails. The rims of
wheels thus constructed, can also be case-hardened without
risk of breaking, either in cooling or afterwards, which is
not the case when wheels are east in one piece. The ad-
vantage of hooping cast iron wheels with malleable iron
tyres or trods, is, that when such tyres or trods are worn
through, they can very easily be replaced at a small expense,
and that the tyre, whieh is not liable to break, receiving
the shocks from the re-action of the rails, preserves the
cast-iron wheel, by considerably lessening the effect of such
shocks on the cast metal.
As it is perhaps impossible to cast the bars or plates of
metal of which railways and plate- ways are composed per-
fectly straight, and correctly even and smooth on their sur-
faces, and equally difficult to fit the joints with mathema-
tical accuracy, the wheels of the engines and waggons will
always have some inequalities and obstacles to encounter.
From these circumstances, therefore, Messrs. Losh and
Stephenson are induced to employ the improvements which
they have made in the construction of the locomotive en-
gine, and in the wheels of carriages upon edge railways
and plate railways, constructed according to their own
plans 5 but it is apparent that their adoption on the rail and
plate-ways on the usual construction, is of still more im-
portance.
They therefore claim as a method of facilitating the con-
veyance of goods, and all manner of materials along edge
railways or plate railways, the use of any of the plans
they have described singly, as well as the whole of them
collectively. They have no hesitation in saying, that on a
railway eonstructed on their plan, and with a locomotive
engine and carriage-wheels on their principle, the expe-
dition with which goods can be conveyed with safety, will
be increased to nearly double the rate with which they are
648 THE OPERATIVE MECHANIC
at present usually taken along railways^ and with less
interruption from the breakage of wheels, rails, &c. than
at present occurs, and with much less injury to the work-
ing parts of the engine.
In order that their specification may be more clearly un-
derstood, we have annexed a schedule of drawings.

Fig. 629 represents a longitudinal view of the locomotive engine on

the edge railway, a a a, are the cylinders containing the floating pistons
b by wliich are more fully described in the next figure.
Fig. 630 represents a cross section of Fig, 629, at the middle cylin-
ders a, a ; h h are the floating pistons, connected with the wrought iron
rods c c, the ends of which rest upon the bearing brasses of the axles of
the wheels d d. These pistons press equally on all the axles, and cause
each of the wheels to press with an equal stress upon the rails, and to act
upon them with an equal degree of friction, although the rails should no-t
all be in the same plane, for the bearing brasses have the liberty of
moving in a perpendicular direction in a groove or slide, and, carrying
the axles and wheels along with them, force the wheels to accommodate
themselves to the inequalities of the rail- way.
Fig. 634, is a view of the wheel, with wrought iron arms, a aaaaa
show how the arms are cast in the nave h h, and dropped into the mortise
holes c cccc c in the rim, which are dovetailed, to suit the dovetailed
ends of the arms d d d d d d. The arms are heated red hot previously to
dropping them into the holes, in order to cause them to extend sufficiently
for that purpose, for when cold they are too short. In doing this they
take advantage of that quality which iron possesses of expanding on the
application of heat, and of contracting again to its former dimensions on
cooling down to the same temperature from which it was raised ; the
arms, therefore, on cooling are drawn with a force sufficient to produce a
degree of comhination between their dovetailed ends and the mortises of
the rim, which prevents the possibility of their working loose ; they arc
afterwards keyed up ; the mortise holes are also dovetailed, from the tail
side of the wheel (a a, fig. 635) to the crease side (5 b, on the same
figure).
Fig 635, is a cross section through the centre of the wheel, with
wrought iron arms.
Fig. 636 is an end view of Fig. 635.
Fig. 637 represents a view of their edge railway shewing a rail ,
;

connected with the two adjoining rails, the ends ot which are shewn by
b b, and also with the props or pedestals on which they rest, d d show
the metal chairs, and c c the stone supports. The joints e e are made by
the ends of the rails being applied to each other by what is denominated
a half lap, and the pin or bolt g, which fixes them to each other, and to
the chair in which they are inserted, is made to fit exactly a hole which is
drilled through the chair, and both ends of the rails at such a height as to
allow both ends of the rails to bear on the chair, and the bearance being
the apex of a curve, they both bear at the same point. Thus the end of
one rail cannot above that of the adjoining one; for although the
rise
chair may move on the pin in the direction of the line of the road, yet the
rails will still rest upon the curved surface of their bearance without
moving.
Fig. 638 is a cross sectim of their edge railway through the middle ol
one of Uic chairs n, and across the ends ofthe two adjoining rails c d and
tlie pill c ,
f is Die stone support or sleeper.
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 AND MACHINIST. 649
Fig. 639 isa cross section of a rail a, at the centre, and sliows the car-
riage c behind.
Fig. 640 is a plan of the rail-way described at fig. 637, shewing tlie
half lap joinings of the rails c c, placed in their carriages (/ d.
Fig. 641 is a view of the cast iron wheel with the malleable iron tyre.
This wheel is made with curved spokes, as shewn ntaaaaaaaaaa, in
the figure, and with a slit or aperture in the rirn, shewn at b, into which
a key is inserted. The reason of this is, that on the application of the
hot tyre the cast metal expands unequally, and the rim is liable to be
cracked, and the arms drawn off, unless the first is previously slit or
opened, and the latter curved, which allows them to accommodate them-
selves to the increased diameter of the wheel ; by this formation of the
wheel the tyre might be forced on when cold, and keyed up afterwards.
Fig. 642 is a cross section of fig. 641, through the centre, a a show
the tyre, bb bh show the metal rim. This cast metal rim is dovetailed ;
so that when the tyre, which is dovetailed to suit it,* is put on hot, it con-
tracts and applies itself to the rim with a degree of adhesion which pre-
vents its coming otF from the motion of the wheel on the rail-way. This
wheel is of the form to suit an edge railway, and to make it answer for
a plate rail it only requires the rim to be round or flat.
Fig. 643 is an end view of fig. 641, without the malleable iron tyre.
Fig. 644 represents a view of a rolley or tram-wheel, calculated to
move upon a plate railway. aaaa show the malleable iron arms,
fastened to the projections bb b b, on the inside of the rim c c c, hy the
bolts d d d d.
Fig. 645 is a cross section of fig. 644, through the centre of the wheel.
a a show the arms, c c the rim, d d the bolts.
Fig. 646 represents a view of a rolley or tram-wheel, with a plate of
malleable iron a a a, to form the junction between the nave b b and the
cast metal rim cccc.
Fig. 647 is across section of fig. 646. a a show the plate upon which
the nave 5 5 is cast, c c show the cast iron rim which is cast upon the
plate, the edges of which plate are previously covered with a thin coating
of loam and charcoal dust, or other fit substance, to prevent the too inti-
mate adliesion between the iron plate and metal rim, so that if tlie rim
should break, it can easily be taken off and replaced by casting another
on the plate.
Fig. 648 represents the plate railway on their plan. At the end of
each plate are projections aaaa, to fit into the dovetail carriage b b, and
at each end of each plate are projections or tenons cccc, which fall into
the mortise hole {d, in Figs. 649 and 6.50) in the carriage b b, and secure
the rail from an end motion ; and when the pin or key e is driven into its
place, it secures the plates from rising, thus they are fixed immovable
in their carriages.
Fig. 649 is a front view of fig. 648.
Fig. 650 is a plan of the carriage, in which a a show the nail holes
through which the nails are driven, to secure it to the sleeper. When
the rails are laid in this carriage, and secured by the pin or key, they
keep these nails from starting up by resting upon them.
Fig. 651 is a cross section of the carriage, and the end of one of the
plate rails.
Fig. 629* shews a rail of the common way, inclining out of the horizon-
tal position, as they very often do from the yielding of the props or
pedestals, and of course a shock is sustained by the waggons in passing
the joining to the next rail
G50 THE OPERATiVE MECHANIC
The ease with which cast-iron can be made into any re-
quired shape has till very recently given to rails of that
material a decided superiority over those of malleable-iron.
But the brittleness of the former renders such rails very
liable to be broken^ unless, indeed, they be of such sub-
stance as will resist the effects of the blows or shocks to
which they are exposed, and which will require them to
be of considerably greater weight than otherwise would be
necessary. To obviate this, numerous experiments have
been made with a view to substitute malleable-iron for cast-
ron rails.
Rails of malleable-iron appear to have been first used at
Lord Carlisles works, at Tinclal Fell, in Cumberland, about
the year 1808; and though found there, and also at two
or three other places at which they were tried, to be a
saving in the first cost, and much less liable to accident,
they have not till very lately been much used. In fact, it
was not till some time after Mr. Birkinshaw, of the Bed-
lington Iron Works, had obtained a patent for malleable-
iron rails of a new and improved construction, that rails of
this material came into competition with the cast-iron rails.
The form of the malleable-iron rails previously to this
was that of a parallelopipedon ; which was liable to two
objections, either that the narrowness of the surfaces, when
compared to the breadth of the rim of the carriage wheel,
was so considerable as to expose both the wheel and the rail
to great injury from wear ; or, if the breadth of the rail
was increased to remove this objection, the weight of the
rail would make the cost amount to almost a prohibition of
its use.
Mr. Birkinshaw obtained his patent in October 1820
and the improvement consisted in making the rails in the
form of prisms, though their sides need not of necessity be
flat. The upper surface, on which the wheel of the carriage
is to run, is slightly convex, in order to reduce the friction ;

and the under part, on the supporting blocks,

which rests
chains, rests, standards, or pedestals, is mounted upon the
sleeper. The wedge form is proposed, because the strength
of the rail is always in proportion to the square of its
breadth and depth. Hence this form possesses all the strength
of a cube equal to its square, with only half the quantity of
metal, and consequently half the cost of the former rail.
Suflicient strength, however, may be still retained, and the
weight of metal further reduced, by forming the bars with
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 AND MACHINIST. 651

concave sides, which isthe form of rail the paten tee decidedly
prefers, although the prism or wedge form, in all its varie-
ties, is the principle upon which his patent-right is founded.
The mode of making these wedge-formed rails of mallea-
ble-iron is,by passing bars of iron, when heated, through
rollers, having grooves or indentations cut upon their peri-
})heries, agreeably to the intended shape of the bar to be
produced. But, though the patentee recommends, and
adopts this mode as the most eligible means of producing
these rails, he claims the exclusive right of manufacturing
and rendering the wedge-formed bars or rails of any length,
for the purpose of forming or constructing rail-roads.
The advantages derived from this method of constructing
railways may be as follows :

1st. The original cost of a malleable-iron railway is less

than a cast-iron railway of equal strength.
2dly. As the rails can be made in the lengths of 9,12,15,
or 18 feet each, and even longer when required, the number
of joints is hereby reduced ; and thus is removed, in a great
measure, the liability to which the short rails now in use
are exposed, of receiving blows and shocks from the car-
riages which move over them.
3dly. In order to remedy the evil arising from the rails
being imperfectly joined, the plan of welding the ends to-
gether has been adopted ; by this means making one con-
tinued rail the whole length of the road without any joint
whatever.
4thly. It hence follows, that on iron railways, the loss of
coals, occasioned by the jolting of the waggons at the joints
of the rails, and the injury done to the wheels, the car-
riages, and engines from the same cause, are, if not entirely
prevented, at least considerably diminished.
In September, 1821, Mr. Losh took out another patent
for further improvements in the construction of rail-
ways. These improvements consist, first, in fixing bars of
malleable iron on the upper surface of a line of cast or
malleable iron rails, of whatever form such rails may be,
in the longitudinal direction of the rails when laid, so as to
form an uninterrupted line the whole length of the bar,
which may be as long as it shall be found convenient, and
of the same breadth, or a little broader or narrower than
the upper surface of the rails to which it is fixed. Secondly,
in fixing, in some cases, a band or strap of malleable iron
to the under surface of cast-iron rails, in order that such
strap or band may, by its power of tension, give support to
652 THB OPERATIVE MECHANIC
the cohesion of the parts of cast iron rails, and admit of its
being made lighter, of less expense, and less liable to
breakage. Thirdly, in forming a rail, by fixing two bars of
malleable iron on their sides or edges, and fixing them in
that position by bolts and studs, or any other convenient
method ; and in placing and fixing on their upper edges a
flat bar of malleable iron, or one which is slightly curved or
rounded at the edges to diminish friction, so that the bar
or plate, placed and fixed on the upper edges of the two
malleable iron bars, shall form the surface upon which the
wheels of the carriage are to revolve.
Mr. Losh states, in the specification of his patent, that
rail-roads are now become so general, that for the infor-
mation of mechanical men, or those who have the direc-
tion of constructing and laying them, drawings would be
quite superfluous ; he therefore proceeds to state the me^
thods which he has found the most convenient, for forming
the junction of the plate or flat bar, which he applies upon
the surface of the body of the rail ; and also the mode by
which he attaches the band or strap to the lower edge of
the cast iron rail.
He recommends the dimensions of the bars meant to form
the upper surface of a railway, calculated to carry locomo-
tive engines of seven or eight tons, and waggons of three or
four tons weight each, to be fifteen or sixteen feet long,
two and a quarter inches broad, and half to five-eighths of
an inch thick. At every eighteen inches or two feet of the
length of this surface-plate, a tenon is firmly welded or
riveted ; or otherwise attached to the under side, taking
care in this operation to leave the upper surface of the plate
even as before. These tenons have holes through them in the
transverse direction of the bars, to take a pin or rivet of
from about a quarter to half an inch in diameter ; and at
each extremity of the plate, a tenon is fixed on by welding,
having previously cut off a piece of about two inches long,
and of half the breadth of the bar, from the opposite ends of
the bar or plate, and at the opposite angles, so that when
two bars, so prepared,are brought to join at the ends, the
joint is what is denominated a half-lap, or scarfed joint.
If it be required to place malleable iron plates or bars on
cast iron rails, nothing more is necessary than to make the
rails with mortise holes, to receive the tenons with trans-
verse holes, to correspond with those in the tenons fixed on
the plates ; and, after placing the rails in their chairs or
carriages, to apply the plate to the surface of the rails, and
 AND MACHINIST. 653
to drop the tenons into the mortise holes, and to secure
them there by a pin driven tightly into and through the
transverse holes of the tenons and mortise holes. The
mortise holes are made in the rails by placing a core in the
mould previously to running in the metal, and lest this
core should weaken the rail, it is advisable to add as much
metal on the outside of the rail, in the form of a boss, where
the hole is, as will make up the deficiency. A chair is then
placed on a pedestal at every three or four feet distance, less
or more, according to the length of the cast iron rails ; and
each of these must be supported at its ends : these rails are
generally made with half-lap joints, and to rest on a curb
bearance. Care is taken that, where the ends of the surface-
plates meet to form a joint, they shall be sustained by a chair;
and the reason for making the joints half-lapped, or scarfed,
with tenons welded to these half laps is, that one pin or bolt
will secure both the adjoining ends of the surface-plates, and
of the bars of cast iron, more perfectly in the chair, than any
other known contrivance, when the bearance is the apex of
a curve. Surface-plates thus prepared with tenons, as
described above, may be attached and fixed to the upper
surface of a series of malleable iron rails placed in chairs,
which rails consist of flat bars (generally three or four feet
long, more or less, but sometimes also as long as the sur-
face plate), fixed on their thin edges, so as to present the
greatest resistance to a weight bearing upon them. For
this purpose, pins or rivets may be driven through the
transverse holes in the tenons on the surface-plate, and the
corresponding transverse holes made in the supporting bars ;
and thus may be formed a cheap and very serviceable rail-
way. In this case, the supporting bars should not be less
than two and a half inches deep, by half an inch thick, if
meant to carry locomotive engines. For smaller carriages,
the bars may be of less dimensions, in proportion to the de-
creased weight of the carriages.
In forming the rail, consisting of a plate of malleable
iron, supported by two flat bars of the same material, Mr.
Losh prepares the surface-plate as above with tenons, and
having fixed the two bars intended to support it on their
edges, parallel to each other, in a series of chairs, and se-
cured them in that position by bolts passing through them,
and by intervening studs, to keep them at a proper distance,
which is such, that the sides or edges of the surface-plate,
which may be a little curved or rounded, to diminish the
friction from the wheels passing over it, shall project about
 054 THE OPERATIVE MECHANK
a quarter of an inch beyond them. By these intervening
studs, the surface-plate is laid upon them, and the tenons
arc dropped in between them, and fixed by pins or bolts
passing in a transverse direction through holes in the bars,
which rwe made to correspond with holes in the tenons,
and thus securing them as if they were in mortise-holes.
The strap or band of malleable iron is fixed by Mr. Losh to
the under edge of the cast-iron rail, by perforating both
ends of the strap, near the extremities, with along hole, cal-
culated to pass over studs of malleable iron which are
fixed at each end of the rail, by being run at the time of
casting the rail or otherwise. The studs should be about
one and a half inches broad, by three- eighths of an inch
thick, and placed so, that when the strap has been put over
them in a heated state, it cannot, in contracting, slip its
hold ; but will, on the contrary, fix itself the closer. These
straps are made of malleable iron bars, about one and a
half inches broad, three-eighths to half an inch thick, and
of such length as to draw strongly against the studs and
bottom of the rail, when in its position. The under edge
of the cast iron rail to which this strap is applied being
curved, it will, when the strap is fixed upon the studs, by
an extension of its length by heat, apply itself firmly to,
and support every part of the lower edge of the rail, in con-
tracting, by parting with its heat ; and till the power of
tension of this strap is overcome, and it extends in length,
or the studs break, the rail cannot give way.
Many other methods, perhaps equally secure, may be
made use of to place and fix surface-plates on the surface of
rails ; but Mr. Losh prefers the plan pointed out, by te-
nons and mortise-holes, and by rivets passed through holes
in such tenons, and through corresponding holes in the
supporting bars ; because, when worn or damaged, these
plates can easily be taken off and replaced, without injury to
that part of the rail which supports them.
The principal patents obtained before the above described,
are those by Blenkinsop, Brunton, and Chapman ; specifi-
cations and drawings of which may be seen in the Reper-
tory of Arts.
Mr. Blenkinsops patent was obtained the 10th of April,
1811, and is for a method of fixing into the ground a
toothed rack, or longitudinal piece of cast iron, or other fit
material, having teeth, or protuberances, into which a
toothed or cogged wheel, connected with a locomotive car-
riage, plays.
 AND MACHINIST. G55
Mr. Bruntons patent was taken out the 22nd of May,
1813, and is for a method of propelling machines along a
railway by means of two or more bars or legs, which, by
receiving a reciprocating motion from a steam engine, act
against the ground like a mans legs, when in the act of
walking. These bars or legs are constructed of metal or
wood, and of such length that, during the act of propulsion,
tlie angle formed by the said bars or legs and the surface of
the road may be such, as to afford sufficient resistance from
tlie materials propelled against to overcome the friction of
the body to be moved. This angle admits of consideral)le
latitude ;
but will be found to answer best when between
50 and 70 degrees.
The reader has now been informed of the principal patents
that have been taken out for improvements in rail-roads.
The rails most in use are those of cast-iron by Losh and
Stephenson, and of malleable-iron by Birkinshaw.'
Previously to constructing a railway, it is necessary to
ascertain, as accurately as the nature of the thing will ad-
mit, the quantity of lading expected to traverse each way
upon its line. For if the weight of the carriage of merchan-
dize, &c. be more in the one direction than in the other, as
will frequently be the case in forming a line of railway from
a manufacturing or mining district to a town, the railway
must have a gentle inclination or descent ; but if the lading
is expected to be nearly equal in both directions, with a

preponderance at certain periods only, the railing must, in

such case, be set out in levels, or in lines nearly level,
and the ascents and descents made by planes inclined ac-
cordingly.
That the reader may see the necessity of paying due at-
tention to this point, we shall show the advantages that will
result from constructing railways with a gentle gradual
descent, when the carriage of the articles of trade are con-
siderably more in one direction than the other.
Dr. Armstrong, in his Recreations in Agriculture, ob-
serves, that a horse, travelling at the usual rate that w^aggons
move, would, wdth ease, under favourable circumstances,
draw 20 tons but Mr. Fulton says, that five tons to a horse
:

is the average work on railways, descending at the rate of

three miles per hour ; or one ton upwards with the same
speed. Mr. Telford, an experienced engineer, observes,
that on a railway well constructed, and laid with a declivity
of 50 feet in a mile, one horse wall readily take down w^ag-
gons containing 12 to 15 tons ; and bring back the same
waggons with four tons in them. Mr. Joseph Wilkes, in
(55G THE OPERATIVE MECHANIC
1799 stated, that a horse of the value of 20/. drew down the
declivity of an iron road, ^ yard, 21 car-
riages or waggons, laden with coals and timber, weighing 35
tons, overcoming the vis inerticv repeatedly with ease. The
same horse, up this declivity, drew five tons with ease. On
a different railway, one horse, value 30/. drew 21 waggons
of five cwt. each, which, with their loading of coals,
amounted to 43 tons eight cwt., down the declivity of l-3d
of an inch in a yard ; and up the same place he afterwards
drew seven tons ; the cwt. in all these experiments by Mr.
W. being 1201bs.
Thoughin the preceding statements there is an apparent
variance, the authors are not the less entitled to credit ; be-
cause the variations may have arisen from difference in the
physical strength of the animals, or in the method of con-
structing the railways. To make the case, how^ever, as
clear as possible, we shall here present our readers with
some observations and calculations deduced from known
data, which have lately appeared in a very able pamphlet,
entitled A Report on Rail-Roads and Locomotive Engines,
by Mr. Charles Sylvester, civil engineer.
Mr. Sylvester, having made some judicious observations
on the principles of railways, and the nature of the friction
to be overcome, states, that, agreeably to the prineiples
laid down in the commencement, when a force is applied
equal to the friction, the smallest force above that would,
if continued, generate any required velocity. But it will
be desirable to have such a force at command, as Avill ge-
nerate the necessary velocity in a short time, and when that
has been accomplished, to reduce this force, but still to leave
it fully equal to the friction. If any part of the route has an
inclination, there ought to be an extra force at command,
above what would be required for a dead level. The ])lane
on which this experiment was made, inclined, in the direc-
tion of the load, about ~ of an inch to a yard. This is as
great, or perhaps a greater, inclination than any rail-road
ought to have, where loaded carriages go up and down.
The moving force ought, therefore, to be always greater
than the friction added to the force which is required to
overcome the inclination of the plane. The latter force
assists the body to go down, and equally resists it in moving
upwards.
On this account says he, I have used, or supposed, a
moving force, which will give the velocity of 5 miles an hour,
ov 7^ feet per second, in the space of one minute. This will
be performed down the aboA^e plane by the engine making
 AND MACHINIST. G57
45 strokes per minute, (the circumference of the wheel
being nine feet), with a pressure of 971bs. upon an inch, of
each of the two cylinders, the area of each being 63*6 square
inches. The weight of the engine and 16 waggons is equal
to 154,5601bs, or nearly 70 tons. The velocity of five miles
an hour being acquired after one minute, the only force to
keep the whole in motion, at the same rate, will be the dif-
ference between the gravity of the weight down the plane
and the friction. The friction is 9001138 ;
the gravitating
force of the weights down the plane 5401bs ; therefore 900
- 540 = 3601bs.
If the same weight, at that speed, to move on a dead
had
level, and acquired the same velocity one minute as be-
in
fore, the moving force would require to be 17811bs. which
would require a pressure of I3-71bs. upon one inch. But
after the speed is obtained, it will require only 71 bs. to keep
it moving at the same rate. If the same load were required
to move up the plane, it would require a moving force of
23281bs. or a pressure upon every square inch of 18*31bs.
And this velocity would be kept up by a constant pressure
of 14471bs. which will be ll*31bs. upon every inch of the
piston.
In starting the engine, in the first instance, and giving
the required velocity, it is probable the effects will agree
very nearly with these calculations ; namely, 15 4,5601 bs.
moved at the rate of five miles an hour, with a pressure of
9vlbs. upon every inch of the piston. Whether the pres-
sure were reduced to the difference between the friction and
the force upon the plane, which is calculated at 2*81bs. it is
difficult to say, as there was no steam-gauge to indicate the
pressure when the engine was going.
In table 1, at a more advanced part of the work,
Mr. Sylvester states, that, when the engine is required to
travel at the rate of nine miles per hour, the force necessary to
overcome the weight, I54,5601bs. will be for the first minute,
when the engine is travelling on a level 2890*811bs ; when
moving down the plane 246T611bs ; and when moving up
the plane 3320*01 lbs. But that, when the velocity is at-
tained, a force that will balance the friction is sufficient to
keep up the required velocity. This force is, for travelling
on a level, 9001bs ; for moving down the plane, 47Hbs ; and
for moving up the plane 13291bs.
By this, therefore, it is evident that, when the lading is
expected to be considerably more in one direction of the
line of rail-road than it is in the other, the advantage which
2 U
658 THE OPERATIVE MECHANIC
will arise from making the road with a gentle slope, is very
gi*eat. This kind of railing is also preferable when the la-
ding is only equal at certain periods. For then the expense
of extra horses, to draw the additional vveights up the plane
during these periods, will fall infinitely short of the expense
saved by making the plane with a gentle inclination.
The necessary preliminaries being settled, the engineer
will obtain much greater facility, as also a diminution of ex-
pense, by beginning to lay down the rails on any part of the
intended line of road where stone, gravel, and other mate-
rials that are wanted, are to be most conveniently had ; as,
by that means, he will evade the slow and expensive mode
of common cartage.
The immense sums that have been invested in the hands of
certain companies, for the purpose of cstablisliing general
lines of rail- road throughout the country, have excited much
interest and elicited many able papers from practical men,
in several of the publications of the day. Amongst these,
perhaps those inserted in the Scotsman, an Edinburgh news-
paper, and in the Manchester Guardian, arc the most de-
serving of our notice.
The Scotsman first commences with some theoretical
statements, and then continues :

Having developed the theory of the motion of carriages

on horizontal railways, we shall have little more to do with
mathematical discussions, and shall now turn our attention
to points of a practical nature, better adapted to the taste of
ordinary readers. But first, we shall bring under the eye
again, the effect of a given quantity of power on a railway,
and on a canal, in a calm atmospherefor it is only in a
calm atmosphere that the results can be properly compared.
We have found tliat a boat weighing with its load 15 tons,
and a waggon of the same lueight, the one on a canal, and the
other on a rail-way, would be impelled at the following rates,

by the following quantities of power which we have stated

both in pounds and in horse power reckoning one horse
power equal to 180 pounds.
Boat on a Canal, Waggon on a Rail-way.
Miles power in Horse power in Horse
per hour. pounds. power. in pounds. power.
2 33 I-5th 100 h
4 - 133 2-3ds. 102 h
6 300 H 105 h
8 r.33 3 109 h
12 1 200 7 120 2-Sds.
16 2133 12 137 i
26 3325 18 158 1
 AND MACHINIST. 659
We have not taken into account the time lost in over-
coming the inertia of the waggon wiiere a small power is

applied, because, in point of fact, the casual resistance of

the wind would render it necessary to provide double or
triple the power above stated. But if necessary, the time
lost by the slow motion at first might be saved. Suppose
there are a certain number of places where the steam-coach
or waggon was to stop, to take in or put out passengers or
goods; and farther, that the waggon, by travelling a few
miles, has acquired an uniform velocity of 20 miles an
hour. Then, if it is made to ascend an inclined plane of 10
feet perpendicular height, this velocity will be extinguished,
and the vehicle will stop at the head of the plane. When
it is to proceed again on its journey its descent along an in-

clined plane of the same height on the other side, will enable
it to recommence its career in a few seconds with the full

velocity of 20 miles an hour. By raised platforms of this

kind, at the two extremities of the journey, and at the in-
termediate stages, the velocity thus generated, might be
treasured up for permanent use. The platforms should be
of different heights, corresponding to the various velocities
of the vehicles plying on the railway. But, in point of
fact, the terminal velocity is attained so soon from a state of
rest, that this contrivance would probably be found un-
necessary.
Where locks or lifts occur. The 'stationary steam-engine
should drag up the vehicle (supposing it to be along an in-
clined plane), not simply from the one level to the other,
but to a platform some feet above the higher level, that the
vehicle, by its descent, might recover the lost velocity. It is
plain, however, that when the difference of level did not
exceed eight or ten feet, the momentum of the vehicle
would carry it up without any assistance from a stationary
engine, and with merely a small temporary loss of velocity.
Some persons imagine erroneously that teethed wheels
and rackwork would be necessary where the railway was
not perfectly level. But the friction of iron on iron being
25 per cent, of the weight, if the whole load was upon the
wheels to which the moving power was ap()lied, and if the
quantity of power was sufficient, the waggon would ascend
without slipping though the plane rose one foot in four
while even cart roads scarcely ever rise more than one foot
in 18 or 20. If four-fifths of the load, however, were placed
on separate cars, and only one-tenth of the whole pressure,
for instance, was upon the axle to which the moving force
660 THE OrERATIVE MECHANIC
was applied, the power of ascent by friction would only be
one-tenth of one foot in four, or one foot in forty.
The steam engine, as we commonly see it, is so bulky,
and with the addition of its fuel and supply of water, so
ponderous, as to create an impression on a first view, that
its whole power would scarcely, under the most favourable
circumstances, transport its own weight. The steam-boat,
however, which cuts its way through the ocean, in defiance
of tide and tempest, shews that this is a mistake. For all
velocities above four miles an hour, the locomotive engine
will be found superior to the steam-boat that is to say, it
;

will afford a greater amount of free power, above what is re-

quired to move its own weight.
i.
Wehave seen various statements respecting the loco-
motive engine, few of them so detailed as could be desired
from which we subjoin the following particulars :
Trevithick and Vivians high pressure locomotive en-
gine, with a cylinder of eight inches diameter, and a pres-
sure of 65 pounds per square inch (apparently about eight
horse power), drew carriages containing ten and a half tons
of iron, at five and a half miles per hour, for a distance of
nine miles. (Stuarts History of Steam Engine, p. 164.)
Whether on a road or railway is not mentioned.
We stated in a Liverpool paper, as the result of
find it

inquiries made
respecting the locomotive engines, that one
of these, of ten horse power, conveys fifty tons of goods at
the rate of six miles an hour on a level railway. But was
the road an edge or tram road ?

Mr. Blenkinsop states, in replies to queries put by Sir

John Sinclair, that his patent locomotive engine, with two
eight-inch cylinders, weighs five tons, consumes 2-3d
cvvt. of coal, and fifty gallons of water per hour, draws 27
waggons weighing 94 tons on a dead level, at three and a
half miles per hour, or 15 tons up an ascent of two inches
in the yard ; when lightly loaded travels 10 miles an hour,
does the work of 16 horses in 12 hours, and costs 4001.
Another person says, that the weight of this engine with its
water and coals is six tons, and that it draws 40 or 50 tons
(waggons included) at four miles an hour on a level rail-
way. (Repertory of Arts, 1818, p. 19-21 This seems to
have been a high pressure engine of about eight or ten
horse power. But we are not informed what sort of rail-
way it worked on, how long its journies were, or what is
meant by lightly loaded.
We shall take for granted then that an eight-horse
 AND MACHINIST. 661
power high pressure engine, with its charge of water and
and with the car which bears it, weighs six tons, and
coal,
that it requires an additional supply of 100 weight of coal,
and 400 weight of water for each hour it works. This is
very consistent with other ascertained facts. We find, for
instance, in the parliamentary report on steam navigation,
that the low pressure engines used in vessels, which are
made twice as strong as stationary engines, weigh about one
ton and one-fifth for each horse power, including their
charge of water and coal. Now the high-pressure engines
want the condensing apparatus which must diminish the
weight probably by one-fourth part. The estimate for coal
we have increased one-half, because we think it rather below
the truth. It is only about nine pounds per hour for each
horse power, while Mr. Watt allows twelve pounds for his
low pressure engines.
It follows, therefore, that an eight-horse power locomo-
tive engine, with coal and water for eight hours, would
weigh eight tons. Hence, bulky and ponderous as the
steam-engine appears, we find ,that a locomotive engine,
weighing eight tons, moves 50 tons beside itself, (taking the
more moderate estimate,) that is, it consumes only one-
seventh part of the power it creates, when travelling at four
miles an hour; or the free power applicable to other pur-'
poses, is seven-eighths of the whole. This is the result of an
early experiment, made probably upon a rail-road not of the
best kind, and with vehicles much less perfect than they
may yet be rendered. Though it falls much under the effect
calculated theoretically, it does not strike us as being incon-
sistent with the truth of the principles on which the calcu-
lation VA^as founded.
The high pressure engine, on account of its smaller
weight and bulk, is evidently best adapted for railways ; and
it can be used with perfect safety, because it may be easily

placed in a car by itself, a few feet before the vehicle in

which the passengers are. The vehicle itself, by its regular
and steady motion on the railway, would answer the pur-
pose of 2 fly-wheel in the most perfect manner. The en-
i

gine might run upon six wheels, which should be locked

together by teeth pinions, that the tendency to slip might be
resisted by the friction of the whole mass of eight tons.
The best form of a steam coach for the conveyance of
passengers would probably be the following :

A gallery
seven feet high, eight wide, and 100 feet in length, formed
into 10 separate galleries 10 feet long each, connected with
662 THE OTERATIVE MECHANIC
each other by joints working horizontally, to allow the train
to bend where the road turned. A narrow covered foot-
way, suspended on the outside over the wheels on one side,
would serve as a common means of communication for the
whole. On the other side might be outside seats, to be used
in fine weather. The top, surrounded with a rail, might
also be a sitting place of promenade, like the deck of a
track boat. Two of the 10 rooms might be set apart for
cooking, stores, and various accommodations; the other
eight would lodge iOO passengers, whose weight, with that
of their luggage, might be 12 tons. The coach itself might
be 12 tons more ; and that of the locomotive machine, eight
tons, added to these, would make the whole 32 tons. Each
of the short galleries might have four wheels ; but to lessen
the friction, the two first wheels only should be grooved, the
two last cylindrical, and three or four times as broad as the
thickness of the rail. The conveyance of goods would be
effected by a train of small waggons loosely attached to each
other.
It will be observed from the table we have given above,
that it would require seven horse power to impel a steam-
boat weighing 15 tons at 12 miles an hour. This gives a
load of two tons so moved ; however, tlie engine, if a low
pressure one, with water and eight hours coals, would weigh
nearly 10 tons, and the vessel would weigh at least five so ;

that the whole power of the engine would be expended in

impelling itself and the ship containing it, at the supposed
rate, and no free power would remain for freight. Facts
show that the resistance is actually rather greater in
water than theory in this case represents it. We have cal-
culated from data furnished by the Parliamentary Report on
steam navigation, that the entire burden on the engine in
vessels going only eight or nine miles an hour in calm
weather, rarely exceeds three tons for each horse power,
while, according to the table, it should be five tons. Indeed,
in our common steam-vessels for passengers, going eight or
nine miles an hour, the ship and engine may be considered
as constituting the whole burden. For 50 passengers,
weighing perhaps with their luggage six or eight tons, placed
on board a ship weighing, with her engine of 60 or JO horse
power, a hundred and fifty or hundred and eighty tons, form
but an addition of one- twentieth or one- thirtieth to the

mass a quantity of no importance in a practical point of
view. If we convert the steam-engine power into real horse
power, and figure to ourselves 100 horses employed to
 AND MACHINIST. 663
draw 50 persons, we see what an enormous waste of power
thereis in the mode of conveyance. We may remark fur-
ther, that the tenor of the evidence given before the Par-
liamentary Committee rendersit extremely doubtful, whether
any vessel could be constructed, that would bear an engine
capable of impelling her at the rate of two miles an hour,
without the help of wind or tide.
When the steam coach is brought fully into use, practice
will teach us many things respecting it, of which theory
leaves us ignorant. With the facilities of rapid motion
which it will afford, however, we think we are not too san-
guine, in expecting to see the present extreme rate of tra-
velling doubled.
This practicability of conveying individuals or merchan-
dize at the speed required in the present improved state of
our internal intercourse-with the different parts of the king-
dom, has created much doubt and discussion with many able
and practical mechanics. The question seems to resolve
itself thus. Dothe friction incurred by any moving body,
laying aside the resistance of the atmosphere, increase in
proportion to its velocity ?
Without going into any diffuse or theoretical argument on
this point, we shall merely cite that by the results of actual
experiments instituted by Vince and Coulomb, it appears
that friction does not increase in proportion to the velocity.
By experiments made also by Stephenson and Wood,
it appears that the force required to keep a given weight in
motion does not vary with the velocity thus, a force of
:

141bs. was found to overcome friction, and keep in motion

an empty coal waggon, weighing 23*25 cwt. on a rail- road ;
and that on doubling the velocity, no more force was re-
quired. Further also it appears, that on increasing the
weight, or load, the power required to overcome the fric-
tion, and keep the waggon in motion, did not increase in si-
milar proportion, but up to 76*25 cwt. was about one-four-
teenth less.
Notwithstanding the simple and satisfactory manner by
which the experiments that led to these results were con-
ducted, the fact has been still much doubted. We cannot
therefore do better than to extract from the Manchester
Guardian the following article, which contains an account
of experiments, with most conclusive results, made by that
able mechanic, Mr. Roberts of Manchester :
The object of the papers on rail-roads which appeared
in the Scotsman, was, in a great measure, to shew the prac-
664 THE OPERATIVE MECHANIC
ticability of transporting commodities upon rail-roads at a
very considerable speed ; and (with some fallacies, which
we shall endeavour to point out) they contain a great deal
of valuable information, on the relative merits of highways,
canals, and rail-roads. The principal point, however, and
the one to which we shall confine our observations, is an
enunciation of the laws wdiich regulate the friction of rolling
and sliding bodies, as deduced from the experiments of
Vince and Coulomb. With a view to the illustration of
this part of the subject, some very important and conclu-
sive experiments have recently been made in this town, to
wdiich we shall by and by have occasion to refer at some
length ; but before doing so, we must make a few observa-
tions on the rule laid down by the Scotsman, and the mis-
conceptions which appear to have prevailed respecting it,
both in that journal and in other quarters.
After comparing the resistance experienced by a boat
moving through the water, with the friction which retards
the progress of a w^aggon on a rail- road, and stating that
they are governed by different laws, the Scotsman notices
the conclusions established by the experiments of Vince and
Coulomb ; the most important of which is, that the friction
of rolling and sliding bodies is the same for all velocities.
The WTiter then observes
^ It is wdth this last law only that we have to do at pre-
sent ; and it is remarkable that the extraordinary results to
which it leads, have been, as far as we know, entirely over-
looked by writers on roads and railways. These results,
indeed, have an appearance so paradoxical, that they will
shock the faith of practical men, though the principle from
which they flow is admitted without question by all scienti-
fic mechanicians.
^ First. It flow\s from this law, that (abstracting the re-
sistance of the air,) if a car w ere set in motion on a level
railway, with a constant force greater in any degree than
is required to overcome its friction, the car would proceed
with a motion continually accelerated, like a falling body
acted upon by the force of gravitation ; and however small
the original velocity might be, it would in time increase
beyond any assignable limit. It is only the resistance of the
air (increasing as the space of the velocity) that prevents this
indefinite acceleration, and ultimately renders the motion
uniform.
^ Secondly. Setting
aside again, the resistance of the air
(the effects of which we shall estimate by and by,) the very
 AND MACHINIST^ 665
same amount of constant force which impels a car on a rail-
way at two miles an hour, would impel it at ten or twenty
miles an hour, if an extra force were employed at first to
overcome the inertia of the car, and generate the required
velocity. Startling as this proposition may appear, it is an
indisputable and necessary consequence of the lavs of
friction.
^ Now it would at all times be easy, as we shall afterwards

show, to convert this accelerated motion into a uniform

of any determinate velocity ; and from the nature of the re-
sistance, a high velocity would cost almost as little, and be
as readily obtained as a low one. For all velocities, there-
fore, above four or five miles an hour, rail- ways will afford
facilities for communication prodigiously superior to canals,
or arms of the sea.
Now we are perfectly satisfied, both by the experiments
of Vince and Coulomb, and those more recent and conclu-
sive experiments, to which we have already alluded, that
the rule laid down here is correct ; but the writer ought to
have guarded against the misconception to which his last
paragraph is liable. When he says that a high velocity
would cost almost as little as a low one, he should have
said that it would cost as little per mile, or as little over any
given space for it cannot be his meaning, that a carriage
:

can be kept moving for an honr, or for any given time, at a

high veloeity, with as little expenditure of power, as at a low
velocity. Yet this he has been generally understood to
mean, and a great deal has been written and said with a
view to prove that he was mistaken ; when in fact he was
only misunderstood. In a subsequent article, however,
the author appears, in some degree, to have fallen into the
same error into which he has led other persons. He says :

Every body knows that the rate of stage coach travel-

ing in this country has increased within the last twenty-five
years, from six or seven miles an hour to eight or nine, and
this, too, before roads were YFAdamized, and with much
less injury to the horses than was anticipated. Supposing
that a coach-horse could run fourteen miles unloaded, with
the. same muscular exertion which carries forward the
stage-coach at eight or nine miles, then professor Leslies
formula becomes 3-4ths (14 v)2. Each horse would, of
coui*se, draw with a force of 481bs. at six miles, and of
271bs. at eight miles an hour. But if the friction increased
in the ratio of the velocity, the load upon each horse would
increase from 481 bs. to 601 bs., when the speed increased
665 THE OPERATIVE MECHANIC
from six to eight miles an hour and as the horse exerting
:

the same strength, would only pull with a force of 271bs.,

he would thus have more than double work to do, which is
plainly impossible. But admit that the friction is equal in
equal times ; then, since the time is diminished l-4th by
increasing the speed from six to eight miles an hour, the
horses have actually 4- 5ths less to do ; the load upon each is
reduced from 481bs. to 36, and the horse would have to in-
crease its exertion only 1 -3rd, that is, from 271bs. to 36 .

The facts, we believe, will be found strictly consistent with

this hypothesis, and decidedly at variance with the other.
However strange it may sound, then, to common observers,
it is practically true, that a smaller absolute amount of force
will drag a coach over the same space in three hours than in
four, and in one than in two.
This paragraph seems to us to contain a^ very obvious
fallacy. If the speed be increased from six miles an hour to
eight, the horses have by no means l-4th less work to do,
supposing the friction a constant quantity, and the traction
consequently the same. It is true that they exert this
power for a shorter time, but it is over the same distance.
Supposing the power of traction necessary to overcome the
friction is lOOOibs., then that power must be extended over
every yard of the distance, whether the carriage moves at
six or eight miles an hour : and it is by the distance, not
the time, that the power must be measured. That this
must be the case, will be obvious if the experiment be put
in another shape. Suppose a perfectly horizontal railway,
a mile long, with a perpendicular descent of a mile at one
end of it, as represented in fig. 652.
Suppose a waggon placed on this railway at A, at-
tached to a rope passing over a pulley at B, and loaded at
that point with a weight exactly sufficient to overcome the
friction, then, if the resistance of the air is nothing, and
the rope be without weight, it follows, from the rule laid
down, that if the waggon is set in motion at any given
speed, it will continue to move at that rate, until it reaches
the point B and the weight falls to C. But whether the
waggon passes over the railway in an hour or in three
minutes, it is obvious that the same weight will descend
through the same space, and that consequently, the same
amount of power will be expended. It is, perhaps, neces-
s^y to observe here, that if the weight is only just suffi-
cient to overcome the friction, there will (as is proved by
 AND MACHINIST. 667
the experiments of Mr. Vince) be no acceleration of motion
on the principle of falling bodies.
However^ though a carriage cannot, as we think we
have shewn, be moved ten miles in one hour, with a similar
expenditure of power than in two, it is very interesting to
know that it can be moved with the same expenditure,
(excepting the resistance of the air.) In many cases dis-
patch is of so much consequence, that the elucidation and
application of this rule will probably lead to very important
results. Many persons, however, are very sceptical on this
subject, and contend that the experiments of Vince and
Coulomb do not authorise any such conclusions as have
been drawn from them. It has been asked, if the same
constant force will move a carriage as well at a high as at a
low velocity, why we do not see something like this in prac-
tice ; why a carriage moved by a steam-engine instead of
acquiring, as it proceeds, a high degree of velocity, moves
on at one uniform rate after it has overcome the vis inerticc
at the commencement of its journey ? We think the rea-
son is very obvious. A locomotive steam-engine does not
exert the same constant force on the peripheries of the
wheels of the carriage, when it moves at different veloci-
ties. For instance, suppose the piston of an engine to move
220 feet in a minute, and to impel the peripheries of the
travelling wheels at a velocity of t^vo miles, and with a
force just sufficient to overcome the friction, how can the
speed be augmented without increasing the power of the
engine ? If the diameter of the wheels be increased with
the view of increasing the speed, the force with which they
are impelled will be diminished in the same proportion ;
and the engine will stop, unless the pressure is increased.
To increase that, of course, wdll be to augment the power.
As it is obvious, therefore, that a steam-engine cannot ex-
ert the same force at different velocities, some other means
must be devised for putting to the test of experiment the
rule laid down in the Scotsman,
We now come to the most important and interesting
part of this article. As none of the experiments of Vince or
Coulomb (so far as we have seen or heard them detailed)
were made with bodies resembling railway waggons,
either in form, or in the nature of their motion, the cor-
rectness of the conclusions deduced from them with respect
to such carriages, was doubted by many persons of consi-
derable scientific attainments. It became desirable, there-
fore, that other experiments should be tried, with carriages
668 THE OPERATIVE MECHANIC
upon railways, which, of course, would be much more
satisfactory. This, however, it did not, at first sight, ap-
pear very easy to accomplish in a satisfactory manner but ;

Mr. Roberts, of this town, recently devised a mode of de-

termining the point, which appears to us wholly unobjec-
tionable, and which exhibits, in a high degree, the simpli-
city and facility of execution, by which that gentlemans
inventions are so eminently distinguished. It was very
difficult to devise means for measuring accurately the fric-
tion of a carriage moving over a railway ; but it occurred
to Mr. Roberts, that the difficulty would be obviated if the
railway were made to move under the carriage. When this
idea once presented itself, it was easy to reduce it to prac-
tice. Mr. Roberts therefore constructed an apparatus, of
which fig. 654 will give a pretty correct notion.
A is a small wag-^on Mith four cast iron wheels, placed on the peri-
phery of a cast iron drum B, three feet in diameter, and six inches broad,
(which acts as the rail-road.) This drum is fastened on the same shaft as
the pulley C, which is driven at different speeds by a strap from another
pulley. The waggon is attached by a wire to one of Marriots patent
weighing' machines D, for the purpose of measuring the friction, and the
board G, prevents the current of air, occasioned by the motion of the
drum, from acting upon the carriage. Now if the drum be driven with
any given velocity, say four miles an hour, in the direction indicated by
the mark E, and the waggon held in its place by the wire which attaches
it to the index, it is perfectly obvious that the wheels will revolve on the

drum in precisely the same manner as if the waggon moved forward on a

horizontal road ; and the friction will also be the same, except, perhaps, a
small addition occasioned by the curvature of the drum, but which will
not affect the relative frictions of different speeds. As the waggon is sta-
tionary, the resistance of the air will be entirely got rid of ; and the index
of the machine will indicate the precise amount of traction necessary to
overcome the friction. Of course, in making the experiment, it will be
necessary to keep the centre of the waggon exactly over the axis of the
drum for if it were permitted to go beyond the centre, a part of the
weight would be added to the friction ; if, on the contrary, it was brought
nearer the index, a part of the weight would act against the friction, and
diminish the apparent quantity. The tempering screw F, is therefore
added to keep the waggon in its proper situation, in whatever way the
spring of the weighing machine may be acted upon by the friction.
This simple apparatus having been constructed, a number of experi-
ments were made, chiefly with a view to determine whether the friction
were the same at different velocities. The waggon was loaded with fifty
pounds, (including its own weight) and the drum was driven at different
velocities, varying from two to twenty-four miles an hour on the periphe-
ry : but in every case, the friction, as indicated by the weighing machine,
was precisely the same. No increase of speed affected the index at all,
but on increasing the weight, it immediately shewed a corresponding in-
crease of friction.

We consider these experiments as perfectly conclusive

 EFcr^HP^lE.

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 AND MACHINIST. 669
of the fact, that the friction on a railway is the same for all
velocities ;
and that a carriage may be propelled twenty miles
in one hour, with the same amount of force which would
be necessary to drive it twenty miles in ten hours, provided
the resistance of the atmosphere was out of the question ;

and, if the carriage was properly constructed, that would

not amount to much. In other words, goods may be con-
veyed from Manchester to Liverpool, on a rail-road, with
very nearly the same expenditure of steam, whether they are
carried two miles, or four miles, or twenty miles an hour. A
steam engine, which will propel twenty tons at four miles
an hour, will, with the same expense of coals, propel ten
tons at eight miles an hour ; so that, with the smaller load,
it might make a journey to Liverpool and back, in the same

time which would be occupied in going thither with the

larger load Or, to put the matter in another shape sup-
:

pose a four-horse engine will convey forty tons to Liverpool

in eight hours, an eight horse engine will convey the same
weight thither in four hours. There will be the same ex-
penditure of steam in both cases, but, in the latter, a
saving of half the time ; a saving which, we need not add,
.will frequently be of immense importance.
These practical results are very satisfactory," as the hope
of propelling carriages at a suitable speed, for the more ra-
pid dispatch of business, and conveyance of passengers, is
thereby placed almost beyond a doubt.
We ought to notice here, the striking difference in the
force requisite to give rapid motion on a rail-road to that on
a canal or navigable river. These latter are governed by a
totally different law, as the resistance, or head of water on
the bows of the boat, increase as the squares of its velocity ;
consequently it will require four times the power to double
the speed. But, on the other hand, it must be admitted,
that in all speeds under three miles per hour, the canal has
a decided advantage, as the force increases as the speed di-
minishes.
With respect to the horse, it is well known, that his
power decreases as his speed increases ; and that when he is
travelling at his greatest speed, which, with a weight, sel-
dom exceeds 13 miles per hour, he is able to exert little or
no strength. We, therefore, take it for granted, that in the
present improved state of our manufactures, artificial pow-
er of some description must be resorted to, and whatever
experience may prove to be the most economical, the ap-
plication of that power is the most important part of the
6/0 THE OPERATIVE MECHANIC
subject now under consideration. On this point, the data
with which we are furnished is so veiy limited, as scarcely
to render it possible to form any decisive opinion.
The engines which have been some time at work at Mr.
Brandleys collieries, near Leeds, have a cogged wheel,
playing in a rack, which is laid as one of the rails of the
road ; and those at Hetton colliery are much on the same
principle. This plan is objectionable, because the whole
weight of the engine, which, on the most improved con-
struction, is not less than eight tons, is on the wheel, so
that any obstacle on the rail, must of necessity shake the
whole machinery. To obviate this, Mr. Gordon has con-
trived, and taken out a patent for a locomotive carriage with
the engine on springs, which imparts the motion without
any connexion with the wheels or axle-tree, and there are
various other plans in progress for the same object. But let
this be effected as it may, the great weight of the engine,
which is by far the greatest objection, is not obviated. And,
indeed, this appears to us only possible to be accomplished, by
either diminishing the weight of the engine, as proposed by
the application of Mr. Browns pneumatic, or vacuum en-
gine, or taking the engine entirely from the carriage, and
employing stationary engines, at suitable distances, to tow
or draw the carriages in regular succession. This last mode
has been applied to practice in the vicinity of Newcastle,
by Mr. Thompson ; and the results may be seen in some
very able observations annexed to the specification of his
patent, and inserted in the Repertory of Arts, for March,
1822 .

His method consists in dividing the line of Rail- road into

any number of stages, at suitable distances apart. At the
end of each stage an engine is erected for the purpose of
drawing the carriages from the next stage, or engine, on
either side, towards itself. This is effected by means of
ropes, which, previously to commencing operation, are
taken from each respective engine to the engine immediately
before it by horses but after the work has commenced, by
;

being hooked at the end of the advancing or returning

carriages.
Ill forming lines of rail- road ujion this system, that is, where

stationary engines are to be employed, it is not necessary

that they incline in the direction of the loads, or be made
perfectly level. For in engines of this description there is
no occasion to pay that particular attention to the weight of
the boiler and a])purtenances, as is the case in engines
 AND MACHINIST. 671
which have a locomotive principle. Indeed trifling inequali-
ties of surface, which would be a material objection in the
application of locomotive carriages, are, in the lines of road
where stationary engines are employed, quite unheeded.
As many roads are traversed by night as well as by day,
it becomes necessary that a signal should be given from one

engine to the other as soon as the carriages have arrived and

are hooked to its respective ropes, that the engine tender
may not be at a loss when to throw his machinery into
geer. For this purpose, Mr. Thompson recommends that
the door of the fire-place of the boiler, or other strong light,
be placed towards the engines on each side, so that, by
opening it on that side which faces the engine, to whose
ropes the carriages just arrived have been attached, the en-
gineer may adopt such measures as will effect the desired
purpose.
It is true, locomotive engines were not at that period so
well understood as at present ; but it appears to us that this
point still remains in a very undecided state, and that from
the even now limited experience in propelling carriages on
railways, at a speed any thing like that of common
carriages, it is very difficult to hazard an opinion. From
the data, however, that can be collected, we certainly in-
cline to stationary engines, as the most mechanical and
economical application of the requisite power.
As to the degree of danger which travellers may be ex-
posed to by locomotive engines, it cannot, under a
proper management, exceed that of a steam-boat, or a
factory, where power is operating. It is true, that as the
weight of the engine is of great consideration, condensing
engines (if steam be the force employed,) are quite inappli-
cable, and what are generally called high pressures must be
introduced. But though all engines which do not condense
their steam, and act only by the pressure, or elastic force,
are called high pressure engines, there is no necessity what-
ever to go to dangerous heats, and with either wrought-
iron or copper boilers and valves, placed out of the reach
of the operative engineer, or engine tender, may certainly
be worked at 45 or 53ibs. pressure, with as much safety as
at 201bs. in condensing engines. Indeed, on investigating
the cause of steam explosions, they will be found to have
rarely oceurred but from the grossest ignorance and neglect.
Such of our readers who are desirous to have farther in-
formation on this interesting subject, we must refer to a
very able report on rail-roads, by Mr. Charles Sylvester,
772 THE OPERATIVE MECHANIC, &C.
to the paper alluded to by Mr. Thompson, in the Repertory
of Arts, for March, 1822, to a work which will shortly
issue from the Press, by Mr. N. Wood of the Killingworth
Colliery, of whose experiments,in conjunction with Mr.
Sylvester, we have
already had occasion to speak, and to
Observations on a General Iron Railway, by Mr, Gray.
 APPENDIX
GEOMETRY.
Geometry is that branch of mathematics which treats of the de-
scription and properties of magnitudes in general.
Definitions or Explanation of Terms.

1. A
point has neither length, breadth, nor thickness. From this
definition it may easily be understood that a mathematical point can-
not be seen nor felt ; it can only be imagined. What is commonly
called a point, as a small dot made w'ith a pencil or pen, or the point
of a needle, is not in reality a mathematical point ; for however small
such a dot may be, yet if it be examined with a magnifying glass, it
will be found to be an irregular spot, of a very sensible length and
breadth ; and our not being able to measure its dimensions with
the naked eye, arises only from its smallness. The same reasoning
may be applied to every thing that is usually called a point ^ even
the point of the finest needle appears like that of a poker when ex-
amined with the microscope.
2. A
line is length, without breadth or thickness. What was said
above of a point, is also applicable to the definition of a line. What
is drawn upon paper with a pencil or pen, is not in fact a line, but

the representation of a line. For however fine you may make these
representations, they will still have some breadth. But by the
definition, a line has no breadth whatever, yet it is impossible to
draw any thing so fine as to have no breadth. A
line therefore, can
only be imagined. The ends of a line are points. .

3. A
right line is what is commonly called a straight line, or that
tends every where the same way.
4. A curveis a line which continually clianges its direction between
its extreme points.
Parallel lines are such as always keep at the same distance
5.
from each other, and which, if prolonged ever so far, would never
meet. Fig. 1.
6. An angle is the inclination or opening of two lines meeting in
a point. Fig. 2.
7. The AB, and BC, which form the angle, are called the
lines
legs or sides and the point B where they meet, is called the vertex
j

of the angle, or the angular point. An angle is sometimes express-

ed by a letter placed at the vertex, as the angle B, Fig. 2 j but most
commonly by three letters, observing to place in the middle the letter
at the vertex, and the other two at tho end of each leg, as the
angle ABC.
G74 APPENDIX.
8 When one line stands upon another, so as not to lean more to
.

one side than to another, both the angles which it makes with the
other are called rig/i/ as the angles ABC and A BD, Fig. 3,
and all right-angles are equal to each other, being all equal to90j
and the line AB is said to be perpendicular to CD.
Beginners are very apt to confound the terms perpendicular and
plumb or vertical line. A
line is vertical when it is at right-angles
to the plane of the horizon, or level surface of the earth, or to the
surface of water, which is always level. The sides of a house are
vertical. But a line may be perpendicular to another, whether it
stands upright or inclines to the ground, or even if it lies flat upon
it, provided only that it makes the two angles formed by meeting
with the other line equal to each other 5 as for instance, if the angles
ABC and ABD
be equal, the lineAB is perpendicular to CD, w'hat-
ever may be its position in other respects.
9 When one line, BE {Fig. 3,) stands upon another, CD, so as
.

to incline, the angle EBC, which is greater than a right-angle, is

called an obtuse angle ; and that which is less than a right-angle, is
called an acute angle, as the angle EBD.
10. Two
angles which have one leg in common, as the angles
ABC, and ABE, are called contiguous angles, or adjoining angles j

those which are produced by the crossing of two lines, as the angles
EBD and CBF, formed by CD and EF, crossing each other, are
called opposite or vertical angles.
1 1. A figure is a bounded space, and is either a surface or a solid.
12. A superficies, or surface, has length and breadth only. The
extremities of a superficies are lines.
13. A
plane, or plane surface, is that which is everywhere per-
fectly flat and even, or which will touch every part of a straight line,
in whatever direction it may be laid upon it. The top of a marble
slab, for instance, is an example of this, which a strait edge will
touch in every point, so that you cannot see light any where betv/een.
14. A
curved surface is that which will not coincide with a straight
line in any part. Curved surfaces may be either convex or concave.
15. A
convex surface is when the surface rises up in the middle,
as, for instance, a part of the outside of a globe.
16. Aconcave surface is when it sinks in the middle, or is hollow,
and isthe contrary to convex.
A surface may be bounded either by straight lines, curved lines, or
both these.
17. Every surface, bounded by straight lines only, is called a
polygon. If the sides are all equal, it is called a regular polygon. If
they are unequal, it is called an irregular pjolygon. Every poljgon,
whether equal or unequal, has the same number of sides as angles,
and tliey are denominated sometimes according to the number of
sides, and sometimes from the number of angles they contain. Thus a
figure of three sides is called a triangle, and a figure of four sides a
([uadr angle.
A pentagon is a polygon of five sides.^
w GE OME T RY
I'l. 89.

y^eietJtP^i^ t: ^ ^
 .APPENDIX. 675
A hexagon has six sides.
A heptagon seven sides.
An octagon eight sides.
A nonagon nine sides.
A decagon ten sides.
An
undecagon eleven sides.
A
duodecagon twelve sides.
When they have a greater number of sides, it is usual to call them
polygons of 13 sides, of 14 sides, and so on.
Triangles are of different kinds, according to the lengths of their sides.
18. An equilateral triangle has all its sides equal, as ABC, Fig. 4.
19. An isosceles triangle has two equal sides, as DBF, Fig. 5.
20. A
scalene triangle has all its sides unequal, as GHI, Fig.
Triangles are also denominated according to the angles they contain.
21. A right-angled triangle is one that has in it a right angle, as
ABC, Fig. 7.
22. A
triangle cannot have more than one right-angle. The side
opposite to the right-angle B, as AC, is called the hypothenuse, and
is always the longest side.
23. An ohtuse-angled triangle has one obtuse-angle, as Fig. 8.
24. An acute-angled triangle has all its angles acute, as Fig. 4.
25. An isosceles, or a scalene triangle, may be either right-
angled, obtuse, or acute.
26. Any side of a triangle is said to subtend the angle opposite to
it : thus AB
(Fig. 7)t subtends the angle ACB.
27. If the side of a triangle be drawn out beyond the figure, as
AD (Fig. 8), the angle A, or CAB, is called an internal angle, and
the angle CAD, or that without the figure, an external angle.
28. A
quadrangle is also called a quadrilateral figure. They are
of various denominations, as their sides are equal or unequal, or as all
their angles are right-angles or not.
29. Every four-sided figure whose opposite sides are parallel, is
called a parallelogram. Pi'ovided that the sides opposite to each
other be parallel, it is immaterial whether the angles are right or
not. Fig. 9, 10, 11, and 12, are all parallelograms.
30. When the angles of a parallelogram are all right-angles, it is
called a rectangular parallelogram or a rectangle t as Fig. 1 1 and 12.
31. A
rectangle may have all its sides equal, or only the opposite
sides equal. When all its sides are equal, it is called a square, as
Fig. 12.
32. When the opposite sides are parallel, and all the sides equal
to each other, but the angles not right-angles, the parallelogram is
called a rhombus, as Fig. 10.
33. A
parallelogram having all its angles oblique, an<i only its
opposite equal, is called a rhomboid, as Fig. 9. ,

34. When a quadrilateral or four-sided figure has none of its sides

parallel, itis called a trapezium, as Fig. 13 j consequently every
quadrangle, or quadrilateral which is not a parallelogram, is a tra-
pezium.
2x2
676 APPENDIX.
35. A trapexo'id has only one pair of
its sides parallel, as Fig. 14.

36. A diagonal is a right line drawn between any two angles that
are opposite in a polygon, as \K,Fig. 15. In parallelograms the
diagonal is sometimes called the diameter, because it passes through
the centre of tlie figure.
37. Complements of a parallelogram. If any point, as E (Fig,
1 5y, be taken in the diagonal of a parallelogram, and through that
point two lines are drawn parallel to the sides, as AB, CD, it will
be divided into four parallelograms, DD, L, F, GG, The two divi-
sions, L, F, through which the diameter docs not pass, are called
the complements.
38. Base of a figure is the side on which it is supposed to stand
erect, as AB, and CD, Fig. 16.
39. Altitude of a figure is its perpendicular height from the base
to the highest part, as EF, Fig. 16.
40. Area of a plane figure, or other surface, means the quantity of
space contained within its boundaries, expressed in square feet,
yards, or any other superficial measure,
41. Similar figures are such as have the same angles, and whose
sides are in the same proportion, as Fig. 17.
42. Equal figures are such as have the same area or contents.
43. A
circle is a plane figure, bounded by a curve line returning
into itself, called its circumference, ABCD
(Fig. \SJ, every where
equally distant from a point E within the circle, which is called the
centre.
44. The is a straight line drawn from the centre
radius of a circle
to the circumference, as EF
(Fig. 18J. The radius is the opening
of the compass when a circle is described j and consequently all the
radii of a circle must be equal to each other.
45. A diameter of a circle is a straight line drawn from one side
of the circumference to the other through the centre, as CB (Fig. 18^.
Every diameter divides the circle into two equal parts.
46. A
segment of a circle is a part of a circle cut off by a straight
linedrawn across it. This straight line is called the chord. A seg-
ment may be either equal to, greater, or less than a semi-circle,
which is a segment formed by the diameter of the circle, as CEB,
and is equal to half the circle.
47. A tangent is a straight line, drawn so as just to touch a circle
without cutting it, as GH {Fig. 18). The point A, where it touches
the circle, is called the point contact. And a tangent cannot touch
a circle in more points than one.
48. A sector of a circle is a space comprehended between two radii
and an arc, as BIK {Fig. 19).
49. The circumference of every circle, whether great or small, is
supposed to be divided into 360 equal parts, called degrees and
every degree into 60 parts, called minutes j and every minute into
60 seconds. To measure the inclination of lines to each other, or
angles, a circle is described round the angular point, as a centre, as
IK, Fig. 19 ; and according to the number of degrees, minutes, and
 APPENDIX., 677
seconds, cut oflfby the sides of the angle, so many degrees, minutes,
and seconds, it is said to contain. Degrees are marked by minutes
by ^ and seconds by " thus an angle of 48 degrees, 15 minutes, and
;

7 seconds, is written in this manner, 48 15' 7".

50. A solid is any body that has length, breadth, and thickness :

a book, for instance, is solid, so is a sheet of paper ;

for though its
thickness is very small, yet it has some thickness. The boundaries
of a solid are surfaces.
51. Similar solids are such as are bounded by an equal number of
similar planes.
52. Aprism is a solid, of which the sides are parallelograms, and
the two ends or bases are similar polygons, parallel to each other.
Prisms are denominated according to the number of angles in the
base, triangular prisms, quadrangular, heptangular, and so on, as
Fig. 20, 21, 22,23. If the sides are perpendicular to the plane of
the base, it is called an upright prism j if they are inclined, it is
called an ohlique prism.
53. When the base of a prism is a parallelogram, it is called a
parallelopipedon, as Fig. 22 and 23. Hence, a parallelopipedon is a
solid, terminated by six parallelograms.
54. When all the sides of a parallelopipedon are squares, the solid
is called a cube, as Fig. 23.
55. A rhomboid is an oblique prism, whose bases are parallelo-
grams. {Fig. 24.)
56. Apyramid AB {Fig. 25 and 26) is a solid, bounded by, or
contained within, a number of planes, whose base may be any poly-
gon, and whose faces are triangles terminated in one point, B, com-
monly called the summit, or vertex of the pyramid.
57. When the figure of the base is a triangle, it is called a trian-
gular pyramid when the figure of the base is a quadrilateral, it is
called a quadrilateral pyramid, &c.
58. A pyramid is either regular or irregular, according as the base
is regular or irregular.

59* Apyramid is also right or upright, or it is oblique. It is

right, when a line drawn from the vertex to the centre of the base,
is perpendicular to it, as Fig. 25 ; and oblique, when this line inclines,

as Fig. 26.
60. A cylinder is a solid {Fig, 27 and 28) generated or formed by
the rotation of a rectangle about one of its sides, supposed to be at
rest j this quiescent side is called the axis of the cylinder. Or it may
be conceived to be generated by the motion of a circle, in a direction
perpendicular to its surface, and always parallel to itself.
61. Acylinder is either right or oblique, as the axis is perpendicu-
lar to the base or inclined.
62. Every section of a right cylinder taken at right-angles to its
axis, is a circle and every section taken across the cylinder, but
oblique to the axis, is an ellipsis.
63. A circle being a polygon of an infinite number of sides, it fol-
G78 APPENDIX.
lows, that the cylinder may be conceived as a prism, having such
polygons for bases.
64. A cone is a solid {Fig. 29 and 30) having a circle for its base,
and its sides a convex surface, terminating in a point A, called the
vertex or apex of the cone. It may be conceived to be generated by
the revolution of a right-angled triangle about its perpendicular.
65. A line drawn from the vertex to the centre of the base is the
axis of the cone.
66. When this line is perpendicular to the base, the cone is called
an upright or right cone ; but when it is inclined, it is called an
oblique cone.
67. If it be cut through the axis, from the vertex to the base, the
section will be a triangle.
68. If a right cone be cut by a plane at right-angles to the axis,
the section will be a circle.
69. If it be cut oblique to the axis, and quite across from one side
to the other, the section will be an ellipsis, as Fig. 31. A section of
a cylinder, made in the same manner, is also an ellipsis ; and this is
easily conceived j but it does not appear so readily to most people,
that the oblique section of a cone is an ellipsis: they frequently ima-
gine that it will be wider at one end than the other, or what is called
an oval, which is of the shape of an egg. But that this is a mistake,
any one may convince himself, by making a cone, and cutting it across
obliquely : it will be then seen, that the section, in whatever direc-

tion it is taken, is a regular ellipsis j and this is the case, whether

the cone be right or oblique, except only in one case, in the oblique
cone, which is, when the section is taken in a particular direction,
which is called sub-contrary to its base.
70. When the section is made parallel to one of the sides of the
cone, as Fig. 32, the curve ABC, which bounds the section, is called
a parabola.
71. When the section is taken parallel to the axis, as Fig, 33, the
curve is called an hyperbola.
These curves, which are formed by cutting a cone in different direc-
tions, have various properties, which are of great importance in as-
tronomy, gunnery, perspective, and many other sciences.
72. A sphere is a solid, terminated by a convex surface, every
point of which is at an equal distance from a point within, called the
centre. Fig. 34.
73. It may be conceived to be formed by making a semicircle re-
volve round its diameter. This may be illustrated by the process of
forming a ball of clay by the potters wheel, a semicircular mould
being used for the purpose. The diameter of the semicircle, round
which it revolves, is called the axis of the sphere.
74. The ends of the axis are called poles.
75. Any line passing through the centre of the sphere, and termi-
nated by the circumference, is a diameter of the'sphere.
76. Every section of a sphere is a circle ; every section taken
 APPENDIX. 6/9
through the centre ef the sphere, is called a great circlet as AB, Fig.
34 every other is a lesser circle, as CD.
;

77. Any portion of a sphere cut off by a plane, is called a segment

and when the plane passes through the centre, it divides the sphere
into two equal parts, each of which is called a hemisphere.
78. A conoid is a solid, produced by the circumvolution of a section
of the cone, about its axis, and, consequently, may be either an
elliptical conoid, a hyperbolical conoid, or a parabolical conoid. When
it is elliptical, it is generally called a spheroid. These solids are also
called ellipsoid, hyperboloid,, and paraboloid,
79. A spheroid is a solid {Fig. 35), generated by the rotation of a
semi-ellipsis about the transverse or conjugate axis 3
and the centre
of the ellipsis is the centre of the spheroid'

80. The line about which the ellipsis revolves, is called the azis.
If the spheroid be generated about the conjugate axis of the semi-
ellipsis, it is called a prolate spheroid.
81. If the spheroid be generated by the semi-ellipsis, by revolving
about the transverse axis, it is called an oblong spheroid.
82- Every section of a spheroid is an ellipsis, except when it is
perpendicular to that axis about which it is generated 3 in which case,
it is a circle.
83. All sections of a spheroid parallel to .each other, are similar
figures.
A frustum of a solid, means a piece cut off from the solid, by a
plane passed through it, usually parallel to the base of the solid, as
the frustum of a cone, a pyramid, &c.
There is a lower and an upper ft-ustum, according as the piece
spoken of does or does not contain the base of the solid.
84. A
regular body is a solid, contained under a certain number of
equal and regular plane figures of the same sort.
85. The faces of the solid are the plane figures under which it is
contained 5 and the linear sides, or edges of the solid, are the sides of
the plane faces.
86. The are only five regular bodies
viz. 1st. the tetraedon,
:

which is a regular pyramid, having four triangular faces ; 2d. the

hexaedron, or cube, which has six equal square faces 3 3d. the octae-
dron, which has eight triangular faces 5 4th. the dodecaedron, which
has twelve pentagonal faces 3 5th. the icosaedron, which has twenty
triangular faces.
Note. If the figures marked A, B, C, D, E, be exactly drawm on
pasteboard, and the lines cut half through, so that the parts be turned
up, and glued together, they will represent the five regular bodies,
viz. Fig. A, the tetraedon B, the hexaedron 3 C, the octaedron 3
3

D, the dodecaedron and E, the icosaedron.

;

. 87. Ratio is the proportion which one magnitude bears to another

of the same kind, with respect to quantity, aud is usually maked
thus, A : B.
Of these, the first is called the antecedent, and the second the /row-
fey wew/.
680 APPENDIX.
88 measure or quantity of a ratio, is conceived by considering
. 1l\\q
what part of the consequent is the antecedent 5 consequently, it is
obtained by dividing the consequent by the antecedent.
89. Three magnitudes or quantities. A, B, C, are said to be pro-
portional, when the ratio of the first to the second is the same as
that of the second to the third. Thus, 2 , 4, 8 , are proportional, be-
cause 4 is contained in 8 as many times as 2 is in 4.
90. Four quantities. A, B, 0, D, are said to be proportional, when
the ratio of the first. A, to the second, B, is the same as the ratio of
the third, C, to the fourth, D. It is usually written, A B :: C D, : :

or, if expressed in numbers, 2 4 :: 8 16. : :

91. Of Mree proportional quantities, the middle one is said to be a

mean proportional between the other two ; and the last a third prO
portional to the first and second.
92. Of four proportional quantities, the last is said to be a fourth
proportional to the other three, taken in order.
93. Ratio of equality is that which equal numbers bear to each
other.
94. Inverse ratio is when the antecedent is made the consequent,
and the consequent the antecedent. Thus, if 1 : 2 : :3 6 j then, :

inversely ^2 6 3. : 1 :: :

95. Alternate proportion is when the antecedent is compared with

antecedent, and consequent with consequent. Thus, if 2 : 1 :: 6 : 3
then, hy alternation, 2 6 :: 1 3. : :

96. Proportion by composition is when the antecedent and conse-

quent, taken as one quantity, are compared either with the conse-
quent or with the antecedent. Thus, if 2 1 :: 6 3 5 then, by : :

composition, 2+1:1:: 6+3 6 3 6 : 3, and 2+1 : 2 :: + : .

97 Divided proportion is when the difference of the antecedent and

.

consequent is compared either with the consequent or with the ante-

cedent. Thus, if 3 : 1 :: 12 : 4 ; then, by division, 3 1 : 1 :: 12
4 : 4, and 31 3:: : 124 : 12.
98. Continued proportion is when the first is to the second as the
second to the third 5 as the third to the fourth ; as the fourth to the
fifthj
and so on.
99. Compound ratio is formed by the multiplication of several an-
tecedents and the several consequents of ratios together, in the fol-
lowing manner :

If A be to B as 3 to 5, B to C as 5 to 8, and C to D as 8 to 6 j

then A will be D, as 5
l^at is, A D : :: 1:2.
5x8x6 240
100. Bisect, means to divide any thing into two equal parts.
101. Trisect, is to divide any thing into three equal parts.
102. Inscribe, to draw one figure within another, so that all the
angles of the inner figure touch either the angles, sides, or planes of
the external figure.
103. Circumscribe, to draw a figure round another, so that either
the angles, sides, or planes of the circumscribed figure, touch all the
angles of the figure within it.
 APPENDIX. 681
104. Rectangle under any hvo lines, means a rectangle which has
two of its sides equal to one of the lines, and two of them equal to the
other. Also, the rectangle under AB, CD, means AB
x CD.
105. Scales of equal parts. Ascale of equal parts is only a straight
line* divided into any number of equal parts, at pleasure. Each part
may represent any measure you please, as an inch, a foot, a yard,
&c. One of these is generally subdivided into parts of the next deno-
mination, or into tenths or hundredths. Scales may be constructed in
a variety of ways. The most usual manner is, to make an inch, or
some aliquot part of an inch, to represent a foot 3 and then they are
called inch scales, three-quarter inch scales, half-inch scales, quarter-
inch scales, &c. They are usually drawn upon ivory or box-wood.
106. An axiom is a manifest truth, not requiring any demonstration.
107. Postulates are things required to be granted true, before we
proceed to demonstrate a proposition.
108. Kproposition is when something is either proposed to be done,
or to be demonstrated, and is either eJ problem or a theorem.
109. A problem is^when something is proposed to be done, as some
figure to be drawn.
110. Atheorem h when something is proposed to be demonstated
or proved.
111. Alemma is when a premise is demonstrated, in order to ren-
der the thing in hand the more easy.
112. A
corollary is an inference drawn from the demonstration of
some proposition.
113. A
scholium is when some remark or observation is made upon
something mentioned before.
114. The sign =
denotes that the quantities betwixt which it
stands, are equal.
115. The sign -f- denotes that the quantity after it, is to be added
to that immediately before it.
116. The sign
denotes, that the quantity after it is to be taken
away or subtracted from the quantity preceding it.

Geometrical Problems.

Prob. 1. To divide a given line AB

into two equal parts.
From the points A and B, as centres, and with any opening of the
compasses greater than half AB, describe arches, cutting each other
in c and d. Draw the line c d 3 and the point E, where it cuts B, A
will be the middle required.
Prob. 2. To raise a perpendicular to a given line A B, from a
point given at C,
Case 1. When tne given point is near the middle of the line, on
each side of the point C. Take any two equal distances, C d and
C e 3 from d and e, with any radius or opening of the compasses
greater than C d or C e, describe two arcs cutting each other in f.
Lastly, through the points f, C, draw the line f C, and it will be
the perpendicular required;
682 APrEJ^PIX.

Case 2, When or near the end of the line. Take

the point is at,

any point d, above the and with the radius or distance d C, de-
line,
scribe the arc e C f, catting AB in e and C. Through the centre d, and
the point e, draw the line e d f, cutting the arc e C f in f. Through the
points f C, draw the line fC, and it will be the perpendicular required.
Prob.3, From a given point f, to let fall a perpendicular upon a
given line AB.
From the point with any radius, describe the arc d e, cutting AB
f,

in e and d. From the

points e d, with the same or any other radius,
describe two arcs, cutting each other in g. Through the points f
and g, draw the line f g, and f C will be the perpendicular required.
Prob. 4. To make an angle equal to another angle which is given,
as a B b.
From the point B, with any radius, describe the arc ab, cutting
the legs B a, B b, in the points a and b. Draw the line D e, and
from the point D, with the same radius as before, describe the arc e f,
cutting D
e in e. Take the distance B a, and apply it to the arc e f,
from e to f. Lastly, through the points D, f, draw the line D f, and

the angle e D
f will be equal to tke angle b B a, as was required.
Prob. 5. To divide a given angle, ABC, into two equal angles.
From the point B, with any radius, describe the arc AC. From A
and C, with the same, or any other radius, describe arcs cutting each
in d. Draw the line B d, and it will bisect the angle ABC, as was
required.
Prob. 6. To lay down an angle of any number of degrees.
There are various methods of doing this. One is by the use of an
instrument called a protractor, with a semicircle of brass,having its cir-
cumference divided iuto degrees. Let AB
be a given line, and let it
be required to draw from the angular point A, a line making, with
AB, any number of degrees, suppose 20. Lay the straight side of
the protractor along the line AB, and count 20 from the end B of
the semicircle i at C, which is 20 from B, mark ; then, removing
the protractor, draw the line AC, which makes, with AB, the
angle required. Or, it may be done by a divided line, usually drawn
upon scales, called a line of chords. Take 60 from the line of
chords, in the compasses, and setting one at the angular point B,
Prob. 4, with that opening as a radius, describe an arch, as a b then:

take the number of degrees of which you intend the angle to be, and
set it from b to a, then is a B b the angle required.
Prob. 7. Through a given point C, to draw a line parallel to a
gtven line AB.
Case 1. Take any point d, in AB ; upon d and C, with the distance
C d, describe two arcs, e C, and d f, cutting the line AB in e and d.
Make d f equal to e C 5 through C and f draw C f, and it will be
the line required.
Case 2. When the parallel is to be at a given distance from AB.
From any two points, c and d, in the line AB, with a radius equal to
tl e given distance, describe the arcs e and f : draw the line CB to
 GEOMETRY P1.90.

to
fca

->1

yeeUi S(o<ideif ^ JS*

 APPENDIX. 683
touch those arcs without cutting them^ and it will be parallel to AI3,
as was required.
Prol, 8. To divide a given line AB, into any proposed number of
equal parts.
From A, one endof the line, draw A c, making any angle with
AB and from B, the other end, draw B d, making the angle A B d
equal to B A c. In each of these lines, Ac, B d, beginning at and A
B, set off as many equal parts, of any length, as AB is to be divided
into. Join the points C 5, 46, 57, and AB will be divided as re-
quired.
Proh, 9. To find the centre of a given circle, or of any one already
described. Draw any chord AB, and bisect it with the perpendicu-
lar CD,Bisect CD with the diameter EF, and the intersection O
willbe the centre required.
Prob* 10. To draw a tangent to a given circle that shall pass
through a given point, A.
From the centre O, draw the radius OA. Through the point A,
draw DE perpendicular to OA, and it will be the tangent required.?
Prob. 1 1. To draw a tangent to a circle, or any segment of a circle
ABC, through a given point B, without making use of the centre of
the circle.
Take any two equardi visions upon the circle, from the given point
B, towards d and e, and draw the chord e B. Upon B, as a centre,
with the distance B d, describe the arc f d g, cutting the chord e B
in f. Make d g equal to d f j through g draw g B, and it will be the
tangent required.
Prob. 12. Given three points. A, B, C, not in a straight line, to
describe a circle that shall pass through them.
Bisect the lines AB, BC, by the perpendiculars a b, b d, meeting
at d. Upon d, with the distance d A, d B, or d C, describe ABC,
and it will be the required circle.
Prol. 13. To describe the segment of a circle to any length AB,
and height CD.
Bisect ABby the perpendicular D
g, cutting in c. AB
From c
make cD, on the perpendicular, equal to CD. Draw AD, and bisect
it by a perpendicular e f, cutting D
g in g. Upon g the centre, de-
scribe ADB, and it will be the required segment.
Prob. 14. To describe the segment of a circle by means of two
rules, to any length AB, and perpendicular height CD
in the middle
of AB, without making use of the centre.
Place the lales to the height at C ; bring the edges close to and A
B fix them together at C, and put another piece across them to
keep them fast. Put in juns at A
and B, then move the rulers round
these pins, holding a pencil at the angular point C, which will de-
scribe the segment.
Proh. 15. In any given triangle to inscribe a circle.
Bisect any two angles A
and C, with the lines AD
and DB. From
D, the point of intersection, let fall the perpendicular DE ; it will be
the radius of the circle required.
684 APPENDIX.
. Proh, 16. In a given square, to describe a regular octagon.
Draw the diagonals AC and BD, intersecting at e. Upon the
points A, B, C, D, as centres, with a radius e C, describe the arcs
h e 1, k e n, meg, f e i. Join f n, m
h, k i, 1 g, and it will be the
required octagon,
Prob. 17. In a given circle, to describe any regular polygon.
Divide the circumference into as many parts as there are sides in
the polygon to be drawn, and join the points of division.
Proh. 18. Upon a given line AB, to construct an equilateral tri-
angle.
Upon the points A and B, with a radius equal to AB, describe
arches cutting each other at C. Draw AC and BC, and ABC will
be the triangle required.
Prob, 19. To make a triangle, whose sides shall be equal to three
given lines D, E, F, any two of them being greater than the third.
Draw AB equal to the line D. Upon A, with the radius F, de-
scribe an arc CD. Upon B, with the radius E, describe another arc
intersecting the former at C. Draw AC and CB, and ABC will be
the triangle required.
Proh. 20, To make a trapezium equal and similar to a given tra-
pezium ABCD.
Divide the given trapezium ABCD into two triangles, by the dia-
gonal DB. Make EF equal to ;
AB
upon EF construct the triangle
EFH, whose sides shall be respectively equal to those of the triangle
ABD, by the last problem. Upon HF, which is equal to DB, con-
struct the triangle HFG, whose sides are respectively equal to ; DBC
then EFGH will be the trapezium required.
By the help of this problem, any plan may be copied ; as every
figure, however irregular, may be divided into triangles. Upon this
the practice of land-surveying and making plans of estates, is founded.
Proh. 21. To make a square equal to two given squares. Make
the sides DE and DF
of the two given squares and B, form the A
sides of a right-angled triangle FDE ; draw the hypothenuse FE ;
on it describe the square EFGH ; and it will be the square required.
Proh. 22. Two right lines AB, CD, being given, to find a third
proportional. Make an angle HE! at pleasure j from E make EF
equalto AB, and EG equal to CD join FG. Make El equal to
:

EF, and draw HI parallel to FG then EH will be the third pro-

j

portional required ; that is, EF EG EH El, or AB CD

: : : : ; : :

CD:EU
Proh. 23. Three lines being given, to find a fourth proportional.
Make the angle HGI at pleasure 5 from G make equal to AB, GH
GI equal to CD, and join HI. Make GK
equal to EFj draw KC
through K, parallel to HI j then GL will be the fourth proportional
required, that is, GH : GI : : GK : GL, or AB CD
: : : EF GL.
:

Prob. 24. To divide a given line AB in the same proportion as

another CD is divided.
Make any angle KHI, and make ffl equal to AB ; then apply tlie
 APPENDIX. 685
several divisions of CD, from H to K, and join KI. Draw the lines
h e, k g, parallel to IK j and the line HI
i f, will be divided in e, f,
g, as was required.
Proh. 25, Between two given lines AB and CD to find a mean
proportional.
Draw the right line EG, in which make EF equal to AB, and FG
equal to CD. Bisect EG
in H, and with HE
or HG, as radius, de-
scribe the semicircle EIG. From F draw FI perpendicular to EG,
cutting the circle in I j and IF will be the mean proportional re-
quired.
Proh. 26. To describe an ellipsis.
If two pins are fixed at the points E and F, a string being put
about them, and the ends tied together at C j the point C being
moved round, keeping the string stretched will describe an ellipsis.
The points E and F, where the pins were fixed, are called the foci.
The line AB
passing through the foci, is called the transverse axis.
The point G
bisecting the transverse axis, is the centre of the
ellipsis.
The line CD crossing this centre at right-angles to the transverse
axis, is the conjugate axis.
The latus rectum is a right line passing through the focus at F, at
right-angles to the transverse axis terminated by the curve this is :

also called the parameter.

Adiameter is any line passing through the centre, and terminated
by the curve.
A conjugate diameter to another diameter, is a line drawn through
the centre, parallel to a tangent at the extreme of the other diame-
ter, and terminated by the curve.
Adouble ordinate is a line drawn through any diameter parallel to
a tangent, at the extreme of that diameter terminated by the curve.
Proh. 26. The transverse axis AB, and conjugate axis CD, of any
ellipsis, being given, to find the two foci, and from thence to describe
the ellipsis.
Take the semi-transverse AE, or EB, and from C as a centre, de-
scribe an arc, cutting AB
at F and G, which are the foci. Fix pins
in these points ; a string being stretched about the joints FCG, the
ellipsis is described as above.
Proh. 27. The same being given, to describe an ellipsis by a trammel.
The trammel is an instrument consisting of two rulers fixed at
right-angles to each other, with a groove in each. rod with two A
moveable nuts works in this groove, and, by means of a pencil fixed
in the end of the rod, describes the curve. The operation is as follows:
Let the distance of the first pin at B, from the pencil at A, be
equal to half the shortest axis, and the distance of the second pin at
C, from A, to half the longest axis j the pins being put in the
grooves, move the pencil at A, which will describe the ellipsis.
Proh. 28. To draw the representation of an ellipsis with a compass
to any length AB, and width CD.
Draw BP parallel and equal to EC, and bisect it at 1 j then draw
686 APPENDIX.
1 C and PD, cutting each other at K j bisect KC by a perpendicular
meeting CD in O ; and on O, with the radius OC, describe the
quadrant CGQ.
Through Q and A, draw QG, cutting the quadrant at G ; then
draw GO, cutting AB at M
make EL equal to EM, also EN equal
j

toEO. From N, through M

and L draw NH and NI then M, L,
j

N, O, are the four centres by which the four quarters of the ellipsis
'

are drawn.
It must be observed, that this is not a true ellipsis, but only an
approximation to it 5 for it is impossible to draw a perfect ellipsis
by means of compasses, which can only describe parts of circles.
But the curve of an ellipsis differs essentially from that of a circle in
every part ; and no portions of circles put together, can ever form an
ellipsis. But by this means, a figure may be drawn, which ap-
proaches nearly to an ellipsis, and therefore may be often substi-
tuted for it when a trammel cannot be had, or when the ellipsis is
too small to be drawn by it. At the joining of the portions of circles
in this operation, the defect is not perceivable 5 and the best way is
not to join them quite, and to help the curve by hand.
Prob. 29. An ellipsis, ACDB, being given, to find the transverse
and conjugate axis.
Draw any two parallel lines, AB
and CD, cutting the ellipsis at
the points A, B, C, ; D
bisect them in e and f. Through e and f,
draw GH, cutting the ellipsis at G
and H
j bisectGH at 1 5 and it
will give the centre.
Upon I, with any radius, describe a circle, cutting the ellipsis in
the four points k, 1, m, n 5 join k, 1, and m, n; bisect k 1, or m n, at
0 or p. Through the points o, 1, or 1, p, draw QR, cutting the
ellipsis at and R j then
Q QR
will be the transverse axis. Through
1 draw TS, parallel to k 1, cutting the ellipsis at T and S j and TS

will be the conjugate axis,

Prob. 30. To describe an ellipsis similar to a given one ADBC,
to any given length IK, or to a given width ML.
Let AB and CD
be the two axes of the given ellipsis. Through
the points of contact A,D,B,C, complete the rectangle GEHF ;
draw
the diagonals EF and :GH
they will pass through the centre at R.
Through I and K draw PN
and OQ
parallel to CD, cutting the diago-
nals EF and GH, atP,N,Q,0. Join PO and NQ, cutting CDat L
and M j
then IK is the transverse, and MLthe conjugate axis of an
ellipsis, that will be similar to the given ellipsis ADBC, which may
be described by some of the foregoing methods.
Prob. 31. To describe a parabola. If a thread equal in length to
BC, be fixt at C, the end of a square ABC, and the other end be
fixt at F j and if the side AB
of the square be moved along the line
AD, and if the point E bo always kept close to the edge BC of the
square, keeping the string tight, the pointer pin E will describe a
.

curve EGIH, called a parabola.

The focus of the parabola is the fixed point F, about which the
string revolves.
 GEO ME TRY JPL.ffi.

Froblems

25

X- itoekUy so 3Ss Strand

 t

.. iiti-

v<.

. H'l:.

. U-
'

.
\i'-'

;
*lvn-

'<K...

U'f'x
'
<
*'
. .

; ^>-v

.:fv'-^^> .
'.^oii

\.
 APPENDIX 687
The directrix is the line AD, which the side of the square moves
along.
The axis is the line LK, drawn through the focus F, perpendicular
to the directrix.
The vertex is the point I, where the line LK cuts the curve.
The latus rectum, or parameter, is the line GH passing through
the focus F, at right-angles to the axis IK, and terminated by the
curve.
The diameter is any line MN, drawn parallel to the axis IK.
A doulle ordinate is a right line RS, drawn parallel to a tangent at
M, the extreme of the diameter MN, terminated by the curve.
The abscissa is that part of a diameter contained between the
curve and its ordinate, as MN.
Proh. 32. To describe a parabola, by finding points in the curve ;
the axis AB, or any diameter being given, and a double ordinate CD.
Through A draw EF parallel to CD j through C and draw DF D
and CE parallel to AB, cutting EF at E and F. Divide BC and BD,
each into any number of equal parts, as four j likewise divide CE
and DF into the same number of equal parts. Through the points 1,
2, 3, &c. in CD, draw the lines la, 2 b, 3 c, &c. parallel to CD j
also through the points 1,2, 3, in CE and DF, draw the lines 1 A,
2 A, 3 A, cutting the parallel lines at the points a, b, c ' then the
points a, b, c, are in the curve of the parabola.
Prol. 33. To describe an hyperbola.
IfB and C are two fixed points, and a rule AB be made moveable
about the point B, a string ADC being tied to the other end of the
rule, and to the point C j and if the point A be moved round the
centre B, towards G, the angle D of the string ADC, by keeping
it always tight and close to the edge of the rule AB, will describe a

curve DHG, called an hyperbola.

*11 the end of the rule at B were made moveable about the point
C,, the string being tied from the end of the rule A to B, and a
curve being described after the same manner, is called an opposite
hyperbola.
The foci are the two points B and C, about which the rule and
string revolves.
Ttie transverse axis is the line IH terminated by the two cun*es
passing through the foci, if continued.
The centre is the point M, in the middle of the transverse axis IH.
The ccmjugate axis is the line NO, passing through the centre M,
an&l terminated by a circle from H, whose radius is MC, at and O. N
A diameter is any line VW, drawn through the centre M, and ter-
minated by the opposite curves.
Conjugate diameter to another, is a line drawm through the centre,
parallel to a tangent with either of the curves, at the extreme of the
other diameter terminated by the curves.
Abscissa is when any diameter is continued w ithin the curve, ter-
minated by a double ordinate and the curve j then the part within is.
called the abscissa.
688 APPENDIX.
Double ordinate is a line drawn through any diameter parallel to its
conjugate, and terminated by the curve.
Parameter or latus rectum^ is a line drawn through the focus, per-
pendicular to the transverse axis, and terminated by the curve.
Proh. 34. To describe an hyperbola by finding points in the curve,
having the diameter or axis AB, its abscissa BG, and double ordi-
nate DC.
Through G draw EF, and D draw CE and
parallel to CD j
from C
DF, parallel to BG, Divide CD and BD,
cutting EF in E and F.
each into any number of equal parts, as four ; through the points of
division, 1, 2, 3, draw lines to A. Likewise divide EC and DF into
the same number of equal parts, viz. four j from the divisions on CE
and DF, draw lines to G ; a curve being drawn through the intersec-
tions at G, a, b, &c. will be the hyperbola required.

Remarks. In a circle, the half chord DC, is a mean proportional
between the segments AD, DB of the diameter AB perpendicular to
it. That AD DC DC DB.
is : : : :

2. AC is a mean proportional between AD and the di-

The chord
ameter AB. And the chord BC a mean proportional between DB
and AB.
That is, AD AC : : : AC AB, :

and BD BC : : : BC AB. :

3 The angle ACB, in a semicircle, isalways a right.

4. The square of the hypotenuse of a right-angled triangle, is equal
to the squares of both the sides.
That is, AC^ = AD2 + DC%
and BC2 = BD^ + DC,
and AB^= AC^ + BC.
5. Triangles that have
the three angles of the one respectively
all
equal to all the three of the other, are called equiangular triangles,
or similar triangles.
6. In similar triangles, the like sides, or sides opposite the equal
angles, are proportional.
7. The areas, or spaces, of similar triangles, are to each other,
as the squares of their like sides.

MENSURATION OF SUPERFICIES.
Proh. 1. To find the area of a parallelogram: whether it be a
square, a rectangle, a rhombus, or a rhomboid.
Multiply the length by the breadth, or perpendicular height, and
the product will be the area.
Ex. 1. To find the area of a square, whose side is 6 inches, or 6
feet, &c.
6
6

36 Ansr
 APPENDIX. 689
2. To find the area of a rectangle, whose length is 9, ana oreadth
4 inches, or feet, &c.
9
4

Ansr. 36

3. To find the area of a rhombus, whose length is 6 chains, and

perpendicular height 5.

Ansr. 30

Prob, 2. To find the Area of a Triangle.

Rule 1 Multiply the base by the perpendicular height, and half
.

the product will be the area.

Rzde 2. When the three sides only are given Add the three sides
:

together, and take half the sum 3 from the half sum subtract each
side separately 3 multiply the half sum and the three remainders con-
tinually together 3 and the square root of the last product will be the
area of the triangle.
Ex. Required the area of the triangle whose base is 6 feet, and
perpendicular height 5 feet.
6
5

2) 30 (15 Ansr.
Proh. 3. To find one Side of a right-angled Triangle, having the
other two Sides given.
The square of the hypotenuse is equal to both the squares of the
two legs. Therefore,
1. To find the hypotenuse 3 add the squares of the two legs to-

gether, and extract the square root of the sum.

2. To find one leg ; subtract the square of the other leg from the
square of the hypotenuse, and extract the root of the difference.
Ex. 1. Required the hypotenuse of a right-angled triangle, whose
base A B is 40, and perpendicular BC 30.
4 3
4 3

16 9
9

25 (5 the square root of the sum of the two squares, being

25 the hypotenuse AC.
690 APPENDIX.
2. What is the perpendicular of a right-angled triangle, whose
base AB is 56, and hypotenuse, AC 65 ?

56 65
56 65

336 . 325
280 390

3136 4225
3136

1089 ( 33 The perpendicular, which is the root

9 of the remainder of the square of the
hypotenuse AC, when the square
63 189 of AB has been subtracted.
I

3 1
189
Prol;. 4. To Area of a Trapezoid.
find the
Multiply the sura of the two parallel sides by the perpendicular
distance between them, and half the product will be the area.
Er. In a trapezoid, the parallel sides are AB 7, and CD 12,
and the perpendicular distance AP or CN is 9 required the area. :

7
12

19
9

171

85| the area.

ProL 5. To find the Area of a Trapezium.
Case for any trapezium
Divide it into two triangles by- a dia-
.

gonal ;
then find the areas of these triangles, and add them together.
Note. If two perpendiculars be let fall on the diagonal, from tlie
other two opposite angles, the sum of these perpendiculars being
multiplied by the diagonal, half the product will be the area of the
trapezium.
Ear. 'To find the area of the trapezium ABCD, the diagonal AC
being 42 , the perpendicular BF 18 , and the perpendicular 16. DE
18
16

34
42

68
136
2 )
1428
714 the answer.
 MElSrSUR-\TIOK

& StvcJd^ sc 3 St Scra/id.

 APPENDIX.
Prob. To find the Area of an Irregular Polygon.
6.
Draw diagonals dividing the figure into trapeziums and triangles.
Then find the areas of all these separately, and their sum will be the
content of the whole irregular figure.
Ex. To find the content of the irregular figure in ABCDEF,
which are given the following diagonals and perpendiculars : namely,
c. a 10 =
=
d. f 6
=
c.i 4
k.e = 2
m. f = 3
n. b = 4
For trapez. d c f e. For trapez. c f a b
ci. 4 n.b. 4
ke. 2 m.f. 3

6 7
df. 6 c.a. 10
2)36 2)70
18 contents. 35 <;ontents.

18 contents d. c. f e
35 c. f. a b
^
53 contents of the irregular
polygon.
Prob. 7. To find the Area of a Regular Polygon.

Pu/e. Multiply the perimeter of the figure, or sum of its sides,

by the perpendicular falling from its centre upon one of its sides, and
half the product will be the area.
Prob. 8. In a Circular Arc, having any two of the following lines,
viz. the chord AB, the versed sine DP, the chord of half the arc
AD, and the diameter, or the radius AC or CD given, to find the others.
- If any two of these lines be given, two sides of one of the right-
angled triangles, APC or A PD, will be known, and from them the
remaining side, and other lines in the arc, may be found by Prob. 3.
Suppose AB and PD be given, then, by Prob. 3., the half of AB,
or AP is a mean proportional between DP and PC CD ; for PC -p
CD + PD is the diameter of the circle, half of which is the radius
or CA, and by Prob. 3, AC AP^
CP^, and AP^ = PD^ AD^ + =
Suppose CD and AB be given, then half of AB AP, and =
CD = AC j
therefore V - AP^ _ cp, and CD - CP = PD.
V PD* + AP2 = AD.
Prob. 9. To find the Diameter and Circumference of a Circle, the
one from the other.
jRule 1 As 7 is to 22, so is the diameter to the circumference.
,

As 22 is to 7, so is the circumference to the diameter.

2y2
C92 APPENDIX.
Rule 2. As 13 is to 355, so is the diameter to the circumference.
J

As 355 is to 113, so is the circumference to the diameter

Rule 3. As is to 3' 14 IS, so is the diameter to the circumference.
1

As 314r6 is to 1, so is the circumference to the diameter.

Ex', 1. lo find the circumference of a circle, whose diameter AB
3 10 .

By Rule 1.

7: 22:: 10: 31*42857

10 ,

7) 220
31-f
or 3142857 ans.

By Rule 2. By Rule 3.

113:355:: 10:31tVt 1 3-1416

: 10 : 31*416
: :

10 the circumference nearly,

the true circumference
113 )
3550

160

(
31-41593
the ans.
being
31-4159265358979, &c.

470

180 So that the 2d rule is

nearest the truth.

670

1050

330

^
2. To find tle diameter when the circumference is 100.

By Rule 1.

=
22 : 7 : : 50 : X
7 25
j-j
_
175
jj- = 15
, ,
tt .= 15-9090 an*
 APPENDIX. 693
By Rule 2. By Rule 3

355 : 113 : : 50 :
15-f4 3-1416 : 1 : : 50 : 15-9156
50 50

355 5650 3-1416)50-000 (15-9156

71 1130 (159155 ) 18584

420 2876

650 49

110 18

390 2

350

Proh. 10. To find the Length of any Arc of a Circle.

Rule 1, As 180 is to the number of degrees in the arc.
So is 3-1416 times the radius, to its length.
Or as 3 is to the number of degrees in the arc.
So is *05236 times the radius, to its length.
Ex. 1 . To find the length of an arc ADB (Prob. 8,) of 30 degrees,
the radius being 9 feet.,
3*1416
9
As 180 30 :

dr 6 1 282744 4-7124
: : : :

Or 3: 30 *05236 x 9:4*7124 : :

90

47124 the answer.

Rule 2. From 8 times the chord of half the arc subtract the
chord of the whole arc, and ^ of the remainder will be the length of
the arc nearly.
Ex. 2. The chord AB (Prob. 8.) of the whole arc being 4*65874,
and the chord AD of the half arc 2*34947 j required the length of
the arc.
2-34947
8 .

18-79576
4-65874

3 ) 14-13702

4*71234 answer.
694 APPENDIX.
Prol, 11. To find the Area of a Circle, the diameter or circum-
ference being given.
Rule 1. Multiply half the circumference by half the diameter.
Or^ take J of the product of the whole circumference and diameter.
Rule 2. Multiply the square of the diameter by *7854.
Rule 3. Multiply the square of the circumference by 07958.
Rule 4. As 14 is to 11, so is the square of the diameter to the
area.
Rule 5 . As 88 is to 7, so is the square of the circumference to the
area.
JS<r. To find the area of a circle whose diameter is 10, and cir-

cumference 314*159265
By Rule 1. By Rule 2. By Rule 4.
31-4159265 14: 11 100 : :

10 7854 1 1 area
100
4)314-159265 14 1100 78*57
area 78*54 98
area 7853816
120
112

80
70

100
98

2
By Rule 3, By Rule 5.
sq. circ. 986 96044 31-4159265 circum.
invert. 85970 562951413 invert,
6908723 94247779
888264 3141593
49348 1256637
7896 31416
15708
78*54231 area. 2827
63
19
2

88:7:: 986*96044
7

8 6908-72308

11 863*59038

78*50821
 APPENDIX 695
Prol, 12. To find the Area of the Sector of a Circle.
Rule\. Multiply the radius, or half the diameter, by half the
arc of the sector, for the area. Or take J of the product of the dia-
meter and arc of the sector.
Note, The arc may be found by problem 10.
Rule 2. As 360 is to the degrees in the arc of the sector, so is
the whole area of the circle, to the area of the sector.
Ex. What is the area of the sector CAB, the radius being 10, and
the chord AB 1 6.

100=AC2
61=AE*

36 (6=CE
10=CD
4=DE
16=DE*
64=AE

80 (8-94427l9=AD.
8

^
715541752
' 16

3 )
55-5541752

2 ) 18-5180584 arc ADB

9*2590297 = half arc
10 = radius
92-590297 answer.

Prol. 13. To find the Area of a Segment of a Circle.

Rule. Find the area of the sector having the same arc with the
segment, by the last problem.
Find the area of the triangle, formed by the chord of the segment
and the two radii of the sector.
Then the sum of these two will be the answer when the segment is
greater than a semicircle but the difference will be the answer
:

when it is less than a semicircle.

606 appendix.

Ex, Required the area of the segment ACBD, its chord AB being
12, and the radius EA or CE 10.

100 AE
36 AD*

64 DE*

its root 8 DE
from 1 0 CE
2 CD
4 CD
36 AD

40 chord AC 6 AD
8 DE
its root 6*324555 chord AC
8 48 area of A EAB
50596440
*
12

3)38-59644 j

2)12-86548 arc ACB

6-43274 i arc
10 radius

64 3274 area of sect. EACB

48-0000 area of triangle EAB
ans. 163274 area of segm. ACBA

Prob. 14. To find the Area of a Circular Zone ADCBA.

Rule 1. Find the areas of the two segments AEB, DEC, and their
difference will be the zone ADCB.
Rule 2. To the area of the trapezoid DQP add the area of the
small segment ADRj and double the sum for the area of the zone
ADCB.
Prob. 15. To find the Area of a Circular Ring, or Space included
between two Concentric Circles.
The difference between the two circles will be the ring. Or, mul-
tiply the sum of the diameters by their difference, and multiply the
product by 7854 for the answer.
Ex. The diameters of the two concentric circles being AB 10
 APPEND I -V.
^ 697
and DG 6, required tlie area of tlie ring containea between their
circumferences AEBA^ and BFGD.
10 7854
6 64

sam 16 31416
dif. 4 47124

64 50*2656 Ansr.

Proh. 16. To measure long Irregular Figures.

^
Takethe breadth in several places at equal distances. Add all
the breadths together,, and divide the sum by the number of them,
for the mean breadth j which multiply by the length for the area.
Ex, The breadths of an irregular 6gure, at five equi -distant
places being 81, AD mP
7*4, nq 9 2, or 10*1, 8*6 5 and the BC
length AB
39 5 required the area.

8-1
7*4
9*2
10*1

5) 43*4

8-68
39

7812
2604

338*52 Ansr.

MENSURATION OF SOLIDS.

Proh, 1 . To find the Solidity of a Cube.

Cube one of the contents 5 that
its sides for is, multiply the side
by itself, and that product by the side again.
698 APPENDIX
Ex, If the side of a cube be 24 inches, what is its solidity or contents
24
24

96
48

576
24

2304
1152

13824 Ansr.
Proh, 2, To find the Solidity of a Parallelopipedon.
Multiply the length by the breadth, and the products by the depth
or altitude.
Ex. Required the contents of the parallelopipedon whose length
AB is 6, its breadth AC 2, and altitude 3. BD
6
2

12
3

36 Ansr.
Proh. 3. To find the Solidity of any Prism.
Multiply the area of the base, or end, by the height, and it will
give the contents.
Which rule will do, whether the prism be triangular or square, or
pentagonal, &c. or round, as a cylinder.
Ex. What is the content of a triangular prism, whose length is
12, and each side of its equilateral base 8 }
Area of base, 28 X 12=336 contents.
Proh. 4. To Convex Surface of a Cylinder.
find the
Multiply the circumference by the height of the cylinder.
Prob. 5. To find the Convex Surface of a Right Cone.
Multiply the circumference of the base by the slant height, or
length of the side, and half the product will be the surface.
Ex. If the diameter of the base be 5 feet,' and the side of the
cone 1 8, required the convex surface.
3T416
5
15*7080 circumf.
18
125664
15708
2 )
282*744
 . APPENDIX. 699
Prob. 6 , To Convex Surface of the Frustum of a Right Cone.
find the
Multiply the sum of the perimeters of the two ends by the slant
j height or side of the frustum, and half the product will be the surface.
Ex. If the circumferences of the two ends be 12*5 and 10'3, and
; the slant height 14, required the convex surface of the frustum.
12-5
10-3
j

22-8
14

:
912
228

I
2 )
3192
i
1596 Ansr.

Proh. 7. To Cone, or any Pyramid.

find the Solidity of a
Multiply the area of the base by the perpendicular height of the
area, and one-third of the product will be the contents.
Proh. 8 To find the Solidity of any Frustum of a Cone or Pyramid.
.

Rule. Add together the area of the base, the area of the upper
surface, and the mean proportional between those areas 3 take one-
third of this sum for the mean area, which multiplied by the height
will give thecontents. Or, for a cone, take the square of each dia-
meter of the base and upper surface, and the product of these two di-
ameters multiplied together 3 add these three sums together, and
multiply by *2618 for the mean area, which multiply as before.
Or, if the circumferences be used in like manner, instead of their
diameters, the multiplier will be *02654.
Ex. What is the content of the frustum of a cone, whose heighi
is 20 inches, and the diameters of its two ends 28 and 20 inches ?
Area of base 615*79 28 28 20
Area of upper surface 314*16 28 20 20
Mean proportional 439*84

3 )
1369*79
_
224
56
560
784
400
_ 40f

456-59
20 784
1744
2618
9131-80
13952
1744
10464
3488

456-5792
20
9131*5840 Ansr.
700 APPENDIX.
Proh. 9. To find the Solidity of a Wedge.
To
the length of the edge add twice the length of the back or base,
and reserve the sum j multiply the height of the wedge by the
breadth of the base j then multiply this product by the reserved sum,
and one-sixth of the last product will be the contents.
E<r. Whatthe contents of a wedge, whose altitude
is AP is J 1

inches, its edge AB

21 inches, and the length of its base DE 32
inches, and its breadth 4^ inches ? CD
21 14
32
32
56
85 7

63
85

315
504

6 ! 1
5355
I
8925 Ansr.
Proh. 10. To find the Solidity of a Prismoid.
Definition .
A prismoid differs only from the frustum of a pyramid,
in not having its opposite ends similar planes.
Rule. Add into one sum, the areas of the two ends and four times
the middle section parallel to them, and one-sixth of that sura will be
a mean area j and being multiplied by the height, will give the
contents.

Note ^The length of the middle section is equal to half the sum
.

of the lengths of the two ends j and its breadth is equal to half the
sum of the breadths of the two ends.
Ex. What are the contents of a prismoid whose ends are rec-
tangles, the length and breadth of the one being 14 and 12 ; and
the corresponding sides of the other 6 and 4, the perpendicular height
being 30^ ?
14 10 6
12 8 4

168 80 24

320
168
24

6 ) 512
 APPENDIX. 701

Sft-^Ninean area.
30^ height.

2560

2602*6 Ansr.

Proh* 1 J . To
find the Convex Surface of a Sphere or G^obe.
Multiply diameter by its circumference.
its
Note .
In like manner the convex surface of any zone or segment
is found, by multiplying its height by the whole circumference of the
sphere.
Ex. Required the convex superficies of a globe, whose diameter
or axis is 24.
3*1416
24 diam, .

125664
62832

75-3984 circumf.
24

3015936
1507968

1809*5616 Ansr.

Prob. 12, To find the Solidity of a Sphere or Globe.

Multiply the cube of the axis by *5236.
Ex. What is the solidity of the sphere, whose axis is 12 >

12
12

144
12

1728 '

< *5236

10368
5184
3456
8640

904-7808 Ansr.
702 APPENDIX.
Proh. 13. To find the Solidity of a Spherical Segment.
To 3 times the square of the radius of its base add the square of its
height ; then multiply the sum by the height, and the product again
by *5236.
Ex, Required the contents of a spherical segment, its height
AB being 4, and the radius of its base CD 8.
8 4 5236
8 A 832

64 16 10472
3 192 15708
41888
192 208
4 435*6352 Ansi'

832

Proh. 14. To find the Solidity of a Spherical Zone or Frustum.

Add together the square of the radius of each end and of the
square of their distance, or the height j then multiply the sum by
the said height, aud the product again by T5708.
Ex. What is the solid contents of a zone, whose gi'eater diame-
ter is 12, the less 8, and the height 10 inches ?
6 4 10
6 4 10

36 IG 3) 100
36
'
33t 33 ]-

1*5708

78540
125664
5236

0416
10

1340*416 Ansr.
Proh. 15. To find tiie Surface of a (nrcular Spindle.
Multiply the length AB
of the spindle by the radius OC of the re-
volving arc. Multiply also the said arc ACBby the central dis-
tance OS, or distance betv/een the centre of the spindle and centre
of the revolving arc. Subtract the latter product from the former,
and multiply the remainder by 6*2832, for the surface.
Note. I'he same rule will serve for any segment or zone cut off
perpendicular to the chord of the revolving arc, only using the par-
 APPENDIX. 703

ticular length of the part, and the part of the arc which
describes it,
instead of the whole length and whole arc.
Ex. Required the surface of a circular spindle, whose length
AB is 40, and its thickness CD 30 inches.
Here, by the rema rks at pa. 68 8.
The chord AC =v/ AE'^ + CE'^ 20^ = V + 15" = 25,
and 2 CE AC
: :AC CO
: : =20^,
hence OE = OC CE = 20-|- 15 = 5-g-.

Also, by problem 10, rule 2, pa. 693

25 AC
8

200
40 AB
3) 160
53'5' arc ACB
Thenij by our rule.
20A 531-

40

*800
3-f

266-i-

33i

833+
44-1

311-h
311i

^
522-1 or 522-2 or

6-2832 Or thus,
6-2832
10444 4700
156666
41/7777 439824
10444444 251328
313333333
9 )
29531-04
3281-22666
328T226 ans. nearly

Prob. 16. To find the Solidity of a Circular Spindle.

Multiply the central distance OE by half the area of the reveling
segment ACBEA. Subtract the product from of the cube of EA,
half the length of the spindle. Then multiply the remainder by
12-5664, or 4 times 3*1 41 6, for the whole contents
704 APPENDIX.
Ex, Required the contents of the circular spindle, whose length
AB is 40, and middle diameter CD 30.
By the work of the last problem.

we have OE = 6|^ 20 half length

and arc AC = 26-|. 20
and rad. OC = 20^
400
533-^
22-1-

3 )
20

8000
Sector OACB 355i
AE X OE=OAB

l)6f 26664.
12804

seg,
2 )

ACE 2194

438-1-

1386-J.

OE 51 or 1386-44
4665*21 mult, inver.
10974

183 nearly

128 O 4 ^
138644
27739
6-932;
832
83
5

'
17423*5 Ansr.

Proh. 17 To find the Solidity of the Middle Frustum

.
'

of a Circular Spindle.
From the square of half the length of the whole spindle, take ^
of the square of half the length of the middle frustum, and multiply
the remainder by the said half length of the frustum. Multiply
the central distance by the revolving area, which generates the mid-
dle frustum.
Subtract this latter product from the former j and the
remainder multiplied by i62832, or twice 3*1416, will give the
'
contents.

Ex. Required the solidity of the frustum, whose length m n is

40 inches, also its greatest diameter EF is 32, and least diameter
AD or BC 24.

Draw DG parallel to m n, then we-

have DG = -|m n = 20,
 APPENDIX. 705
and EG = ^EF - |AD = 4,
chord DE2= DG^ + GE^ = 416,
and DE2 -f- EG = ii?= 104 the diameter of the generating
circle.
or the radius OE = 52,

hence 01 =: 52 = 36 the central distance,
16
and HP = OH^ ^ OP = 52^- 36^ = 1408,
JDG=iof400 = .. .. 133-^,

12741
DG .. .. 20

25493-5-
1st. prod.

GE 2 OE = _1_= = *03846 a ver. sine

104 26
Its tab. segment , .
*00994
butl042 is .. 10816

nrea of seg. DECGD 1D7*5 1 104

mD X mn = 12 X 40 480*

gener. area m DEC n 587*5 1 104

01 36

21150*39744 2d product
25493*33333 1st product

4342*93589
2382*6 mult. inv.

260576
8686
3474
130
9

27287*5 Ansr.

Proh. 18. To find the Superficies or Solidity of any Regular Body.

1, Multiply the tabular area (taken from the following table) by
the squ^are of the linear edge of the body for the superficies.
2. Multiply the tabular solidity by the cube of the linear edge,
for the solid contents.
706 APPENDIX.

Surfaces and Solidities of Regular Bodies.

No. of
Names Surfaces Solidities
Sides

4 Tetraedron 1*73205 0*11785

6 Hexaedron 600000 1*00000
8 Octaedron 3*46410 0*47140
12 Dodecaedron 20 64573 7*66312
20 leosaedron 8'660*2o 2*18169

Ex, If the linear edge or side of a tetraedron be 3, required its

surface and solidity.
The square of 3 is 9, and the cube 27,. Then,
tab. sur. T73205 0T1785 tab. sol.
9 27

superf. 15'58845 8249.5

23570
solidity 3' 18 195
Proh, 19. To find the Surface of a Cylindrical Ring.
This figure being only a cylinder bent round into a ring, its surface
and solidity may be found as in the cylinder, namely, by multiplying
the axis, or length of the cylinder, by the circumference of the ring
or section, for the surface j and by the area of a section, for the so-
lidity. Or
use the following rules :
For the To the thickness of the ring add the inner
surface.
diameter j multiply this sum by the thickness, and the product again
by 9 8696, or the square of 3*1416.
Ex. Required the superficies of a ring, whose thickness is 2 AB
inches, and inner diameter BC is 12 inches.
12 9*8696
2 28

14 789568
2 197392
28 276*3488
Prob. 20. To find the Solidity of a Cylindrical Ring.
To the thickness of the ring add the inner diameter j then multiply
the sum by the square of the thickness, and the product again by
2*4674, or J of the square of 3*1416, for the solidity.
Ex. Required the solidity of the ring whose thickness is 2 inches,
and its inner diameter 12.
12 2*4674
2 56

14 148044
4 123370
56 138*1744 Ansr.
 USEFUL RECEIPTS.
Compounds of Metals,
Fusible ik/e/a/.No. 1.
4 oz. of bismuth,
2| oz. of lead, and
1 J
oz. of tin.
Put the bismuth into a crucible, and, when it is melted, add the lead
and tin. This will form an alloy fusible at the temperature of boiling
water.
No. 2. 1 oz. of zinc,
1 oz. of bismuth, and
1 oz. of lead.
This alloy is so very fusible, that it will remain in a state of fusion if

3.
put on a sheet of paper, and held over the flame of a candle or lamp.
No. 3 parts of- lead,

2 parts of tin, and

5 parts of bismuth,
will form an alloy fusible at 197 Fahrenheit, peculiarly applicable
to casting, or the taking of impressions from gems, seals, &c. In
making casts with this and similar alloys, it is necessary to use the
metal at as low a temperature as possible ; otherwise, the w'ater ad-
hering to the things from which the casts are to be taken, forms
vapour, and produces bubbles. The fused metal should be poured
into a tea cup, and allowed to cool, till just ready to set at the edges,
when it must be poured into the mould. In taking impressions from
gems, seals, &c. the fused alloy should be placed on paper or paste-
board, and stirred about till it has, by cooling, attained the consis-
tence of paste, at which moment the die, gem, or seal should be
stamped on it, and a very sharp impression will then be obtained.
Bath Metal, is a mixture of
4^ oz, of zinc, with
1 lb. of brass.
Brass is composed of
4i lb. of copper, and
1^lb. of zinc.
But brass that is to be cast into plates, from which pans and kettles
are to be made, and wire is to be drawm, must, instead of using the
zinc in a pure state, be composed of
56 lb. of the finest calamine, or ore of zinc, and
34 lb. of copper.
2 Z2
708 APPENDIX.
Old which has been frequently exposed to the action of fire,
brasSj
when mixed with the copper and calamine, renders the brass far more
ductile, and fitter for the making of fine wire, than it would be with-
out it 3 but the German brass, particularly that of Nuremburgh, is,
when drawn into wire, said to be far preferable to any made in Eng-
land, for the strings of musical instruments.

Pinchbeck. '^0. 1 .

5 oz. of pure copper, and

1 oz. of zinc.

The zinc must not be added till the copper is in a state of fusic
Some use only half this quantity of zinc, in which proportion the
alloy is more easily worked, especially in the making of jewellery.

No. 2. 1 oz. of brass,

2 oz. of copper,
Fused together, under a coat of charcoal dust.

Prince s Metal. No. 1

3 oz. of copper, and

1 oz. of zinc.

Or, 8 oz. of brass, and

1 oz. of zinc.
No. 2 -4
oz. of copper, and
.

2 oz. of zinc.
In this last, the copper must be fused before the zinc is added.
When they have cotnbined, a very beautiful and useful alloy is formed,
called Prince Ruperts metal.

Bell Metal. No. 1.

6 parts of copper, and

2 parts of tin.
These proportions are the most approved, for bells, throughout Eu-
rope, and in China. In the union of the two metals, the combination
is so complete, that the specific gravity of the alloy is greater than
that of the two metals in an uncombined state.
No. 2.
10 parts of copper, and
2 parts of tin.
It may, in general, be observed, that a less proportion of tin is
used for making church-bells than clock bells 3 and that a little zinc
is added for the bells of repeating watches, and other small bells.

Tiitania, or Britannia Metal. No. 1.

4 oz. of plate brass, and

4 oz. of tin 5 when in fusion, add
4 oz. of bismuth, and
4 oz. of regulus of antimony.
This is the composition, or hardening, that is to be added, at dis-

cretion, to melted tin, until it has acquired the requisite degree of

colour and hardness.
No. 2 . Melt together, 2 lb. of plate brass.
2 lb. of tin.
 2

APPENDIX. 709
lb. of bismuth,
2 lb. regulus of autimory,*
2 lb. of a mixture of copper and arsenic,
either by cementation or melting.

'^his composition is to be added, at discretion, to melted tin.

No. 3. 1 lb. of copper,

,
1 of tin, and
lb.
2 lb. of regulus of antimony, with or without a
little bismuth.
No. 4. 8 oz. of shruff brass,
2 lb. regulus of antimony, and
10 lb. of tin.
German Tutania.
2 drachms of copper,
1 oz. regulus of antimony, and

12 oz. of tin.
Stanish Tutania, No. 1.
8 oz. of scrap iron or steel,
1 lb. of antimony, and
3 oz. of nitre.

The must be heated to a white heat, and the antimony

iron or steel
and nitremust be added in small portions. Melt and harden 1 lb. of
tin with 2 oz. of this compound.
No. 2. Melt together, 4 oz. of antimony,
1 oz. of arsenic, and
2 lb. of tin.
The first of these Spanish alloys would be a beautiful if ar-
senic were added.
Engestroom Tutania.
4 parts copper,
8 parts regulus of antimony, and
1 part bismuth,

When added to 100 parts of tin, this compound will be ready for use.

Queens Metal. No.4i 1.

lb. of tin,
lb. bismuth,
i lb. antimony, and
i lb. lead.

This alloy is used for the making of tea-pots, and other vessels,
which are required to imitate silver. It retains its lustre to the last.
No. 2. 100 lb. of tin,
8 lb. regulus of antimony,
1 lb. bismuth, and
4 lb, copper.
710 APPENDIX.
IVUte Me/a/.No. 1.
10 oz. of lead,
6 oz. of bismuth, and
4 drachms regulus of antimony.
No. 2.- 2 Ib. of regulus of antimony,
8 oz. of brass, and
10 oz. of tin.
Common Hard White Metal.
1 lb. of brass,
1^ oz. of zinc, and
i oz. of tin.

Tombac, 16 lb. of copper,

1 lb. of tin, and
1 lb. of zinc.

Red Tombac, 5| lb. of copper, and

i lb. of zinc.
The copper must be fused in the crucible before the zinc is added.
This alloy is of a reddish colour, and possesses more lustre, and is of
greater durability, than copper.

White Tombac, Copper and

Arsenic,
*ut together in a crucible, and melted, covering the surface with mu-
riate of soda, to prevent oxidation, will form a white brittle alloy.
Gun Metal, No. 1 . 1 12 lb. of Bristol brass,
14 lb. zinc, and
7 lb. block tin.

No. 2.-9
parts copper, and
1 part tin.

The above compounds are those used in the manufaetHre of small

and great brass guns, swivels, &c.

Blanched Copper, 8 oz. of copper, and

i oz. of neutral arsenical salt,
fused together, under a flux composed of calcined borax, charcoal
dust, and fine powder glass.

Specula of Telescopes.
7 lb. of copper, and when fused, add
3 lb. of zinc, and
4 lb. of tin.

'ihese metals will combine and form a beautiful alloy of great lustre,
and of a light yellow colour, fitted to be made into specula for teles-
copes. Mr. Mudge used only copper and grain tin, in the proportion
of two pounds to fourteen and a half ounces.

Kustitiens Metal for Tinning.

To 1 lb. of malleable iron, at a white heat, add
 APPENDIX. 711

5 oz. of regulus of antimony, and

24lb. of the purest Molucca tin.

This alloy polishes without the blue tint, and is free from lead or
arsenic.
Metal for Flute-key Valves.
4 oz. lead, and
2 oz. antimony,
fused in a crucible, and cast into a bar, forms an alloy of considerable
hardness and lustre. used by flute manufacturers (when turned
It is
into small buttons in a lathe,) for making valves to stop the key-
holes of flutes.
Printers' Types. 10 lb. of lead, and
2 lb. of antimony.
The antimony must be thrown into the crucible when the lead is in
a state of fusion. The antimony gives a hardness to the lead, without
which, the type would speedily be rendered useless, in a printing
press. Different proportions of lead, copper, brass, and antimony,
frequently constitute this metal. Every artist has his own propor-
tions, so that the same composition cannot be obtained from different
foundries ; each boasts of the superiority of his own mixture.
Small Types and Stereotype Plates. No. 1
9 lb. of lead, and when melted, add
2 lb. of antimony, and
1 lb. of bismuth.

This alloy expands as it cools, and is, therefore, well suited for the
formation of small printing types, (particularly when nmny are cast
together, to form stereotype plates,) as the whole of the mould is
accurately filled with the alloy ) consequently, there can be no ble-
mish in the letters.
No. 2. 8 parts lead,
2 parts antimony, and
J part tin.
For the manufacture of stereotype plates, plaster of Paris, of the
consistence of a batter pudding before baking, is poured over the let-
ter-press page, and u'orked into the interstices of the types, with a
brush. It is then collected from the sides, by a slip of iron or wood,
so as to lie smooth and compact. In about two minutes, the whole
mass is hardened into a solid cake. This cake, w^hich is to serve as
the matrix of the stereotype plate, is now put upon a rack in an oven,
where it undergoes great heat, so as to drive off superfluous moisture.
When ready for use, these moulds, according to their size, are placed
in flat cast-iron pots, and are
covered over with another piece of
cast-iron, perforated at each end, to admit the metallic composition
intended for the preparation of the stereotype plates. The flat cast-
iron pots are now fastened in a crane, which carries them steadily to
the metallic-bath, or melting-pot, where they are immersed, and
kept for a considerable time, until all the pores and crevices of the
mould, are completely and accurately filled. When this has taken
place, the pots are elevated from the bath, by working the crane, and
712 APPENDIX.
are placed over a water-troiTgh, to cool graaually. wnen cold, tu^
whole is turned out of the pots, and the plaster being separated, by
hammering and washing, the plates are ready for use, having received
the most exact and perfect impression.

Metallic Casts from Engravings on Copper.

A most important discovery has lately been made, which promises
to be of considerable utility in the fine arts some very beautiful
:

specimens of metallic plates, of a peculiar composition, have lately

appeared, under the nam# of cast engravings. This invention
consists in taking moulds from every kind of engravings, with line,
mezzotinto, or aquatinta, and pouring on this mould an alloy, in a
state of fusion, capable of taking the finest impression. The obvious
utility of this invention, as applicable to engravings which meet with
a ready sale, and of which great numbers are required, will be incal-
culable as it will wholly prevent the expense of retracing, which
forms so prominent a charge in all works of an extended sale. No
sooner is one cast worn out, than another may be immediately pro-
cured from the original plate, so that every impression will be a
proof. Thus, the works of our most celebrated artists may be handed
down, ad infinitum^ for the improvement and delight of future ages,
and will alford,^at the same time, the greatest satisfaction to every
lover of the fine arts.

Common Pewter. 7 lb. of tin,

1 lb, of lead,
6 oz, of copper, and
2 oz. of zinc.

The copper must be fused before the other ingredients are added.
This combination of metals will foFm an alloy of great durability and
tenacity ;
also, of considerable lustre.

Best Pewter. 100 parts tin, and

17 parts regulus of antimony.
Hard Pewter. 12 lb. of tin,
1 lb. regulus of antimony, and
4 oz. of copper.
Common Solder. 2 lb. of lead, and
1 lb. of tin.

'Hie lead must be melted before the tin is added. This alloy, when
heated by a hot iron, and applied to the tinned iron with powdered rosin,
acts as a cement or solder j
it is also used to join lead pipes, &c. &c.

Soft Solder, 2 lb. of tin, and

1 lb. of lead.

Solder for Steel Joints.

19 dwts, of fine silver,
1 dwt. copper, and

2 dwts. brass.
 APPENDIX. 713
melted together under 1a coat of charcoal dust. This solder possesses
several advantages over the usual zinc soda, or brass, when employed
in soldering cast steel, &c. as it fuses with less heat, and its white-
ness has a better appearance than brass.

Silver Solder for Jewellers*

19 dwts. of fine silver,
dwt. copper, and
10 dwts. brass.
3
Silver Solder for Plating*
10 dwts. brass, and
1 oz. pure silver.

Gold Solder. 12 dwts. pure gold,

2 dwts. pure silver, and
4 dwts. copper.

Brass Solder for Iron. Thin plates of brass are to be melted be-
tween the pieces that are to be joined. If the work be very fine,
as when two leaves of a broken saw are to be brazed together, cover
it with pulverized borax, melted with water, that it may incorporate

with the brass powder, which is added to it the piece must be then
;

exposed to the fire, without touching the coals, and heated till the
brass is seen to run.
Bronze. 7 lbs. pure copper,
lbs. zinc, and
2 lbs. tin.
The copper must be fused before the other ingredients are added.
These metals, when combined, form the bronze so much used, both
in ancient and modern times, in the formation of busts, medals, and
statues.

Composition of ancient Statues.

According to Pliny, the metal used by the Romans for their sta-
tues, and for the plates on which they engraved inscriptions, was
composed in the following manner. They first melted a quantity of
copper, into which they put l-3d of its weight of old copper, which
had been long in use j to every lOOlbs. weight of this mixture, they
added 12-^ lbs. of an alloy composed of equal parts of lead and tin.

Mock Platina. Melt together

8 oz. of brass, and
5 oz. of zinc.

Useful alloy of Gold with Platinum.

7-^ dr. pure gold, and

i dr. platinum.
The platinum must be added when the gold is perfectly melted. The
two metals combine intimately, forming an alloy rather whiter
will
than pure gold, but remarkably ductile and elastic ; it is also less
714 APPENDIX.
perishable than pure gold, or jewellers gold but more readily fusible
:

than that metal.

These excellent qualities
3 must render this alloy an object of great
interest to workers in metals. For where steel cannot be
used, it will prove exceedingly advantageous.
It is a curious circunsstance, that the alloy of gold and platinum is
soluble in nitric acid, which does not act on either of the metals in a
separate state. It is remarkable, too, that the alloy has very nearly
the colour of platinum, even when composed of eleven parts of gold to
one of the former metal.
Ring-gold, 6 dwts. 12 grs. Spanish copper,
dwts. 16 grs. fine silver, and
1 oz. 5 dwts. gold coin.

Goldfrom 35s. to 405. per ounce.

, 8 oz. 8 dwts. Spanish copper,
10 dwts. fine silver, and
1 oz. gold coin.

Manheim-goldi or Similor,
3-j oz. of copper,
1-|- oz. of brass, and
f
15 gr. of pure tin.
Gilding- Metal, 4 parts of copper,
1 part of Bristol old brass, and

14 oz. of tin to every pound of copper.

For common jewellery .3 parts of copper,
1 part of Bristol old brass, and
4 every pound of copper.
oz. of tin to
If this alloy is may be omitted, and a mix-
for fine polishing, the tin
ture of lead and antimony substituted. Paler polishing metal is
made by reducing the copper to two or to one part.
Yellow Dipping Metal. -No 1.
2 parts of Cheadle brass,
I part of copper, with a little

Bristol old brass, and

T oz. of tin to every pound of copper.,
This alloy is almost of the colour of gold coin. Cheadle brass is the
darkest, and gives the metal a greenish hue. Old Bristol brass is
pale and yellow.
No.
1 lb. of copper,
2. and
5 oz. of zinc.
The copper should be tough cake, and not tile.
When antimony is used instead of tin, it should be in smaller
quantity, or the metal will be brittle.

Imitation of Silver. J oz. of tin, and

1 lb. of copper.
Will make a pale bell-metal, which will roll and ring very near to
sterling silver.
 APPENDIX. 715

PREPARATION OF FOILS.
Foils are thin plates or leaves of metal that are put under stones,
or compositions in imitation of stones, when they are set.
The intention of foils is either to increase the lustre or play of the
stones, or more generally improve the colour, by giving an additional
force to the tinge, whether it be natural or artificial, by that of a
ground of the same hue, which the foil is in this case made to be.
There are consequently two kinds of foils j the one is colourless,
where the eflfect of giving lustre or play to the stone is produced by
the polish of the surface, which makes it act as a mirror, and, by
reflecting the light, prevents that deadness which attends the having a
duller ground under the stone, and brings it, by the double refraction
of the light that is caused, nearer to the eflfect of the diamond. The
other is coloured with some pigment or stain of the same hue as the
stone, or of some other which is intended to modify and change the
hue of the stone in some degree as, where a yellow foil may be put
j

under green, which is too much inclining to the blue, or under crimson,
where it is desired to have the appearance more orange or scarlet.
Foils may be made of copper or tin j and silver has been some-
times used, with which it has been advised, for some purposes, to
mix gold, but the expense of either is needless, as copper may be
made to answer the same end.
To prepare Copper for Where coloured foils are wanted,
copper may therefore be best used, and may be prepared for the
purpose by the following means.
Take copper plates beaten to a proper thickness, and pass them
betwixt a pair of fine steel rollers very close set, and draw them as
thin as is possible to retain a proper tenacity. Polish them with very
fine whiting, or rotten-stone, till they shine, and have as much
brightness as can be given them, and they will then be fit to receive
the colour.
To whiten Foi/^. Where the yellow, or rather orange-colour of
the ground would be injurious to the eflfect, as in the case of pur-
ples, or crimson red, the foils should be whitened, which may be
done by the following manner.
Take a small quantity of silver, and dissolve it in aqua-fortis, and
then put bits of copper into the solution, and precipitate the silver 5
which being done, the fluid must be poured oflf, and fresh water
added to it, to wash away all the remainder of the first fluid j after
which the silver must be dried, an equal weight of cream of tartar and
common salt must then be ground with it, till the whole is reduced to
a very fine powder j and with this mixture the foils, being first slight-
ly moistened, must be rubbed by the finger, or a bit of linen rag,
they be of the degree of whiteness desired ; after which, if it
till

appear to be wanted, the polish must be refreshed.

The tin-foils are only used in the case of colourless stones, where
716 APPENDIX.
quicksilver is employed 3 and they may be drawn out by the same
rollers, but need not be further polished, so that effect is produced
by other means in this case.
Foils for crystals^ pebbles, or paste, give the lustre and play of
to

diamonds.- The manner of preparing so as to give colourless
foils,
stones the greatest degree of play and lustre, is by raising so high a
polish or smoothness on the surface, as to give them the effect of a
mirror, which can only be done, in a perfect manner, by the use of
quicksilver, applied in the same general way as in the case of look-
ing-glass. The method by which it may be best performed is as follows.
Take leaves of tin, prepared in the same manner as for silvering
looldiig-glasses, and cut them into small pieces of such size as to
cover the surface of the sockets of the stones that are to be set. Lay
three of these then, one upon another, and having moistened the in-
side of the socket with thin gum -water, and suffered it to become
again so dry, that only a slight stickiness remains, put the three
pieces of leaves, lying on each other, into it, and adapt them to the
surface in as even a manner as possible. When this is done, heat the
socket, and fill it with warm quicksilver, which must be suffered to
continue in it three or four minutes, and then gently poured out.
The stone must then be thrust into the socket, and closed with it,
care having been taken to give such room for it that it may enter
without stripping off the tin and quicksilver from any part of the
surface. The work should be well closed round the stone, to pre-
vent the tin and quicksilver contained in the socket from being shaken
out by any violence.
The lustre of stones set in this manner, will continue longer than
when they are set in the common way, as the cavity round them
being filled, there will be no passage found for moisture, which is so
injurious to the wear of stones treated in any other way.
This kind of foil likewise gives some lustre to glass or other trans-
parent matter, which has little of itself ; but to stones or pastes,
that have some share of play, it gives a most beautiful brilliance.

To colour Foils. Two methods have been invented for colouring
foils : the one by tinging the surface of the copper of the colour re-
quired by means of smoke, the other by staining or painting it with
some pigment or other colouring substance.
The colours used for painting foils may be tempered with either
oil, w^ater rendered duly viscid by gum-arabic, size, or varnish.
Where deep colours are wanted, oil is most proper, because some
pigments become wholly transparent in it, as lake, or Prussian blue j
the yellow and green may be better laid on in varnish, as these co-
lours may be had in perfection from a tinge wholly dissolved in spirit
of wine, in the same manner as in the case of lacquers j and the most
beautiful green is to be proiluced by distilled verdigris, which is apt
to lose its colour and turn black with oil. In common cases, how-
ever, any of the colours may be, with the least trouble, laid on with
isinglass size, in the same manner as the glazing colours used in
miniature painting.
 APPENDIX. 717
Ruby Colours , For red, where the ruby is to be imitated, a little
lake used in isinglass size, carmine, or shell-lac varnish, is to be em-
ployed, if the glass or paste be of a full crimson, verging towards the
purple ; but if the glass incline to the scarlet, or orange, very bright
lake (that is, not purple) may be used alone in oil.
Garnet Red .
For the garnet red, dragons blood dissolved in seed-
lac varnish may be used 5 and for the vinegar garnet, the orange-lake
tempered with shell-lac varnish, will be found excellent.
Amethyst .
For the amethyst, lake, with a little Prussian blue,
used with oil, and very thinly spread on the foil, will completely an-
swer the end.

Blue . For blue, where a deep colour, or the effect of the sapphire
is wanted, Prussian blue, that is not too deep, should be used in oil,
and it should be spread more or less thinly on the foil according to
the lightness or deepness of the colour required.
Eagle Marine .
For the eagle-marine, common verdigris, with a
little Prussian blue, tempered in shell-lac varnish.
Yellow .
Where a full yellow is desired, the foil may be coloured
with a yellow lacquer, laid on as for other purposes j and for the
slighter colour of topazes, the burnish and foil itself will be sufficiently
strong without any addition.
Green ,
For green, where a deep hue is required, the crystals of
verdigris, tempered in shell-lac varnish, should be used, but where
the emerald is to be imitated, a little yellow lacquer should be added,
to bring the colour to a truer green, and less verging to the blue.
Other Colours .
The stones of more diluted colour, such as the
amethyst, topaz, vinegar-garnet, and eagle-marine, may be very
cheaply imitated by transparent white glass or paste, even without
foils. This is to be done, by tempering the colours above enume-
rated with turpentine and mastic, and painting the socket in which
the counterfeit stone is to be set with the mixture, the socket and
stone itself being previously heated. In this case, however, the stone
should be immediately set, and the socket closed upon it before the
mixture cools and grows hard. The orange-lake above-mentioned
was invented for this purpose, in which it has a beautiful effect, and
was used with great success by a considerable manufacturer. The
colour it produces is that of the vinegar-garnet, which it affords with
great brightness. The colours before directed to be used in oil should
be extremely well ground in oil of turpentine, and tempered with
old nut or poppy-oil or, if time can be given for their drying, with
strong fat oil 3 diluted with spirit of turpentine, which will gain a
fine polish of itself.
The colours used in varnish should be likewise thoroughly well
ground and mixt 3 and in the case of the dragons blood in the seed-
lac varnish and the lacquer, the foils should be warmed before they
are laid out. All the mixtures should be laid on the foils with a broad
soft brush, which must be passed from one end to the other, and.no
part should be crossed, or twice gone over, or, at least, not till the
71B APPENDIX.
coat can be dry ; wlien,
first if the colour do not lie strong enough,
a second coat may be given.

GILDING, SILVERING, AND TINNING.

Gold powder for Gilding, Gold powder may be prepared in 3
differentways :
1st, put into an earthen, mortar some gold-leaf,
with a little honey, or thick gum-water, and grind the mixture till
the gold is reduced to extremely minute particles. When this is
done, a little warm water will wash out the honey or gum, leaving
the gold behind in a pulverulent state.
2nd. Dissolve pure gold (or the leaf), in nitro-muriatic acid,
and tlien to precipitate it by a piece of copper, or by a solution of
sulphate of iron. The precipitate (if by copper,) must be digested
in distilled vinegar, and then washed, (by pouring water over it re-
peatedly,) and dried. This precipitate will be in the form of a very
fine powder it works better, and is more easily burnished than gold
:

leaf ground with honey as above.

And 3d, or the best method of preparing gold powder, is by heating
a prepared amalgam of gold, in an open clean crucible, and conti-
nuing the strong heat until the whole of the mercury is evaporated j
at the same time constantly stirring the amalgam with a glass rod.
When the mercury has completely left the gold, the remaining pow-
der is to be ground in a Wedgewoods mortar, with a little water, and
afterwards dried. It is then fit for use.
Although the last mode of operating has been here given, the ope-
rator cannot be too much reminded of the danger attending the sub-
limation of mercury. In the small way here described, it is impos-
sible to operate without danger ; it is therefore better to prepare it
according to the former directions, than to risk the health by the
latter.
To Bars of Copper ^ 8(c. with Gold, so as to he rolled out into
cover
Sheets. This method of gilding was invented by Mr. Turner, of
Birmingham. Mr. Turner first prepares ingots or pieces of copper
or brass, in convenient lengths and sizes. He then cleans them
from impurity, and makes their surfaces level, and prepares plates of
pure gold, or gold-mixed with a portion of alloy, of the same size as
the ingots of metal, and of suitable thickness. Having placed a
piece of gold upon an ingot intended to be plated, he hammers and
compresses them both together, so that they may have their surfaces
as nearly equal to each other as possible j
and then binds them to-
gether with wire, in order to keep them in the same position during
the process required to attach them. Afterwards he takes silver
filings, which he mixes with borax, to assist the fusion of the silver.
This mixture he lays upon the edge of the plate of gold, and next to
the ingot of metal. Having thus prepared the two bodies, he places
them on a fire in a stove or furnace, \^ here they remain until the silver
 APPENDIX. J19
and borax placed along the edges of the metals melt, and until the
adhesion of the gold with the metal is perfect. He then takes the
ingot carefully out of the stove. By this process the ingot is plated
with gold, and prepared ready for rolling into sheets.

To Gild in Colours. The principal colours of gold for gilding are
red, green, and yellow. These should be kept in different amal-
gams. The part which is to remain of the first colour, is to be stop-
ped off with a composition of chalk and glue 3 the variety required
is produced by gilding the unstopped parts with the proper amalgam,
according to the usual mode of gilding. ^

Sometimes the amalgam is applied to the surface to be gilt, with-

out any qnicking, by spreading it with aqua-fortis ; but this depends
on the same principle as a previous quicking.
Grecian Gilding. Equal parts of sal-ammoniac and corrosive sub-
limate, are dissolved in spirit of nitre, and a solution of gold made
with this menstruum. The silver is brushed over with it, which is
turned black, but on exposure to a red heat it assumes the colour of
gold.

To dissolve Gold in Aqua-Regia. Take an aqua-regia, composed
of two parts of nitrous acid, and one of marine acid 3 or of one
part of sal-ammoniac, and four parts of aqua-fortis 3 let the gold be
granulated, put into a sufficient quantity of this menstruum, and ex-
posed to a moderate degree of heat. During the solution, an effer-
vescence takes place, and it acquires a beautiful yellow colour, which
becomes more and more intense, till it has a golden or even orange
colour. When the menstruum is saturated, it is very clear and trans-
parent.

To gild Iron or Steel ivith a solution of Gold. Make a solution of
Bounces of nitre and common salt, with 5 ounces of crude alum in a
sufficient quantity of water 3 dissolve half an ounce of gold thinly
plated and cut 3 and afterwards evaporate to dryness. Digest the
residuum in rectified spirit of wine or mther, which will perfectly ab-
stract the gold. The iron is brushed over with this solution and be-
comes immediately gilt.

To Gild, by dissolving Gold in Aqua-Regia. Fine linen rags are
soaked in a saturated solution of gold in aqua-regia, gently dried,
and afterwards burnt to tinder. The substance to be gilt nrnst be well
polished 3 a piece of cork is first dipped into a solution of common
salt in water, and afterwards into the tinder, which is well rubbed on
the surface of the metal to be gilt, aud the gold appears in all its
metallic lustre.

Amalgam of Gold in the large way. A quantity of quicksilver is
put into a crucible or iron ladle, which is lined with clay, and ex-
posed to heat till it begins to smoke. The gold to be mixed should
l)e previously granulated, and heated red hot, when it should be

added to the quicksilver, and stirred about with an iron rod till it is
perfectly dissolved. If there should be any superflous mercury, it
may be separated by passing it through clean soft leather j and the
 720 APPENDIX.
remaining amalgam will have the consistence of butter, and contain
about 3 parts of mercury to 1 of gold.

To Gild ly Amalgamation. The metal to be gilt is previously
well cleaned on its surface, by boiling in a weak pickle, which is a
very dilute nitrous acid. A quantity of aqua-fortis is poured into an
earthen vessel, and quicksilver put therein 5 when a sufficient quan-
tity of mercury is dissolved, the articles to be gilt are put into the
solution, and stirred about with a brush till they become white. This
is called quicking. But, as during quicking by this mode, a noxious
vapour continually arises, which proves very injurious to the health
of the workmen, they have adopted another method, by which they,
in a great measure, avoid that danger. They now dissolve the quick-
silver in a bottle containing aqua-fortis, and leave it in the open air
during the solution, so that the noxious vapour escapes into the air.
Then a little of this solution is poured into a bason, and with a brush
dipped therein, they stroke over the surface of the metal to be gilt,
which immediately becomes quicked. The amalgam is now applied by
one of the following methods :

1st. By proportioning it to the quantity of articles to be gilt, and

putting them into a white hat together, working them about with a
soft brush, till the amalgam is uniformly spread.
Or, 2dly. By applying a portion of the amalgam upon one part,
and spreading it on the surface, if flat, by working it about with a
harder brush.
The work thus managed is put into a pan, and exposed to a gentle
degree of heat 5
when it becomes hot, it is frequently put into a hat,
and worked about with a painters large brush, to prevent an irregular
dissipation of the mercury, till, at last, the quicksilver is entirely
dissipated by a repetition of the heat, and the gold is attached to the
surface of the metal. This gilt surface is well cleaned by a wire
brush, and then artists heighten the colour of the gold by the ap-
plication of various compositions ) this part of the process is called
COLOURIXG.

To gild Glass and Porcelain. No. 1. Drinking, and other glasses
are sometimes gilt on their edges. This is done, either by an adhe-
sive varnish or by heat. The varnish is prepared by dissolving in
boiled linseed oil an equal weight either of copal or amber. This is
to be diluted by a proper quantity of oil of turpentine, so as to be ap-
plied as thin as possible to the parts of the glass intended to be gilt.
When this is done, which will be in about twenty-four hours, the
glass is to be placed in a stove, till it is so warm as almost to burn
the fingers when handled. At this temperature, the varnish will
become adhesive, and a piece of leaf gold, applied in the usual way,
will immediately stick. Sweep off the superflous portions of the leaf,
and when quite cold, it may be burnished, taking care to interpose
a piece of very thin paper (India paper) betw'een the gold and the
burnisher. If the varnish is very good, this is the best method of
gilding glass, as the gold is thus fixed on more evenly than in any
other way.
 APPENDIX. 721

No. 2. It often happens, when the varnish is but indifferent, that
by repeated washing the gold wears off j on this account the prac-
tice of burning it in is sometimes had recourse to.^

For this purpose, some gold powder is ground with borax, and in
this state applied to the clean surface of the glass, by a camels hair
pencil }
when quite dry, the glass is put into a stove heated to about
the temperature of an annealing oven 5 the gum burns off, and the
borax, by vitrifying, cements the gold with great firmness to the
glass ; after which it may be burnished. The gilding upon porcelain
is in like manner fixed by heat and the use of borax and this kind
,

of ware being neither transparent nor liable to soften, and thus to be

injured in its form in a low red heat, is free from the risk and injury
which the finer and more fusible kinds of glass are apt to sustain
from such treatment. Porcelain and other wares may be platinised,
silvered, tinned, and bronzed, in a similar manner.

To Gild Leather. In order to impress gilt figures, letters, and
other marks upon leather, as on the covers of books, edgings for
doors, &c. the leather must first be dusted over with very finely
powdered yellow resin, or mastich gum. The iron tools or stamps
are now arranged on a rack before a clear fire, so as to be well heated,
without becoming red hot. If the tools are letters j they have an al-,
phabetical arrangement on the rack. Each letter or stamp must be
tried as to its heat, by imprinting its mark on the raw side of a
piece of waste leather. A
little practice will enable the workman to
judge of the heat. The tool is now to be pressed downwards on the
gold leaf } which will of course be indented, and shew the figure im-
printed on it. The next letter or stamp is now to be taken and
stamped in like manner and so on with the others 3 taking care to
keep the letters in an even line with each other, like those in a book.
By this operation the resin is melted ; consequently the gold ad-
heres to the leather the superfluous gold may then be rubbed off by
:

a cloth 3 the gilded impressions remaining on the leather. In this, as

in every other operation, adroitness is acquired by practice.
The cloth alluded to should be slightly greasy, to retain the gold
wiped off 3 (otherwise there will be a great waste in a few months,)
the cloth will thus be soon completely saturated or loaded with the gold.
When this is the case, these cloths are generally sold to the refiners,
who burn them and recover the gold. Some of these afford so much gold
by burning, as to be worth from a guinea to a guinea and a half.
To Gild Writings, Drawings, &ic. on Paper or Parchment. Let-
ters written on vellum or paper are gilded in three ways in the first,
:

a little size is mixed with the ink, and the letters are written as
usual ; when they are dry, a slight degree of stickiness is produced
by breathing on them, upon which the gold leaf is immediately ap-
plied, and by a little pressure may be made to adhere with sufficient
firmness. In the second method, some white lead or chalk is ground
up with strong size, and the letters are made with this by means of
a brush when the mixture is almost dry, the gold leaf may be laid
:

on, and afterwards burnished. The last method is to mix up some

3 A
722 APPENDIX.
gold powder with size, and to form the letters of this by means of a
brush. It is supposed that this latter method was that used by the
monks in illuminating their missals, psalters, and rubrics.
To Gild the edges of Paper
The edges of the leaves of books and
.

letter paper are gilded whilst in a horizontal position in the book-

binders press, by first applying a composition formed of four parts
of Armenian bole, and one of candied sugar, ground together with
water to a proper consistence, and laid on by a brush with the white
of an egg. This coating, when nearly dry, is smoothed by the bur-
nisher ;
which is generally a crooked piece of agate, very smooth,
and fixed in a handle. It is then slightly moistened by a sponge dip-
ped in clean water, and squeezed in the hand. The gold leaf is now
taken up on a piece of cotton, from the leathern cushion, and applied
on the moistened surface. When dry, it is to be burnished by rubbing
the agate over it repeatedly from end to end, taking care not to wound
the surface by the point of the burnisher. A piece of silk or India
paper is usually interposed between the gold and the burnisher.
Cotton wool is generally used by bookbinders to take the leaf up
from the cushion ;
being the best adapted for the purpose on ac-
count of its pliability, smoothness, softness, and slight moistness.
To gild Silk, Satiiiy Ivory, ^c. by Hydrogen Gas. No. 1.-Im-
merse a piece of white satin, silk, or ivory in a solution of nitro-mn-
riate of gold, in the proportion of one part of the nitro-muriate to
three of distilled water. Whilst the substance to be gilded is still
wet, immerse it in a jar of hydrogen gas it will soon be covered
:

by a complete coat of gold.

No, 2. The foregoing experiment may be very prettily and ad-
vantageously varied as follows :
Paint flowers or other ornaments
with a very fine camel hair pencil, dipped in the above-mentioned
solution of gold, on pieces of silk, satin, &c. &c. &c. and hold them
over a Florence flask, from which hydrogen gas is evolved, during the
decomposition of the water by sulphuric acid and iron filings. The
painted flowers, &c. in a few minutes, will shine with all the splen-
dour of the purest gold. A coating of this kind will not tarnish on
exposure to the air, or in washing.
Oil gilding on Wood . The wood must first be covered, or primed,
by two or three coatings of boiled linseed oil and carbonate of lead,
in order to fill up the pores, and conceal the irregularities of the sur-
face, occasioned by the veins in the wood. When the priming is
quite dry, a thin coat of gold-size must be laid on. This is prepared
by grinding together some red oxide of lead with the thickest drying
oil that can be procured, and the older the better, that it may work
freely it is to be mixed, previously to being used, with a little oil of
:

turpentine, till it is brought to a proper consistence. If the gold-

size is good, it will be sufficiently dry in twelve hours, more or less,
to allow the artist to proceed to the last part of the process, which is
the application of the gold. For this purpose, a leaf of gold is spread
on a cushion (formed b^y a few folds of flannel secured on a piece of
wood, about eight inches square, by a tight covering of leather), and
 APPENDIX. 723
is cut into strips of a proper size by a blunt pallet knife j each strip
being then taken upon the point of a fine brush, is applied to the
part intended to be gilded, and is then gently pressed down by a ball
of soft cotton ; the gold immediately adheres to the sticky surface
of the size, and after a few minutes, the dexterous application of a
large camels hair brush sweeps away the loose particles of the gold
leaf without disturbing the rest. In a day or two the size will be
completely dried, and the operation will be finished.
The advantages of this method of gilding are, that it is very simple,
very durable, and not readily injured by changes of weather, even
when exposed to the open air ; and when soiled it may be cleaned by
a little warm water and a soft brush j its chief employment is in out-
door work. Its disadvantage is, that it cannot be burnished, and
therefore wants the high lustre produced by the following method.
To Gild by burnis king. -~~Th\s operation is chiefly performed on
picture frames, mouldings, headings, and fine stucco work. The
surface to be gilt must be carefully covered with a strong size, made
by boiling down pieces of white leather, or clippings of parchment,
till they are reduced to a stiff jelly ; this coating being dried, eight

or ten more must be applied, consisting of the same size, mixed with
fine Paris plaster or washed chalk j when a sufficient number of
layers have been put on, varying according to the nature of the work,
and the whole is become quite dry, a moderately thick layer must be
applied, composed of size and Armenian bole, or yellow oxide of lead
while this last is yet moist, the gold leaf is to be put on in the usual
manner j it will immediately adhere on being pressed by the cotton
ball, and before the size is become perfectly dry, those parts which
are intended to be the most brilliant are to be carefully burnished by
an agate or dogs tooth fixed in a handle.
In order to save the labour of burnishing, it is a common, but bad
practice, slightly to burnish the brilliant parts, and to deaden the
rest by drawing a brush over them dipped in size ; tlie required con-
trast between the polished and the unpolished gold is indeed thus
obtained ; but the general effect is much inferior to that produced in
the regular way, and the smallest drop of water falling on the sized
part occasions a stain. This kind of gildingcan only be applied on
in-door work 5 as rain, and even a considerable degree of dampness,
will occasion the gold to peel off. When dirty, it may be cleaned by
a soft brush, with hot spirit of wine, or oil of turpentine.
To Gild Copper^ S^c. by Amalgam. ^Immerse a very clean bright piece
of copper in a diluted solution of nitrate of mercury. By the affinity
of copper for nitric acid, the mercury will be precipitated now;

spread the amalgam of gold rather thinly over the coat of mercury
just given to the copper. This coat unites with the amalgam, but of
course will remain on the copper. Now place the piece or pieces so
operated on, in a clean oven or furnace, where there is no smoke. If
^
the heat is a little greater than 66', the mercury of the amalgam*
will be volatilised, and the copper will be beautifully gilt.
In the large way of gilding, the furnaces are so contrived that the
3 a2
 724 APPENDIX.
volatilisedmercury is again condensed, and preserved for further use,
so that there is no loss in the operation. There is also a contrivance
by which the volatile particles of mercury are prevented from injuring
the gilders.

To Gild Steel. Pour some of the ethereal solution of gold into a
wine glass, and dip therein the blade of a new pen-knife, lancet, or
razor withdraw the instrument, and allow the ether to evaporate.
,

Ttie blade will be found to be covered by a very beautiful coat of

gold. A clean rag, or small piece of very dry sponge, may be dipped
in the ether,and used to moisten the blade, with the same result.
In this case there is no occasion to pour the liquid into a glass,
which must undoubtedly lose by evaporation ; but the rag or sponge
may be moistened by it, by applying either to the mouth of the phial.
This coating of gold will remain on the steel for a great length of
time, and will preserve it from rusting.
This is the way in which swords and other cutlery are ornamented.
Lancets too are in this way gilded with great advantage, to secure
them from rust.
To heighten the colour of Yellow Gold.
6 oz. saltpetre,
2 oz. copperas,
1 oz. white vitriol, and

1 oz. alum.

If it be wanted redder, a small portion of blue vitriol .ruist be

added. These are to be well-mixed, and dissolved in water as the
colour is wanted.
To heighten tne colour of Green Gold.
1 oz. 10 dwts. saltpetre,

1 oz. 4 dwts sal ammoniac,

1 oz. 4 dwts. Roman vitriol, and

18 dwts. verdigris.
Mix them, well together, aud dissolve a portion in water, as occa-
sion requires.
The work must be dipped in these compositions, applied to a proper
heat to burn them off, and then quenched in water or vinegar.
To heighten the colour of Red Gold.
To 4 oz. melted yellow wax, add
1^ oz. red ochre in fine pow'der,
1:^ oz. verdigris calcined till it yield no fumes, and

5 oz. calcined borax.

It is necessary to calcine the verdigris, or else, by the heat applied
in burning the wax, the vinegar becomes so concentrated as to cor-
rode the surfaces, and make it appear speckled.
To separate Gold from Gilt-Copper and iSzVuer. Apply a solution
of borax, in water, to the gilt surface, with a fine brush, and sprinkle
over it some fine powdered sulphur. Make the piece red hot, and
quench it in water. The gold may be easily wiped off with a scratch-
brush, and recovered by testing it with lead.
Gold is taken from the surface of silver by spreading over it a
 APPENDIX. 725
paste, made of powdered sal ammoniac, with aqua and heating
fortis,

it till the matter smokes, and is nearly dry j when the gold may be
separated by rubbing it with a scratch-brush.

To Silver hy Heat. No. 1. Dissolve an ounce of pure sih^er in
aqua fortis, and precipitate it with common salt to which add Dh.
;

of sal ammoniac, sandiver, and white vitriol, and \ oz. of sublimate.

No. 2 Dissolve an ounce of pure silver in aqua fortis preci- ;

pitate it with common salt, and add, after washing, 6 ounces of com-
mon salt, 3 ounces each of sandiver and white vitriol, and -l ounce
of sublimate.
These are to be ground into a paste upon a fine stone with a mul-
ler ; the substance to be silvered must be rubbed over with a suffi-
cient quantity of the paste, and exposed to a proper degree of heat.
Where the silver runs, it is taken from the fire, and dipped into weak
spirit of salt to clean it.
Silvering on Gilt Work, ly Amalgamation
Silver will not attach
itself to any metal by amalgamation, unless it be first gilt. The pro-
cess is the same as gilding in colours, only no acid should be used.
To Silver in the C(dd Way,
No. 1 .2 dr. tartar,
2 dr. common salt,
dr. of alum, and
20 grs. of silver, precipitated from the nitrous
acid by copper.
Make them into a paste with a little water. This is to be rub-
bed on the surface to be silvered with a cork, &c.

No. 2. Dissolve pure silver in aqua fortis, and precipitate the
silver with common salt ; make this precipitate into a paste, by
adding a little more salt and cream of tartar. It is applied as in the
former method.

To Silver Copper Ingots. The principal difficulties in plating cop-
per ingots are, to bring the surfaces of the copper and silver into
fusion at the same time, and to prevent the copper from scaling j for
which purposes fluxes are used. The surface of the copper on which
the silver is to be fixed must be made flat by filing, and should be left
rough. The and afterwards pickled in weak
silver is first annealed,
spirit of salt 5
planished, and then scraped on the surface to be
it is
fitted on the copper. These prepared surfaces are annointed with
a solution of borax, or strewed with fine powdered borax itself, and
then confined in contact with each other, by binding wire. When
they are exposed to a sufficient degree of heat, the flux causes the
surffices to fuse at thesame time, and after they become cold, they
are found firmly united.
Copper may likewise be plated by heating it, and burnishing leaf-
silver upon it 3 so may iron and brass. This process is called French
Plating.
To separate the Silver from Plated Copper. This process is ap-
plied to recover the silver from the plated metal, which has been
rolled down for buttons, toys, &c. without destroying any large por-
 726 APPENDIX.
tion of the copper. For this purpose, a menstruum is composed of
3 pounds of oil of vitriol, ounce of nitre, and a pound of water.
The plated metal is boiled in it, till the silver is dissolved, and then
the silver is recovered by throwing common salt into the solution.

To Plate Iron. Iron may be plated by three different modes.
1st. By polishing the surface very clean and level with a burnisher ;
and afterwards by exposing it to a blueing heat, a leaf of silver is
properly placed and carefully burnished down. This is repeated till
a sufficient number f leaves is applied, to give the silver a proper
body.
2d. By the use of a solder ; slips of thin solder are placed between
the iron and silver, with a little flux, and secured together by bind-
ing-wire. It is then placed in a clear fire, and continued in it till the
solder melts 5 when it is taken out, and on cooling is found to ad-
here firmly.
And 3d. By tinning the iron first, and uniting the silver by the in-
termedia of slips of rolled tin, brought into fusion in a gentle heat.

To tin Copper and Brass, Boil six pounds of cream of tartar, four
gallons of water, and eight pounds of grain tin, or tin shavings.
After the materials have boiled a sufficient time, the substance to be
tinned is put therein, and the boiling continued, when the tin is pre-
cipitated in its metallic form.

To tin Iron and Copper Vessels. Iron which is to be tinned, must
be previously steeped in acid materials, such as sour whey, distillers
wash, &c. 5 then scoured and dipped in melted tin, having been first
rubbed over with a solution of sal ammoniac. The surface of the tin
is prevented from calcining, by covering it with a coat of fat. Cop-
per vessels must be well cleansed ; and then a sufficient quantity of
tin with sal ammoniac is put therein, and brought into fusion, and the
copper vessel moved about. A little resin is sometimes added. The
sal ammoniac prevents the copper from scaling, and causes the tin to
be fixed wherever it touches. Lately, zinc has been proposed for
lining vessels instead of tin, to avoid the ill consequences which have
been unjustly apprehended.
To prepare the Silver Tree.Pour into a glass globe or decanter,
4 drachms of nitrate of silver, dissolved in a pound or more of dis-
tilled water, and lay the vessel on the chimney piece, or in some
place where it may not be disturbed. Now pour in 4 drachms of
mercury. In a short time the silver will be precipitated in the most
beautiful arborescent form, resembling real vegetation. This has been
generally termed the Arbor Dianae.

To prepare the Tin Tree. Into the same or a similar vessel to that
used in the last experiment, pour distilled water as before, and put in
3 drachms of muriate of tin, adding 10 drops of nitric acid, and shake
the vessel until the salt be completely dissolved. Replace the zinc
(which must be cleared from the effects of the former experiment,) as
before, and set the whole aside to precipitate without disturbance.
In a few hours, the effect will be similar to the last, only that the tree
> of tin will have more lustre. In these experiments, it is surprising
 APPENDIX. 727
to observe the laminae shoot out as it were from nothing;
but this
phenomenon seems to proceed from a galvanic action of the metals
and the water.

To prepare the Lead Tree. Put ^ an ounce of the super-acetate of
lead in powder, into a clear glass globe or wine decanter, filled to the
bottom of the neck with distilled water, and 1 0 drops of nitric acid,
and shake the mixture well. Prepare a rod of zinc with a hammer
and file, so that it may be a quarter of an inch thick and 1 inch long at
:

the same time form notches in each side for a thread, by which it is to
be suspended,and tie the thread so that the knot shall be uppermost,
when the metal hangs quite perpendicular. When it is tied, pass the
two ends of the thread through a perforation in the cork, and let them
be again tied over a small splinter of wood which may pass between
them and the cork. When the string is tried, let the length between
the cork and the zinc be such that the precipitant (the zinc) may be
at equal distances from the side, bottom, and top, of the vessel, when
immersed in it. When all things are thus prepared, place the vessel
in a place where it may not be disturbed, and introduce the zinc, at
the same time fitting in the cork. The metal will very soon be co-
vered with the lead, which it precipitates from the solution, and this
will continue to take place until the whole be precipitated upon the
zinc, which will assume the form of a tree or bush, whose leaves and
branches are laminal, or plates of a metallic lustre.
Metallic Watering, or for Blanc Moire.This article of Parisian
invention, which is much employed to cover ornamental cabinet work,
dressing-boxes, telescopes, opera glasses, &c, &c. is prepared in the
following manner.
Sulphuric acid is to be diluted with from seven to nine parts of water j
then dip a sponge or rag into it, and wash with it the surface of a
sheet of tin. This will speedily exhibit an appearance of crystal-
lization, which is the moir^.
This however, cannot be easily produced upon every sort of
effect,
sheet tin, for if the sheet has been much hardened by hammering or
rolling, then the moir6 cannot be effected until the sheet has been
heated so as to produce an incipient fusion on the surface, after which
the acid will act upon it, and produce the raoir6. Almost any acid
will do as well as the sulphuric, and it is said, that the citric acid,
dissolved in a sufficient quantity of water, answers better than any
other.
The moir^ may be much improved by employing the blow-pipe, to
form small and beautiful specks on the surface of the tin, previous to
the application of the acid.
When the moir6 has been formed, the plate is to be varnished and
polished, the varnish being tinted with any glazing colour, and thus
the red, green, yellow, and pearl coloured moir6s are manuffictured.
Chinese Sheet Lead.-^The operation is carried on by two men j
one is seated on the floor with a large flat stone before him, and with
a moveable flat stone-stand at his side. His fellow workman stands
beside him with a crucible filled with melted lead j and having poured
728 APPENDIX.
a certain quantity upon the stone, the other lifts the moveable stone,
and dashing it on the fluid lead, presses it out into a flat and thin
plate, which he instantly removes from the stone. A second quantity
of lead is poured in a similar manner, and a similar plate formed, the
process being carried on with singular rapidity. The rough edges of
the plates are then cut off, and they are soldered together for use.
Mr. Waddell has applied this method, with great success, to the
formation of thin plates of zinc, for galvanic purposes.
To plate Looking-Glasses
This art is erroneously termed silver-
.

ing, for, as will be presently seen, there is not a particle of silver

present in the whole composition.
On tin-foil, fitly deposed on a flat table, mercury is to be poured,
and gently riihbed with a hares foot ; it soon unites itself with the
tin, which then becomes very splendid, or, as the workmen say,
is quickened. A
plate of glass is then cautiously to be slid, upon the
tin-leaf, in such a manner as to sweep olf the redundant mercury,
which is not incorporated with the tin ; lead weights are then to be
placed on the glass, and, in a little time, the quicksilvered tin-foil
adheres so firmly to the glass, that the weights may be removed with-
out any danger of its falling off. The glass thus coated is a common
looking-glass. About two ounces of mercury are sufficient for cover-
ing three square feet of glass.
The success of this operation depends much on the cleanness of
the glass ,and the least dirt or dust on its surface, will pr?,vent the
adhesion of the amalgam or alloy.
Liquid Foil for silvering Glass Globes, 1.
1 oz clean lead,
1 oz. fine tin, \
1 oz. bismuth, and
10 oz. quicksilver.
The lead and tin must be put into the ladle first, and so soon 'as
melted the bismuth must be added. Skim off the dross, remove the
ladle from the fire, and before it sets, add the quicksilver : stir the
whole carefully together, taking care not to breathe over it, as the
fumes of the mercury are very pernicious. Pour this through an
earthen pipe, into tlie glass globe, which turn repeatedly round.
No. 2. 2 parts mercury,
1 part tin,
1 part lead, and
1 part bismuth.
No. 3. 4 oz. quicksilver, and
tin-toil.
The quantity of tin-foil to be added, is so much as will become
barely fluid when mixed. Let the globe be clean and warm, and inject
the quicksilver by means of a pipe at the aperture, turning it about
till it is silvered all over. Let the remainder run out, and hang the
globe up.
 APPENDIX. 729
)

LACQUERING.
Lacquer for Brass. 6 oz, seed lac,
2 oz. amber or copal, ground on poipbyry,
40 gr. of dragons blood,
30 red sandal wood, obtained by
gr. extract of
water,
36 gr. of Oriental saffron,
4 oz. of pounded glass, and
40
oz. very pure alcohol.
To apply this varnish to articles or ornaments of brass, expose
them to a gentle heat, and dip them into varnish. Two or three
coatings may be applied in this manner, if necessary. The varnish is
durable, and has a beautiful colour. Articles varnished in this man-
ner, may be cleaned with water and a bit of dry rag.
Lacquer for Philosophical Instruments
This lacquer or varnish is
.

destined to change, or to modify the colour of those bodies to which

it is applied.
J oz. of gum guttee,
2 oz. of gum sandaric,
2 oz. of gum elemi,
1 oz. of dragons blood, of the best quality,
1 oz. of seed lac,

f oz. of terra merita,

2 grains of Oriental saffron,
3 oz. of pounded glass, and
20 oz. of pure alcohol.
The tincture of saffron and of terra merita, is first obtained by infu-
sing them in alcohol for twenty-four hours, or exposing them to the
heat of the sun in summer. The tincture must be strained through
a piece of clean linen cloth, and ought to be strongly squeezed. This
tincture is poured over the dragons blood, the gum elemi, the seed
lac, and the gum guttae, all pounded and mixed with the glass. The
varnish is then made according to the directions before given.
It may be with great advantage to philosophical instru-
ajiplied
ments the use of it might be extended, also, to various cast or
:

moulded articles with which furniture is ornamented.

If the dragons blood be of the first quality, it may give too high a
colour ; in this case, the dose may be lessened at pleasure, as well as
that of the other colouring matters.
It is with a similar kind of varnish that the artists of Geneva give
a golden orange colour to the small nails employed to ornament watch-
cases j but they keep the process very secret. A beautiful bright
colour might be easily communicated to this mixture j but they pre-
fer the orange colour, produced by certain compositions, the prepara-
tion of which has no relation to that of varnish, and which has been
successfully imitated with saline mixtures, in which orpiracnt is a
730 APPENDIX.
principal ingredient. The nails are heated before they are
immersed
in the varnish,and they are then spread out on sheets of dry paper.
Gold-coloured Lacquer, for brass Watch-cases, Watch-keys, 8ic .

6 oz. of seed lac,

2 oz. of amber,
2 oz. of gum guttse,
24 gr. of extract of red sandal weed in water,
60 gr. of dragons blood,
36 gr. of Oriental saffron,
4 oz. of pounded glass, and
36 oz. of pure alcohol.
Grind the amber, the seed lac, gum guttae, and dragons blood on a
piece of porphyry 3 then mix them with the pounded glass, and add
the alcohol, after forming with it an infusion of the saffron and an
extract of the sandal wood. The varnish must then be completed as
before. The metal articles destined to be covered by this varnish,
are heated, and those which will admit of it, are immersed in packets.
The tint of the varnish may be varied, by modifying the doses of the
colouring substances.
Lacquer of a less drying quality
4 oz. seed lac,
4 oz. sandarac, or mastic,
^ oz. dragons blood,
36 gr. terra merita,
36 gr. gum guttae, V
5 oz. pounded glass,
2 oz. clear turpentine,
32 oz. essence of turpentine.
Extract, by infusion, the tincture of the colouring substances, and
then add the resinous bodies according to the directions for compound
mastic varnish.
Lacquer or varnishes of this kind are called changing, because,
when applied to metals, such as copper, brass, or hammered tin, or
to wooden boxes and other furniture, they communicate to them a
more agreeable colour. Besides, by their contact with the common
metals, they acquire a lustre which approaches that of the precious
metals, and to which, in consequence of peculiar intrinsic qualities or
certain laws of convention, a much- greater value is attached. It is
by means of these changing varnishes, that artists are able to com-
municate to their leaves of silver and copper, those shining colours
observed in foils. This product of industry becomes a source of
prosperity to the manufacturers of buttons and works formed with
foil, which, in the hands of the jeweller, contributes with so much
success to produce that reflection of the rays of light which doubles
the lustre and sparkling quality of precious stones.
It is to varnish of this kind that we are indebted for the manufac-
ture of gilt leather, which, taking refuge in England, has given place
to that of papier mach 6 , which is employed for the decoration of pa-
laces, theatres, &c.
 APPENDIX. 731

la the last place, it is by the effect of a foreign tint obtained

from the colouring part of saffron, that the scales of silver dissemi-
nated in confection d' hyacinthe reflect a beautiful gold colour.
The colours transmitted by different colouring substances, require
tones suited to the objects for which they are destined. The artist
has it in his own power to vary them at pleasure. The addition of
annatto to the mixture of dragons blood, saffron, &c. or some changes
in the doses of the mode intended to be made in colours. It is,
therefore, impossible to give limited formulae.
To make Lacquer of various Tints,
Infuse separately
4 oz. gum guttae in
32 oz. of essence of turpentine,
1 oz. annatto, and

4 oz. dragons blood, also in separate doses of es-

sence.
These infusions may be easily made in the sun. After fifteen
days exposure, pour a certain quantity of these liquors into a flask,
and by varying the doses different shades of colour will be obtained.
These infusions may be employed also for changing alcoholic var-
nishes ; but in this case, the use of saffron, as well as that of red
sandal wood, which does not succeed with essence, will soon give the
tone necessary for imitating, with other tinctures, the colour of gold.

To Bronze Plaster Figures. For the ground, after it has been
sized and rubbed down, take Prussian blue, verditer, and spruce
ochre. Grind them separately in water, turpentine, or oil, according
to the work, and mix them in such proportions as will produce the
colour desired. Then grind Dutch metal in a part of this composi-
tion: laying it with judgment on the prominent parts of the figure,
which produces a grand effect.

To Brown Gun Barrels. After the barrel is finished rub it over
with aquafortis, or spirit of salt, diluted with water. Then lay it
by for a week, till a complete coat of oil is formed. A
little oil is
then to be applied, and after rubbing the surface dry, polish it with
a hard brush and a little bees wax.

VARNISHES.

To makeWhite Copal Varnish, No. 1. White oxide of lead, ceruse,
Spanish white, white clay. Such of these substances as are preferred
ought to be carefully dried. Ceruse and clays obstinately retain a
great deal of humidity, which would oppose their adhesion to drying
oil or varnish. The cement then crumbles under the fingers, and
does not assume a body.

No. 2. On 16 ounces of melted copal, pour 4, 6, or 8 ounces of
linseed oil, boiled and quite free from grease. When well mixed by
repeated stirrings, and after they are pretty cool, pour in 1 6 ounces
 732 APPENDIX
of the essence of Venice turpentine. Pass the varnish through a
cloth. Amber varnish is made the same way.
Black. Lamp-black, made of burnt vine twigs, and blacK of peach-
stones. The lamp-black must be carefully washed, and afterwards
dried. Washing carries off a great many of its impurities.
Yclloiv. Yellow oxide of lead of Naples and Montj)eilier, both re-
duced to impalpable powder. These yellows are hurt by the contact
of iron and steel ; in mixing them up, therefore, a horn spatula
with a glass mortar and pestle must be employed.
Gum guttae, yellow ochre, or Dutch pink, according to the nature
and tone of the colour to be imitated.
^/mc. ndigo, prussiate of iron, (Prussian blue) blue verditer,
and ultra-marine. All these substances must be very much divided.

Green. Verdigris, crystallized verdigris, compound green, (a mix-
ture of yellow and blue.) The first two require a mixture of white
in proper proportions, from a fourth to two-thirds, according to the
tint intended to be given. The v/hite used for this purpose is ceruse,
or the white oxide of lead, or Spanish white, which is less solid, or
w hite of Moudon.
'
Red. Red sulphurated oxide of mercury, (cinnabar vermilion.)
Red oxide of lead (minium,) different red ochres, or Prussian
reds, &c.

Purple. Cochineal, carmine, and carminated lakes, with ceruse *

and boiled oil.

Brick Red,
Dragons blood.

Chamois Colour. Dragons blood with a paste composed of
flowers of zinc, or, what is still better, a little red vermilion.
Violet. Red sulphurated oxide of mercury, mixed with lamp-black,
washed very dry, or with the black of burnt vine-twigs ; and to ren-
der it mellowmr, a proper mixture of red, blue^ and white.
Pearl Grey. White and black 5 white and blue 3 for example,
ceruse and lamp-black j ceruse and indigo.

Flaxen Grey. ^Ceruse, which forms the ground of the paste,
mixed with a small quantity of Cologne earth, as much English red,
or carminated lake, which is not so durable, and a particle of
prussiate of iron, (Prussian blue.)
To make Famishes for Violins To a gallon of rectified spi-
rit of wdne, add six ounces of gum sandarac, three ounces of gum
mastich, and half a pint of turpentine varnish. Put tlje whole into
a tin can, which keep in a warm place, frequently shaking it, for
twelve days, until it is dissolved. Then strain, and keep it for use.

To dissolve Elastic Gmuy &;c. M. Grossart, by an ingenious me-
thod, succeeded in forming India rubber into elastic tubes. Cut a
bottle of the gum circularly, in a spiral slip, of a few lines in breadth ;
then plunge the whole of the slip into vitriolic ether, till it becomes
softened 3 half an hour is generally sufficient for this purpose. The
slip is then taken out of the liquid, and one of the extremities a])plied
to the end of a mould, first rolling it on itself, and pressing it, then
mounting spirally along the cylinder, taking care to lay over and
 APPENDIX. 733
compress with the hand every edge, one against the other, so that
there may not be any vacant space, and that all the edges may join
exactly 3 the whole is then to be bound hard with a tape of an inoh
in width, taking care to turn it the same way with the slip of
caoutchouc. Over the tape packthread is to be applied, in
such a manner that, by every turn of the thread joining another, an
equal pressure is given to every part. It is then left to dry, and the
tube is made. In removing the bandage, great care must be taken
that none of the outward surface, which may have lodged within the
interstices of the tape, (of which the caoutchouc takes the exact im-
pression,) may be pulled asunder. If it be found difficult to withdraw
the mould, it may be plunged into hot water. If the mould were pre-
viously smoked or rubbed with chalk, it might be removed with less
difficulty. Polished metallic cylinders are the most eligible moulds
for this purpose. As solvents, oils of turpentine and lavender may
be employed, but both are much slower of evaporating than ether, and
tiie oil of turpentine, particularly, appears always to have a kind of
stickiness. Nevertheless, there is a solvent which has not that
inconvenience, is cheaper, and may easily be procured by every one,
viz. water. Proceed in the same manner as with ether. The
caoutchouc is sufficiently prepared for use when it has been a quarter
of an hour in boiling water : by this time its edges are sometimes
transparent. It is to be turned spirally round the mould, and re-
plunged frequently into the boiling water, during the time employed
in forming the tube. When the w'hole is bound with pack-thread, it
is to be kept some hours in boiling water, after which it is to be dried,
still keeping on the binding. This method may be successfully em-
ployed in forming the larger sort of tubes, and in any other instru-
ments, but it would be impracticable to make the small tubes in this
way.
Oil of lavender, of turpentine, and of spikenard, dissolve elastic
guih, with the assistance of a gentle heat 3 but a mixture of volatile
oil and alcohol forms a better solvent for it than oil alone, and the
varnish dries sooner. If boiled in a solution of alum in water, it is
rendered softer than in water alone. Yellow wax, in a state of ebul-
lition, may be saturated with it, by putting it, cut in small pieces,
gradually into it. By this means, a pliable varnish is formed, which
may be applied to cloth with a brush, but it still retains a clamminess.
To make Caoutchouc Famish.
16 oz. of caoutchouc, or elastic resin,
16 oz. boiled linseed oil, and
16 oz. of essence of turpentine.
Cut the caoutchouc into thin slips, and put them into a matrass
placed in a very hot sand-bath. When the matter is liquefied, add
the linseed oil in a state of ebullition, and then the essence warm.
AVhen the varnish has lost a great part of its heat, strain it through
a piece of linen, and preserve it in a wide-mouthed bottle. This
varnish <jries very slowly, a fault which is owing to the peculiar na-
ture of the caoutchouc.
734 APPENDIX.
The invention of air balloons led to the idea of applying caout-
chouc to the composition of varnish. It was necessary to have a
varnish which should unite great pliability and consistence. No var-
nish seemed capable of corresponding to these views, except that of
caoutchouc, but the desiccation of it is exceedingly tedious.

To make Varnish for Silks, S;c. To one quart of cold-drawn lin-
seed oil, poured off from the lees, (produced on the addition of un-
slacked lime, on which the oil has stood eight or ten days at the
least, in order to communicate a drying quality, or brown umber,
burnt and powdered, which will have the like effect,) and half an
ounce of litharge 3 boil them for half an hour, then add half an ounce
of the copal varnish. While the ingredients are on the fire, in a
copper vessel, put in one ounce of chios turpentine, or common,
resin, and a few drops of neatsfoot oil, and stir the whole with a
knife 3 when cool, it is ready for use. The neatsfoot oil prevents
the varnish from being sticky or adhesive, and may be put into the
linseed oil at the same time with the lime, or burnt umber. Resin
or Chios turpentine may be added, till the varnish has attained the
desired thickness.
The longer the raw linseed oil remains on the un slacked lime or
umber, the sooner will the oil dry after it is used 3 if some months,
so much the better :such varnish will set, that is to say, not run, but
keep its place on the silk in four hours 3 the silk may then be turned,
and varnished on the other side.

To make pliable Varnish for Umbrellas, Take any quantity of
caoutchouc, as ten or twelve ounces, cut into small bits with a pair of
scissors, and put a strong iron ladle, (such as that in which painters,
plumbers, or glaziers melt their lead) over a common pit-coal or other
fire 3 which must be gentle, glowing, and without smoke. When the la-
dle is hot, put a single bit into it : if black smoke issues, it will pre-

sently flame and disappear, or it will evaporate without flame 3 the

ladle is then too hot. When the ladle is less hot, put in a second bit,
which will produce a white smoke 5 this white smoke will continue
during the operation, and evaporate the caoutchouc 3 therefore no
time is to be lost, but little bits are to be put in, a few at a time, till
the whole are melted 3 it should be continually and gently stirred with
an iron or brass spoon. The instant the smoke changes from w'hite
to black, take off the ladle, or the whole will break out into a violent
flame, or be spoiled, or lost. Care must be taken that no wmter be
added, a few drops only of which would, on account of its expansi-
bility, make it boil over furiously and with great noise j at this period
of the process, 2 pounds or 1 quart of the best drying oil is to be put
into the melted caoutchouc, and stirred till hot, and the whole poured
into a glazed vessel through a coarse gauze, or wire sieve. When
settled and clear, which will be in a few minutes, it is fit for use,
either hot or cold.
The silk should be always stretched horizontally by pins or tenter-
hooks on frames :
(the greater they are in length the better,) and the
varnish poured on cold in hot weather, and hot in cold weather. It
 APPENDIX. 735
is perhaps best, always to lay it on when cdid. The art of laying it
on properly, consists in making no intestine motion in the varnish,
which would create minute bubbles, therefore brushes of every kind
are improper, as each bubble breaks in drying, and forms a small hole,
through which the air will transpire.
This varnish is pliant, unadhesive, and unalterable by vA^eather.
Varnish used for Indian Shields, Shields made at Silhet, in Ben-
gal, are noted throughout India, for the lustre and durahility of the
black varnish with which they are covered 3 Silhet shields constitute,
therefore, no inconsiderable article of traffic, being in request among
natives who carry arms, and retain the ancient predilection for the
scimitar and buckler. The varnish is composed of the expressed
juice of the marking nut, Semecarpus Anacardium, and that of
another kindred fruit, Holigarna Longifolia.
The shell of the Semecarpus Anacardium contains between its
integuments numerous cells, filled with a black, acrid, resinous juice 3
which likewise is found, though less abundantly, in the wood of the
tree. It is commonly employed as an indelible ink, to mark all sorts
of cotton cloth. The colour is fixed with quick lime. The cortical
part of the fruit of Holigarna Longifolia likewise contains between
its lamincB numerous cells, filled with a black, thick, acrid fluid.
The natives of Malabar, extract by incision, with which they varnish
targets.
To prepare the varnish according to the method practised in Silhet,
the nuts of the Semecarpus Anacardium^ and the berries of the
Holigarna Longifolia, having been steeped for a month in clear water,
are cut transversely, and pressed in a mill. The expressed juice of
each is kept for several months, taking off the scum from time to
time. Afterwards the liquor is decanted, and two parts of the one
are added to one part of the other, to be used as varnish. Other
proportions of ingredients are sometimes employed : but in all the
resinous juice of the Setnocarpus predominates. The varnish is laid
on like paint, and when dry, is polished by rubbing it with an agate,
or smooth pebble. This varnish also prevents destruction of wood,
&c. by the white ant.
To give a drying quality to Poppy Oil,
31b. of pure water,
1 oz. of sulphate of zinc, (white vitriol), and

2 lb. of oil of pinks, or poppy oil.

Expose this mixture in an earthen vessel capable of standing the
fire, to a degree of heat sufficient to maintain it in a slight state of
ebullition. When one half or two-thirds of the water has evaporated,
pour the whole into a large glass bottle or jar, and leave it at rest
till the oil becomes clear. Decant the clearest part by means of a
glass funnel, the beak of which is stopped with a piece of cork ;
when the separation of the oil from the water is completely effected,
remove the cork stopper, and supply its place by the fore-finger,
which must be applied in such a manner as to suffer the water to es-
cape, and to retain only the oil.
736 APPENDIX.
Poppyoil when prepared in this manner becomes, after some
weeks, exceedingly limpid and colourless.
To give a drying quality to fat Oils,

No. 1. 81b. nut-oil, or linseed-oil,
1 oz. white lead, slightly calcined,

1 oz. yellow acetate of lead, (sal. saturni) also calcined,

I oz. sulphate of zinc, (white vitriol,)
12 oz. vitreous oxide of lead, (litharge) and
a head of garlic, or a small onion.
When the dry substances are pulverized, mix them with the garlic
and oil, over a fire capable of maintaining the oil in a slight state of
ebullition: continue it till the oil ceases to throw up scum, till it
assumes a reddish colour, and till the head of garlic becomes brown.
A pellicle will then be soon formed on the oil, which indicates that
the operation is completed. Take the vessel from the fire, and the
pellicle, being precipitated by rest, will carry with it all the unctuous
parts which rendered the oil fat. When the oil becomes clear, sepa-
rate it from the deposit, and put it into wide-mouthed bottles, where
it will completely clarify itself in time, and improve in quality.
No. 2. oz. of vitreous oxide of lead, (litharge)

I oz. sulphate of zinc, (white vitriol) and

16 oz. linseed, or nut-oil.
The operation must be conducted as in the preceding case.
The choice of the oil is not a matter of indifference. If it be des-
tined for painting articles exposed to the impression of the external
air, or for delicate painting, nut-oil or poppy-oil will be requisite.
Linseed oil is used for coarse painting, and that sheltered from the
effects of the rain and of the sun.
A little negligence in the management of the fire, has often' an in-
fluence on the colour of the oil, to which a drying quality is com-
municated j in this case it is not proper for delicate painting This
inconvenience may be avoided by tyiigup the drying matters in a
small bag j but the dose of the litharge must then be doubled. The
bag must be suspended by a piece of packthread fastened to a stick,
which is made to rest on the edge of the v ssel in such a manner
as to keep the bag at the distance of an inch from the bottom of the
vessel. A pellicle wiW be formed as in the first operation, but it will
be slower in making its appearance.
No 3. A drying quality may be communicated to oil by treating,
in a heat capabKb of maintaining a slight ebullition, linseed, or nut oil,
to each pound of which is added 3 oz. of vitreous oxide of lead,
(litharge) reduced to fine pow'der.
The preparation of floor-cloths, and all paintings of large figures
or ornaments, in which argillaceous colours, such as yellow and red
boles, Dutch pink, &c. are employed, require this kind of preparation,
that the desiccation may not be too slow but painting for which
metallic oxides are used, such as preparations of lead, copper, &c.
require only the doses before indicated, because these oxides contain
 APPENDIX. 737
a great deal of oxygen, and the oil, by their contact, aequires more
of a drying quality.
No. 4.-2 lbs. of nut-oil,
3 lbs. of common water, and
2 oz. of sulphate of zinc, (white vitriol).
Mix these matters, and subject them to a slight ebullition, till
little water remains. Decant the oil, which will pass over with a
small quantity of water, and separate the latter by means of a funnel.
The oil remains nebulous for some time 3 after which it becomes
clear, and seems to be very little coloured.
No. 5.-6 lbs. of nut-oil, or linseed-oil,
4 lbs. of common water,
1 oz. of sulphate of zinc, and

1 head of garlic.

Mix these matters in a large iron or copper pan 3 then place

them over the fire, and maintain the mixture in a state of ebullition
during the whole day boiling water must from time to time be added
:

to make up for the loss of that by evaporation. The garlic will as-
sume a brown appearance. Take the pan from the fire, and having
suffered a deposit to be formed, decant the oil, which will clarify it-
self in the vessels. By this process the drying oil is rendered some-
what more coloured : it is reserved for delicate colours.
Resinous Drying Of/. Take 10 lbs. of drying nut oil, if the paint
is destined for external, or 10 lbs. of drying linseed oil, if for internal
articles.
3 lbs. of resin, and
6 oz. of turpentine.
Cause the resin to dissolve the oil by means of a gentle heat.
When dissolved and incorporated wdth the oil, add the turpentine ;
leave the varnish at rest, by which means it will often deposit por-
tions of resin and other impurities ; and then preserve it in wide-
mouthed bottles. It must be used fresh when suffered to grow old
;

it abandons some of its resin. If this resinous oil assumes too much
consistence, dilute it with a little essence, if intended for articles
sheltered from the sun, or with oil of poppies.
In Switzerland, where the principal part of the masons work con-
sists of stones subject to crumble to pieces, it is often found neces-
sary to give them a coating of oil paint, to stop the effects of this
decomposition. This painting has a great deal of lustre, and when
the last coating is applied with resinous oil, it has the effect of a var-
nish. To give it more durability, the ought to be applied ex-
first
ceedingly warm and with plain oil, or oil very
little charged, with the
grey colour, which is added to the two following.
Fat Copal Varnish.
16 02 . of picked copal,
8 oz. of prepared linseed oil, or oil of poppies, and
16 oz. of essence of turpentine.
Liquefy the copal in a matrass over a common fire, and then add
the linseed oil, or oil of poppies, in a state of ebullition ; when these
3 B
738 APPENDIX.

matters are incorporated, take the matrass from the fire, stir the mat-
ter till the greatest heat is subsided, and then add the essence of
turpentine warm. Strain the whole, while still warm, through a
piece of linen, and put the varnish into a wide-mouthed bottle. Time
contributes towards its clarification 5 and in this manner it acquires
a better quality.
Varnish for IVatcJi-Cases, in imitation of Tortoise-shell.
6 oz. of copal of an amber colour,
oz. Venice turpentine,
24 oz. prepared linseed oil, and
6 oz. essence of turpentine.
It is customary to place the turpentine over the copal, reduced to
small fragments, in the bottom of an earthen or metal vessil, or in a
matrass exposed to such a heat as to liquefy the copal but it is more
:

advantageous to liquefy the latter alone, to add the oil in a state of

ebullition, then the turpentine liquefied, and in the last place, the
essence. If the varnish is too thick, some essence may be added.
The latter liquor is a regulator for the consistence in the hands of an
artist.

To make a Colourless Copal Varnish. As all copal is not fit for this
purpose, in order to ascertain such pieces as are good, each must be
taken separately, and a single drop of pure essential oil of rosemary,
not altered by keeping, must be let fall on it. Those pieces which
soften at the part that imbibes the oil, are good j reduce them to
powder, which sift through a very fine hair-sieve, and put it into a
glass, on the bottom of which it must not lie more than a fingers
breadth thick. Pour upon it essence of rosemary to a similar height 5
stir the whole for a few minutes, when the copal will dissolve into a
viscous fluid. Let it stand for two hours, and then pour gently on
it two or three drops of very pure alcohol, which distribute over the
oily mass, by inclining the bottle in different directions with a very
gentle motion. Repeat this operation by little and little, till the in-
corporation is effected, and the varnish reduced to a proper degree of
fluidity. It must then be left to stand a few days, and, when very
clear, be decanted off. This varnish, thus made without heat, may
be applied with equal success, to pasteboard, wood, and metals, and
takes a better polish than any other. It may be used on paintings,
the beauty of which it greatly heightens.
Gold*coloured Copal Varnish.
1 oz. Copal in powder,
2 oz. essential oil of lavender, and
6 oz. essence of turpentine.
Put the essential oil of lavender into a matrass of a proper size,
placed on a sand-bath heated by an Argands lamp, or over a mo-
derate coal-fire. Add to the oil while very warm, and at several
times, the copal powder, and stir the mixture with a stick of white
wood, rounded at the end. When the copal has entirely disappeared,
add at three different times the essence almost in a state of ebullition,
and keep continually stirring the mixture. When the solution is
 APPENDIX, 73^
completed, the result will be a varnish of a gold colour, exceeding-
ly durable andbrilliant, but less drying than the preceding.
No. 2. To
obtain this varnish colourless, it will be proper to recti-
fy the essence of the shops, which is often highly coloured, and ta
give it the necessary density by exposure to the sun in bottles closed
with cork stoppers, leaving an interval of some inches between the
stopper and the surface1 of the liquid. A few months are thus suffi-
cient to communicate to it the required qualities. Besides, the es-
sence of the shops is rarely possessed of that state of consistence,
without having at the same time a strong amber colour.
The varnish resulting from the solution of copal in oil of turpentine,
brought to such a state as to produce the maximum of solution, is ex-
ceedingly durable and It resists the shock of hard bodies
2 brilliant.
much better than the enamel of toys, which often becomes scratched
and whitened by the impression of repeated friction ; it is applied
with the greatest success to philosophical instruments, and the paint-
ings with which vessels and other utensils of metal are decorated.

No. 3. 4 oz. copal, and
oz. clear turpentine.
Put the copal, coarsely pulverized, into a varnish pot, and give it
the form of a pyramid, which must be covered w'ith turpentine. Shut
the vessel closely, and placing it3over a gentle fire, increase the heat
gradually that it may not attack the copal ; as soon as the matter is
well liquefied, pour it upon a plate of copper, and when it has re-
sumed its consistence reduce it to powder.
Put half an ounce of this powder into a matrass w ith four ounces of
the essence of turpentine, and stir the mixture till the solid matter is
entirely dissolved.
Camphorated Copal Varnish .
This varnish is destined for articles
which require durability, pliableness, and transparency, such as the
varnished wire-gauze, used in ships instead of glass.
oz. of pulverized copal,
6 oz. of essential oil of lavender,
IT of an oz. of camphor, and
essence of turpentine, a sufficient quantity, ac-
cording to the consistence required to be given
to the varnish.
Put into a phial of thin glass, or into a small matrass, the essen-
tial oil of lavender and the camphor, and place the mixture on a
moderately open fire, to bring the oil and the camphor to a slight state
of ebullition j then add the copal pow der in small portions, which
must be renewed as they disappear in the liquid. Favour the solu-
tion, by continually stirring it with a stick of white wood ; and when
the copal is incorporated with the oil, add the essence of turpentine
boiling : but care must be taken to pour in, at first, only a small
portion.
This varnish is little coloured, and by rest it acquires a transpa-
rency which, united to the solidity observed in almost every kind of
copal varnishes, renders it fit to be applied with [great success in
B 2
740 APPENDIX.
many casCvS, and particularly in the ingenious invention of substi-
tuting varnished metallic gauze in the room of Muscovy talc, a kind
of mica, in large laminae, used for the cabin windows of ships, as
presenting more resistance to the concussion of the air during the
firing of the guns. Varnished metallic gauze, of this kind, is ma-
nufactured at Rouen.
Ethereal Copal Varnish. 2 oz. of amberry copal, and
oz. of ether.
Reduce the copal to a very fine, powder, and introduce it by small
portions into the flask which contains the ether 3 close the flask with
a glass or cork stopper, and having shaken the mixture for half an
hour, leave it at rest till the next morning. In shaking the flask, if
the sides become covered with small undulations and if the liquor be
.

not exceedingly clear, the solution is not complete. In this case, add
a little ether, and leave the mixture at rest. *^he varnish is of a
light lemon colour. The largest quantity of copal united to ether
may be a fourth, and the least a fifth. The use of copal varnish made
with ether seems, by the expense attending it, to be confined to re-
pairing those accidents which frequently happen to the enamel of
toys, as it will supply the place of glass to the coloured varnishes
employed for mending fractures, or to restoring the smooth surface
of paintings which have been cracked and shattered.
The great volatility of ether, and in particular its high price, do
not allow the application of this varnish to be recommended, but for
the purpose here indicated. It has been applied to wood with com-
plete success, and the glazing it produced, united lustre to solidity.
In consequence of the too speedy evaporation of the liquid, it often
boils under the brush. Its evaporation, however, may be retarded,
by spreading over the wood a slight stratum of essential oil of rose-
mary, or lavender, or even of turpentine, which may afterwards be
removed by a piece of linen rag 5 what remains is sufficient to retard
the evaporation of the ether.
Turpentine Copal Varnish.
Hoz. of copal, of an amber colour, and in powder, and
8 oz. of best oil of turpentine.
Expose the essence to a balneum marice, in a wide-mouthed matrass
with a short neck 3 as soon as the water of the bath begins to boil,
throw into the essence a large pinch of copal powder, and keep the
matrass in a state of circular motion. When the powder is incor-
porated with the essence, add new doses of it 5 and continue in this
nmnner till you observe that there is formed an insoluble deposit.
Then take the matrass from the bath, and leave it at rest for some
days. Draw off the clear varnish, and filter it through cotton.
At the moment when the first portion of the copal is thrown into
the essence, if the powder precipitate itself under the form of lumps,
it is needless to proceed any further. This effect arises from two
causes : either the essence does not possess the proper degree of
concentration, or it has not been sufficiently deprived of water.
Exposure to the sun, employing the same matrass, to which a cork
 APPENDIX. 741
Stopper ought to be added, will give it the qualities requisite for the
solution of the copal. This be announced by the disap-
effect will
pearance of the portion of copal already put into it.
Another Copal Varnish.
3 oz. of copal, liquefied, and
20 oz. of essence of turpentine.
Place the matrass containing the oil in a balneum mariae, and when
the water boils add the pulverized copal in small doses. Keep stir-
ring the mixture, and add no more copal till the former be incorpo-
rated with the oil. If the oil, in consequence of its particular dispo-
sition, can take up 3 ounces of it, add a little more ; but stop, if the
liquid becomes nebulous, then leave the varnish at rest. If it be too
thick, dilute it with a little warm essence, after having heated it in
the balneum mariae. When cold, filter it through cotton, and pre-
serve it in a clean bottle.
This varnish has a good consistence, and is as free from colour as
the best alcoholic varnish. When extended in one stratum over
smooth wood, which has undergone no preparation, it forms a very
brilliant glazing, which, in the course of two days, in summer, ac-
quires all the solidity that may be required.
The facility which attends the preparation of this varnish by the
new method here indicated, will admit of its being applied to all
coloured grounds which require solidity, pure whites alone excepted
painted boxes, therefore, and all small articles, coloured or not
coloured, whenever it is required to make the veins appear in all the
richness of their tones, call for the application of this varnish, which
produces the most beautiful effect, and which is more durable than
turpentine varnishes composed with other resinous substances.
Fat Amber Varnish.
16 oz. of amber, coarsely powdered,
2 oz. of Venice turpentine, or gum lac,
10 oz. of prepared linseed oil, and
16 oz. of essence of turpentine.
The circumstances of the process are the same as those prescribed
for the preparation of the camphorated copal varnish.
This varnish was formerly much used but it has given place, in
;

pa/t, to that of copal, which is preferred on account of its being less

coloured. Watin introduces more essence and less linseed oil 5
experience and long practice are the only authority on which I recom-
mend the adoption of the present formula.
Amber Varnish with Essence of Turpentine.
6 or 7 oz. of liquefied amber, and separated from
the oily portions which alter its consistence.
Reduce the amber to powder, and if the operation of pounding forms
it into a paste, break it with your fingers then mix it with the
:

essence, and heat the whole in a balneum mariae. It will speedily

dissolve, and the essence will take up, at the least, a fourth part of
its weight of the prepared amber.
When one coating of it is applied to white smooth wood, but
74^ APPENDIX.
without any preparation, it forms a very pure and very durable
glazing, which speedily dries, but slower than copal varnish.
Fal Amhej'j or Copal Varnish,
4 oz. of amber or copal of one fusion,
10 oz. of essence of turpentine, and
10 oz. of drying linseed oil.

Pot the whole into a pretty large matrass, and expose it to the
heat of a balneum mariae, or move it over the surface of an uncovered
chafl6 ng-dish, but without flame, and at the distance from it of two
or three inches. When the solution is completed, add still a little
copal or amber to saturate the liquid ; then pour the whole on a
filter prepared with cotton, and leave it to clarify by rest. If the
varnish is too thick, add a little warm essence to prevent the separa-
tion of any of the amber.
This varnish is coloured, but far less so than those composed by
the usual methods. When spread over white wood, without any
preparation, it forms a solid glazing, and communicates a slight tint
to the wood.
If it be required to charge this varnish with more copal, or prepared
amber, the liquid must be composed of tw'o parts of essence for one
of oil.

Cojnpound Mastic Varnish.

32 oz. of pure alcohol,
6 oz. of purified mastic,
3 oz. of gum sandarac,
3 oz. of very clear Venice turpentine, and
4 oz. of glass, coarsely pounded.
Reduce the mastic and sandarac to fine powder 5 mix this powder
with white glass, from which the finest parts have been separated by
means of a hair sieve j put all the ingredients, with alcohol, into a
short necked matrass, and adapt to it a stick of white wood, rounded
at tfie end, and of a length proportioned to the height of the matrass,
that it may be put in motion. Expose the matrass in a vessel filled
With water, made at first a little warm, and which must afterwards
be maintained in a state of ebullition for one or two hours. The
matrass may be made fast to a ring of straw.
When the solution seems to be sufficiently extended, add tlie tur-
pentine, which must be kept separately in a phial or a pot, and which
must be melted, by immersing it for a moment in a balneum marise.
The matrass must be still left in the water for half an hour, at the
end of which it is taken off 5 and the varnish is continually stirred
till it is somewhat cool. Next day it is to be drawn off, and filtered
through cotton. By these means it will become exceedingly limpid.
The addition of glass may appear extraordinary j but this substance
divides the parts of the mixture, which have been made with the dry
it)gredieuts, and it retains the same quality when placed over the fire.
It therefore obviates with success two inconveniences, which are
exceedingly troublesome to those who compose varnishes. In the
first place, by dividing the matters, it facilitates the action of the
 APPENDIX. 743
alcohol ; and in the second its weight, which surpasses that of resins,
prevents these resins from adhering to the bottom of the matrass, and
also the coloration acquired by the varnish when a sand-bath is em-
ployed, as is commonly the case.
The application of this varnish is suited to articles belonging to the
such as dressing-boxes, cut paper-works, &c. The following
toilette,
possess the same brilliancy and lustre j but they have more solidity,
and are exceedingly drying.
Camphorated Mastic Varnish for Paintings.
12 oz. of mastic, cleaned and washed,
1|- oz. of pure turpentine,
oz. of camphor,
5 oz. of white glass, pounded, and
36 oz. of ethereous essence of turpentine.
Make the varnish according to the method indicated for compound
mastic varnish of the first genus. The camphor is employed in
pieces, and the turpentine is added when the solution of the resin is
completed. But if the varnish is to be applied to old paintings, or
paintings which have been already varnished, the turpentine may be
suppressed, as this ingredient is here recommended only in cases of a
first application to new paintings, and just freed from white of egg

varnish.
The etherous essence recommended for varnish, is that distilled'
slowly, without any intermediate substance, according to the second
process already given for its rectification.
The question by able masters, respecting the kind of varnish pro-
per to be employed for paintings, has never yet been determined.
Some artists, who have paid particular attention to this object,
make a mystery of the means they employ to obtain the desired effect.
The real end may be accomplished by giving to the varnish, destined
for painting, pliability and softness, without being too solicitous in
regard to what may add to its consistence or its solidity. The latter
quality is particularly requisite in varnishes which are to be applied
to articles much exposed to friction, such as boxes, furniture, &c.

To make Painter s Cream. Painters, who have long intervals be-
tween their periods of labour, are accustomed to cover the parts they
have painted with a nreparation which preserves the freshness of the
colours, and which they can remove when they resume their work.
This preparation is as follows :

3 oz. very clear nut oil,

-i- oz. mastic in tears, pulverized, and

i oz. sal satnrni, in powder, (acetate of lead.)

Dissolve the mastic oil over a gentle fire, and pour the mixture into
a marble mortar, over the pounded salt of lead ; stir it with a wooden
pestle, and add water in small quantities, till the matter assume the
appearance and consistence of cream, and refuse to admit more water.
Sandarac Varnish.
8 oz. gum sandarac.
 2

744 appendix
3 oz. pounded mastic,
4 oz. clear turpentine,
4 oz. pounded glass, and
32 oz. alcohol.
Mix, and dissolve as before.
Compound Sandarac Virnish.
oz. pounded copal of an amber colour, once liquefied,
6 oz. gum
sandarac,
3 oz. mastic, cleaned,
2i oz. clear turpentine,
4 oz. pounded glass, and
32 pure alcohol.
oz.
Mix these ingredients, and pursue the same method as above.
This varnish is destined for articles subject to friction, such as
furniture, chairs, fan-sticks, mouldings. See. and even metals, to which
it may be applied with success. The sandarac gives it great durability.

Camphorated Sandarac Varnish for cut Paper Wbrhs, Dressing

Boxes, Sfc.

No. 1, 6 oz. gum sandarac,

4 oz. gum elemi,
1 oz.gum anima, ^

oz. camphor,
4 02 pounded glass, and
.

32 oz. pure alcohol.

Make the varnish according to the directions already given.The
soft resinsmust be pounded with the dry bodies. The camphor is
to be added in pieces.

No 2. 6 oz. gallipot, or white incense,
2 oz. gum animi,
2 oz. gum elemi,
4 oz. pounded glass, and
32 oz. alcohol.
Make the varnish with the precautions indicated for the compound
mastic varnish.
The two last varnishes are to be used for ceilings and wainscots,
coloured or not coloured : they may even be employed as a covering
to parts painted with strong colours.

Spirituous Sandarac Varnish for Wainscot ting, small Articles of

Furniture^ Balustrades, and inside Railing.

No. 1. 6 oz, of gum sandarac,
2 oz. of shell lac,
4 oz. of colophonium, or resin,
4 oz. of white glass powdered,
4 oz. of clear turpentine, and
32 oz. of pure alcohol.
Dissolve the varnish according to the directions given for com-
pound mastic varnish.
This varnish is sufficiently durable to be applied to articles destined
 APPENDIX. 745
to daily and continual use. Varnishes composed with copal ought,
however, in these cases, to be preferred.
No. 2 There is another composition which, without forming part
of the compound varnishes, is employed with success for giving a
polish and lustre to furniture made of wood : wax forms the basis
of it.
Many cabinet-makers are contented with waxing common furniture,
such as tables, chests of drawers, &c. This covering, by means of
repeated friction, soon acquires a polish and transparency which re-
sembles those of varnish. Waxing seems to possess qualities pecu-
liar to itself i but, like varnish, it is attended with inconveniences as
well as advantages.
Varnish supplies better the part of glazing ; it gives a lustre to
the wood which it covers, and heightens the colours of that destined,
in particular, for delicate articles. These real and valuable advan-
tages are counterbalanced by its want of consistence j it yields too
easily to the shrinking or swelling of the wood, and rises in scales,
or slits, on being exposed to the slightest shock. These accidents can
be repaired only by new strata of varnish, which render application
to the varnisher necessary, and occasion trouble and expense.
Waxing stands shocks ; but it does not possess, in the same degree
as varnish, the property of giving lustre to the bodies on which it is
applied, and of heightening their tints. The lustre it communicates
is dull, but this inconvenience is compensated by the facility with
which any accident that may have altered its polish can be repaired,
by rubbing it with a piece of fine cork. There are some circum-
stances, therefore, under which the application of wax ought to be
preferred to that of varnish. This seems to be the case in particular
with tables of walnut-tree wood, exposed to daily use, chairs, mould-
ings, and for all small articles subject to constant employment.
But as it is of importance to make the stratum of wax as thin as
possible in order that the veins of the wood may be more apparent,
the following process will be acceptable to the reader.
Melt over a moderate fire, in a very clean vessel, two ounces of
white or yellow waxj and, when liquefied, add four ounces of
good essence of turpentine. Stir the whole until it is entirely cool,
and the result will be a kind of pomade fit for waxing furniture, and
which must be rubbed over them according to the usual method.
The essence of turpentine is soon dissipated j but the wax, which by
its mixture is reduced to a state of very great division, may be ex-
tended with more ease, and in a more uniform manner. The es- *

sence soon penetrates the pores of the wood, calls forth the colour of
it, causes the wax to adhere better, and the lustre which thence re-

sults is equal to that of varnish, without having any of its incon-

veniences.
Coloured Varnish for Violins, and other stringed Instruments, also
for Plum-tree, Mahogany, and Rose-wood,
4 oz. gum sandarac,
2 oz. seed lac.
746 APPENDIX.
oz. mastic,
1 oz. Benjamin in tears,
4 oz. pounded glass,
2 oz. \enice turpentine, and
.32 oz. pure alcohol.
The gum sandarac and lac render this varnish dural la it may be :

coloured with a little saffron or dragons blood.

Fat Famish of a gold colour,
8 oz. amber,
2 oz. gum lac,
8 oz, drying linseed oil, and
If) oz. essence of turpentine.

Dissolve separately the gum lac, and then add the amber, prepar-
ed and pulverized, with the linseed oil and essence very warm. When
the whole has lost part of its heat, mix in relative proportions, tinc-
tures of annatto, of terra merita, gum guttae, and dragons blood.
This varnish, when applied to white metals, gives them a gold colour.
Fat Turpentine or Golden Famish^ being a mordant to gold and
dark colours.
16 oz. boiled linseed oil,
8 oz. Venice turpentine, and
5 oz. Naples yellow.
Heat the oil wdth the turpentine 3 and mix the Naples yellow pul-
verized.
Naples yellow is an oxide of lead, the composition of which will
be given when we come to treat of colouring substances. It is sub-
stituted here for resins, on account of its drying qualities, and in par-
ticular of its colour, which resembles that of gold j great use is
made of the varnish in applying gold leaf.
The yellow, however, may be omitted when this species of varnish
is to be solid and coloured coverings. In this case an ounce of li-
tharge to each pound of composition may be substituted in its stead,
without this mixture doing any injury to the colour which is to con-
stitute the ground, f!a teinte dure.J
Turners' Famish for Box Wood,
5 oz. seed lac,
2 oz. gum sandarac,
l- oz. gum elemi,

2 oz. Venice turpentine,

.5 oz. pounded glass, and
24 pure alcohol.
oz.
The artists of St. Claude do not all employ this formula, which
required to be corrected on account of its too great dryness, which
is here lessened by the turpentine and gum elemi. This composition
is secured from cracking, which disfigures these boxes after they had
been used for some months.

No. 2. Other turners employ the gum lac united to a little elemi
and turpentine digested some months in pure alcohol exposed to the
sun. If this method be followed, it will be proper to substitute for
 APPENDIX. 747
the sandarac, the same quantity of gum lac reduced to powder^ and
not to add the turpentine to the alcohol, v, Inch ought to be exceed-
ingly pure, till towards the end of the infusion.
Solar infusion requires care and attention. Vessels of a sufficient
size to allow the spirituous vapours to circulate freely ought to be
employed, because it is necessary that the vessels should be closely
shut. Without this precaution the spirits would become weakened,
and abandon the resin which they laid hold of during the first days
of exposure. This perfect obituration will not admit of the vessels
being too full.

In general, the varnishes applied to articles which may be put into

the lathe acquire a great deal of brilliancy by polishing j a piece of
woollen cloth is sufficient for the operation. If turpentine predomi-
nates too much in these compositions the polish does not retain its
lustre, because tlie heat of the hands is capable of softening the sur-
face of the varnish, and in this state it readily tarnishes.
T 1 varnish Dressing Boxes .
The most of spirit of wine varnishes
are destined for covering preliminary preparations, which have a cer-
tain degree of lustre. They consist of cement, coloured or not co-
loured, charged with landscapes and figures cut out in paper, which
produces an effect under the transparent varnish : most of the dres-
sing boxes, and other small articles of the same kind, are covered
with this particular composition, which, in general, consists of
three or four coatings of Spanish white pounded in water, and mixed
up w'ith parchment glue. The first coating is smoothed with pum-
mice-stone, and then polished with a piece of new linen and water.
The coating in this state is fit to receive the destined colour, after it
has been ground with w^ater, and mixed with parchment glue diluted
with water. The cut figures with which it is to be embellished, are
then applied, and a coating of gum, or fish-glue is spread over them,
to prevent the varnish from penetrating to the preparation, and from
spoiling the figures. The operation is finished by applying three or
four coatings of varnish, which, wffien dry, are polished with tripoli
and water, by means of a piece of cloth. Alustre is then given to
the surface with starch and a bit of doe-skin, or very soft cloth.
Gallipot Varnish.
12 oz. gallipot, or white incense,
5 oz. white glass, pounded,
2 oz. Venice turpentine, and
32 oz. essence of turpentine.
Make the varnish after the white incense has been pounded with glass.
Some authors recommend mastic or sandarac in the room of galli-
pot 5 but the varnish is neither more beautiful nor more durable.
When the colour is ground with the preceding varnish, and mixed
up with the latter, which, if too thick, is thinned with a little es-
sence, and which is applied immediately, and without any sizing, to
boxes and other articles, the coatings acquire sufficient strength to
resist the blows of a mallet. But if the varnish be applied to a sized
colour, it must be covered wdth a varnish of the first or second genus.
748 APPENDIX.
Mastic Gallipot Varnish, for grinding Colours.
4 OE. new gallipot, or white incense,'
2 oz. raastic,
6 oz. Venice turpentine,
4 oz. pounded glass, and
32 oz. essence of turpentine.
When the varnish is made with the precautions already indicated,
add prepared nut oil or linseed oil two ounces.
The matters ground with this varnish dry more slowly j they are
then mixed up with the following varnish, if it be for common paint-
ing, or with particular varnishes destined for colours and for grounds
Mordant Varnish for Gilding.
1 oz. of mastic,

1 oz. of gum sandarac,

^ oz. of gum gattae,

J oz. of turpentine, and

6 oz. of essence of turpentine.
Some artists who make use of mordant, substitute for the turpen-
tine an ounce of the essence of lavender, which renders this com-
position still less drying.
In general, the composition of mordants admits of modifications,
according to the kind of work for which they are destined. The ap-
plication of them, however, is confined chiefly to gold. When it is
required to fill up a design with gold leaf on any ground whatever, the
composition which is to serve as the means of union between the
metal and the ground, ought to be neither too thick nor too fluid j
because both these circumstances are equally injurious to delicacy in
the strokes ; it will be requisite also that the composition should not
dry till the artist has completed his design.
Other Mordants. No. 1. Some prepare their mordants with Jews
pitch and drying oil diluted with essence of turpentine. They employ
it for gilding pale gold, or for bronzing.
Other artists imitate the Chinese, and mix with their mordants
colours proper for assisting the tone which they are desirous of giving
to the gold, such as yellow, red, &c.
Others employ merely fat varnish, to which they add a little red
oxide of lead (minium).
Others make use of thick glue, in which they dissolve a little
honey. This is what they call batture. When they are desirous of
heightening the colour of the gold, they employ this glue, to which
the gold leaf adheres exceedingly well.

No. 2. The qualities of the following are fit for every kind of ap-
plication, and particularly to metals. Expose boiled oil to a strong
heat in a pan when a black smoke is disengaged from it, set it
:

on fire, and extinguish it a few moments after by putting on the

cover of the pan. Then pour the matter still warm, into a heated
bottle, and add to it a little essence of turpentine. This mordant
dries very speedily ; has body and adheres to, and strongly retains,
it
gold leaf, when applied to wood, metals, and other substances.
 APPENDIX. 749

Varnish for Pales and coarse Wood-work. Take any quantity of
lar, and grind it with as much Spanish brown as it will bear, without
rendering it too thick to be used as a paint or varnish, and then
spread it on the pales, or other wood, as soon as convenient, for it
quickly hardens by keeping.
This mixture must be laid on the wood to be varnished by a large
brush, or house painters tool j and the work should then be kept as
free from dust and insects as possible, till the varnish be thoroughly
dry. It will, if laid on smooth wood, have a very good gloss, and is an
excellent preservation of it against moisture ^ on which account, as
well as its being cheaper, it is far preferable to painting, not only for
pales, but for weather-boarding, and all other kinds of wood-work
for grosser purposes. Where the glossy brown colour is not liked,
the work may be made of a greyish brown, by mixing a small pro-
portion of white lead, or whiting and ivory black, with the Spanish
brown.
A Black Varnish for Old Straw or Chip Hats.
J oz. of best black sealing wax, and
2 oz. of rectified spirit of wine.
Powder the sealing-wax, and put it with the spirit of wine, into

a* four-ounce phial ; digest them in a sand heat, or near a fire, till

the wax is dissolved ; lay it on warm with a fine soft hair-brush, be-
fore a fire or in the sun. It gives a good stiffness to old straw hats,
and a beautiful gloss, equal to new, and resists wet.
To make Varnish for coloured Drawings.
1 oz. of Canada balsam, and

2 oz. of spirit of turpentine. Mix them together.
Before this composition is applied, the drawing or print should be
sized with a solution of isinglass in water j and when dry, apply
the varnish with a camels-hair brush.
To make Varnishfor Wood, which resists the action of Boiling Water.
-Take a pound and a half of linseed-oil, and boil it in a red copper
vessel, not tinned, holding suspended over it, in a small linen bag, 5
oz. of litharge, and 3 oz. of pulverized minium ; taking care that the
bag does not touch the bottom of the vessel. Continue the ebullition
until the oil acquires a deep brown colour ; then take away the bag,
and substitute another in its place, containing a clove of garlic j con-
tinue the ebullition, and renew the clove of garlic seven or eight
times, or rather put them all in at once.
Then throw into the vessel a pound of yellow amber, after having
melted it in the following manner : Add to the pound of amber,
well pulverized, two ounces of linseed oil, and place the whole on a
strong fire. When the fusion is complete, pour it boiling into the
prepared linseed-oil, and continue to leave it boiling for two or three
minutes, stirring the whole up well. It is then left to settle ; the
composition is decantered and preserved, when it becomes cold, in
well-corked bottles.
After polishing the wood on which this varnish is to be applied,
give to the wood the colour required ; for instance, for walnut wood,
a slight coat of a mixture of soot with the essence of turpentine.
750 ArrRNOJX.
When this colonr is perfectly dry, give it a coat of varnish with a
fine sponge, in order to spread it xary equal j repeat these coats
four times, taking care always to let the preceding coat be dried.
To Varnish Drawings and Card-work.-^^oW some clear parchment
cuttings in water, in a glazed pipkin, till they produce a very clear
size. Strain it, and keep it for use.
Give the work two coats of the size, passing the brush quickly over
the work, not to disturb the colours.
To prepare a Composition for making coloured Drawings and
Prints resemble Paintings in Oil.
1 oz. of Canada balsam, and
2 oz. of spirit of turpentine. Mixt together.
Before this composition is applied, the drawing or print should be
sized with a solution of isinglass in water, and when dry, apply the
varnish with a camel-hair brush.

To Varnish Harps and Dulcimers. Prepare the wwk with size and
red ochre, then take ochre, burnt umber, and red lead, well ground,
and mix up a dark brown colour in turpentine varnish, adding as
much oil of turpentine that the brush may just be able to pass over
the work fair and even. While yet wet, take a muslin sieve, and sift
as much Dutch metal, previously powdered, upon it, as is requisite
to produce the effect, after which, varnish and polish it.
To Varnish G7as5. Pulverize a quantity of gum adragant, and let
it dissolve for twenty-four hours in the white of eggs well beat up j

then rub it gently on the glass v\dth a brush.

To Varnish Balloons. No. 1. The compositions for varnishing
balloons have been variously modified 3 but, upon the whole, the
most approved appears to be the bird-lime varnish of M. Faujas St,
Fond, prepared after M. Cavallos method as follows : In order to
render linseed oil drying, boil it with 2 ounces of sugar of lead, and 3
ounces of litharge, for every pint of oil, till they are dissolved, which
may be in half an hour. Then put a pound of bird-lime, and half a
pint of the drying oil, into an iron or copper vessel, whose capaeity
should equal about a gallon, and let it boil very gently over a slow
charcoal fire, till the bird-lime ceases to crackle, which will be in
about half, or three-quarters, of an hour ; then pour upon it two
and a half pints more of the drying oil, and let it boil about an
hour longer 3 stirring it frequently with an iron or wooden spatula.
As the varnish, whilst boiling, and especially when nearly ready,
swells very much, care should be taken to remove, in those cases, the
pot from the fire, and to replace it w'hen the varnish subsides 3 other-
wise it will boil over. Whilst the stuff is boiling, the operator should
occasionally examine whether it has boiled enough, which may be
known by observing whether, when rubbed between two knives,
which are then to be separated from one another, the varnish forms
threads between them, as it must then be removed from the fire.
When nearly cool, add about an equal quantity of oil of turpentine.
In using the varnish, the stuff must be stretched, and the varnish ap-
plied lukewarm. In 24 hours it w ill dry.
 APPENDIX. 751
No. 2. As the elastic resin, known by the name of Indian rubber,
has been much extolled for a varnish, the following method of making
it, as practised by M. Blanchard, may not prove unacceptable.
Dissolve elastic gum, cut small, in five times its weight of rectified
essential oil of turpentine, by keeping them some days together ;

then boil 1 ounce of this solution in 8 ounces of drying linseed oil for
a few minutes j strain the solution, and use it warm.

To Varnish Rarefied Air Balloons. With regard to the rarefied-air
machines, M. Cavallo recommends, first, to soak the cloth in a solu-
tion of sal-ammoniac and common size, using one pound of each to
every gallon of water ; and when the cloth is quite dry, to paint it
over on the inside with some earthy colour, and strong size or
glue. When this paint has dried perfectly, it will then be proper to
cover it wdth oily varnish, which miglit dry before it could penetrate
quite through the cloth. Simple drying linseed oil will answer the
purpose as well as any, provided it be not very fluid.
To Paint Sail- Cloth i &;c. so as to be pliant, durable, and impervi-
ous to Water.
This process, which is extracted from the Transactions
of the Society of Arts, is now universally practised in the public
dock-yards.
The paint usually laid upon canvas hardens to such a degree as to
crack, and eventually to break the canvas, which renders it unser-
viceable in a short time but the canvas painted in the new manner
:

is .so superior, that all canvas used in the navy is thus prepared ; and
a saving of a guinea is made in every one himdred square yards of
canvas so painted.
The mode of painting canvas, was to w^et the canvas, and
old
prime with Spanish brown j then to give it a second coat of a cho-
it

colate colour, made by mixing Spanish iDrown and black paint and, :

lastly, to finish it with black.

The new method is to grind 96 lbs. of English ochre with boiled
oil, and to add 16 lbs. of black paint, which mixture forms an indif-
ferent black. A pound of yellow soap dissolved in six pints of water
over the fire, is mixed, while hot, v\ith the paint. This compo-
sition is then laid upon the canvas, (without being wetted, as in the
usual way,) as stiff as can conveniently be done with the brusli, so as
to form a smooth surface j the next day, or still better, on the second
day, a second coat of ochre and black (without any, or but a very
small portion of soap) is laid on, and allowing this coat an interme-
diate day for drying, the canvas is then finished with black paint as
usual. Three days being then allowed for it to dry and harden, it
does not stick together when taken down, and folded in cloths con-
taining 60 or 70 yards each j and canvas finished entirely witli the
composition, leaving it to dry one day between each coat, will not
stick together, if laid in quantities.
has been ascertained from actual trials, that the solution of yel-
It
low soap is a preservative to red, yellow, and black paints, when
ground in oil and put into casks, they acquire no improper hard-
 752 APPENDIX.
ness, and dry in a remarkable manner when laid on with the brash,
without the use of the usual drying articles.
It is surprising that the adoption of soap, which is so well known
to be miscible with oily substances, or, at least, the alkali of which
it is composed, has not already been brought into use in the compo-
sition of oil colours.
Coloured Compositions for rendering Linen and Cloth impenetralle
to Water
Begin by washing the stuff with hot water ; then dry and
rub it between the hands until such time as it becomes perfectly sup-
ple ; afterwards spread it out by drawing it into a frame, and
give it, with the aid of a brush, a first coat, composed of a mixture
of eight quarts of boiling linseed oil, 15 grammes of calcined amber
and acetate of lead, (of each 7 ^grammes) to which add grammes
of lamp-black. For the second coat use the same ingredients as
above? except the calx of lead. This coat will give a few hours, ac-
cording to the season j afterwards take a dry plasterers brush, and
rub the stuff strongly with it, when the hair by this operation will
become very smooth. The third and last coat will give a perfect and
durable jet black.
Or rather take 12 quarts of boiling linseed oil, 30 grammes of am-
ber, 15 grammes of acetate of lead, 7^ sulphate of zinc, 15 Prussian
blue, and 7\ verdigris ; mix them very fine with a little oil, and add
120 grammes of lamp-black. These coats are used at discretion, as
is done with painting.
To Thicken Linen Cloth for Screens and Bed Testers* Grind whi-
ting with zinc, and to prevent cracking, add a little honey to it 5
then take a soft brush, and lay it upon the cloth, and so do two or
three times, suffering it the mean while to dry between layings on,
and for the last laying, smooth it over with Spanish white, ground
with linseed oil, the oil being first heated, and mixed with a small
quantity of the litharge of gold, the better to endure the weather,
and so it will be lasting.

Common Wax, or Varnished Cloth, The manufacture of this kind
of cloth is very simple. The cloth and linseed oil are the principal
articles required for the establishment. Common canvas, of an open
and coarse texture, is extended on large frames, placed under sheds,
the sides of which are open, so as to afford a free passage to the ex-
ternal air. The manner in which the cloth is fastened to these franaes
is as follows : it is fixed to each side of the frame by hooks which
catch the edge of the cloth, and by pieces of strong packthread pass-
ing through holes at the other extremity of the hooks, which are tied
round moveable pegs placed in the lower edge of the frame. The me-
chanism by which the strings of a violin are stretched or unstretched,
will give some idea of the arrangement of the pegs employed for ex-
tending the cloth in this apparatus. By these means the cloth can
be easily stretched or relaxed, when the oily varnish has exercised an
action on its texture in the course of the operation. The whole being
thus arranged, a liquid paste made with drying oil, which may be
varied at pleasure, is applied to the cloth.
 APPENDIX. 753

To make Liquid Paste with Drying Oil. Mix Spanish white or
tobacco-pipe clay, or any other argillaceous matter, with water, and
leave it at rest some hours, which will be sufficient to separate the
argillaceous parts, and to produce a sediment. Stir the sediment with
a broom, to complete the division of the earth j and after it has
rested some seconds, decant the turbid water into an earthen or
wooden vessel. By this process the earth will be separated from the
sand and other foreign bodies, which, are precipitated, and which
must be thrown away. If the earth has been washed by the same
process, on a large scale, it is divided by kneading it. The super-
natant water is thrown aside, and the sediment placed, in sieves, on
pieces of cloth, where it is suffered to drain: it is then mixed up with
oil rendered drying by a large dose of litharge, that is about a fourth
of the weight of the oil. The consistence of thin paste being given
to the mixture, it is spread over the cloth by means of an iron spatu-
la, the length of which is equal to that of the breadth of the cloth.
This spatula performs the part of a knife, and pushes forward the
excess of matter above the quantity sufficient to cover the cloth.
When the first stratum is dry, a second is applied. The inequalities
produced by the coarseness of the cloth, or by an unequal extension
of the paste, are smoothed down with pumice-stone. The pumice-
stone is reduced to powder, and rubbed over the cloth with a piece of
soft serge or cork dipped in water. The cloth must then be well
washed in water to clean it j and after it is dried, a varnish of guin
lac dissolved in linseed oil boiled with turpentine, is to be applied
to it.
This preparation produces yellowish varnished cloth. When
wanted black, mix lamp-black with the Spanish white, or tobacco-
pipe clay, which forms the basis of the liquid paste. Various shades
of grey may be obtained, according to the quantity of .lamp-black
which is added. Umber, Cologne earth, and different ochry argilla-
ceous earths, may be used to vary the tints, without causing any
addition to the expense.

To prepare jine Printed Varnished Cloths. The process just de-
scribed for manufacturing common varnished and polished cloths,
may serve to give some idea of that employed for making fine cloths
of the same kind, decorated with a coloured impression. The manu-
factories of Germany have varnished cloths embellished with large
and small subjects, figures, and landscapes, well executed, and which
are destined for covering furniture subjected to daily use.
This process, which is only an improvement of the former, requires
a finer paste, and cloth of a more delicate texture. The stratum of
paste is applied in the same manner, and when dry and polished, the
cloth is taken from the frame and removed to the painters table,
where the art of the colourist and designer is displayed under a
thousand forms ; and, as in that of printed cottons, exhibits a rich-
ness of tints, and a distribution of subjects, which discover taste,
and ensure a ready sale for the articles manufactured.
The processes, however, employed in these two arts to extract the
3 C
754 APPENDIX.
colouring parts are not the same. In the art of cotton printing the
colours are extracted by the bath, as in that of dyeing. In printing
varnished cloths, the colouring parts are the result of the union of
drying oil mixed with varnish 5 and the different colours employed in
oil painting or painting in varnish.
The varnish applied to common oil cloth is composed of gum lac
and drying linseed oil j but that destined for printed varnished cloths
requires some choice, both in regard to the oil and the resinous matter
which gives it consistence. Prepared oil of pinks and copal form a
varnish very little coloured, pliable, and solid.

To prepare Varnished Silk. No. 1. Varnished silk, for making
umbrellas, capots, coverings for hats, &c. is prepared in the same
manner as the varnished and polished cloths already described, but
with some variation in the liquid paste or varnish.
If the surface of the silk be pretty large, it is made fast to a
wooden frame furnished with hooks and moveable pegs, such as that
used in the manufacture of common varnished cloths. A soft paste,
composed of linseed oil, boiled with a fourth part of litharge j to-
bacco-pipe clay, dried and sifted through a silk sieve, 16 parts ;
litharge ground on porphyry with water, dried and sifted in the same
manner, 3 parts j and lamp-black, 1 part. This paste is then spread
in an uniform manner over the surface of the silk, by means of a
long knife, having a handle at each extremity. In summer, twenty-
four hours are sufficient for its desiccation. When dry, the knots
produced by the inequalities of the silk are smoothed with pumice-
stone. This operation is performed with water, and when finished,
the surface of the silk is w ashed. It is then suffered to dry, and flat
copal varnish is applied.
If it be intended to polish this varnish, apply a second stratum j
after whicli polish it with a ball of cloth and very fine tripoli. The
varnished silk thus made, is very black, exceedingly pliable, and has a
fine polish. It may be rumpled a thousand ways without retaining
any fold, or even the mark of one. It is light, and thereby proper
for coverings to hats, and for making cloaks and caps so useful to
travellers in wet weather.
No. 2. A kind of varnished silk, wffiich has only a yellowish
colour, and wdiich suffers the texture of the stuff to appear, is pre-
pared with a mixture of 3 parts boiled oil of pinks, and 1 part of fat
copal varnish, which is extended wdth a coarse brush or a knife. Two
strata are sufficient when oil has been freed from its greasy particles
over a slow fire, or when boiled with a fourth part of its weight of
litharge.
The inequalities areremoved by pumice-stone and water ; after
which the copal varnish is applied. This simple operation gives to
white silk a yellow colour, which arises from the boiled oil and the
varnish.
This varnished silk possesses all those qualities ascribed to certain
preparations of silk which are recommended to be worn as jackets by
persons subject to rheumatism.
 APPENDIX. 755
To recover Clear filth with a leymade
of potash,
and the ashes of the lees of wine ; then take 48 ounces of potash,
and 1 6 of the above-mentioned ashes, and put them into 6 quarts of
water, and this completes the ley.

To polish Varnish. This is effected with pumice-stone and Tripoli
earth. The pumice-stone must be reduced to an impalpable powder,
and put upon a piece of serge moistened with water j with this rub
lightly and equally the varnished substance. The tripoli must also
be reduced to a very fine powder, and put upon a clean woollen cloth,
moistened with olive oil, with which the polishing is to be performed.
The varnish is then to be wiped off with soft linen, and when quite
dry, cleaned with starch or Spanish white, and rubbed with the palm
of the hand.

ANTI-ATTRITION.

To prepare Anti-Attrition* According to the specification of the
patent, this mixture consists of one hundred weight of plumbago, to
four hundred weight of hogs-lard, or other grease 3 the two to be
well incorporated. The application is to prevent the effects of fric-
tion in all descriptions of engines or machines j and a sufficient
quantity must be rubbed over the surface of the axle, spindle, or
other part where the bearing is.

ASSAYING OF METALLIC ORES.

Before metallic ores are worked upon in the large way, it will be
necessary to enquire what sort of metal, and what portion of it, is
to be found in a determined quantity of the ore ; to discover whether
it will be worth while to extract it largely, and in what manner the

process is to be conducted, so as to answer that purpose. The know-

ledge requisite for this, is called the art of assaying.

Assay of Ores in the Dry Way* The assaying of ores may be per-
formed either in the dry or moist way ; the first is the most ancient,
and, in many respects, the most advantageous, and consequently still
continues to be mostly used.
Assays are made either in crucibles with the blast of the bellows,
or in tests under a muffle.

Assay Weights. The assay weights are always imaginary, some-
times an ounce represents an hundred weight on the large scale, and
is subdivided into the same number of parts, as that hundred weight
is in the great ; so that the contents of the ore obtained by the as-
say, shall accurately determine by such relative proportion, the quan-
tity to be expected from any weight of the ore on a larger scale.
Roasting the Ore. In the lotting of the ores, care should be taken
to have small portions from different specimens, which should be pul-
"56 APPENDIX.

verized, and well mixed In an iron or brass mortar. The proper

quantity of the ore is now taken, and if it contain either sulphur or
arsenic, it is put into a crucible or test, and exposed to a moderate
degree of heat, till no vapour arises from it ; to assist this volatiliza-
tion, some add a small quantity of powdered charcoal.
Fluxes. To assist the fusion of the ores, and to convert the ex-
traneous matters connected with them into scoria, assayers use dif-
ferent kinds of fluxes. The most usual and efficacious materials for
the composition of these are, borax, tartar, nitre, sal ammoniac,
coraraou salt, glass, fluor-spar, charcoal powder, pitch, lime, litharge,
&c. in different proportions.

Crude of White Flux. This consists of 1 part of nitre, and 2 of
tartar, well mixed together.

Black Flux. The above crude flux detonates by means of kindled
charcoal, and if the detonation be effected in a mortar slightly covered,
the smoke that rises unites with the alkalised nitre and the tartar,
and renders it black.
Cornish Reducing Flux.
10 oz. of tartar,
3 oz. and 6 drachms of nitre, and
3 oz. and 1 drachm of borax. Mixt well together.
Cornish Refining Flux. Deflagrate, and afterwards pulverize, 2
parts of nitre, and 1 part of tartar.
The above fluxes answer the purpose very well, provided the ores
be deprived of all their sulphur j or, if they contain much earthy mat-
ters, because, in the latter case, they unite with them, and convert
them into a thin glass but if any quantity of sulphur remain, these
:

fluxes unite with it, and form a liver of sulphur, which has the power
of destroying a portion of all the metals ; consequently, the assay
under such circumstances must be very inaccurate. The principal
difficulty in assaying appears to be in the appropriation of the pro-
per fluxes to each particular ore, and it likewise appears, that such a
discriminating knowledge can only be acquired from an extensive
practice, or from a knowledge of the chemical affinities and ac-
tions of different bodies upon each other.
In assaying, we are at liberty to use the most expensive materials
to effect our purpose, hence, the use of different saline fluxes ; but in
the working at large, such expensive means cannot be applied ; as by
such processes the inferior metals w'ould be too much enhanced in
value, especially in working very poor ores. In consequence of
which, in smelting works, where the object is the production of metals
in the great way, cheaper additions are used j such as lime-stone,
feldt-spar, fluor-spar, quartz, sand, slate, and slags. These are to
be chosen according to the different views of the operator, and the
nature of the ores. Thus iron ores, on account of the argillaceous
earth they contain, require calcareous additions, and the copper ores,
rather slags or vitrescent stones, than calcareous earth.

Humid Assay of Metallic Ores. The mode of assaying ores for
their particular metals by the dry way, is deficient so far as relates to
 APPENDIX. 757
pointing out the different substances connected with them, because
they are always destroyed by the process for obtaining the assay
metal. The assay by the moist way is more correct, because the dif-
ferent substances can be accurately ascertained. The late celebrated
Bergman first communicated this method. It depends upon a
knowledge of the chemical affinities of different bodies for each
other j and must be varied according to the nature of the ore ; it is
very extensive in its application, and requires great patience and ad-
dress in its execution. To describe the treatment of each variety of
metallic ores, would take up too much of our room ; but to give a
general idea, we shall describe the procedure, both in the dry and the
humid way, on one species of all the different ores.

To Assay Iron Ores, No. 1. The ore must be roasted till the
vapour ceases to arise. Take 2 assay quintals of it, and triturate
them with one of fluor-spar, f of a quintal of powdered charcoal,
and 4 quintals of decrepitated sea salt^ this mixture is to be put
into a crucible, lined on the inside with clay and powdered charcoal ;
a cover must be luted upon the crucible, and the crucible itself ex-
posed to a violent fire for an hour, and when it is cool, broken.
When, if the operation has been well conducted, the iron will be found
at the bottom of the crucible j to which must be added those metal-
lic particles, which may adhere to the scoria. The metallic particles
so adhering may be separated, by pulverising it in paper, and then
attracting them with a magnet.

No. 2. If the ore should be in a calciform state, mixed with
earths, the roasting of it previous to assaying, if not detrimental, is
at least superfluous j if the earths should be of the argillaceous and
siliceous kind, to half a quintal of them, add of dry quick lime and
fluor-spar of each 1 quintal and reduced to powder, and mix them
with J of a quintal of powdered charcoal, covering the whole with
one ounce of decrepitated common salt j and expose the luted cruci-
ble to a strong forge fire for an hour and a quarter, then let it gradu-
ally cool, and let the regulus be struck off and weighed.

No. 3. If the ore contain calcareous earth, there will be no occa-
sion to add quick lime j the proportion of the ingredients may be as
follows viz. 1 assay quintal of the ore ; 1 of decrepitated sea-
salt 5 \ of powdered charcoal j and 1 of fluor-spar, and the process
conducted as above.
There is a great difference in the reguli of iron j when the cold
regulus is struck with a hammer and breaks, the iron is called cold
short : if it break on being struck red-hot, ,it is called red short
but if it resist the hammer, both in its cold and ignited state, it is
good iron.
Humid Assay of Iron Ore.To assay the calciform ores, which do
not contain much earthy or stony matter, they must be reduced to a
fine powder, and dissolved in the marine acid, and precipitated by
the Prussian alkali. A determinate quantity of the Prussian alkali
must be tried previously, to ascertain the portion of iron which it
will precipitate, and the estimate made accordingly. If the iron
758 APPENDIX.
contain any considerable portion of zinc or manganese, the precipi-
tate must be calcined to redness, and the calx treated with dephlo-
gisticated nitrous acid, which will then take up only the calx of
zinc j when this is separated, the calx should again be treated either
with nitrous acid, with the addition of sugar, or with the acetous
acid, which will dissolve the manganese, if any j the remaining calx
of iron may then be dissolved by the marine acid, and precipitated
by the mineral alkali 3 or it may be farther calcined, and then weighed.

Zinc Ores. Take the assay weight of roasted ore, and mix it
well with part of charcoal dust, put it into a strong luted earthen
retort, to which must be fitted a receiver 5 place the retort in a fur'
nace, and raise the fire, and continue it in a violent heat for two
hours, suffer it then to cool gradually, and the zinc will be found ad-
hering to the neck of the retort in its metallic form.
In the humid way. Distil vitriolic acid over calamine to dryness 3
the residuum must be lixiviated in hot water 3 Avhat remains undis-
solved is siliceous earth ; to the solution add caustic volatile alkali,
which precipitates the iron and argil, but keeps the zinc in solution.
The precipitate must be re-dissolved in vitriolic acid, and the iron
and argil separated.

Tin Ores. Mix a quintal of tin ore, previously washed, pulveriz-
ed, and roasted, till no arsenical vapour arises, with half a quintal or
calcined borax, and the same quantity of pulverized pitch 3 these are
to be put into a crucible moistened with charcoal-dust and water,
and the crucible placed in an air furnace. After the pitch is burnt,
give a Auolent heat for a quarter of an hour, and on withdrawing the
crucible, theregulus will be found at the bottom. If the ore be not
well washed from earthy matters, a larger quantity of borax will be
requisite, with some powdered glass 3 and if the ore contain iron,
some alkaline salt may be added.

In the humid way, The assay of tin ores in the liquid way, was
looked upon as impracticable, till Bergman devised the following
method, which is generally successful. Let the tin ore be well sepa-
rated from its stony matrix, by well washing, and then reduced to
the most subtle powder 3 digest it in concentrated oil of vitriol, in a
strong heat for several hours, then, when cooled, add a small portion
of concentrated marine acid, and suffer it to stand for an hour or two 3
then add water, and when the solution is clear, pour it off, and pre-

cipitate it by fixed alkali 131 grains of this precipitate, well Avash-
ed and dried, are equiA^alent to 100 of tin in its reguline state, if the
precipitate consist of pure tin 3 but if it contain copper or iron, it must
be calcined in a red heat for an hour, and then digested in nitrous
acid, which a\ ill take up the copper and afterwards in marine acid,
3
which will separate the iron.

Lead Ores, As most of the lead ores contain either sulphur or
arsenic, they require to be well roasted. Take a quintal of roasted
ore, with the same quantity of calcined borax, half a quintal of fine
powdered glass, a quarter of a quintal of pitch, and as much clean
iron filings. Line the crucible with wetted charcoal dust, and put
 APPENDIX. 759
the mixture into the crucible, and place it before the bellows of a
forge-fire. When it is red hot, raise the fire for 15 or 20 minutes,
then withdraw the crucible, and break it when cold.
In the humid way
Dissolve the ore by boiling it in dilute nitrous
,

acid 5 the sulphur, insoluble stony parts, and calx of irgn will remain.
The iron may be separated by digestion, in the marine acid, and the
sulphur by digestion, in caustic fixed alkali. The nitrous solution
contains the lead and silver, which should be precipitated by the
mineral fixed alkali, and the precipitate well washed in cold water,
dried, and weighed. Digest it in caustic volatile alkali, which will
take up the calx of silver, the residuum being again dried and
weighed, gives the proportion of the calx of lead, 132 grains of
which are equal to 100 of lead in its metallic state. The differ-
ence of weight of the precipitate before and after the application
of the volatile alkali, gives the quantity of silver, 129 grains of which
are equal to 100 of silver in its metallic state.
Copper Ores .
Take an exact troy ounce of the ore, previously pul-
verized, and calcine it well j stir it all the time with an iron rod,
without removing it from the crucible ; after the calcination add an
equal quantity of borax, half the quantity of fusible glass, one-fourth
the quantity of pitch, and a little charcoal-dust 5 rub the inner sur-
face of the crucible, w'ith a paste composed of charcoal-dust, a little
fine powdered clay and water. Cover the mass with common salt,
and put a lid on the crucible, which is to be placed in a furnace the:

fire is to be raised gradually, till itbuins briskly, and the crucible con-
tinued in it for half an hour, stirring the metal frequently with an
iron rod, and \vhen the scoria which adheres to the rod appears
clear, then the crucible must be taken out, and suffered to cool 5 after
which it must be broken, and the regulus separated and weighed 5
this is called black copper, to refine which, equal parts of common
salt and nitre are to be well mixed together. The black copper is
brought into fusion, and a tea-spoonful of the flux is thrown upon
it, which is repeated three or four times, when the metal is poured

into an ingot mould, and the button is found to be fine copper.

In the humid way .
Make a solution of vitreous copper ore, in
5 times its weight of concentrated vitriolic acid, and boil it to dry-
ness j add as much water as will dissolve the vitriol thus formed 5
to this solution add a clean bar of iron which will precipitate the
whole of the copper in its metallic form. If the solution be conta-
minated with iron, the copper must be re-dissolved in the same man-
ner, and precipitated again. The sulphur may be separated by fil-
tration.
Bismuth Ores .
If the ore be mineralized by sulphur, or sulphur
and iron, a previous roasting will be necessary. The strong ores re-
quire no roasting, but only to be reduced to a fine powder. Take
the assay weight and mix it with half the quantity of calcined bo-
rax, and the same of pounded glass ; line the cimcible with charcoal ,

melt it as quickly as possible j and when well done, take out the cru-
760 APPENDIX.
cible, and let it] cool gradually. The regulus will be found at the
bottom.
In the
Humid way. Bismuth is easily soluble in nitrous acid or
aqua-regia. Its solution is colourless, and is precipitable by the ad-
dition of pure, water j 118 grains of the precipitate from nitrous acid
well washed and dried, are equal to 100 of bismuth in its metallic
form.

Antimonial Ores. Take a common crucible, bore a number of
email holes in the bottom, and place it in another crucible a size
smaller, luting them well together, then put the proper quantity of
ore in small lumps into the upper crucible, and lute thereon a cover
place these vessels on a hearth, and surround them with stones about
six inches distant from them j the intermediate space must be filled
xvith ashes, so that the undermost crucible may be covered with them ;
but upon the upper charcoal must be laid, and the whole made red
hot l)y the assistance of hand-bellowS. The antimony being of easy
fusion is separated, and runs through the holes of the upper vessel
into the inferior one, where it is collected.
Humid Assay of Arseniated Dissolve the ore in aqua-
regia, both the regulus and arsenic remain in the solution, the sul-
phur is separated by filtration. If the solution be boiled with twice
its weight of strong nitrous acid, the regulus of antimony will be
precipitated, and the arsenic converted into an acid, which may be
obtained by evaporation to dryness.

Manganese Ore. The regulus is obtained by mixing the calx or
ore of manganese with pitch, making it into a ball, and putting it into
a crucible, lined with powdered charcoal, 1-lOth of an inch on the
sides, and 5 of an inch at bottom, then filling the empty space with
charcoal dust, covering the crucible with another inverted and luted
on, and exposing it to the strongest heat of a forge for an hour or
more.
In the
Humid Way. The ores should be first well roasted to de-
phlogisticate the calx of manganese and iron, if any, and then treated
with nitrous acid to dissolve the earths. The residuum should now
be treated with nitrous acid aud sugar, by which means a colourless
solution of manganese will be obtained, and likewise of the iron, if
any. Precipitate with the Prussian alkali, and digest the precipitate
in pure water the prussiate of manganese will be dissolved, whilst
;

the prussiate of iron will remain undissolved.

Arsenical Ores. This assay is made by sublimation in close ves-
sels. Beat the ore into small pieces, and put them into a matrass,
which place in a sand-pot, w ith a proper degree of heat ; the arsenic
sublimes in this operation, and adheres to the upper part of the ves-
sel;
when it must be carefully collected with a view to ascertain its
weight. Sometimes a single sublimation will not be sufficient, for
the arsenic in many cases will melt with the ore, and prevent its
total volatilization j in which case it is better to perform the first
sublimation with a moderate heat, and afterwards bruise the re-
mainder again, and expose it to a stronger heat.
 APPENDIX. 761
In the Humid rFat/.-Digest the ore in marine acid, adding the
nitrous by degrees to help the solution. The sulphur will be found on
the filter j the arsenic will remain in the solution, and may be preci-
pitated in its metallic form by zinc, adding spirit of wine to the so-
lution.

Nickel Ore. The ores must be well roasted to expel the sulphur
and arsenic 3 the greener the calx proves during this torrefaction,
the more it abounds in the nickel 3 but the redder it is, the more
iron it contains. The proper quantity of this roasted ore is fused in
an open crucible, with twice or thrice its weight of black flux, and
the whole covered with common salt. By exposing the crucible to
the strongest heat of a forge-fire, and making the fusion complete,
a regulus will be produced. This regulus is not pure, but contains a
portion of arsenic, cobalt, and iron. Of the first it may be deprived
by a fresh calcination, with the addition of powdered charcoal 5 and
of the second by scorification 3 but it is with difficulty that it is en-
tirely freed from the iron.
In the Humid Way.
By solution in nitrous acid, it is freed from
its sulphur ; and by adding water to the solution, bismuth, if any,
may be precipitated as may silver, if contained in it, by the marine
:

acid ; and copper, when any, by iron.

To separate cobalt from nickel, when the cobalt is in considerable
quantity, drop a saturated solution of the roasted ore in nitrous acid
into liquid volatile alkali 3 the cobaltic part is instantly re-dissolved
and assumes a garnet colour 3 when filtered, a grey powder remains
on the filter, which is the nickel. The cobalt may be precipitated
from the volatile alkali by any acid.

Cobalt Ores. Free them as much as possible from earthy matters
by well washing, and from sulphur and arsenic by roasting. The
ore thus prepared is to be mixed with three parts of black flux, and a
little decrepitated sea- salt put the mixture in a lined crucible, cover
:

it, and place it in a forge-fire, or in a hot furnace, for this ore is very

difficult of fusion.
When well fused, a metallic regulus will be found at the bottom,
covered with a scoria of a deep blue colour as almost all cobalt
:

ores contain bismuth, this is reduced by the same operation as the

regulus of cobalt ; but as they are incapable of chemically uniting
together, they are always found distinct from each other in the cru-
cible. The regulus of bismuth having a greater specific gravity, is
always at the bottom, and may be separated by a blow with a hammer.
In the Humid Way.
Make a solution of the ore in nitrous acid,
or aqua-regia, and evaporate to dryness 3 the residuum, treated with
the acetous acid will yield to it the cobaltic part ; the arsenic should
be first precipitated by the addition of water.

Mercurial Ores. The calciform ores of mercury are easily reduced
without any addition. A
quintal of the ore is put into a retort, and
a receiver luted on, containing some water 3 the retort is placed in a
sand-bath, and a sufficient degree of heat given it, to force over the
mercury which is condensed in the water of the receiver.
762 APPENDIX.
Sulphurated Mercurial Ores . ^Tlie sulphureous ores are assayed

by distillation in the manner above, only these ores require an equal

weight of clean iron-filings to be mixed with them, to disengage the
sulphur, while the heat volatilizes the mercury, and forces it into the
receiver. T!ese ores should likewise be tried for cinnabar, to know
whether it will answer the purpose of extracting it from them : for
this a determinate quantity of the ore is finely powdered and put into
a glass vessel, which is exposed to a gentle heat at first, and gradually
increased till nothing more is sublimed. By the quantity thus acquired
a judgment may be formed whether the process will answer. Some-
times this cinnabar is not of so lively a colour as that which is used
in trade ; in this case it may be refined by a second sublimation, and
if it be still of too dark a colour, it may be brightened by the addi-
tion of a quantity of mercury, and subliming it again.
Humid Assay of Cinaf;ar. The stony matrix should be dissolved
in nitrous acid, and the cinnabar, being disengaged, should be boiled
in 8 or 10 times its weight of aqua regia, composed of 3 parts nitrous,
and 1 of marine acid. The mercury may be precipitated in its run-
ning form by zinc.
Silver Ores
. Take the assay quantity of the ore finely powdered,
and roast it well in a proper degree of heat, frequently stirring it
with an iron rod j then add to it about double the quantity of gra-
nulated lead, put it in a covered crucible, and place it in a furnace j
raise the fire gently at first, and continue to increase it gradually,
till the metal begins to work j if it should appear too thick, make it

thinner by the addition of a little more lead j if the metal should

boil too rapidly, the fire should be diminished. The surface will be
covered by degrees with a mass of scoria, at which time the metal
should be carefully stirred with an iron hook heated, 'especially to-
wards the border, lest any of the ore should remain undissolved j
and if what is adherent to the hook when raised from the crucible,
melts quickly again, and the extremity of the hook, after it is grown
cold, is covered with a thin, shining, smooth crust, the scorification is
perfect j but, on the contrary, if while stirring it, any considerable
clamminess is perceived in the scoria, and when it adheres to the
hook, though red hot, and appears unequally tinged, and seems dusty
or rough, with grains interspersed here and there, the scorification
is incomplete ; in consequence of which the fire should be increased
a little, and what adheres to the hook should be gently beaten off,
and returned with a small ladle into the crucible again. When the
scorification is perfect, the metal should be poured into a cone, pre-
viously rubbed with a little tallow, and when it becomes cold, the
scoria may be separated by a few strokes of a hammer. The button
is the produce of the assay.

By Take the assay quantity of ore, roast and grind

it with an equal portion of litharge, divide it into 2 or 3 parts, and

wrap each up in a small piece of paper 3 put a cupel previously sea-

soned under a muffle, with about 6 times the quantity of lead upon it.
AVhen the lead begins to work, carefully put one of the papers upon
 APPENDIX* 763
it, and after this is absorbed, put on a second, and so on till the whole

quantity is introduced^ then raise the fire, and as the scoria is formed,
it will be taken up by the cupel, and at last the silver will remain

alone. This will be the produce of the assay, unless the lead con-
tains a small portion of silver, which may be discovered by putting
an equal quantity of the same lead on another cupel, and working it
off at the same time ; if any silver be produced it must be deducted
from the assay. This is called the witness.
In the humid way .
Boil vitreous silver ore in dilute nitrous acid,
using about 25 times its weight, until the sulphur is quite exhausted.
The silver may be precipitated from the solution by marine acid, or
common salt ; 100 grains of this precipitate contain 75 of real silver
if it contain any gold it will remain undissolved. Fixed alkalies pre-
cipitate the earthy matters, and the Prussian alkali will show if any
other metal be contained in the solution.

To Assay the value of Silver , The general method of examining
the purity of silver is by mixing it with a quantity of lead propor-
tionate to the supposed portion of alloy by testing this mixture,
:

and afterwards weighing the remaining button of silver. This is the

same process as refining silver by cupellation.
It is supposed that the mass of silver to be examined, consists of
12 equal parts, called penny-weights j so that if an ingot weighs an
ounce, each of the parts will be l- 12 th of an ounce. Hence, if
the mass of silver be pure, it is called silver of 12 penny-weights 5
if it contain 1 - 1 th of its weight of alloy, it is called silver of 11
penny-weights : if 2 - 12 ths of its weight be alloy, it is called silver
of 10 penny-weights ; which parts of pure silver are called 5 penny-
weights. It must be observed here, that assayers give the name
penny-weight, to a w'eight equal to 24 real grains, which must not
be confounded with their ideal w'eights. The assayers grains a/e
called fine grains. An ingot of fine silver, or silver of 12 penny-
weghts, contains, then, 288 fine grains 3 if this ingot contain 1 -288th
of alloy, it is said to be silver of 11 penny-weights and 23 grains ;
if it contain 4-288ths of alloy, it is said to be 1 1 penny-weights, 20
grains, &c. Now a certain real weight must be taken to represent
the assay- weights : for instance, 36 real grains represent 12 fine
penny- weights ; this is subdivided into a sufficient number of other
smaller weights, wdiich also represent fractions of fine penny-weights
and grains. Thus, 18 real grains represent 6 fine penny- weights ;
3 real grains represent 1 fine penny-weight, or 24 grains 3 a real
grain and a half represents 12 fine grains :l-32d of a real grain re-
presents a quarter of a fine grain, which is only 1 -752nd part of a
massof 12 penny-w'eights.
Double Assay of Silver ,
It is customary to make a double assay.
The silver for the assay should be taken from opposite sides of the
ingot, and tried on a touch-stone. Assayers know pretty nearly the
value of silver merely by the look of the ingot, and still better by
the test of the touch-stone. The quantity of lead to be added is re-
764 APPENDIX.
gulated by the portion of alloy, which being in general copper, will
be nearly as follows :
Silver of dwts. grs. dvvts. grs. Requires from
11 6 5 to 6
0 12 8 9 .SP

From 19 18 to 0 12 13 "S

8 6 12 13 14
lo J
4 / ^iS
6 18 0 1415 I*"-
14
3 0 12 0 16 1 I
1 12 18 0 20JS
The cupel must be heated red hot for half an hour before any me-
tal is put upon it, by which all moisture is expelled. When the cupel
is almost white by heat, the lead is put into it, and the fire increased
till the lead becomes red hot, smoking, and agitated by a motion of

all its parts, called its circulation. Then the silver is to be put on
the cupel, and the fire continued till the silver has entered the lead j
and when the mass circulates well, the heat must be diminished by
closing more or less the door of the assay furnace. The heat should
be so regulated, that the metal on its surface may appear convex and
ardent, while the cupel is less red j that the smoke shall rise to the
roof of the mufile ; that undulations shall be made in all directions ;
and that the middle of the metal shall appear smooth, with a small
circle of litharge, which is continually imbibed by the cupel. By
this treatment, the lead and alloy will entirely be absorbed by the cupel,
and the become bright and shining, when it is said to lighten j
silver
after which, the operation has been well performed, the silver will
if

be covered with rainbow colours, which quickly undulate and cross

each other, and then the button becomes fixed and solid.
The diminution of weight shews the quantity of alloy. As all lead
contains a small portion of silver, an equal weight with that used in
the assay, is tested off, and the product deducted from the assay
weight. This portion is called the witness.
To Assay Plated Metals ,
Take a determinate quantity of the
plated metal j put it into an earthen vessel, with a sufficient quan-
tity of the above menstruum, and place it in a gentle heat. When
the silver is stripped, it must be collected with common salt ; the
calx must be tested with lead, and the estimate made according to
the product of silver.

Ores and Earths containing Gold. No, 1 .That which is now
most generally used is by amalgamation, the proper quantity is taken
and reduced to a powder ; about 1-1 0th of its weight of pure quick-
silver is added, and the whole triturated in an iron mortar. The at-
traction subsisting between the gold and quicksilver, quickly unites
them in the form of an amalgam, which is pressed through sharaois
leather ; the gold is easily separated from this amalgam, by exposure
to a proper degree of heat, which evaporates the quicksilver, and
leaves the gold. This evaporation should be made with luted vessels.
This is the foundation of all the operations by which gold is ob-
tained from the rich mines of Peru, in Spanish America.
 APPENDIX. 765
No. 2. ^Take a quantity of the gold-sand, and heat it red-hot,
quench it in water j repeat this two or three times, and the colour of

the sand will become a reddish brown. Then mix it with twice its
weight of litharge, and revive the litharge into lead, by adding a
small portion of charcoal-dust, and exposing it to a proper degree of
heat j when the lead revives, it separates the gold from the sand j
and the freeing of the gold from the lead must be afterwards per-
formed by cupellation.

No. 3. Bergman assayed metallic ores containing gold, by mixing
two parts of the ore, well pounded and washed, with 1^ of litharge,
and 3 of glass ; covering the whole with common salt, and melting it
in a smiths forge, in a covered crucible 3 he then opened the crucible,
put a nail into it, and continued to do so, till the iron was no longer
attacked. The lead w^as thus precipitated which contained the gold,
and was afterwards separated by cupellation.

Humid Assay of Gold mixed with Martial Pyrites. Dissolve the
ore in twelve times its weight of dilute nitrous acid, gradually added j
place it in a proper degree of heat j this takes up the soluble parts,
and leaves the gold untouched, with the insoluble matrix, from which
it may be separated by aqua regia. The gold may be again separated
from the aqua regia by pouring ether upon it 3 the ether takes up the
gold, and by being burnt off leaves it in its metallic state. The solu-
tion may contain iron, copper, manganese, calcareous earth, or argil 3

if it be evaporated to dryness, and the residuum heated to redness

for half an hour, volatile alkali will extract the copper 3 dephlogisti-
cated nitrous acid, the earths^ the acetous acid, the manganese 3 and
the marine acid, the calx of iron. The sulphur floats on the first
solution, from which it should be separated by filtration.

PARTING.

By this process gold and silver are separated from each other.
These two metals equally resisting the action of fire and lead, must
therefore be separated by other means. This is effected by different
menstrua. Nitrous acid, marine acid and sulphur, which cannot attack
gold, operate upon silver 3 and these are the principal agents em-
ployed in this process.
Parting by nitrous acid is most convenient, consequently most
used, indeed, it is the only one employed by goldsmiths. This is
called simply parting.
That made by the marine acid is by cementation, and is called
centrated parting
; and parting by sulphur is made by fusion, and
calledDry Parting.
Parting by Aqua^Fortis. This process cannot succeed unless we
attend to some essential circumstances 1st. The gold and silver
:

must be in a proper portion, viz. the silver ought to be three parts to

one of gold 3 though a mass containing two parts of silver to one of
 766 APPENDIX. ,

gold may be parted. To judge of the quality of the metal to be

parted, assayers make a comparison upon a touch-stone, between it
and certain needles composed of gold and silver, in graduated pro-
portions, and properly marked which are called Proof Needles.
,

If this trial shews that the silver is not to the gold as three to one,
the mass is improper for the operation, unless more silver be added ;
and 2dly, that the parting may be exact, the aqua-fortis must be vecy
pure, especially free from any mixture of the vitriolic or marine acid.
For if this were not attended to, a quantity of silver proportionable
to these two foreign acids would be separated during the solution ;
and this quantity of sulphate of silver would remain mingled with
the gold, which consequently would not be entirely purified by the
operation,
- The gold and be parted ought previously to be granulated,
silver to
by melting a crucible, and pouring it into a vessel of water,
it in
giving the water at the same time a rapid circular motion, by quickly
stirring it round with a stick. The vessels generally used in this
operation are called parting glasses, which ought to be very well
annealed, and chosen free from flaws ; as one of the chief inconve-
niences attending the operation is, that the glasses are apt to crack by
exposure to cold, or even when touched by the hand. Some operators
secure the bottom of che glasses by a coating composed of a mixture
of new-slaked lime, with beer and whites of eggs spread on a cloth,
and wrapped round the glasses at the bottom ; over which they apply
a composition of clay and hair. The parting glasses should be
placed in vessels containing water supported by trivets, with a fire
under them ; because if a glass should break, the contents are caught
in the vessel of water. If the heat communicated to the water be
too great, it may be properly regulated by pouring cold water gradually
and carefully down the side of the vessel into a parting glass 15
inches high, and 10 or 12 inches wide at the bottom ; placed in a
copper pan 12 inches wide at bottom, 15 inches wide at top, and 10
inches high 3 there is usually put about 80 oz. of metal, with twice
asmuch of aqua-fortis.
The aqua-fortis ought to be so strong as to act sensibly on silver
when cold, but not so strong as to act violently. Little heat should
be applied at as the liquor is apt to swell and rise over the
first,
vessel 5
but the acid is nearly saturated, the heat may safely be
when
increased. When the solution ceases, which is known by the effer-
vescence discontinuing, the liquor is to be poured off, if any grains
appear entire, more aqua-fortis must be added, till the silver is all
dissolved. If the operation has been performed slowly, the remaining
gold will have the form of distinct masses. The gold appears black
after parting ; its parts have no adhesion together, because the silver
dissolved from it has left many interstices. To give them more soli-
dity, and improve their colour, they are put into a test under a muQle,
and made red hot, after which they contract and become more solid,
and the gold resumes its colour and lustre. It is then called Grain
Gold. If the operation has been performed hastily, the gold will
 APPENDIX. 7^7
have the appearance of black mud or powder, which, after well
washing, must be melted.
The silver is usually recovered by precipitating it from the aqua-
fortis by means of pure copper. If the solution be perfectly satu-
rated, no precipitation can take place, till a few drops of aqua-fortis
are added to the liquor. The preeipitate of silver must be w'ell
washed with boiling water, and may be fused with nitre, or tested off
with lead.
Parting ly Cementation.^^ cement is prepared, composed of 4
parts of bricks powdered and sifted 5 of one part of green vitriol
calcined till it becomes red j and of one part of common salt :this
is to be made into a firm paste with a little water. It is called the
Cement Royal.
The gold to be cemented is reduced into plates as thin as money.
At the bottom of the crucible or cementing pot, a stratum of cement,
of the thickness of a finger, is put, which is covered with plates of
gold ; and so the strata are placed alternately. The whole is covered
wdth a lid, which is luted with a mixture of clay and sand. This
pot must be placed in a furnace or oven, heated gradually till it
becomes red hot, in which it must be continued during 24 hours. The
heat must not melt the gold. The pot or crucible is then suffered to
cool ; and the gold carefully separated from the cement, and boiled
at different times in a large quantity of pure water. It is then assayed
upon a touch-stone, or otherwise 5 and if it be not sufficiently pure,
it is cemented a second time. In this process the vitriolic acid of the
bricks, and of the calcined vitriol, decomposes the common salt during
the cementation, by uniting to its alkaline base, w'hile the marine acid
becomes concentrated by the heat, and dissolves the silver alloyed
with the gold. This is a very troublesome process, though it suc-
ceeds when the portion of silver is so small that it would be defended
from the action of aqua-fortis by the super-abundant gold j but is
little used, except to extract silver, or base metals, from the surface
of gold, and thus giving to an alloyed metal, the colour and appear-
ance of pure gold.

Dry Parting. This process is performed by sulphur, which will
easily unite with silver, but does not attack gold. As this dry
parting is even troublesome as well as expensive, it ought not to be
undertaken but on a considerable quantity of silver alloyed with gold.

The general procedure is as follows. The metal must be granulated^
from T8 to 1*5 of it (according as it is richer or poorer in the gold.)
is reserved, and the rest well mingled with an eighth of powdered
sulphur 5 and put into a crucible, keeping a gentle fire, that the sil-
ver, before melting, may be thoroughly penetrated by the sulphur ;
if the fire be hastily urged, the sulphur will be dissipated. If to
sulphurated silver infusion, pure silver be added, the latter falls to
the bottom, and forms there a distinct fluid, not miscible with the
other. The particles of gold having no affinity with the sulphurated
silver, join themselves to the pure silver wherever they come in con-
tact, and are thus transferred from the former into the latter, more or
 7C8 APPENDIX.
less perfectly, according as the pure silver was more or less thorough-
ly diffused through the mixture. It is for this use that a part of the
granulated silver was reserved. The sulphurated mass being brought
into fusion, and kept melting for nearly an hour in a covered crucible,
one third of the reserved grains is thrown in, which, when melted,
the whole is well stirred, that the fresh silver may be distributed
through the mixed to collect the gold from it ; this is performed with
a wooden rod. This is repeated till the whole reserved metal be in-
troduced. The sulphurated silver appears, in fusion, of a dark brown
colour 3 after it has been kept in fusion for a certain time, a part of
the sulphur having escaped from the top, the surface becomes white,
and some bright drops of silver, about the size of a pea, are perceived
on it. When this happens the fire must be immediately disconti-
nued, for otherwise more and more of the silver thus losing its sul-
phur, would subside and mingle with the part at the bottom, in which
the gold is collected. The w^hole is poured into an iron mortar greased
and duly heated. The gold diffused at first through the whole mass,
is now found collected in a part of it at the bottom, (amounting only
to about as much as was reserved unsulphurated from the mass) by a
chisel or hammer, or more perfectly by placing the whole mass with
its bottom upwards in a crucible, the sulphurated part quickly melts,
leaving, unmelted, that which contains the gold. The sulphurated
silver is assayed, by keeping a portion of it in fusion in an open cru-
cible, till the sulphur is dissipated, and then by dissolving it in aqua-
fortis. If it should still be found to contain gold, it must be sub-
jected to the same treatment as before. The gold thus collected may
be concentrated into a smaller part by repeating the whole process,
so that at last it may be parted by aqua-fortis without too much ex-
pense.

IRON AND STEEL;

Expeditious mode of reducing Iron Ore into Mallealle /ro72.The
way of proceeding is by stamping, washing, &c. the calcine and ma-
terials, to separate the ore from extraneous matter j then fusing the
prepared ore in an open furnace, and instead of casting it, to suffer
it to remain at the bottom of the furnace till it becomes cold.
New Method of Shingling and Manufacturing Iron. The ore
being fused in a reverberating furnace, is conveyed, whilst fluid, into
an air-furnace, where it is exposed to a strong heat, till a bluish
flame is observed on the surface ; it is then agitated on the surface,
till it loses its fusibility, and is collected into lumps called loops.
These loops are then put into another air-furnace, brought to a white
or welding heat, and then shingled into half-l looms or slabes. They
are again exposed to the air-furnace, and the half-blooms taken out
and forged into anconies, bars, half-Jiats, and rods for tvire 3 while
the slabes are passed, when of a welding heat, through the grooved
rollers. In this way of proceeding, it matters not whether the iron
is prepared from cold or hot-short metal, nor is there any occasion
 APPENDIX.
for the use of finery, charcoal, coke, chafery, or hollow fire 5 or any
blast by bellows j or otherwise : or the use of fluxes, in any part of
the process.
Approved Method of Welding /row. This consists in the skilful
bundling of the iron to be welded j in the use of an extraordinary
large forge-hammer, in employing a balling-furnace, instead of a hol-
low fire or chafery ; and in passing the iron, reduced to a melting heat,
through grooved mill-rollers of different shapes and sizes, as required.

Common Hardening. Iron, by being heated red hot, and plunged
into cold water, acquires a great degree of hardness. This proceeds
from the coldness of the water which contracts the particles of the
iron into less space.
Case- Hardening. -^Case-h'dvdenmg is a superficial conversion of
iron into steel by cementation. It is performed on small pieces of
iron, by enclosing them in an iron box, containing burnt leather,
bone-dust, or any other carbonic material, and exposing them for
some hours to a red heat. The surface of the iron thus becomes per-
fectly metallized. Iron thus treated is susceptible of the finest polish.

To convert Iron into Steel by Cementatiom The iron is formed
into bars of a convenient size, and then placed in a cementing fur-
nace, with sufficient quantity of cement, which is composed of coals
of animal or vegetable substances, mixed with calcined bones, &c. The
following are very excellent cement : 1st, one part of powdered
charcoal, and half a part of wood-ashes well mixed together 5 or,
2dly, two parts of charcoal, moderately powdered, one part of bones,
horn, hair, or skins of animals, burnt in close vessels to blackness
and powdered 5 and half a part of wood-ashes 5 mix them well to-
gether. The bars of iron to be converted into steel, are placed upon
a stratum of cement, and covered all over with the same ; and the
vessel which contains them, closely luted, must be exposed to a red
heat for 8 or 10 hours, when the iron will be converted into steel.
Steel is prepared from bar iron by fusion ; which consists of plung-
ing a bar into melted iron, and keeping it there for tome time, by
which process it is converted into good steel.
All iron which becomes harder by suddenly quenching in cold
water is called steel 5 and that steel w'hich in quenching acquires the
greatest degree of hardness in the lowest degree of heat, and retains
the greatest strength in and after induration, ought to be considered
as the best.

Improved process of hardening Steel. Articles manufactured of steel
for the purposes of cutting, are, almost without an exception, hard-
ened from the anvil j in other words, they are taken from the forger
to the hardener without undergoing any intermediate process ; and
such is the accustomed routine, that the mischief arising has escaped
observation. The act of forging produces a strong scale or coating,
which is spread over the whole of the blade ; and to make the evil
still more formidable, this scale or coating is unequal in substance

varying in proportion to the degree of heat communicated to the

steel in forging j it is, partially, almost impenetrable to the action of
770 APPENDIX.
water* when immersed for the purpose of hardening. HenCe it is
that different degrees of hardness prevail in nearly every razor ma-
nufactured :this is evidently a positive defect j and so long as it
continues to exist, great difference of temperature must exist like-
wise. Razor-blades not unfrequently exhibit the fact here stated in
a very striking manner what are termed clouds, or parts of unequal
;

polish, derive their origin from this cause 3 and clearly and distinctly,
or rather distinctly though not clearly, show how far this partial
coating has extended, and where the action of the water has been
yielded to, and where resisted. It certainly cannot be matter of asto-
nishment, that so few improvements have been made in the harden-
ing of steel, when the evil here complained of so universally obtains,
as almost to warrant the supposition that no attempt has ever been
made to remove it. The remedy, however, is easy and simple in the
extreme, and so evidently efficient in its application, that it cannot
but excite surprise, that, in the present highly improved state of our
manufactures, such a communication should be made as a discovery
entirely new.
Instead, therefore, of the customary mode of hardening the blade
from the anvil, let be passed immediately from the hands of the
it

forger to the grinder ; a slight application of the stone will remove

the whole of the scale or coating, and the razor will then be properly
prepared to undergo the operation of hardening with advantage. It
will be easily ascertained, that steel in this state heats in the fire with
greater regularity, and that when immersed, the obstacles being re->
moved to the immediate action of the water on the body of the steel,
the latter becomes equally hard from one extremity to the other. To
this may be added, that, as the lowest possible heat at which steel be-
comes hard is indubitably the best, the mode here recommended will
be found the only one by which the process of hardening can be
effected vvith a less portion of lire than is, or can be required in any
other way. These observations are decisive, and will, in all proba-
bility, tend to establish in general use what cannot but be regarded
as a very important improvement in the manufacturing of edged steel
instruments.
i^nglish cast Steel, The finest kind of steel, called English cast
steel, is prepared by breaking to pieces blistered steel, and then melting
it in a crucible with a flux composed of carbonaceous and vitrifiable in-

gredients. The vitrifiable ingredient is used only inasmuch as a fusi-

ble body, which flows over the surface of the metal in the crucibles,
and prevents the access of the oxygen of the atmosphere. Broken glass
is sometimes used for this purpose'.
When thoroughly fused it is cast into ingots, which by gentle heat-
ing and careful hammering; are tilted into bars. By this process the'
steel becomes more highly carbonized in proportion to the quantity of
flux, and in consequence is more brittle and fusible than before.
Hence, it surpasses all other steel in uniformity of texture, hardness,
and closeness of grain, and is the material employed in all the finest'
articles of English cutlery.
 APPENDIX. 771

To make Edge-tools from cast Steel and Iron. This method con-
sists in fixing a clean piece of wrought iron, brought to a welding
heat, in the centre of a mould, and then pouring in melted steel, so
as entirely to envelope the iron j and then forging the mass into the
shape required.

To colour Steel Blue. The steel must be finely polished on its
surface, and then exposed to an uniform degree of heat. Ac-
cordingly, there are three ways of colouring first, by a flame pro-
:

ducing no soot, as spirit of wine secondly, by a hot plate of iron ;

5

and thirdly, by wood-ashes. As a very regular degree of hccft is

necessary, wood- ashes for fine work bears the preference. The work
must be covered over with them, and carefully watched when the ;

colour is sufficiently heightened, the work is perfect. Tliis colour is

occasioually taken off with a very dilute marine acid.

To distinguish Steel from Iron. Tlie principal characters by which
steel may be distinguished from iron, are as follow :

1. After being polished, steel appears of a whiter, light grey hue,

without the blue cast exhibited by iron. It also takes a higher polish.
2. The hardest steel when not annealed, appears granulated, but
dull, and without shining fibres.
3. When steeped in acids the harder the steel is, of a darker hue
is its surface.
4. Steel is not so much inclined to rust as iron.
5. In general, steel has a greater specific gravity.
6. By being hardened and wrought, it may be rendered much more
elastic than iron.
7. It is not attracted so strongly by the magnet as soft iron. It
likewise acquires magnetic properties more slowly, but retains them
longer j for which reason, steel is used in making needles for com-
passes, and artificial magnets.
8. Steel is ignited sooner, and fuses with less degree of heat, than
malleable iron, which can scarcely be made to fuse without the ad-
dition of powdered charcoal by which it is converted into steel>
;

and afterwards into crude iron.

9. Polished steel is sooner tinged by heat, and that with higher
Colours, than iron.
10. In a calcining heat, it suffers less loss by burning, than sUft
iron does in the same heat, and the same time. In calcination a light
blue flame hovers over the steel, either with or without a sulphure-
ous odour.
11. The scales of steel are harder and sharper than those of iron j
and consequently more fit for polishing with.
12. In a white heat, when exposed to the blast of the bellows
among the coals, it begins to sweat, wet, or melt, parti} with light-
coloured and bright, and partly with red sparkles, but less crackling
than those of iron. In a melting heat too, it consumes faster.
13. In the vitriolic, nitrous> and other acids, steel is violently at-
tacked, but is longer in dissolving than iron. After maceration, ac-
cording as it is softer or harder, it appears of a lighter, or darker grey
colour j while iron on the other hand is white.
3 D 2
 GLOSSARY,

Molopiie A hollov/ metallic ballj with a small orificev

to shew the power of steam.
Anneal To expose iron or other metals to the action
of fire, in order to reduce them to a greater
degree of tenacity.
Anvil A block or mass of iron, with a hardened
steel surface, on which smiths and other
artificers hammer and fashion their work.
Arhor, .... .i , The principal spindle or axis which commui-
nicates motion to the other parts of a ma-
chine.
Arm,,-, . The length of the sail of a windmill measured
from the axis.
Arms (Axle) The two ends of an axle-tree: projecting
supports in machinery.
Ash-hole A receptacle for the ashes which fall from the
hearth of a furnace.
Attraction of Cohesion. The attraction which holds the particles of
matter to each other.
of Gravitation, The force which causes all ponderous bodies
to fall towards the earths centre.
Augur The wimble or tool used in the boring of
woods.
Automaton,, A machine which, by an internal arrange^'
ment, seems to move of itself.
Axis The spindle or centre of any rotatory motion.
(f oscillation . . The shaft upon which any body vibrates.
in peritrochio. , One of the six mechanical powers ; usually
called the wheel and axle.
i
of rotation The shaft round v/hich any body revolves.
Backboards Boards attached to the rims of the water-'
wheel, to prevent the water running off
the floats into the interior of the wheel.
Backlash t,,, ,, The hobbling movement of a wheel not
fixed firm on its axis.
Back-vjater The water which impedes the motion of a
water-wheel during floods, or from other
causes.
Balance An instrument which, by the application of
the lever, exhibits the weights of bodies.
 APPENDIX.
773
Batten The movable lath or bar of a loom which
serves to strike in or close, more or less,
the threads of a woof a long narrow slip
:

of wood in carpentry.
Batter A machine used early in the process of the
cotton manufacture.
Bayonet A piece of wood or metal with two legs to
'disengage and re-engage machinery vide :

Mill-Geering.
Beats The strokes made by the pallets or fangs of
a spindle in clock or watch movements.
Beetle, An implement for flattening the texture of
linen or w^oollen cloth : a heavy mallet.
Bevel-geer V/heels in which the teeth are set at angles
of various degrees from the radius.
Bitts Small tools used in boring.
Bloom A bar of iron to be passed through the rol-
lers of an iron -mill to be elongated into a
bar, rod, or hoop.
Blunging The act of mixing or kneading clay for the
potters use.
BoH'ins. Little circular pieces of wood on which the
thread of cotton, silk, &c. is wound.
Bolter A machine for sifting meal.
Bolting-cloth A cloth through which the sifted meal runs.
Brace A curved instrument of iron or wood for mov-
ing small boring tools called bitts.
Bracket A support fixed to a wall.
Brake A machine for separating the cuticle or outer
skin from the flax plant.
Brazing The soldering or joining two pieces of metal
by melting of brass between the pieces to
be joined.
Breast The first part of a revolver carding-engine..
Breasting . , 4 . . The circular sweep of masonry, &c. which sur-
rounds the shuttle side of a breast-wheel.
Breasi-plate A small piece of steel with holes to receive
the ends of a drill.
Breast^wheel., , A water-wheel on which water is admitted
at or nearly level with the axis.
Buff-stick Apiece of wood covered with buff leather,
used for polishing.
Bullet To alter the wards of a lock in such manner
that they may be passable by more than
one key.
Bush A hole in the nave of a wheel.
Cceteris paribus Other things being equal.
Calibre The diameter of a hole.
Calk,, To force oakum, tow, or other material in
774 APPENDIX.
the joints of vessels^ to make them steam,
air, or water-tight.
Camh r. .. An eccentric.
Capstan,, A vertical post resting on a pivot and turned
by powerful arms or levers to raise heavy
weights by crane work ; a windlass.
Carton Charcoal.
Card Piece of leather containing numerous iron-
wire teeth, forming a species of combd
vide Cotton Manufacture.
Case-harden The process of converting the surface of iron
into steel.
Casting.,,.,,,,,,,., The act of forming metal or other matter
into any required shape, by pouring it into
moulds while in a fluid state.
Catch, Various contrivances in mechanics, to act oq
the principle of a latch.
Cement. .. A composition for joining hard bodies.
Centre- bit A boring tool in carpentry.
Centrifugal Flying from the centre.
Centripetal Flying to the centre.
Chafery.,, A kind of forge in the iron manufacture,
wiiere the metal is exposed to a welding
heat.
Chaliometer An instrument to measure heat.
Chamfer A groove to receive the tenon in carpentry.
Checks A term generally applied to those pieces of
timber in machinery, which are double,
and correspond with each other.
Chord Perpendicular let fall from any radius of a
circle.
Chuck.,, That part of a lath which revolves with the
arbor : to this is affixed the article to be
turned.
Circumference The measure round any circle.
Clack A bell so contrived it shall ring when
that
more corn required to be put in the mill.
is
Clamp A pile of unburnt bricks raised for burning.
Clip An arrangement to impede velocity by fric-^

tion.
Clutch Vide Bayonet.
Cockling To entangle.
Cocoon A small ball of silk spun by a silk-v;orm.
Cog .
This word, correctly speaking, implies teeth
formed of a dilferent material to the body
of the wheel ; but is generally used to
express all kinds of toothed wheels.
Concentric Having the same centre.
Conspiring forces. ,, ,, Various forces combined into one.
Constant forces Force without interruption.
 APPENDIX. 775
Contractile farces. .... Forces which decrease.
Core The internal mould which forms a hollow in
foundry as the hollow of a tub or pipe.
:

Countersink . To take off the edge round a hole to let in a

screw-head^ that it may be even with the
surface.
Couplings To connect two shafts or spindles longitudi-
nally.
Coupling-box,,^,,,,, A strong piece of hollow iron to connect
shafting and throw machinery in and out
of geer.
Crank,,, A bent part of a shaft, by means of which
a rectilinear motion is gained.
Crow-har A strong bar of iron used as a temporary
lever.
Crown-wheel Awheel which has teeth at right angles to
its radii.
Cycloid A geometric curve.
Cylinder A long round body ; a roller.
Dam The bank or w all which pens back the water
in a mill-head.
Data Facts from which we may deduce results.
Decimetre. To measure by tenths.
Dent. ,, The wire staple which constitutes the tooth
of a card.
Devil A machine for dividing rags or cotton in the
first process of the manufacture of paper
or cotton.
Diameter The line which passes through the centre of
a circle.
Die Pieces of steel for cutting screws, having the
threads countersunk on them a stamp.
:

Doffer That part of a carding machine w'hich tak s

the cotton from the cylinder.
Doffing-plate The plate which receives the cotton from the
doffer.
Dog A piece in small machinei^ w^hich acts as
a pall.
Draw-plate A steel plate, having a gradation of conical
holes, through which metals are drawn to
be reduced and elongated.
Drench To wet or inundate.
Drill-bow. A small bow moved by hand to impart mo-
tion to a drill.
Drum A hollow cylinder.
Ductile Malleable and soft.
Dicentric Deviating from the centre ; as cambs, at-
tached to the rim or circumference of a
shaft for lifting forge hammers, stampers^
&c.
776 APPENDIX.
effective-head The real head, or that which can be applied
to practice.
effluent Flowing from j
running out.
effliuv The act of flowing out.
epicycloid The curve described in the air by a point on
the circumference of a circle, when this
circle rolls on another circle as its base.
Equilihrium That peculiar state of rest in which a body
is maintained by the force of gravitation,
when the quantity of matter in it is ex-
actly equal on each side of the bar or point
on which it is supported.
Escapement The part of a clock or watch movement
whidi receives the force of the spring or
weight, to give motion to the pendulum or
oalance.
Face of the tooth The curved part of a tooth which imparts
impulse to another wheel.
Faggot Pieces of iron bound together for re-manu-
facture.
Fan Small vanes or sails to receive the impulse of
the wind, and, by a connexion with ma-
chinery, to keep the large sails cf a smock
wind-mill always in the direction of the
wind an instrument to winnow corn 3 also
:

to decrease speed by its action on the air.

Female-Screw The spiral threaded cavity in which a screw
operates.
File A tool used by smiths for the abrasion of
metals 3 denominated, according to its
fineness, rough, bastard, or smooth.
First-mover Power, either natural or artificial.
Flanch An edge or projection for the better connexion
of piping or castings of any description.
Flarik of the tooth The straight part of a tooth which receives
impulse from another wheel.
Float, , . The board which receives* the impulse of
the w ater either in breast or undershot-
wdieels.
Floodgate > A strong framing of timber to pen back or
let outwater.
Flux.,,, Ingredients put into a smelting furnace to
fuse the ore of metals.
Fly-wheel A heavy wheel to maintain equable motion.
Foot-brake A machine used in the flax manufacture.
Forge A manufactory in which metals are made
malleable 3 a furnace.
To form by the hammer.
Friction.,, ,, Iiiei'puiUty of surface 3 act of rubbing together.
 APPENDIX. 777
Frisket Au iron frarae used in printing to keep the
;
sheet of paper on the tyrapan, and to pre-
vent the margin from being blacked.
Fulcrum The point or bar on which a lever rests.
Geering Part of mill-work.
Gibbet That part of a crane which sustains the
weight of goods.
Gig-mill A mill in which the nap of woollen cloth is
raised by the application of teasels.
Girder The largest timber in a floor.
Girt Fide Gripe.
Gravity Tendency towards the centre of the earth ;
weight
Gripe., A pliable lever which can be pressed against
a wheel to retard or stop its motion by
friction.
Governor A pair of heav^' balls connected with ma?
chinery to regulate the speed on the prin-
ciple of central force.
Gudgeon The centres or pivots of a water-wheel.
Half-stuff. This term, in general, implies any thing
half-formed in the process of the manu-
facture.
Heald or Heddle Fide Heddle.
Heckle A metal comb for the manufacture of flax.
Heddle That portion of a loom which imparts mo-
tion to the warp of a web during the pro-
cess of manufacture.
Helve The shaft of a forge or tilt-hammer.
Hopper A funnel in which grain is deposited, whence
runs between the stones of a flour-mill.
it

Horology The art of constructing machines for mea-

suring time.
Hydraulics,, ,,,m ,, The science which treats of the motion of
fluids, of the resistance which they oppose
to moving bodies, and of the various ma-
chines in which fluids are the principal
agent.
Hydrodynamics, The science which embraces the phenomena
exhibited by wmter and other fluids, whe-
ther they be at rest or in motion it is :

generally divided into two heads, hydro-

statics and hydraulics.
Hydrostatics.,,,,..,, The science which considers the pressure,
equilibrium, and cohesion of fluids.
Impact Transmission of force.
Impinge. To dash against.
Inertia . ,,,,,,,,,,,, That tendency which every piece of matter
778 iJwFPENDIX.

has,when at rest, to remain at rest; and

when in motion, to continue that motion.
In Vacuo Empty space, void.
Isochronal Of equal duration.
Isochronous The vibrations of a pendulum.
Jenney A machine used in the process of the cotton
manufacture.
Jib Vide Gibbet.
Kiln A place where bricks are burnt.
Kink or Kinkle The entangling of cordage from overtwisting.
l,ateral A horizontal or lengthwise movement.
Lathe Machine used by turners.
Lantern A wheel with stafif-teeth j
the trundle or
wallower.
Leaves The teeth of a pinion.
Lever One of the mechanical powers.
Line of centres A line drawn from the centre of one wheel to
the centre of another when their circum-
ferences touch each other.
Locomotive The power of changing place.
Loom A machine used by weavers in the making of
cloth.
Machinist One who makes machines.
Mandrpl Part of a lathe ;
Cone used by smiths ; a
cylindrical piece of polished iron or steel
put down the core or hole of a pipe during
the process of elongation.
Mastering Preparation of lime used by tanners.
Matrice., , The concave form of a letter in which the
types are cast.
Alaximum.,,,^,,,,,, Is the utmost extent of any movement or
power.
Mechanist One acquainted with the laws of mechanics.
MilUhead The head of water which is to turn a mill.
MilLiail The water wdiich has passed through the
wheel- race ; or is below the mill.
Minimum The reverse of maximum.
Momentum The force possessed by matter in motion.
Monkey A weight or mass of iron let fall from a
height to drive piles into the earth.
Mortise A joint.

Movement Tfie working part of a watch or clock.

Nave, The centre, or that part, of a wheel in
which the spokes or arms are fixed.
Nealing. Vide Annealing.
Nippers Pincers with cutting edges for dividing
metals.
Nitric acid A corrosive acid extracted from nitre.
Ouse . Preparation of bark used by tanners.
 APPENDIX. 779
Overshot-'wheel, A wheel which receives the water in buckets
at not more than 45 degrees from the
apex.
Oxyd. A combination of ox^rgen with a metallic or
other base.
Oxygen A gas which supports combustion
Paddle A kind of oar j floats to a wheel.
Pall A small piece of metal which falls between
the teeth of a ratchet-wheel, to prevent a
load which has been raised from descending
when the operative power is removed.
Pallet That part of a watch or clock escapement on
which the crown-wheel strikes.
Pendulum A weight suspended by a flexible cord to an
axisj so as to swing backwards and for-
wards, when once raised, by the force of
gravitation.
Periphery. The circumference of a wheel.
Perpendicular At right angles to a given base.
Pick A chisel for dressing the stones of a flour-
mill.
Pile .. A large pieee of timber, pointed at one end,
to drive into the earth to sustain the piers
of bridges, &c.
Pin To strike a piece of metal with the narrow
end of a hammer to form dents and pro-
duce elongation.
PincerSk A tool formed by placing two levers on one
fulcrum, regulated by a screw-movement,
for holding bodies firmly.
Pinion , A small toothed wheel.
Pirn The wound yarn that is on a weavers shuttle.
Piston, A plug made to fit tight and work up and
down a cylinder in hydraulic engines. -

Pitch-lines The touching circumferences of two wheels

which are to act on each other.
Pitch of the wheel,, , , The distance from the centres of two teeth,
measured upon their pitch line.
Pivot A short shaft on which a body turns or vi^
brates.
Plalina .... A white metal capable of withstanding great
heats.
Pliers A small tool constructed similarly to pincers,
Plumb . . . A leaden w^eight suspended by a cord to as-
certain the perpendicular.
Plunger * A body that is forced into a fluid in hydrau-
lic engines, to displace its own weight.
Portable steam-engine . A steam-engine built in a compact form.
780 APPENJ)IX.

and not attached to the wall of the build-

ing in which it works.
Proportional circles, Pitch-lines.
Proportional radii, . The radii of two circles whose circum-
ferences are in contact.
Puddling The act of ramming with clay to arrest the
progress of water.

Pulley A small wheel over which a strap is passed.

Quintal A French or Spanish weight equivalent to
1 OOlbs. of those respective nations.

Rahbit or Rap-it ^^ , . , The strong wooden spring against which the

hammer strikes on its ascent.
forge
Race The canal along which the water is conveyed
to and from a water-wheel.
Rack.,,*, A straight bar which has teeth similar to
those on a toothed wheel.
Radii. The plural of radius.
Radius . The semi-diameter of a circle ; the arm or
spoke of a wheel.
Rasp. .r. A species of file, on which the cutting pro-
minences are distinct, being raised by a
point instead of an edge.
Rasure The act of scraping.
Batch A oar containing teeth into which the pali
drops to prevent machines running back.
Ratchet-wheel. . A wheel having teeth similar to those of $
ratch.
Reciprocating,: , Acting alternately.
Rectilinear or Consisting of right lines.
Reed Part of a loom resembling a comb for divid-
ing the warp.
Regulator A small lever in watch-work, which, by be-
ing moved, increases or decreases the
amount of the balance spring tliat is al-
lowed to act.
Red. A frame on which yarn may be wound.
Reeling The act of winding yarn on a reel.
Resolution of Forces, . . Vide Of the Action of Forces, page 5.
Reservoir A large basin or conservatory of water.
Reverberatory Beating back.
Reverberatory-furnace. A furnace used in the iron and copper inanu-
i factures.
Rivet To form a head by the percussion of a hams-
mer, to prevent a piece of metal which has
been passed through an orifice, to con^
nect things together, from returning.
Roller^gin, , #00.00 A machine to divest cotton of the husk and
 APlENDIX. 781
Other superfluous parts, previous to the
commencement of the manufacture.
Rotatory Revolving.
Rowans. Cotton in that part of the manufacture be-
fore it goes to the roving frame.
Ruller A heavy file used for coarse work.
Rubble A mode of building ; Masonry, page .537.
Rynd The piece of iron that goes across the hole
inan upper mill-stone.
Safety-valve, A valve which fits on the boiler of a steam-

engine to guard against accidents by the

steam obtaining too high a pressure.
Saw-gin A machine on the principle of the roller-gin.
Scantling The length, breadth, and thickness of any
solid body taken lineally.
Scapement Vide Escapement.
Scotching The operation of packing hemp before it
goes to the market.
Scoria Slag from a smelting furnace.
Scowering Barrel An octagonal, or other shaped barrel, in
which scrap-iron, &c. is cleansed from rust
by friction as it revolves.
Scrap-iron Various pieces of old iron to be re-manu-
factured.
Screw, ^ One of the mechanical powers.
Scribbler-Engine An engine used in the process of the cotton
manufacture.
Shaft A long piece of wood or metal, on which
large wheels are fixed in mill- work.
Sheeve A small kind of pulley.
Shoulder, A support by means of a projection from a
surface.
Shrouding The boards, &c. which form buckets of
water-wheels.
Shuttle An arrangement to allow or shut off water
from a water-wheel 5 a small piece of
wood which carries the thread in weaving.

getable substances, and applied to fibrous

materials to impart stiffness.
Slag Scoria, or refuse from an iron furnace.
Sledge-hammer ...... A heavy hammer, used by a smith with both
hands.
Slip Potters clay of the requisite consistency.
Sluice Vent for water j
a kind of flood-gate
Snail-movement An eccentric.
Solder , . Various compounds of metals for conjoining
other metals that are less fusible than such
compound.
 782 APPENDIX.
Sparables From sparrow-bill^ small nails to drive intc
shoes.
Spatula A thin knife, used mostly to extend super-
ficiallysome semi-fluid matter.
Spindle A thin piece of wood or steel on which yarn
is wound after it has been twisted a small
:

kind of shaft.
Spokes The radial pieces which connect the periphe-
ry of a wheel with its centre-piece or nave :
this term is only applied to carriages.
Sprins body formed of metal or wood.
elastic
Sprina-arlor The arbor or spring round which the main
spring of a watch is w^ound.
Spring-l'ox The box which contains the main spring.
Spnr-geer Wheels whose axes are parallel to each other.
Splice To conjoin lengthwise two flexible pieces:
by the interposition of their respective
parts, so as to maintain them in conjunc-
tion by friction.
StajU'..,^^ The teeth of a trundle, lantern, or wal-
lower.
StaJiing-on To drive wedges in the bush of awheel or
hx ^t firm on a shaft or spindle.
pulley, to
Start or Strut ........ The partitions which determine the form of
a bucket in an over-shot wheel j
the
shoulder or WTest.
Staves The plural of staff.
Steam-boat A boat moved by steam power.
Steam-engine ......... A machine for applying the force of steam
to create motion.
Steel-yard A machine w'hich denotes the weight of bo-
them at different distances
dies by placing
from its fulcrum.
Stereotype ' . ......... The art of casting solid plates from movable
types, to print from.
Strike A thing used to strike any thing level in a
measure the strickle.
:

Strata The plural of stratum.

Stratum A single layer or bed of any one thing.
Stuff; This term is applied to an infinite variety of
things j wood is, by the carpenter, called
stuff, so is lime and hair by the bricklayer,
and plaster by the plasterer, &c.
ISwag . . An unequal or hobbling motion.
Sudifts . The rapid movement in a carding machine.
Stvingling Scotching.
Swing-tree Any beam that vibrates.
Swivel A thing fixed in another body to turn round
upon.
 APPENDIX* 7B3

Syphon A ])ent tube with unequal legs through which

a fluid will flow by the force of gravity.
Tail-water Water which impedes the water-wheel iu
mill- work.
Tank Reservoir for water, &c.
Teasels Thistles used to raise the nap of cloth in the
,
gig-mill.
^
Tenon That j:)ait which fillsup the mortise.
Tilt-hammer , A hammer lifted by machinery, to forge
iron or steel.
Treadle A lever affixed to a crank which communi-*
cates motion to machinery by a foot
movement.
ThroWsting Spinning.
Triblet Vide Mandrel.
Truckles Small rollers for diminishing friction.
Trundle A small wheel with staff teeth j the lan
tern or waliower.
Tuyere or Tue-iron. . . An orifice through which a blast or strong
current of air is passed into forges
Tympati That part of a printing-press on which the*
paper is laid to receive the impression.
Undershot-wheel A wheel acted on by water below its centre.
Vacuum Void of air.
Valve A cover to an aperture, in hydraulic ma-
chines, to prevent fluids taking a WTong
course.
Vane A flat surface capable of being moved by the
current of a fluid j as, for instance, the
vanes of a wdndmill, moved by the wdnd.
Tappets Projections on the plug-tree of a steam-en-
gine w hich open and shut the valves at
proper intervals.
Varnish A solution of certain resinous bodies in spi-
rits or oils, w hich assumes a solid form on
dissication.
Velocity The measure of quickness with which a body
moves.
Vertical Perpendicular to the horizon.
Vibration .. Ripid alternating motion.
Virtual head ^The real or effective head.
Vis-inertia .... Vide Inertia.
Wabble A
hobbling unequal motion.
Waliower Small wheel with staff teeth; the trundle
or lantern.
Warp The layer of threads which extends t'ne
length of the piece to be woven.
Washers Small pieces of metal placed under a nut ta
reduce friction.
784 APPENDIX.
Walcr-wheel A wheel which receives its impulse ffora
water.
Weathering The angle at which the sails of a windmill
are set, to receive the impulse of the wind.
Wedge An angularly shaped piece of wood or me-
tal 5 one of the mechanical powers.
Weft Vide Woof.
Weight The measure of the amount of the attraction
of gravitation in any body compared with
that of other bodies.
Welding The property of conjunction possessed by
some metals at high temperatures.
Wheel and Axis One of the mechanical powers.
Wheel-race The place in which a water-wheel is fixed.
Whip To bind two rods together with small twine :
the length of the sail of a windmill mea-
sured from the axis.
Whirl A rotatory motion with a decreasing speed.
Winch The lever or handle to which force is applied
in machines turned by manual labour.
Wiper An eccentric.
fVire-draw To reduce any longitudinal body exceedingly
inthe transverse section rapid passage
:

of a fluid through a conical orifice.

Woof, Those portions of thread or yarn in clotiiy
which lie across the length of the warp.
Wrest or Wrist , . 4. , , The partitions which determine the form of
the bucket in an overshot wheel 3 tha
start or shoulder.
Yarn The combination of fibrous materials into n,
linear form by torsion*
 INDEX

Page. . Page.
Accelerated MOTION 3 . . Assay to, Silver, to ascertain the
Amalgam, to gild copper, &c. by, 723 value 763
Amalgamation of gold, in the Double assay of, ib
....... . , .

large way 719 Silver ores 762

Fat, or copal 742 in the humid way . . 763

with essence of turpentine 741 Tin ores 758
Ancient statues, composition of, 713 in the humid way . . ib.
Anti-attrition 755 Zinc ores i5.
Assay to, metallic ores, . . ib. in the humid way ... ib.
in the dry way ... ib.
in the humid way .
'
. 756 Balloons, to varnish, . . . 750
Fluxes ib. Bark-mill . 445
Black ib. Barkers mill 92
Crude of wdiite . . t '>. Batter 379
Cornish reducing ... ib. Bath metal 707
Cornish refining ... ib. Bell metal 708
Antimonial ores .... 760 Bricklaying, vide Building
humid assay of arseniated Britannia metal . ..... ib.
antimony
Arsenical ores
....
....
ib.
ib.
Bronze ........
Composition of ancient statues
713
ib.

in the humid way . . , 760 Engine 218

Cinnabar, in the humid way, 762 Buildino
Cobalt ores 761 Preliminary Observations . 529
in the humid way . . . ib. Bricks 532
Copper ores .... 759 Cartwrights .... 535
humid way
in the . . ib. Clamps 533
Gold, mixed with martial Clay-mill i5,
pyrites, do. .... 765 Kiln 534
Ores and earths contain- Bricklaying 547
ing 764 Mensuration of Bricklayers'
Iron ores 757 work 550
in the humid way . . ib. Steining wells .... 549

in the humid way . . 759 tions 556

Manganese ore .... 760 Walling 547
in the humid way . . ib. English bond .... ib
Mercurial ores .... 761 Flemish bond .... ib.
sulphurated .... 762 Carpentry ....:. 560

in the humid way . . ib. ters 572

Plated metals .... 764 Camber-beam . . ib,

3 E
786 INDEX

Building, Carpentry Building, Joinery

Cocking, or cogging 57.S To bend a board so as to
Domes 575 form the frustrum of a cone,
Joggles 573 or any segmental portion
King-post 572 of the frustrum of a cone . 587
Niches 577 To glue up the shaft of a co-
Predentive cradling 578 lumn, supposing it to be the
Pole-plates 572 frustrum of a cone .. . ib.
Puncheons ib. Dovetailing 588
Purlines 571 Best methods of connecting
Rafters, auxiliary, . . .572 pieces of wood so as to form
Common ih. an angle 589
Principal .... 571 Measures customary in join-
Queen- Posts .... 572 ers work 602
Roofs 57.3 Doors, bead and flush . . 590
St raining- beam . . . 572 Hanging ib.
Cilt ib. Jib 589
Struts . .... ib. Hand-rails 599
Tie-beam 571 To draw the sjcroll . . 598
Wall-plates .... ib. To describe the section, 599
Flooring 569 Hinging 591
Framing of centres for Hanging doors, shutters,
groins and with hinges .
flaps, ib.
Joining two timbers in any 1
To hang 2 flaps, so that
given direction . . . 563 when folded back, they
by mortise and tenon 564 shall be at a certain dis-
by a notched joint . . ib. tance from each other ib.
of timbers, with reference 1 0 make a rule-joint for
to plate 557 a window'-shutter 592
Mensuration of Carpenters To form the joints ofsti'es
w'ork 579 to be hung togetlier,wiien
Partitions 569 tile knuckle of the hinge
Practical Observations 570 is placed on the contrary
Roofing ....
Roofs defined ....
. .

569
573
side of the rebate
To construct a joint for
. . ib.

Timbers inserted in w'alls . 568 hanging doors w ilh cen-

Scarfing. Joining 2 pieces tres ib.
of timber by means of a Sadi-frames, sashes and
single step on each piece
with parallel joints,
vScai f
561 slmtteis ...... 592
593
Stairs
and a single table upon Bracket 595
each piece 562 Dog-legged 597
Scarf formed by several Geometrical .... 596
steps ib. Ditto 598
Scarf with a bevel joint . ib. I'o draw the scroll of a
Scarfs w'ith long bcari.*igs ib. hand-rail
Trussing ib. To draw the curtail steps ib.
Girders to sustain very To find the parallel thick-
heavy weights .... 563 ness of the plank . 599
Walls, limbers inserted into, 568 I'o describe a section of
Glazing ......
Mensuration of Glaziers
635 a hand-rail ib.
Masonry 536
work 630 Arching 541
Joinery. To construct the Definition of arches and
surface of a portion of a cy- vaults
linder, with wood, when Mensuration of masons work 543
the fibres are at right Masonry. Wailing . 537
. .

ancles to the axis of the cy- Painting 630

linder 586 Mensuration of Painters work ib.
 INDEX. 787
Page. Page.
Building Copper, blanched, .... 710
Plastering 605 To gild, by amalgam . . . 723
Cornices 615 Tin 726
Fine stuff 611 Cotton manufacture .... 378
Gauge stuff ib. Batter 379
Lathing ib. Jenny spinning . . . . 384
Lathing, floating, and set . 612 Carding-engine .... 385
Lathing, laying, and set . . ib. Jenny .... . . 386
Laying ib. Roving Billy ib.
Lime and cement . . . 607 Mule spinning 379
Lime and hair . . . . 610 Bobbin and flier roving-
Parkers cement .... 618 frame 383
Plaster of Paris .... 609 Breaker carding engine . 380
Pricking up 612 Carding engine .... ib.
Rendering and set . . . 613 Drawing 382
Roughcasting .... 614 Finisher engine .... 381
Scagliola 615 Mule spinning frame . . 384
Stucco 617 Roving frame .... S82
Plumbing 628 Stretching frame .... 383
L#^ad 629 Picker 37 9
Sheet 630 Roller gin 378
Covering roofs with, . 633 Saw gin . ib.
Pipes ib. Water spinning 386
Mensuration of plumbers Reel 337
work 635 Spinning frame .... ib.
Pomps ib. Throstle . . ... ib.
Slating 621 Coupling. Boring Mill clutch . 31
Mensuration of Slaters work 627 Boulton and Watts coupling
link . . .
' 32
Carpentry, vide Building Clutches or Glands .... 31
Centrifugal force 4 Self-easing coupling . . . ib.
Centripetal force ib. Square, with double bearings . 30
Chain of buckets 86 one bearing . , . ib.
Chain pump 267 Round ib.
by Cole ib. Crane 283
reversed . . .... 86 by Bramah 287
Chinese sheet lead 527 Ferguson 286
Chronometers 507 Padmore 285
Cider-press 291 Foot . ib.
Clock 486 Movable, by Kier .... 288
with three wheels and two pi- Cycloid, to describe the, . . 21
nions, by Dr. Franklin . 490
by Ferguson ... ib. Darwins engine 232
for exhibiting the apparent Dearborns pump engine , - 244
daily motions of the sun and De la Fayes machine . . . 229
moon, state of the tides, &c. 492 Desaguliers drawer and bucket 242
Striking part of an eight day Describe to, the cycloid and
clock 496 epicycloid 21
Description of curious clocks 497 Disengaging and re-engaging
Colour and indigo mills . . . 454 machinery ...... 32
Composition of ancient statues 713 Bayonet 33
Copal varnish, camphorated, . 739 Fast and loose pulley ... ib.
Colourless 738 Friction clutch 34
Ethereal 740 Friction cone ib.
Fat 737 Lever S3
Fat Amber 742 Self-disengaging coupling . 35
Gold-coloured 738 Sliding pulley S3
Turpentine 740 Tightening roller .... 34
White 731 Dividing machine by Ramsden 315
788 INDEX
Pa?e, Page.
Drying oil,resinous . , , 737 Fluxes, to assay by, .... 756
........
.

To give a drying quality to fat Black ib.

oils 736 Crude of white ib.
to poppy oil .... 735 Cornish reducing .... ib.

Drawings or writings, &c. to Cornish refining .... ib.

gild on paper or parchment . 721 Foils 715
To varnish 750 To prepare the copper . . ib.
To
prepare a composition To whiten ib.
for making coloured To colour 716
drawings and prints re- Amethyst . . ... 717
semble paintings in oil . 750 Blue ib.
Varnish for coloured, . . 749 Eagle marine . . . . ib.
Dressing boxes, caniphorated Garnet ib.
sandarac varnish for, . . 744 Green ib.
To varnish, 747 Ruby ib
Yellow ib.

Elastic Gum, to dissolve . . 732 Other colours _^ib.

Engravings on copper, metallic For crystals, pebbles, or

casts from paste 716
712
Epicycloid, to describe 21 Force, centrifugal 4
.

Equalizing the motion of machi-

.

Centripetal ..... ib.

nery 35 Forces, of the action of . . 1

Governor for steam-engine 36 Forge hammer 335

Water-wheel . 37 Friction 6
Ditto 113 Furnace, Blast, 330
. . .
Puddling 335
Wind-mill . 124
Refining 334
'^Iachometer by Donkin . 39
General Observations Steel 843
. . 43
Escapement Fusible metals 707
515
llecoiling 516
by Cumming Gallipot Varnish 747
>
517 . .

forwatch 518 Gas engine, by Brown 216

by Pryor 519 Geering, vide Mill-geering
Keid Geometry 673
521
De la Fons Problems in, 681
i
524
Gilding, Grecian 719

File-cutting Machine
Gold powder for, .... 718
. . . 314 Mordant varnish for, . . . 748
Fire-engine by Newsham . . 277 Oil, on wood, . . . . 722
by Rowntree. . . 281 To cover bars of copper with
Flax manufacture .... 400 gold, so as to admit of being
Brake 401 rolled out into sheets . . 718
Flax-mills 403 To^dissolve gold in aqua re-
Foot brake
Hackle
...... 401 gia 719
402 Gild to, by amalgamation . . 720
Rippling comb 403 by burnishing 723
Spinning by Kendrew and Co. 405 in colours 719
Clarke and Bugby . . . ib. by dissolving gold in aqua re-
Flour-mills 142 gia ib.
Family mill and bolter by Rus- Copper, &e. by amalgam . 723
tall 158 Glass and porcelain . . 720
.

by Smart 160 Iron or steel 719

Fenwicks Tables
Foot-mill
.... 148 Leather .721
]6l Silk, satin, &c. by hydrogen
Hand-mill 160 gas 722
Kneading-mill 162 Steel 724
Mill Slones 144 Gildto, writings, drawings, &c.
Observations 148 on paper or parchment . 721
Flute-key valves, metal fur, . 711 The edges of paper . . 722
 INDEX. 789
Page. Page.
Gilding metal 714 Horology. Escapement
For common jewellery . . ib. by De la Fons .... 524
Yellow dipping metal . . ib. Pendulum 525
Glass and porcelain, to gild . 720 Gridiron, by Harrison . . 527
Globes, liquid foil for silvering 772 Lever by Ellicott . . . ib.
glass, 728 Mercurial by Graham . . 526
Glossary . . 772 Tubular by Reid . . . 529
Gold, useful alloy with platinum 713 by Troughton . 528
from 35s. to 40s. per ounce . 714 by Ward ... 529
Manheim gold, or similor . ib. Sympathy of the pendulums
Ring ib. of clocks ib.
Amalgam of gold in the large Watches .
500
way 719 Table of trains for, .... 504
To dissolve gold in aqua regia ib. Hungarian machine .... 233
'

To separate from gilt copper improved by Boswell . . . 235

and silver 724 Hydraulics, Archimedes screw 246
Gold, green, to heighten the co- Darwins engine .... 232
lour of ib. Dearborns pump engine . . 242
Gold, red, ditto ib. De Fayes machine .
la . . 229
Gold, yellow, ditto .... ib. Desaguliers drawer and buck-
Golden, or fat turpentine var- et 242
nish 746 .....
Hieros fountain 232
Gravity, of the centre of . . 15 Hungarian machine .... 233
Gun barrels, to brown . . . 731 improved by Boswell . . 235
Gun metal 710 Noria 230
Paternoster wmrk .... 231
Hckle 402 Persian wheel 230
Hand-mill 160 Spiral pump 237
Hand-pump by Martin . . . 269 Trevithecks pressure engine 246
Jekyl .... 270 Tympanum 228
Hemp and rope manufacture . 416 Fire engine by Newshani . . 277
Reetling 419 by Rountree . , 281
Brealles r>iethod of steeping . 418 Pump 250
Dew retting 417 Chain 267
Hemp-Mill 419 by Cole ib.
Raiobeards method of steep- Hand, by Martin . . . 269
ing ib. by Jekyl . ... 210
Swingling or scotching . . 420 Forcing 257
Hieros Fountain 232 by Brunton . . . 263
Horizontal windmill .... 139 Franklyn ..... 262
Horology ... ... 486 Smeaton 265
Chronometer 507 Stevens ----- 259
Clock with three wheels and Tyror 261
two pinions, by Dr. Frank- Lifting ------ 258
lin 490 Suction ------ 250
by Ferguson . ib. with little friction - - 255
for exhibiting the apparent by Ctesebius - - - - 259
daily motions of the sun, Taylor ----- 256
moon, and tides .... 492 Todd - - ib.
Striking part of an eight Method of working ships
day, 496 pumps by Leslie - - - 268
Description of curious Clarke - - 273
clocks 497 Pump pistons by Belidor - 276
Escapement 515 Bonnard - 274
Recoiling 516 Hydrostatic press by Bramah - 292
by Camming .... 517
for watch 518 Inclined PEANE, the - - - 12
by Pryor 519 Index - - - 785
Reid 521 Indigo-mill ------- 454
700 INDEX.
Page. Page.
Inertia - -- -- -- - 32 Mastic varnish, compound, 742
Internal pinion ----- 27 Camphorated, for painting
.

. 743
Iron manufacture
-----
- - - - 328 Mechanical powers .... 7
Blastfurnace 330 Inclined plane 12
Forge hammer -----
. .

. .

33.5 Lever 7
Puddling furnace - - - - ib. Pulley , ; 11
........
.

Refining furnace - - - - 334 Screw 13

Re-manufacture - _ - - 338 Wedge ib.
Tilt-hammer 335
Wheel and axle .10
Tables of the average weight Simple combinations of the, . 16
of squares, bolts, and bars - 339 Mensuration of Superficies , . 688
Iron, expeditious inode of re- Solids .... 697
docing iron ore into mal- Metal for flute key valves . . 711
leable iron ------ 768 Metallic casts from Engravings
New method of shingling and on copper 712
manufacturing - - - - Ores, to assay, .... 755
To plate ------
------
ib.
726 in the dry way .... ib.
To weld 769 in the humid way 756
To harden ----- ib. Watering, or for Blanc Noire
. . .

727
To case-harden - - - - ib. Mill-geering 20
To convert iron into steel by To describe the cycloid and
cementation - - - - ib. epicycloid ..... 21
To'make edge-tools from cast ,
Couplings 30
steel andiron - - - 771 Boring-mill clutch . . , [
31
To distinguish iron from steel ib. Boulton and Watts coup-
Ivory, to gild, by hydrogen gas 722 ling link S2
Clutches or glands ... SI
Jacks, common ----- 282 Round ....... 30
Screw ------ 283 Square with double bearings
Jenny spinning ----- 384 with one bearing . . .
ib.
ib.
Carding engine - - - 885 Self-easing coupling 31
,
Jenny ------- -
S 86 Universal joint ....
. .

32
Roving Billy - - ~ - ib. Double universal joint . . ib.
Joinery, vide Building. Dis-engaging and re-engaging
machinery ib.
Kneading-mill ----- 162 Bayonet 33
Kiistitiens metal for tinning - 710 Fast and loose pulley . ib.
Friction clutch .... 34
Lathe, by Maudesley - - - 323 Friction cone ....
Smart ------- 326 Lever
ib.
33
Lacquer for brass - - - - 729 Self-disengaging coupling 35
for philosophical instruments ib. Sliding pulley 33
for brass watch-cases, &c. - 730 Tightening roller .... 34
of various tints - - - - 731 Equalizing the motion of ma-
chinery 35
Lead manufacture .... 356 Governor for sleam engine 36
Method of extracting the sil- water-wheel . 37
ver 359 ditto ... 113
Sheet lead - 360 Wind-mill . 124
Lead pipe 362 Tachometer by Donkin . 39
by Wilkinson .... 363 General observations . . 43
Lead, Chinese sheet . . . 727 Teeth of wheels .... 23
Lead tree, to prepare the, . - ib. Spur geer ib.
Leather, to gild, 721 Bevel geer 23
Lever, the . 7 Mordant varnish for gilding . 743
Combinatioris of the, ... 16 Mule spinning 379
Locomotive engines and rail- Bobbin and flier roving frame 383
roads .
'
643 Breaker carding engine . . 380
Masonry, vide Building Carding engine ib.
 INDEX 791
Page. Page.
Mnle-spilining Painters cream - . - - 743
Drawing Painting, vide Building
Finisher engine .... 381 Paintings, cainphorated mastic
------
INInlespinning frame . . . Sb-l varnish for 743
Foving frame 382 Paper manufacture - - - - 365
^Stretching frame .... 383 by Dickenson ----- 37
by Fouidrinier - - - _ ih.
Noria 230 Cutting and planing machine 370
Press - 291
Oil-mill 447 Paper, to gild the edges of, - 722
Oil, gilding on wood .... 722 Paper works, camphorated san-
Poppy,togiveadryi'ogquality to 735 darac varnish for - - - - 744
Fat, ditto ditto 736 Parting - -- -- -- - 765
Resinous, drying ....
,

737
.

by aqua fortis ----- ih

Ores, to assay 755 by cementation . . _ - 766
in the dry way .... ib. in the humid way - - - - -ib,

humid way .... 756 Paternoster work - - - _ 231

Antimonial 760 Pendulum - - - - - - - 525
humid assay of arseniated Gridiron, by Harrison - - 527
antimony .... ib. Lever, by Ellicott - - - - jb,
Arsenieal ...... ib. Mercurial, by Graham - - 526
in the humid way . . .761 Tubular, by Reid - - - - 529
Bismuth ores .... 759 by Trough ton - - 528
in thehumid way ... 760 by Ward - - - - 529
Cinnabar, in the humid way 762 Sympathy of the pendulum of
Cobalt 761 clocks , 5 ,

in the humid way . . . ib. Penstock by Quayle - - - - 109

Copper 759 Smcatou - - - no
in the humid way . . . ib. Persian wheel 230
Gold, ores and earths con- Pewter, common 712
taining 764 best ib.
mixed with martial py- hard ib.
riles, in the humid way 765 Picker 379
Iron 757 Pile engine by Vaulou4 . - . 309
in the humid way . . . ib. by Buiice . . . 310
Lead 758 Pinchbeck 708
in the humid way . . . 739 Plaster figures, to bronze . . 731
Manganese 760 Plastering 606
in the humid way . . . ib. Cornices 615
Mercurial 761 Fine stuff 611
Sulphurated .... 762 Gauge stuff ib.
Nickel 761 Lathing ib.
in the humid way . . . ib. Lathing, floating, and set . . 612
Silver 762 Lathing, laying, and set . . ib.
by ciipellation .... ib. Laying ib.
in the humid way . . 763 Lime and cement . . . 607
Tin 758 Lime and hair .... 610
in the humid way . . . ib. Parkers cement , . . . 618
Zinc ores ih. Plaster of Paris .... 609
in the humid way . . . ib. Pricking np 612
Overshot-wheel 75 Rendering and set 613
with forty buckets .... ib. Roughcasting ....
. . .

614
Smeatons experiments on, 79 Scagliola 615
by Burns 84 Stucco 617
Chain of buckets .... 86 Plate, to iron 726
Chain pump reversed ib. Plated metals, to assay . . . 764
Method of laying on vi'ater, by Platina, mock 7l 3
Noitaille Ill J^latinum, useful alloy of gold
inYoikshire 112 with H,
 7)2 INDEX
Page. Page.
Plumbing 62S Quekns metal . . 709
Lead 629
Sheet 630 Rack and Pinion 27
Covering roofs with, . 633 Rail Roads and locomotive en-
Pipes ib. gines 643
Mensuration of plumbers by Palmer 644
work' 633 Losh and Stephenson . . ib.
Pumps lb. Birkenshaw 650
Pneumatic or vacuum engine . 2)6 Losh 651
Poppy to give a dry quality to
oil, 735 Blenkinsop 654
Porcelain and glass, to gild . . 720 Brunton 655
Pottery 456 Sylvesters report on . . . 656
Bamboo coloured .... 483 Stevensons and Woods ex-
Black Egyptian ib. periments 663
Black printed 475 Robertss experiments . . 664
Blue printed 482 Stationary engines . . . 670
Ditto 469 Ramsdens dividing machine . 315
Biscuit oven 468 Receipts, useful 707
Biscuit painting .... 469 Red gold, to heighten the colour
Cream coloured .... 480 of 724
China, Felspar. . ... 479 Roller gin 378
Iron-stone ib. Rope manufacture 4ld
Drab coloured 484 Beetling the hemp .... 419
Engine lathe 464 ( Brealles method of steeping
Felspar China 479 ditto 418
Fine red 482 Dew Retting 4i7
Flint mill 458 Duncans rope making . . 420
Frit 472 Hemp-rnill 4l9
(lilding 475 Rainbeards method of steep-
Glazes 471 ing hemp ib.
Iron-stone China .... 479 Swingling or scotching the
Jasper 483 hemp 420
I.ustre ware 476
Lustre Black ib. Sandarac varnish .... 743
Porcelain 478 Saw-gin 378
Red by Meigh 477 Saw-mills 441
Fine 482 by Smart 445
Rileys black lustre .... 476 Scapement .'
515
Slip kiln 459 Recoiling 516
Stone China . t . . . . 479 by Camming 517
Throwing wheel .... 461 for watch 518
Turning Lathe .... 463 by Reid 5l9
Press 291 Ditto 521
Bank Note, by Bramah . . 305 De la Fons 524
Cider 291 Sheet lead, Chinese .... 727
Double, by Peek .... 292 Silkmanufacture 392
Hydrostatic, by Bramah . . ib. Doubling machine .... 399
Paper-mill 291 Silk reel 393
Printing, by Bacon and Don- Throwsting-mill 396
kin 301 Winding machine .... 395
by Deffeine . . . 298 Silk, satin, &c., to gild by hydro-
by Ruthven . . . ib. gen gas 722
by Stanhope . . 294 Silver to, assay 763
Princes metal 708 Double assay of ib.
Printers types 711 Parting by aqua fortis . . . 765
Stereotype plates and small by cementation .... 767
types .

Printing press, vide Press

ib. in the dry way .... ib
Imitation of 714
Pulley, the 11 To separate from plated copper 725
 INBHX. 793
Pago. Page.
Silver to, copper ingots 725 Stereotype plates - - - 711
in the cold way . . ib. Strength of materials 218
Silvering glass globes, liquid foil
for 728 Tachometer by Donkin 39
Silver-tree, to prepare the 726 Teeth of wheels - . 23
Simple combinations of the me- Spur geer - - - , ib.
cbanical powers . . 16 Wheel and Trundle - 24
Slating, vide Building To
describe teeth for ditto
Solder, common . . 712 by circular arcs ib.
Soft ib. Wheel and pinion ib.
for steel joints . . ib. Leader and follower - 25
Brass solder for iron 713 Follower with staff teeth - ib.
Gold .... ib. Wheels which combine the
Silver solder for jewellers ib. advantages of both pinion
Specula of telescopes . . 710 and trundle - - - 26
Spiral fkump . . . 237 Internal pinion 27
Spur geer .... 23 Rack and pinion ib.
Statues, composition of ancient 713 Bevel geer - - - - 28
Steam engine . . . 164 Throwsting-niill - - - 396
by Beighton . . . 169 Tide-mills - 94
Hornblower . . 182 I'ilt hammer -

Newcomen . . 168 Tinning, Kustitiens metal for - 710

Savary .... 166 Tin copper and brass
to, - 726
Watt .... 170 Iron and copper vessels - fb.
Woolf
-
.... 191 Lead pipe - ib.
Boiler - - _ - 181 Tin-tree, to prepare the - ib.
Crank and wheel
fly - _ 170 Tombac - . _ . 710
Eccentric motion - - _ 178 Red ib.
Four-way cock . - 174 White - -
ib.
Parallel motion - - - 179 Tortoise - shell, imitation for
Pistons - . . 177 watch-cases _ _ . 738
Plug-tree - _ ib. Turners varnish for box-wood 746
Steam gauge - - . 181 Tutania or Britannia metal 708
Sun and planet wheels - . 169 German - 709
Valves, concentric _ _ 177 Spanish - ib.
ditto - - - . 176 Engestroom - - - - ib.
by Murray - - 175 Trevithecks pressure engine - 246
Safety - - 167 Tympanum - 228
System of - - 175
by Woolf - - - 204 UNDERSHOT-W'heel - - - 65
Bell-crank engine - - 205 by Lambert . . 72
High-pressure engine - - 207 Smeatons experiments on 67
Locomotive engine - - 209 Rules for constructing, by
Ditto - _ - ib. Ferguson 114
Rotatory engine - _ 206 Brewster 117
Vibrating engine - - ib. Universal joint _ _ - 32
Leans reports - - 209 Double - ib.
Woolfs Tables - - 193 Useful Receipts - - . 707
General observations . 212
Steel manufacture - - - 340 Varnish, amber, with essence
Converting furnace - - 343 of turpentine - - - 714
Steel, cast - - 770 Black - . . - 732
to convert iron into _ - 769 For old straw or chip hats 749
to colour it blue - . . 771 Blue 732
to distinguish it from iron ib. Brick-red - - - - ih.
to gild - - - - - 724 Camphorated mastic, for paint-
Edge tools of cast steel and ings 743
iron . - - - _ 771 Caoutchouc - - - 7SS
Hardening of - . 769 Chamois colour - - - 732
3 F
7^4 INDEX,
Varnish Page. Varnish Page.
Coloured composition for len- Which resists the action of
deriiig linen and cloth impe- boiling water - - - 749
netrable - - 752 To make liquid paste with
Coloured, for violins - 745 drying oil - 753
Common f wax, or varnished To prepare fine printed var-
cloth - - - - - 752 nished cloth - - _ ib.
Compound mastic _ 742 To prepare varnished silk 754
Copal, camphorated - 739 To polish - 755
Colourless - 738 To recover - - - - ib.
Ethereal - . 740 Vertical wind-mills, vide Wind-
Fat amber, or - - 742 mills
Fat . - - - - 737
Gold coloured - _ 738 Watch - - - - - 500
Turpentine - 740 Table of trains - - * 504
White - - 731 Escapement - 185
Fat amber - - 741 Watch-cases, imitation of tor-
Fat, of a gold colour - - 746 toise shell - - - - 738
Fat turpentine, or golden ib. Water-wbecl, breast 87
Flaxen grey - - - - 732 in which the water runs over
Gallipot _ - - - 747 the shuttle _ . - 89
Mastic . 748 * with two sliuttlcs 90
Green . - - - - 732 by Lloyd and Ostel 89
Mordants _ - . - 748 Overshot - _ . - 75
for gilding - ibl with 40 buckets ib.
Pearl grey * - 732 Smeatons experiments on 79
Purple - . ib. by Burns _ _ 84
Red - - - . - ib. Chain of buckets 86
Red Brick - ib. Cliain pump reversed ib.
Resinous drying oil - 737 Method of laying on water
Sajidarac - - _ - 743 by Nonaille Ill
Compound - 744 as practised in Yorkshire - 112
Spirituous - ib. Undershot - - - 65
Turner's, for box- wood - 746 Smeatons experiments on 67
Violet - - _ - _ 732 by Lambert - - - 72
Yellow - ib. Method of constructing by
For balloons 750 Ferguson _ - . 114
ditto - _ - 751 Brewster _ - - 117
Coloured drawings - - 749 Barkers mill - _ - 92
Drawings and cardwork - 750 Mill courses _ - - 105
Dressing-boxes - 747 Penstock by Quayle 109
Glass . _ - - 750 Pen trough by Snieaton 110
Harps and Dulcimers - ib. Sluice governor - - - 313
Indian shields - - 735 Tide-mills - 94
Pales and coarse wood - 749 Water-courses and dams 107
Silks, &c. - 734 Wheel-race and water-course 104
Unihrelias - ify. Treatises on mill-work 120
Violins _ _ - - 732 Water-spinning - - - 386
Ditto - - - - 745 Reel 587
Watch-cases - 738 Spinning frame - - - ib.
'Io dissolve elastic gnin 732 Throstle - ib.
To give a drying quality to fat Weaving _ - - 410
oils - _ - - 735 Common Fabric - - - 411
to poppy oil - 736 Common loom _ - - 412
To make painters cream - 743 Dimity or kerseymere ib.
lo paint be
sail-cloth, so as to Double cloth _ - - ib.
pliant, durable, and imper- Power looms - - - 413
vions to water - 751 Tw celed pattern 412
To thicken liiicii=ciolh for Wedge - - - - - 1.3
screens - 755 Combinations of (lie IS
 Page. Page.
Wheels, wheel aud trnndel - 24 Wind-mill
Wheel and pinion - - ib. Equalizing the motion of 153
Leader and follower - - 2.5 Mill with 8 quadrangular sails 135
Which combine the advan- Horizontal - - - - 139
tages of the pinion and trundle 26 Wire manufacture 344
Wheel and axle - _ - lO Draw-bench - - - 345
combinations of the - - l6 Draw-plates - 348
White metal - .
- - 710 Ditto - - - _ - 354.
Wind-mill, vertical, Post-mill - 122 Hand machine - 346
Smock-mill - 123 for musical instruments 347
.Smeaton's experiments on - 125 Mouchels manufactory 349
Sails, rules for modelling 123 Wollastons experiments 356
by Hall Gower - - 129 W''i'itings, drawings, &c., to gild 721
by Baines - _ - 132
Clothing and unclothing Yellow gold, to heighten the
while in motion - - 130 colour of - - - 724
 .

DIRECTIONS TO THE BINDER.

Plate 1 to face Page 2 Plate 47 to face Page 334
2 12 48 336
3 22 49 346
4 26 50, 51, 52 366
5 30 53 370
'
6 36 54 374

7 62 55 380
8 74 56 382
9 86 57 390
10 94 58 412
11 112
^96
12 124 60
13 130 61 402
14 134 62 404
15 63 406
]() 142 64 442
17 148 65 446
18 162 66 448
19 168 ,
*67 68 424
20 69 426
21 178 70 434
22 184 71 440
23 72 486
24 73 488
25 215 74 492
26 230 75 500
27 76 512
28 248 77 516
29 77* 520
30 78 540
31 264 79 542
32 80 562
oo
Oi> 272 81 ... r.. 568
34 276 82 570
35 282 83 574
36 900 84 576
36* 85 590
37 300 86 592
38 87 598
39 308 88 602
40 310 89 674
41 90 682
42 91 686
43 322 92 690
44 324 93 648
45 94 650
46 95 668
X.B. The author would advise such of the purchasers as intend to
have the work bound, to have the plates put in a separate volume,
* 67, 68, must be guarded
 : *r

..
if,

-f

"}