PROPAGATION OF SHORT RADIO WAVES

..

MASSACHUSETTS INSTITUTE OF TECHA’OLOGY

RADIATION LA130R.4TORY SERIES

Board of JZditors

LOUIS X. RIDENOUR, ~&for-in-CJzief

GEORGE B. COLLIXS, Dtpufu Ildifor-in-C’&ef

BRITTOX CHANCE, S.,l. GOUDSMrT, IL, (;. HERFI, HUBERT JI. JAMES, J[LZAX K. ~NIFP,
,J.4MEsL. LAWSON, LEON B. LINFORD, CAROL G. JIOXTCOMEEY, C. NE\vTo~, ALBERT
lf. STONE, 1,01.-Is .1. TURNER, C,EORGE I;. \’.\LLEY, JR., HERBERT H. \YRE.iTON

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27. ~O\{PCTt XG 31Ec1[.4X[SUS AND I.l NKAGES—&obOda
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 PROPAGATION OF
SHORT RADIO WAVES
Edited by
DONTALD E. KERR
ASSISTANT PROFESSOR, DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS
JOHNS HOPKINS UNIVERSITY

OFFICE OF SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT

NATIONAL DEFENSE RESEARCH COMMITTEE

FIRST EDITION

iVEW YORK . TORO.VTO . LONDON

McGRAW-HILL BOOK CO MPAA’Y, I.NTC.

1951
PROPAGATION OF SHORT RADIO WAVES

COPYRWJHT, 1951i BY THE

MCGRAW-HILL BOOK COMPANY, INC.

PRINTED IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMEH.l~A

All rights reserved. This book, or

parts thereoj, may not be reproduced
in ally form tci!hot(l permi$sioh I1j
the publishers.

SCIEI$NX LIBRARY

m
PROPAGATION OF SHORT RA J910 WAVES

EDITORIAL STAFF

DONALD E. KERR LEONB. LINFORD

S. A. GOUDSMIT ALBERTM. STONE

CONTRIBUTING AUTHORS

ARTHUR E. BENT

RICHARD A. CRAIG

WILLIAM T. FISHBAIX

JOHN E. FREEHAFER

WENDELL H. FURRY

HERBERT GOLDSTEIN

ISADORE KATZ

DONALD E. KERR

R. B. MONTGOMERY

EDWARD M. PURCELL

PEARL J. RUBENSTEIN

A. J. F. SIEGERT

J. H. VAN VLECK
 Foreword

tremendous research and development effort. that went into the

T
HE

development of radar and related techniques during World War II

resll Ited not on] y in hundreds of radar sets for military (and some for
possible peacetime) use but also in a great body of information and new
techniques in the electronics and high-frequency fields. Because this
basic material may to science and engineering, it seemed
be of great value
most important to publish it as soon as sec~u-ity permitted.
The Radiation laboratory of MIT, which operated under the super-
vision of the National Defense Research Committee, undertook the great
task of preparing these volumes. The work described herein, however,
is the collective result of work done at man,y laboratories, Army, Navy,
university, and industrial, both in this country and in England, Canada,
and other Dominions.
The Radiation Laboratory, once its proposals were approved and
finances provided by the Office of Scientific Research and Development,
chose Louis N. Ridenour as Editor-in-Chief to lead and direct the entire
project. An editorial staff was then selected of those best qualified for
this type of task. Finally the authors for the various volumes or chap-
ters or sections were chosen from among those experts who were inti-
mately familiar with the various fields and who were able and willing
to write the summaries of them. This entire staff agreed to remain at
work at MIT for six months or more after the work of the Radiation
Laboratory w-as complete. These volumes stand as a monument to this
group.
These volumes serve as a memorial to the unnamed hundreds and
thousands of scientists, engineers, and others who actually carried on
the research, development, and engineering work the results of which
are herein described. There were so many involved in this work and they
worked so closely together, even though often in widely separated labora-
tories, that it is impossible to name or even to know those who contributed
to a particular idea or development. Only certain ones who wrote re-
ports or articles have even been mentioned. But to all those who con-
tributed in any way to this great cooperative development enterprise,
both in this country and in England, these volumes are dedicated.

L. A. DUBRIDGE
 Prejace

M~st of the volumes of the Radiation Laboratory Series are devoted

to specific radar such as components, systems and their applica-
subjects
tions, or measurement techniques. This volume, however, treats the
phenomena associated with the propagation of short radio waves between
terminal points, whether they betheradar antenna serving a dual purpose
or the antennaa of a communications system. The intention is to present
a summary of the state of knowledge in the microwave-propagation field
at the close of the war. There has been no attempt to produce either a
handbook or textbook, but only an interim report on a rapidly changing
subject. An attempt has been made to survey all relevant information
that was available, from whatever source, and to summarize as much of
it as was feasible.
The preparation of the book was undertaken primarily by the Pro-
pagation Group (Group 42), and all of its thirty-odd members contributed
either directly or indirectly to the material given here. In addition, sub-
stantial contributions have been made by authors who were not members
of this group but who worked closely with the group during the war. The
division of authorship was to a certain extent arbitrary. The principal
criterion was, of course, familiarity with the subject matter, and where
possible the people who had made original contributions were favored.
There were limiting factors, however, such as the degree of availability
of possible authors and the fact that it was impractical to have a large
number of writers. Unfortunately, it is impossible to give adequate
recognition to all those who have contributed directly or indirectly or
even to represent the correct proportion of the contributions of those
whose names appear here.
A vast amount of material was available for consideration—much
more than could have been presented in one volume, Consequently,
some topics have been omitted completely, as, for example, diffraction
by trees, hills, and obstacles other than the earth or objects used as radar
targets. In this case, as in some others, no significant original work on
the subject was done at the Radiation Laboratory, and reviewing work
done entirely by others did not appear desirable. Other subjects that
have been omitted are the numerous attempts at application of radio-
meteorology to forecasting of radio and radar propagation performance
and the climatological studies needed to make such knowledge useful on
ix
x PREFACE

a world-wide scale. In this case, authors were not available to undertake

the work. In choosing the meteorological material that was to be pre-
sented, it was decided that in the limited time available it was feasible to
present only the material considered to have the soundest fundamental
background and to eliminate material that involved an appreciable amount
of speculation or that would require reworking or further research to put
it into the desired form, In general, throughout the book when similar
decisions were necessary, they were nearly always made in favor of an
exposition of selected material rather than a sketchy, uncritical report of
a large amount. We are aware that despite our attempts to include data
from many sources our own work tends to predominate; knowing it most
thoroughly, we have treated it in greatest detail.
Much of the wartime work was necessarily done in haste without
adequate preliminary planning, care in execution, or sufficient analysis of
results. If we appear to be overly critical or pedantic here, the reader is
asked to understand that this arises, at least in part, from the reaction of
the authors to the nature of much of the source material from which the
following chapters are formed. We have not hesitated to point out the
need for criticaf examination of the data reviewed here, for such an exami-
nation must certainly be one of the first steps in further research in the
field. We have also made numerous suggestions for future investigations.
The methods employed in recent propagation research are, we believe,
rather important, and we have described them in some detail when it
appeared that the description would aid others in future plans. Apparatus
details involving radio-frequent y techniques are omitted, as most of them
are covered in other volumes series, but methods of planning experi-
of this
ments and of analyzing results are emphasized. The meteorological in-
strumentation and new measurement techniques are also emphasized, as
they are of utmost importance in investigations of the effects of atmospheric
refraction on microwave transmission.
Nomenclature and symbols were matters about which positive decisions
were necessary if the book was to be readable, The present choice is the
result of considerable deliberation and compromise among several well-
established but highly conflicting systems, It embodies as much as
possible of the best or of the most firmly established features of each system.
A serious attempt has been made to avoid undue overlapping use of sym-
bols but at the same time to adhere to uniform usage throughout the book;
some inconsistencies appear inevitable, however.
We have attempted to acknowledge the sources of all our information,
even though, unfortunately, these sources are frequently in the form of
reports that possibly will never be gencrall y available. Some of the re-
ports cited here are beginning to appear in the literature as this material
goes to press, however, and the appropriatec footnot c references have been
inserted wherever possible. When t.hc source of cxpcrimcntal material is
not specifically stated, it may be assumed to be the Rndi:li ion T.:~borutor:/,
 PREFACE xi

but because of the high mobility of ideas, it is not always possible to be

certain of their origin. Except for the measurements on oxygen and water-
vapor absorption, ship and aircraft cross secti ens, and a few miscellaneous
items, almost all of the Radiation Laboratory material is the work of the
Propagation Group or of its close associates.
The information summarized here represents a large investment of
effort by many persons and agencies, and it is impossible to acknowledge
fully our indebtedness to all of them. Our principal indebtedness is to
the remainder of the Propagation Group, whose work contributed so much
to this volume. Second, we must acknowledge particular indebtedness to
the several authors who at considerable inconvenience to themselves con-
tributed their services long after the termination of the activities of the
Radiation Laboratory Office of Publications.
We should like to acknowledge specifically the very great assistance
rendered by the several branches of the armed services, who contributed
generously in both man power and in equipment such as boats, aircraft,
housing facilities, and the many other items necessary to carry on field
operations on a large scale. We should like to thank the members of the
U.S. Weather Bureau and its several branch offices, whose personnel not
only contributed information but in some cases participated in our research
program. We are also greatly indebted to Dr. Charles Brooks of the Blue
Hill Observatory of Harvard University for his meteorological advice.
Most of the aircraft soundings in Chapter 3 were obtained by Robert H.
Burgoyne and Earl G. Boardman, who contributed his aircraft and his
services as skillful pilot. This work deserves special mention because of
its hazardous and highly exacting nature.
In an attempt to ensure accuracy in reporting the work of other groups,
we have submitted portions of the manuscript for review to several indi-
viduals and organizations. Particular thanks are due to the following
people: Sir Edward Appleton, Dr. R. L. Smith-Rose, and the other mem-
bers of the Tropospheric Wave Propagation Committee in England;
Dr. John B. Smyth of the U.S. Navy Electronics Laboratory; A. B. Craw-
ford of the Bell Telephone Laboratories; Professor Paul A. Anderson of
Washington State College; Dr. H. H. Beverage of RCA Laboratories;
K. A. Norton and Dr. T. J. Carroll of the Central Radio Propagation
Laboratory, Bureau of Standards; and Professor C. R. Burrows of Cornell
University. The corrections and suggestions offered by these men have
been of great value in integrating the descriptions of the work with which
they are most familiar. Thanks are also due Norma W. Donelan for her
aid in final preparation of the manuscript.

CAMBWDGE, MASS. DONALD E. KERR

.lV@, 1947
 Contenk

FOREWORD . . . . . . . . . . . . . .,. . . . vii

PREFACE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ix

CHAP. 1. ELEMENTS OF THE PROBLEM . . . . . . 1

(JOHN E. FEEEHAFER AND DONALD E. KERR)
EVOLUTION OF THE PRESENT PROBLEME+. . . . . 1
1.1. The Ionosphere andthe Transmission of Long Waves . . . . . . 1
1,2. Optical Properties of Short Waves . . . . . . . 3

TROPOSPHERIC REFRACTION ,.. . . . . 9

13. The Effects of Variable Gradlentsof Refractive Index . . . . 9
1.4. The Meteorological Elements andthe Modified Index ,.. . . . 12
1,5. The Modified Index and Field-strength Distribution . . . . . . . 15
ATMOSPHERIC SCATrERINQ AND AmENUATION . . . . . . 22
1.6. Radar Echoes from Precipitation . . . . 22
1.7. Scattering and Absorption by Particles . 23
18. Absorption by G~es . . . . . . . . 25

CHAP. 2. THEORY OF PROPAGATION IN A HORIZONTALLY STRATI-

FIED ATMOSPHERE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...27
(JOHN E. FREEHAFER, WILLIAM T. FISHBACK,
WENDELL H. FURRY, AND DONALD E. KERR)
FUNDA~ENTAL CONCEPTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...27
2.1. Transmission in Free Space . . . . 27
22. The Transmission Medium and the Pattern-propagation Factor . . . 34

GEOMETRICAL OPTICS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..41

2.3. Ray-tracing Formulas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .41
24. The Modified Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5o
25. Limitationa of Ray Methods.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...53

PEYSICAL O~CS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..58

2.6. The Field from a Dipole in a Stratified Atmosphere near the Earth . . 58
27. The Fundamental Theorem. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..65
28. Phsse-integral Methods . . . . ., . . . . . . . . . . . . ..7o

TEE LWEMMODI
FIEO-INDEXPEOFILE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
29. The Properties of Solutions of @y/df’ + w = O . . . . . . . S7
210. The Field Integral . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .95
211. The Int-erference Region.. . . . . . . . . . . ..98
212. The DMractionRegion. . . . . . . . . . . . . ..109

Mmmom FOR CALCULATING Fmrm STRENQTH wrmi STANDARD REFRACTION 112

213. The Interference Region... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .113
214. The DbhctionRegion.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. ,122
. .. .
xiv COY TE.VTS

215. The Intermediate Region 125

216. Contours of Constant Field Strength 130

Tm BILINEAR lIODIFIED-I~DEX PROFILE 140

2,17, Definition of the Problem and Preliminary Formulation 140
2,18. }Iethods for (’calculating Characteristic Y:ducs 146
2.19. Behavior of Characteristic Values and Charwtcristic Functions for the
First Mode 161
2.20. The Problem of Calculating Field Strength for the Bilinear Profile 168

NONLIIWME klODIFIED-INDEX PROFILES 174

221. The Linear+ xponent ial and Power-1aw Profiles 174

CHAP. 3. NIETEOROLOGY OF THE REFRACTION PRO131.E;X1 181

(RICHARD A, CRAIG, ISADORE I<ATZ, R. B. J1ONTGOMEEY,
AND PEARL J. RULrENSTICIN
i

HUMIDITY AND REFRKTIW INDEX 1s1

3.1. T’apor Pressure and Saturated Vapor 182
32, \f’ater-vapor Concentration 18-I
3,3. Saturation Temperatures on Isobaric Cooling 186
3.4. Refractive Imiex of Air at Radio Frequencies 1~{)

VERTICALLY IICIMOG~~~OUS AR AND .4n1.iBAT1c CH.~FiLiES Ig;j

3.5. .kdiabctic Temperature Lapse Rate and l’otcntial Tcmper:lttlr(, 1{)~

36. Humidity Lapse in Homogemmus .\ir 1!)(;
3-7. Gradimt of Refractwc J[od!ilus in Homogc,ntwus Air, I’ot{,ntial \l,vd(il[,s 198
38. Characteristic Curves and J[ixiug 200

REFRM~YT.iTIO~ AND D~W~TFTtO~ OF SoU?MINGs 202

39. Approximate Formula for Refractive Modulus 203
3.10. Representation of Soundings 206

EDDY DIFFUSION 208

311. Eddy Viscosity and Eddy Diffusiwty 208
3.12. Layer of Frictional Infiuenrc in Neutral Eq(lilibrium 213
3.13. I.ogarithmic Distributions in the Turhnlcnt 130uMI:wJ Lay~,r 215

VERTICAL DISTRIBUTIONS m XWTR.AL AND UNST.i RLE EQUILIBRIUM 2[9

314. Heating from Below 220

3.15. Application of Logarithmic Distrlhution ~~3
3.16. Rate of ilfodification of T_inst:lhlc .Mr Wfi

VERTICAL DISTRIBUTIONS IN STABLE EQC-ILIDRIVM 2X

3.17. Cooling from Below y~~
3.18. Shear in Stable E,luilibrium 2:14
3.19. Initially Hon~ogencous \Varm .\il over Cold \\:itt,r 237
3.20. Complex Over-water LImhficati{]lls 2,io
3.21. h’octurnal Cooling Wd Diurnal (’w-1~~ 23:3

OTHER ATMOSE’HERICPROCW+ES AIiD TH~IR F;FFWT ox 11-IWOFJM.S ’260

3.22. Subsidence and Subsidence Invcrsmns 2tio
323. Fronts and Frontal Inversion 2{i3
324. Sea-breeze Circulations 26+
 CONTENTS xv

3.25. Horizontal Gradients .267

3.26, Local Variations with Time 268

INSTRUMENTS TO MEASURE TEMPERATURE AND HUMIDITY IN THE LOWER

ATMOSPHERE . . . . . . . . . . ...272
327.Psychrograph . . . . . . . ..272
328. WiredSonde. . . . . . . . . ,283
329. Aircraft Psychrometer 287
3,30. Resistance Thermometer and Humidlometer . 289
3.31, Thermocouples . . . . . . . ..290
3.32. General Problems Associated with Low-level Soundings 291

MET~OKOLOGICALCONSTANTS. . . . . . . ,292
3.33. Useful Meteorological Constants . . . . . 292

CHAP. 4. EXPERIMENTAL STUDIES OF REFRACTION 294

(PEARL J, RWBENSTEIN, Domrm E. KERR, AND
WILLIAM T. FMHBACK)
ONE-WAY TRANSMISSION OVER WATER . 294
Transmission over Massachusetts Bay
4.1. Radio Me~urements Program . 296
4.2. Meteorological Measurements and Analysis. 297
4.3. General Characteristics of Transmission ... 301
44. Comparison wrth Theory 307
4.5. Tranermssion under Complex Conditions 315
4.6. Some Statistical Results . 319
Transmission Experiments in the British Isle8
4.7. The Irish Sea Experiment .322
4.8. South Wales to Mt. Snowdon .328
Transmission akmg the California Coast
49. San Diego to San Pe&o. .328
Transmission over an Inland Lake
4.10. Flathead Lake . . . . . . . ..335

ONE-WAY TRANSMISSION OVER LAND 336

4.11. Early Experiments 336
4.12. Summary of General Characteristics 340
4.13. Addhional Observations. .343
4.14. Discussion . . . . . . . . . ...350

RADAR TRANSMMSION . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...353

4.15. New England Coast.... . . . . . . . . ..354
4.16. California Coast . . . . . . . . . ..361
4.17. Weleh Coast . . . . . . . . . . . 363
4.18. The English Charnel Region. ! 367
4.19. Other Regions . . . . . . . . .369

SPACE VARIATIONS IN FIELD STBENQTH 373

4.20. Shallow Surface M-inversions 374
421. Deep Surface M-invemione . .378
4%2.ElevatedM -aversions.. . . ...382

ANGLE MEASUREMENTS ON SHORT OPTICAL PATJiS 385

4%1.Measurement.ao fAngleo fArrival . .386
4%LTheoreticalDis cession.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..39 I
xvi CONTEA’TS

CHAP. 5, REFLECTIONS FROhl THE EARTI1’S SURFA(’I? 396

(DONALD E. KEW, WILLIAM T. FISH BACK, AND IIMI{IIEKT GOLI..TLINI

THEORY OF SPECULAR REFLECTION 39fj

5.1. Fresncl’s Equations fora Smooth I’lanc S(]rfacc 3!16

5.2. Geometrical Interpretation of the Divc>rgcnm Factor 404
53. Effcctsof Reflections on Field Strength ‘m
5.4. Surfacc Roughness 411

REFLWTION CO~FFICI~NT OF THE OCEAN 418

5.5. Measurements of Short-time Variations 4]9
5.6. Interference hfeasurcmcnts over I.ong Itangcs 421
57. Intcrfercmce Me&surements at Short lt:ingcLs 4’27
5.8. Interpretation of Measurcmnts 4~\)

REFLECTION COEFFICIENT OF LAND 430

59. Measurements over Long Ranges .430
510. Me=urements at Short Ranges 4:33
5,11. hleasuremcnts of Time l’ariations 434
5.12. Interprctat ion of Measurements 435

EIIRORS IN RADAR HEIGIIT LIEASUREMENTS 436

513. Qualitative Discussion 437
514. Illustrative Examples 441

CHAP. 6. RADAR TARGETS AhTD Et ‘II( )1;S 44,5

(DONALD E. KERR AND lIRKtiLRT Gormsw,w

THE RADAR CROSS S~CTION OF ISOLATMI T~ IR,CTS 445

6.1. Scattering from a Sphere 445
6,2. Vector Form of Huygcns’ Prmclph, 4.5-I
6.3. Scattering from Planes and Curved Surfaces 456

COMPLEX TARGETS . . . . . . . ...469

6.4, Radar Cross Section of Aircraft 470
6,5. Radar Cross Section of Ships 472

SEA ECHO . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..481

66. N’ature of the Problem .4s1
67. Nature of the Sea Surface 486
6.8. Validity of the Fundamental Assumptions 490
6,9. Frequency Dependence of Sea Echo 494
6.10. Measurements of the Properties of Sea-echo Cross Scrtlon 499
6.11. The Fluctuation of Sea Echo 514
612. Theories of Sea Echo 518

THE ORIGINS OF ECHO FLUCTUATIONS 527

6.13. The Limitations of System Stability 527
6.14. Atmospheric Variations 531
6.15. Fluctuations in the Space Interference Pattern 535
6.16. Isolated Moving Targets 539
6.17. Interference Phenomena m Complex Targets 547

THE FLUCTUATIONS OF CLUmEE ECHOES 550

6.18. The Nature of Clutter Echoes 55o
6.19. The Theory of Clutter Fluctuations 553
 CONTENTS xvii

620. Experimental Techniques inthe Study of Clutter Fluctuations 562

6.21. Experimental Resulte . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...571

CEAP. 7. METEOROLOGICAL ECHOES . . . . . 588

(HERBEET GOLDSTEIN, DONALD E. KErLR, AND
ARTHUR E. BENT)
ORIQLNOF THE ECHO . . . . . . . . . . . . . 588
7.1. The Echo from IncoherentscatterersDistribu@d in Volume 589
72. Evidence of Direct Correlation between Meteorological Echoes and
Precipitation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...591
7.3. The Approximate Magnitude of Rain Echoes on the Drop Theory. 596
74. Possible Alternative Theories to Scattering by Drops 598
7.5. Modifications of the Drop Theory 604
THE INTENSPPY OF METEOROLOGICAL ECHOES 607
7.6. The Radar Cross Section of Single Drops 608
77. Drop-size Distribution .615
7.8. Echoes from Solid Precipitation 618

GENERAL PROPERTIES OF PRECIPITATION

ECHOE~ 621
7.9. Identifying Characteristics 621
7.10. Confusion and Maskkg of Other Echoee 625
PRECIPITATION ECEO PROPERTIESAND METEOROLO~lCAL
STFWTCTURE 626
7.11. Cksshication of Echo Types 626
712. Thunderstorms . . . . . . . ..627
713. Other Forms of Localized Precipitation 632
7.14. Widespread Precipitation 633
7.15. Cyclonic Storms of Tropical Or@n 636

CRAP. 8. ATMOSPHERIC ATTENUATION 641

(J. H. VAN VLECK, E. M. PURCELL, AND HERBERT GOLDSTEIN)
8.1. Properties of the Complex Dielectric Constant 641

THEORY OF ARSORFIYONBY UNCONDENSED

GASES 646
tY2. Oxygen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...648
8.3. Uncondensed Water Vapor. .656
MEASUREMENT OF ATMOSPHERIC ABSORPTION . 664
84. Direct Measurement of Absorption by Oxygen 665
85. Measurements of Water-vapor Absorption 666
ATTENUATIONBY CONDENSEDWATER. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...671
8.6. Phenomenology of At@nuation by Precipitation 671
87. Calculation of Attenuation by water Drops 674
88. Calculation of Attenuation by precipitation in Solid Form 685
89. Mee=ementa of At@nuation by mln 688

APPENDIX . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 693
(DONALD E. KERR, A. J. F. SIEGERT,ANOHERBERTGOLDSTEIN)

Application of the Lorentz Reciprocity Theorem to Scattering 693

Coherent and Incoherent Scattering from Assemblies of Smtterers 699

NAME INDEX . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 707

SUBJECT INDEX . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 713
 CHAPTER I

ELEMENTS OF THE PROBLEM

BY JOHN E. FREEHAFERAND DONALD E. KERR

This first chapter is intended to serve two purposes: (1) It introduces

anumberof definitions and concepts that will be useful to orient the reader
before reembarks upon the detail of the following chapters. (2) It pre-
sents a thumbnail sketch of the type of information that is to follow, but
free from the specialized terminology and methods that are frequently
necessary in later chapters. We attempt only to indicate a few of the
high lights rather than to give a complete outline, as the latter course
would lead to undue repetition.

EVOLUTION OF THE PRESENT PROBLEMS

It is interesting to observe that the workers in the present microwave
field have returned to the wavelength region in which major features of
Maxwell’s electromagnetic theory received confirmation through the r~
searches of Hertz. The details of the trend from short to long waves and
back again are of no interest here, but some features of the trend are suffi-
ciently relevant to be considered briefly. In addition, the complete
identity of many of the problems considered here with well-known prob-
lems in optics is emphasized, as experience has shown that familiarity with
concepts and methods of optics is of great utility in the microwave
field.
1.1. The Ionosphere and the Transmission of Long Waves. ~Interest
in the propagation of electromagnetic waves over the surface of the earth
first became active when Marconi demonstrated in December 1901 that
signals could be transmitted across the Atlantic Ocean. During the next
18 years the most eminent mathematicians and physicists of the time con-
tributed to a lively discussion of the quantitative aspects of the four
mechanisms that had been proposed to account for the reception of signals
beyond the horizon. These were diffraction, reflection from an elevated
layer of ionized gases, atmospheric refraction, and transmission by means
of surface waves that follow the interface between media of different
dielectric properties.
Formulation of the diffraction theory by considering the field due to
an oscillating dipole near an imperfectly conducting sphere readily yields
an infinite series that unfortunately converges at a hopelessly slow rate
I By John E. Frwhafer.
2 ELEMENTS OF THE PROBLEM [SEC. 11

when the radius of the sphere measured in wavelengths is large. The

attempts of various investigators to approximate this series led to widely
divergent results, none of which agreed with the empirically determined
Austin-Cohen formula,’ which seemed adequate to summarize the experi-
mental data available at the time.
Meanwhile other possibilities were being examined. The presence of
ionized gases at great heights in the atmosphere was inferred from obser-
vations of the spectrum of light from the night sky. These showed the
continuous presence of lines associated with the aurora. Furthermore the
existence of a conducting layer aloft had been postulated to explain the
observed variations of terrestrial magnetism. In 1902 both Kennelly and
Heaviside’ published articles suggesting that long-range radio transmission
might be accounted for by reflecting from an elevated conducting surface.
Ten years later 12ccles3contributed an investigation of the mechanism of
ionization by solar radiation and presented the fundamental theory of
ionic refraction.
The effect of the decrease of refractive index of the air because of the
decrease in its density with height was also examined by several inves-
tigator.’ On the assumption that the temperature is constant, it was
shown that the radius of curvature of the rays would always be many times
the radius of the earth. It was therefore concluded that bending by the
atmosphere, although acting in the right direction, is unimportant.
Finally the idea that radio waves could be guided along the surface of
the earth much as electromagnetic energy can be conducted along wires
was examined theoretically and experimentally. It was observed that
high antennas were not necessary to receive signals and that ranges were
usually longer over water than over land. Zenneck5 was able to explain
some of the observations by applying to the radio problem the results of
his demonstration that Maxwell’s equations admit a solution that repre-
sents a surface wave guided along the interface between two different

1Accordingto the Austin-Cohenformula

whereI is the currentinducedin s receivingantennaof heightZ*per unit currentin the

transmittingantennaof heightz,, The rangeand wav(,lcngthare denotedby r and A.
The parametera = 1.5 X 10-3 (kilometers)-‘f for transmissionover sea water. For
the data from which this formulawas deducedsee L. W. Austin, Vat. BUT.Stmruiards
Bull. 7, 315 (1911).
2.4. E. Kennelly,Elec.Worki,39, 473 (1902);O. Heaviside,Encyclopedia Britannica,
10thcd., Vol. 33.
? W. H, Eccles, Proc, ROV.Sot. A, 8’7,79 (1912); E[ectriczan,79, 1015 (1912).
t J. A. Fleming,Principles of Electric Wave Telegraphy and Telephony,1919,p. 660.
5J. Zenneck,Ann. Physik, 23, 846 (1907); Lehrbuch der drahtlosen Telegraphic,
2’” Aufl., Stuttgart,1913.
SEC.12] OPTICAL PROPERTIES OF SHORT WAVES 3

media. Further work by Sommerfeldl seemed to show that a surface

wave of the type discussed by Zenneck would actually be excited by an
oscillating dipole at the boundary between a dielectric and imperfectly
conducting plane. Sommerfeld’s results were later questioned by several
investigatore,z and there is still disagreement concerning the proper nomen-
clature for and interpretation of the surface wave.
The initial exploratory period was brought to a close with the appear-
ance of two important papers by Watson in 1919. In the first of these~
he exposed the errore that were responsible for the confusion in the diffrac-
tion theory and gave the correct solution. His results showed that dif-
fraction failed completely to account for the long ranges observed. In the
second paper4 he derived the Austin-Cohen formula on the assumption that
transmission takes place in the space between two concentric conducting
spheres. This was a clear-cut triumph for the reflecting layer hypothesis
and directed future effort toward the fruitful field of ionospheric research.
During the next 14 years’ most of the known phenomena concerned
with the transmission of radiation at frequencies up to 30 Mc were observed
and satisfactorily explained in terms of measured properties of the iono-
sphere. Except under conditions of unusually dense ionization, ionic
refraction cannot account for the reflection of energy at wavelength much
below 9 m. Thus when new developments in experimental technique
extended the usable spectrum from 10 down to 1 m and below, interest in
the effects of diffraction and atmospheric refraction was revived.
1s2. Optical Properties of Short WavesY—The wavelength range of
interest in this book is from about 3 m down to about 1 mm, but no attempt
will be made to fix definite limits. The material presented here applies
particularly to the region in which the wavelength is small enough that
“surface waves” and reflections from the ionosphere are absent but where
at the same time it is long enough that large numbers of atomic or mole-
cular resonances in the gaseous components of the atmosphere do not
occur in a small wavelength interval. The limitations imposed in this way
are flexible and depend, for instance, upon whether the transmission path
under consideration is long and near the earth’s surface or is short and
high in the atmosphere. Much of the material presented here is valid far
outside this loosely defined wavelength range, but outside this range it
must be applied with a full knowledge of other effects that may mask those
under present discussion.
L.A, Sommerfeld,Jahrb. drahtlosen Telegraphic, 4, 157 (1911); Ann. Phyw’k, .81,
1135(1926).
zSee,for instance,F. Naether,E. N. T., 10, 160 (1933).
3G. N. Watson, Proc. Roy. Sot., 95, 83 (1919).
4Ibid., p. 546.
5 For a reviewof the activity in this field see H. R. Mimno, Rev. Mod. Phys., 9, 1
(1937).
s By Donald E. Kerr.
4 ELEMENTS OF THE PROBLEM [SEC. 1.2

Within this wavelength regionl the relation of the wavelength to the

size of material objects at the transmission terminals and along or near the
transmission path is of primary importance to the properties of the trans-
mission. In the microwave region most of these objects are comparable
in size to the wavelength, and many aie much larger than the wavelength.
As a consequence it is desirable to discard some of the concepts employed
in radio engineering at longer wavelengths and to substitute some of the
language and techniques of optics, which have been devised to handle pre-
cisely this situation in a clifferent part of the electromagnetic spectrum.
It is convenient to recall that for purposes of classification, optics is
divided into the two broad fields of geometrical optics and physical optics.
Geometrical optics is, in general, the simpler of the two, as it predicts
propagation of waves along rays according to simple geometrical laws
without regard to wavelength or phases. Physical optics, on the other
hand, results from a solution of the wave equation and thus automatically
introduces wavelength, phases, and penetration of waves into shadow
regions in which geometrical optics gives no information. As Baker and
Copson point out, “There is a general theorem due to Kirchhoff which
states that geometrical optics is a limiting form of physical optics. More
precisely, the difTuse boundary of the shadow in diffraction phenomena
becomes the sharp shadow of geometrical optics as the wavelength of the
light tends to zero.’” We shall find that both physical and geometrical
optics are necessary in the study of microwave propagation and that
important cases arise in connection with certain types of refraction in
which the transition from one to the other may become poorly defined.
In general, geometrical optics is used wherever possible because of its com-
parative simplicity; unfortunately, however, it may easily yield highly
erroneous or meaningless results where it is needed most, and in this same
region physical optics is likely to be so difficult as to be useless. In such
cases one resorts to numerous ad hoc artifices and special devices and often
bold interpolation in an attempt to fill the gaps left by straightforward
theory.
There are many classical experiments of optics that have useful counter-
parts in the microwave field. One of the best known of these experiments
is that of Lloyd’s mirror.3 It is ordinarily performed with a smooth glass
plate or a mirror illuminated by a point or line source of light. A screen
or photographic plate is arranged to indicate the intensity of the light in
the region illuminated both by the source and by reflection at nearly graz-

I The rangeof wavelengthsbelow about 1 m will also be referredto frequentlyas

the microwaveregion.
z The Mathematical Theory of Huygens’ Printi”pZe,Oxford,New York, 1939,pp. 79.f.;
also J. A. Stratton,Electromagnetic Theory, McGraw-Hill,New York, 1941,p. 343. For
a very completediscussionseeM. Born, Optik, Springer,Berlin,1933,Chaps.2, 3, and4.
3Jenkins and White, Fundamentalsof Phr@cal Optics, hIcGraw-Hill,New York,
1937,pp. 66 and 407.
SEC. 1.2] OPTICAL PROPERTIES OF SHORT WAVES 5

ing angles from the mirror. A sketch of the experiment is shown in

Fig. 1.1. In the shaded region the light intensity results from a super-
position of the light from the source and that reflected from the mirror.
The light reflected from the mirror appears to come from an image of the
source indicated by the broken lines, and the image appears to be out of
phase with the source by the amount
Free-space
of the phase shift upon reflection.
intensity ‘1
For grazing incidence this phase
shift is just T, as shown by the fact
that the intensity is always a mini-
mum (zero for most practical pur-
poses) at the surface of the mirror.
..;-
It will be shown later that if absorp- ,,. -
~_--------
Reflectlng Intensity
tion losses in the mirror are neglected surface
the intensity at a height h on the FIG. I. I. —Interference of light wavea M
screen-above the surface is given by illustrated by the Lloyd’s mirror experiment.
The vertical scale on the right has been
Z = 410 sinz ah, expanded for the sake of clarity,

where 10 is the intensity from the source in the absence of the mirror
(denoted hereafter as the free-space intensity) and a is a constant. This
variation is indicated by the curve at the right of the figure.
If the surface of the earth is sufficiently smooth, it produces essentially
the effect shown above upon micro-
Interference
region wave radiation at distances for which
the earth’s curvature is unimportant.
If the surface is so rough that the
reflection is diffuse rather than spec-
~
ular, however, the interference pattern
disappears and the intensity is essen-
tially 10, with additional minor irregu-
lar variations from point to point in
space (for discussion of the details
see Chap. 5).
Fm. 1.2,—Crosssection of the earth of As the earth is spherical rather
radius a. A source of radiation is at P,. than plane, the Lloyd’s mirror phe-
and energyreachesl’, along the two in-
dicatedray paths when P, is in the inter. nomenon is modified considerably at
ferenceregion. WhenP, is in the diffrac- large distances. Figure 1”2 shows a
tionregion,energyreachesit by diffraction
aroundthe bulgeof the earth. cr~ss section of the earth, above which
a bource of radiation at PI sends
energy along the direct and reflected-ray paths to the point P2. The
horizon for the point P, is at T, and the tangent Tay is the ray through P,
and T, extended indefinitely.1 The region above bT and above the tan-
1EarlierterminologydesignatedP,T as the Lineof sig)d. This is not an appropriate
termwhenboth terminalaare elevated, When line oj sightis used in this volume, it
appliesto the direct-raypath P,PZ.
6 ELEMENTS OF THE PROBLEM [SEC. 12

gent ray beyond T is called the interference region, as the intensity can be
described in terms of waves following the two paths and adding vectorially
to produce a resultant intensity having periodic fluctuations roughly
similar to those above the Lloyd’s mirror.1 The region beyond T and
below the tangent ray is called the diffraction region, as energy penetrates
this region by ditlraction, which is the process of principal interest in
physical optics. The ease with which energy penetrates into this region
depends upon numerous factors to be discussed in Chap. 2, but it is of
interest here to observe that as the wavelength decreases, the “shadow”
cmt along the tangent ray by the bulge of the earth becomes more sharply
defined. This is another way of saying that the rate of attenuation of
intensity with distance or height increases with decreasing wavelength.
As most transmission paths require propagation along a line very close
to the tangent ray, where the diffraction shadow begins to be very pro-
nounced, the exact position of the transmission terminals with respect to
the tangent ray is important and is usually stated in describing a path.
The unobstructed path P,P2 in Fig. 12 is called an “optical” path; whereas
if Pz is on the tangent ray to the right of T, the common term is a “grazing”
path. If P2 is in the diffraction region, one refers to an “extra-optical”
path. An additional correction is almost always made in which an eflectioe
value of earth’s radius of $a is used in calculating ray trajectories to allow
for refraction effects to be described later. In this case a grazing path
may also be referred to as “radio-optical.” Both terms will be employed
in this book, with an effective earth radius of $ the true value always
being implied.
The effects of the index of refraction of the atmosphere n will receive
considerable attention in this book. It will be found that not the absolute
value of n (which is roughly 1.0003) but rather its vertical gradient is very
important in determining the intensity in the vicinity of the tangent ray
and in t,he diffraction region. In the first steps of analysis of the effects
of refractive index gradients it is convenient to resort to geometrical optics,
invoking Fermat’s principle and Snell’s law of refraction derived from it,
in order to trace the rays describing the wave paths in the atmosphere.
In the interest of precise statement of the problem, we define the rays as
the normals to the surjaces of constant phase oj the wavefronts.z When the
transmission medium is homogeneous, the rays also give the direction of
propagation of the energy of the waves. In the vicinity of sharp corners
or in regions in which ray patterns exhibit certain peculiarities as a result
of refraction, the energy no longer follows the rays and geometrical optics
fails to give meaningful results. Physical optics is then required to con-
tinue the analysis. The reader should bear in mind that although
I The true situationis considerablymore complicatedthan suggestedabove. The
detailswill be discussedfully in Chaps. 2 and 5.
2% Sec. 2.3 for derivationof the equationfor the rays.
SEC. 1.2] OPTICAL PROPERTIES OF SHORT WAVES 7

raytracing procedures are very useful in the region in which they are
valid, they are easily misused and numerical results based on them
should be used with caution. This point will recur frequently in later
sectiom.1
In order to include the specific problems of radar in a study of the
propagation process it is necessary to investigate the scattering of micro-
wave radiation by objects ranging from raindrops to battleships. More
specifically, the process of interest is the diffraction of plane waves by these
objects. Here again the procedures of physical optics supplY the results
in the cases in which an exact solution is possible at all, but most practical
cases are so complicated that analytical methods usually consist of a series
of desperate artifices that lean heavily on geometrical optics where pos-
sible. We shall consider here only two simple cases to illustrate the
fundamental principles, leaving the details to Chap. 6.’
The simplest radar target (and the only one for which the scattering
has been calculated with complete rigor) is a sphere. The radius of the
sphere is denoted by a, and the wavelength of the incident radiation by A.
The ratio a/h and the dielectric constant and conductivity of the sphere
are sufficient to define the scattering problem. (The effect of the latter
two quantities will not be considered here.) We begin with a very small
sphere, that is, one for which a/A <<1. The wave incident upon the
sphere excites currents in it which in turn act as the source of a new wave-
the scattered wave that we are seeking. These currents radiate a wave
that is identical with the field from a classical Hertzian dipole with a
suitably chosen electric dipole moment; thus the scattered wave may be
computed in a simple manner from well-known formulas. The ratio of
the apparent scattering cross sectionz of the sphere to its geometrical cross
section (as noted by an observer at the radar measuring the back-scattered
wave) is proportional to (a/A) 4. This fourth-power dependence is an
example of the well-known Rayleigh scattering law, used by Lord Rayleigh
to explain the blue color of the sky and in fact applying to any scattering
object with dimensions sufficiently small in terms of wavelength.
As a/A approaches unity, the situation becomes far more complex.
The scattered wave no longer behaves like the radiation from a simple
dipole, but rather from a group of electric and magnetic dipoles, quad-
ruples, and more complicated charge and current distributions within
the sphere. The ratio of apparent cross section to geometric cross section
increases ‘at a rate less than (a/A) 4, finally reaches a maximum, and oscil-
lates with a substantially constant period and with slowly decreasing
amplitude of oscillation about the value unity, which it approaches in the
limit as a/A approaches infinity (see Fig. 6”1). This limiting case, for
which the back-scattering cross section is precisely equal to raz, is the
LIn particular,seeSees.1’5, 2.5, and 4.24.
2A precisedefinitionof scatteringcrosszcctionis deferredto Sec. 2.2.
8 ELEMENTS OF THE PROBLEM [SEC. 1.2

value predicted by geometrical optics, which can give only results inde-
pendentof wavelength. Because of itssimplicity andits resemblance to
sections of practical radar targets the sphere has received a great deal
of attention.
As an example offering a sharp contrast to the sphere, we consider a
flat plate, for convenience assumed to be made of metal and having a
fairly simple shape. Whereax the scattering properties of the sphere are
independent of orientation of the sphere because of its perfect symmetry,
the cross section of the plate depends upon its orientation. If the plate is
very small in terms of wavelength, the cross section again follows the
(a/~)4 Rayleigh law, where u is now some suitably determined average
dimension of the plate. As the plate becomes large, the scattering cross
section continues to be a function of wavelength (instead of becoming
independent of wavelength as does the sphere), and it also becomes criti-

\F“
cally dependent upon orientation. For a wave normally incident upon
the plate the ratio of back-scattering
Reflected
wave~ cross section to geometrical area A
is just 47rA/X2. This expression
DiffractIon
pattern o Normal will be recognized as the gain of an
to surface antenna of area A having a uniform
e
a field strength over its mouth; thus a
ln;:~ent
large plate viewed at normal inci-
Plane
reflector dence behaves like an antenna
excited by the currents across its
\ mouth that are actually excited on
Fm. 1.3,—Scattering from a flat metal plate the plate by the incident wave.’ As
for which aIk >>1 (not to scale).
the orientation is changed, the cross
section fluctuates rapidly as a result of the multiple lobes of the diffrac-
tion pattern of the plate, as shown in Fig. 1“3. The width of the main
lobe is roughly A/a radians. Most of the energy of the incident wave
is reflected specularly in the main lobe in a direction such that the angles
of incidence and reflection are equal, and the remaining small amount ,
of energy is distributed in the side lobes throughout the remaining
solid angle. Similar diffraction phenomena are inherent in every
optical instrument and must be considered in detail in design of the
instrument.
The preceding discussion sketches qualitatively some of the broad fea-
tures of the behavior of microwaves in relation to their environment, with
particular emphasis on the usefulness of concepts and techniques of optics.
From here on we consider details of individual sections of the propagation
field, borrowing these optical methods freely when it appears advantageous
to do SO.
1 This statementia in~”ndedto convey a qualitative idea, not to state an exact
equivalence(aceSec. 6,2).
SEC.1.3] THE EFFECTS OF VARIABLE GR.4DIENTS

TROPOSPHERIC REFRACTION
BY JOHN E. FREEHAFER

1“3. The Effects of Variable Gradients of Refractive Index.-Although

waves shorter than about 6 m are seldom and those in the centimeter
range never reflected bytheionospherc jthere were many observations prior
to the opening of hostilities in 1939 to show that the horizon does not
always limit the range of ultrahigh-frequency radio facilities. For instance,
in 1932 Trcvor and Carter reported reception of 69-cm signals over a path
from New York to Rocky Point, Long Island, the path being 1.2 times
radio-optical. In 1934 Hershberger reported transmission of 75-cm waves
over a range of 87 miles, \vhich was five times the sum of the horizon dis-
tances from the antennas. Durin~ the war, many striking observations
of “anomalous” ranges were made. A radar beacon on a frequency of
approximate y 200 M c/see at Bathurst, Gambia, West Africa, was seen on
several occasions by aircraft flying below 6000 ft at ranges exceeding 500
miles. Echoes from N-ova Scotia were seen at Provincetown, Mass., by a
10-cm radar at a height of 150ft above sea level. The range in this case
was limited to 280 miles by the length of the sweep of the indicator, Per-
haps the longest terrestrial ranges observed were obtained on a 200-Mc~sec
radar at Bombay, India, which received echoes from points in Arabia
1700 miles away. On the other hand propagation conditions can give rise
to strictly limited ranges. For instance, there were occasions when for
periods of several hours, centimeter radars in good operating condition on
Fisher’s Island, New York, were unable to see Block Island 22 miles away
although it was optically visible.
As the frequencies involved rule out the ionosphere, attention is directed
to refraction by the atmosphere, and in fact, because of the limited vertical
extent of the antenna patterns involved in many of the observations, to
the lower portion of the atmosphere, the troposphere. It is readily shown,
a-s we shall see in Sec. 1“5, that when meteorological conditions are such
that a layer of atmosphere exists in which the index of refraction decreases
rapidly with height, radiation of sufficiently short wavelength may be
trapped in the layer and guided around the curved surface of the earth
by an action analogous to that of a waveguide. Conditions are especially
favorable to the formation of such trapping layers or ducts in the first few
hundred feet of air above the surface of the sea when the temperature of
the air is greater than that of the water or aloft at the boundary between
air masses of contrasting temperatures.
Experimental evidence of the effect of a surface duct on radio trans-
mission is shown in Fig. 1.4. (The experiment is described in detail in
Sec. 4.20.) A 3-watt 10-cm c-w transmitter was located at a height of
25 ft above the surface of the sea. The receiving antenna, a paraboloid
with a beamwidth at 10 cm of about 25°, was carried in the nose of an
10 ELEMENTS OF THE PROBLEM [SEC. 13

airplane. At a range of approximately 60 miles the vertical section of

field strength shown in Fig. 1”4 was made by descending from several
thousand feet to within 20 ft of the surface as rapidly as was consistent
with keeping the axis of the paraboloid within a few degrees of horizontal.
The total variation in range over the time the data shown in the figure
were taken did not exceed 5 miles. The section is noteworthy because of
the strong field at an altitude of about 125 ft. Instead of a height-gain
effect there is actually a height-loss effect above 125 ft, although over the
whole range shown in the figure the field is ~vell above what one would

Heightin ft
FIG. 1.4.—Vert1cal field-strength sounding 60 miles from a lf.)-cm transmitter at a height
of 25 ft, June9, 1943,off the NewEnglandcoast, The dashedlineindicate~ the expwted
fieldstrengthforstmdard refraction.

expect under normal refraction conditions. At lOOft the measured field

is 186 db above the field calculated using an effective radius of the earth
~ times the actual radius, and at 800 ft it is still 14 db above. At 60 miles,
the height of the tangent ray from the transmitter for a ‘ ‘+” earth is 1780 ft.
Simultaneously with the radio measurements, low-level meteorological
soundings were made by airplane showing that the index of refraction did,
indeed, fall off rapidly enough in the surface layer to produce a duct some
200 ft deep (Fig. 4.49).
To support the one-way c-w transmission evidence, a 40-kw 10-cm
radar sited near the c-w transmitter was obtaining echoes out to the end
of its 110-mile sweep.
Strong refraction effects are often not a transient condition responsible
only for sporadic transmission anomalies, but at certain seasons of the
year and in certain localities they are present most of the time. This
assertion is supported by the following statistics for a 9-cm circuit between
Provincetown and Gloucester, Mass. (see Sees, 4.1 to 4.6). The path was
41 miles long with terminals 100 and 136 ft high. It was thus 1.36 radio-
optical. For the period covering the months from July through October
SEC. 1.3] THE EFFECTS OF VARIABLE GRADIENTS 11

1944, the signal averaged over periods of an hour was greater than the
free-space level about 15 per cent of the time and greater than that cal-
culated for a “+” earth 80 per cent of the time. During a particularly
favorable week the signal was above the free-space level 25 per cent of the
time andabove that for a”+’ earth 95 percent of the time. It must be
pointed out that the 4 months from July through October represent the
portion of the year when the meteorological conditions over Massachusetts
Bay are exceptionally favorable to the formation of surface ducts.

- .Uw
o 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 22
Rangem miles
FIG. 1,5.—The effect of refraction over the ocean surface on the relation between echo
intensity and range. The crosses and circles represent data taken on two successive days;
one day was characterized by a strong surface duct, and the other was not, The wavelength
waa 10 cm, and tbe radar and target were at heights of 120 and 6 ft abovetheoceansurface,
respectively.The solid line represents the echo to be expected in the absence of ducts (see
text)

The effects of surface ducts are noticed most often as an extension of

operating range of both one-way and radar systems operating near the
surface. An example is shown in Fig. 1.5, which compares the results of
“tracking” a reflector mounted on a boat on two different days. On one
day the effects of refraction were negligible, whereas on the second day a
strong duct resulted in a large extension of the useful detection range. 1
The solid line indicates the echo strength to be expected in the absence
of ducts and with the reflector perfectly aligned in the vertical plane. The
reflector was 10 wavelengths high, however, resulting in a very narrow
beam in the vertical plane. As it was impossible to preserve accurate
vertical alignment, the discrepancy between absolute values indicated by
1The targetwaemadeof two squareplanereflectom1 m on a side, mounted at right
anglesalong a vertical centerline in such a way that four 90° cornerswere formed.
This reflector(called a dipkme) waa mounted on a small boat with almost no super-
structureand waerotatedat a conetantrateabout the commonverticalaxis of the two
planes. The rssult.antecho consietedof a characteristicsequenceof “flaahee” that
wereeasilyidentifiedbecaueeof theirtimingand relativeintensities
12 ELEMENTS OF THE PRO13Lli!,14 [SEC, 1.4

the solid lines and the circles is not surprising. The significant feature of
the data is the marked change in the dependence of echo intensity upon
range brought about by a duct. This effect will be encountered many
times later in our study of the effects of refraction.
1“4. The Meteorological Elements and the Modified Index.—In a
uniform atmosphere the rays are straight lines and the trace of the earth
on a meridian plane through the transmitter is a circle. The situation is
not changed essentially and the analysis is simplified if the earth is regarded
as flat and the rays as curved, provided that the difference between the
curvatures of the earth and the rays is the same in both cases. To account
for the upward bending of the rays in the case of the flat earth, it is neces-
sary to assume a fictitious distribution of refractive index in which the
index increases with height. Because, as we shall see in Sec. 2,3, the
curvature of the rays is equal to the derivative of the index, it is necessary,
in order that the relative curvature of the rays with respect to the earth
be the same under flat-earth as under curved-earth conditions, that the
gradient of the fictitious index distribution equal the reciprocal of the
earth’s radius. Thus it seems reasonable that the problem of propaga-
tion over a curved earth with uniform atmosphere can be reduced to that
of propagation over a flat earth with an atmosphere whose index increases
with height. This is in fact true, subject to certain limitations on the
height interval in which the field is to be discussed, and the same artifice
may be employed to arrive at a flat-earth problem even when the actual
index is not constant but varies with height.
The foregoing considerations lead to the concept of the modified index
N by which the actual index n is replaced when the earth is treated as
flat. The modified index N is related to n by

iv=rz
()l+?
a
=n +:, (1)

where z is height above the surface and a is the radius of the earth. As
N is a number that differs from unity by about 3 parts in 10,000, it is con-
venient for many purposes to introduce the refractive modulus M, which
is related to N by
M=(N– 1)X108. (2)

The quantity M has values in the neighborhood of 300. Throughout the

following discussion it will be found that N is used in arguments based on
electromagnetic theory whereas M is used whenever meteorology and
measurements are concerned.
] See C. L. Pekeris,Phys.’Rev., 70, 51S (1946). Pekerisconcludesthat the earth-
Ilatteningapproximationis valid to within 2 per cent up to rangesof about half the
radius of the earth but for wavelengthsin the centimeterregion the approximation
breaks down at altitudes of severalthousandfeet, the fractional error being propor-
tional to the frequency.
SEC. 1.4] THE METEOROLOGICAL ELEMENTS 13

In order to apply the results of meteorological investigations to the

study of propagation effects it is necessary to relate the distribution of
index of refraction to the distribution of temperature and moisture. For
practical purposes at frequencies below 104 Me/see the index of refraction
of a parcel of air at absolute temperature T and pressure p is given by

(n–l)x lo’=;
()p+q, (3)

where e is the partial pressure of the water vapor present, A = 79°K/mb,

and B = 4800”K. The form of this expression is based on theory,l the
first term on the right being due to the induced dipole moments of all the
component molecules and the second being due to the permanent dipole
moment of the water vapor molecules. The values of the constants are
averages based on published experimental data.z That there is no dis-
persion is confirmed experimentally by the lack of observable amounts of
absorption in this region of the spectrum,3
From Eqs. (l), (2), and (3), we obtain

M=;
()
p++ +~10’. (4)

As the gradients of the meteorological elements have much larger vertical

than horizontal components, some justification exists for the usual resum-
ption required by analytic procedure that the refractive modulus and
modified index are functions only of height.
By differentiating 13q, (4) we find that

All of the quantities A, B, T, p, e, and a in Eq. (5) are, of course, positive;

hence, the first term on the right is always negative because pressure
always decreases with height and the last term is always positive. The
two center terms may be either positive or negative depending upon condi-
tions. Thus if there is a temperature inversion, that is, an increase in
temperature with height, dT/dz is positive and the term involving dT/dz
is negative. Likewise if the water-vapor content decreases with height,
the term’ involving de/dz is negative. Frequently the negative terms con-
tribute more to the sum than the single positive term, and dM/dz becomes
negative. For example, when warm dry air passes out over a cool ocean
surface, the temperature of the layer of air in contact with the water

1Debye, Pofar M&c&a, ChemicalCatalog Co., New York, 1929. The formulais
dmcussedin Sec. 3.4.
i Sanger,Steiger,and Giichter, Helvetica Phys. Adu, 6, 200 (1932); Stranathan,
Phy9.Reu., 48,538 (1935). SeealzoA. W. Friend,Jour. Aercmurdkol .’%., 7,352 (1’340)
$This point is discuzzedin detail in Sec. 8.1.
14 ELEMENTS OF THE PROBLEM [SEC, 14

increases rapidly with height. The resulting stability prevents mixing,

and hence the water-vapor content decreases rapidly. Under these condi-
tions dM/dz may be negative over a height interval of several hundred
feet above the surface. This, as we shall see in the next section, consti-
tutes a surface duct.
A curve obtained by plotting M as abscissa and z as ordinate is called
an M-pro$le. An N-pro$le isobtained inthesame way byusing Ninstead
of M and differs from the M-profile only in scale. Measurements have
shown that on the average M increases with height at the rate of about

FIG. 1.6.—Idealized modified index profiles: (A) Substandard surface layer; (B) profile ior
standard refraction; (C) superstandard surface layer; (D) superstandard surface layer with
surface duct; (E) elevated superstandardlayer with surface duct; (E’) elevated superstandard
layer with elevated duct; (G) surface and elevated superstandard layers with both surface and
elevatwi ducts. In allc- theductextends from a to b and from a’ to b’.

3.6 per 100 ft, and this value has been adopted w the standard M gradient.
Likewise a linear M-profile having standard slope is called a standard
M-profile, and the field strength calculated on the assumption that the
M-profile is standard is defined as standard field strength. The latter
agrees with values calculated by using an earth’s radius equal to $ its
geometrical radius.
Because an M-profile seldom haa the standard slope at all heights, it
is convenient to divide the atmosphere at a given time into layers such
that within each layer the gradient of M is substantially standard or
entirely greater than or entirely less than the standard value. Layers in
which the gradient is greater than standard are called subs.?undard, as in
the presence of such layem of sufficient depth the performance of radar and
communication facilities is genemlly poorer than under standard condi-
tions. %nilarly, layers for which dM/dz is algebraically 1~ than s~ndard
 SEC. 1.5] THE MODIFIED INDEX 15

are called super-standard because in their presence performance is generally

enhanced. It should be noticed that layers for which O < dM/dz < (3.6
per 100 ft) as well as those for which dM/dz is negative are all classified as
superstandard. The latter, however, are referred to as M or N inver~”ons
when it is desired to distinguish them from the former. Atmospheric
ducts are associated with M inversions. Finally, layers in which the
gradient is essentially standard are called standard layers.
Figure 1”6 illustrates the definitions of the three classes of layers and
shows in idealized form the types of M-profiles encountered in nature.
Curve B represents a standard M-profile. Note that all profiles assume a
standard gradient at sufficient height. Profile A shows a substandard
surface layer, whereas profile C shows a superstandard surface layer that
is not an M inversion. Curves D through G exhibit various kinds of M
inversions, resulting, as we shall see in the next section, in both surface
and elevatsd ducts.
1“5. The Modified Index and Field-strength Distribution.-When the
N-profile, position of the transmitter, and the electrical characteristics of
the earth are prescribed, the problem of determining the distribution of
electromagnetic field is completely defined. It is with this problem of in-
terpreting the effect of a given N-profile on the field distribution that we
shall be concerned in the ~resent section.
From Snell’s law, one ~an readily show that for rays having inclinations
not exceeding a few degrees,

6 = * <2 N(z) – N(z,) + q, (6)

~

where P is the inclination angle at height z, a is the inclination angle of

the ray at the transmitter, and Z1is the height of the transmitter.1 For
simplicity let us consider first the case of pure diffraction for which n = 1.
Then Eq. (1) becomes

N=
()
1+:.
a
(7)

Equation (6) suggests a convenient way to visualize the ray family. Refer
to Fig. 1-7a, which represents the N-profile given by Eq. (7). Through
the point on the N-profile at transmitter height ZIdraw a vertical reference
,line All. To examine the behavior of a ray leaving the transmitter at
angle a draw a line parallel to and at a distance equal to &/2 to the left
of AB. This line will be called the characteristic of the ray. In Fig. 1.7a
lines 1, 2, and 3 are the characteristics of various rays. Then Eq. (6)
states that the inclination of the ray at any height is proportional to the
square root of the separation between the characteristic and the N-profile
1For a derivationof Eq. (6) referto SeC.2.3. Equation (6) is Eq. (2%3) withn, the
aotualindex,replacedby N, the modifiedindex,ta allowfor the curvatureof the es@.
16 ELEMENTAS OF THE PROBLEM [SEC. 1.5

at that height. Thus, because the separation between the N-profile and
characteristic 1 increases with height, the inclination of the associated ray
labeled 1 in Fig. 1.7b becomes increasingly steep as the ray arises. On
the other hand, the ray that starts downward with the same numerical
value of the inclination angle as ray 1 becomes less steeply inclined, until
at the height at which the characteristic intersects the N-profile the ray
is horizontal and has a turning point. This ray is labeled 1‘ in Fig. 1.7b.

ModifiedindexN _ Ranger ~
(a) (/))
FIG. 1.7.—Ray family associated with a linear N-protile.

Note that a single characteristic corresponds to two rays having slopes at

the transmitter that are numerically equal but opposite in sign. In
Fig. 1.7b the rays that start downward are denoted by primes. Line 2 is
the characteristic of the tangent or horizon ray 2’. Line 3 is the char-
acteristic of a ray 3’ that is reflected from the earth’s surface. It should
be noted that although we have assumed that the index n is constant and
equal to unity, the rays are curved. This is as it should be, as the earth
has been assumed to be flat. The region to the right of ray 2’ is not
reached by the ray family and is therefore the shadow or diffraction zone.
Now let us consider the case shown in Fig. 1.8a in which the N-profile
has a surface N inversion and z,, the height of the transmitter, is less than
d, the height at which N assumes ib minimum value. Let characteristic ~
be drawn tangent to the N-profile at its minimum, and let the distance
between characteristic 2 and the vertical reference line AB drawn through
the point on the N-profile at the transmitter height be denoted by c#2.
Then any ray whose initial angle of inclination is less than a, has a char-
acteristic that lies between characteristic 2 and line All. Characteristic 1
is a case in point. As the distance between characteristic 1 and the
N-profile decreases with increasing height, the inclination of the associated
ray 1 of Fig. 1.8b decreases with height. At the height at which the
SEC. 1.5] THE MODIFIED INDEX 17

characteristic intersects the N-profile the ray has zero inclination and
hence has a turning point. As the separation between the characteristic
and N-profile increases as the height decreases below that of the turning
point, the ray becomes more and more steeply inclined as it turns toward
the surface. At the surface the ray turns once more and begins another
“hop.” Thus the ray proceeds by a series of hops and is confined to a
layer near the surface. It is easy to see that this same behavior char-
acterizes all rays for which a < aP and that energy is trapped in the layer
of air below height d. It is convenient to refer to such a layer as a duct.

*I
E
.-:
x
a

z]

ModifiedindexN— Ranger _
(a) (b)
FIG. 1ii. —Modified index profile and ray pattern for a simple surface duct.

Rays whose initial inclinations are greater than a, have characteristics

that lie to the left of line 2, as, for example, characteristic 3. As char-
acteristic 3 does not intersect the N-profile, the msociated ray 3 has no
turning point. As the ray rises from the transmitter its inclination at first
decreases and reaches a minimum but not zero value at height d. From
there on the inclination increases monotonically. The ray 3 therefore
penetrates the duct. Thus we see that ray 2 whose initial inclination
angle is aP, the so-called angle of penetration, divides the family of rays
into two groups: those which are trapped and those which penetrate the
N-inversion.
It should be noted that in the case of the refraction represented by
Fig. 1.8 there is theoretically no region that is not reached by the ray
family. There is therefore no shadow region such as is found in Fig. 17
and no horizon ray. Instead a region of relatively high energy density
near the surface penetrates what is normally the diffraction region and
gives rise to abnormally high signal strengths. This is the qualitative
explanation of the action of surface ducts.
The two examples just discussed serve to illustrate the general prin-
ciples of qualitative ray tracing. These same principles may be used to
appraise the refraction produced by other types of N-profiles. Thus, for
18 ELEMENTS OF THE PROBLEM [SEC. 15

example, it is readily seen that an “overhanging” elevated inversion such

as is shown in profile E of Fig. 1”6 gives rise to a surface duct. On the
other hand the elevated inversion of profile F of the same figure produces
an elevated duct whose geometrical boundaries extend from the top of the
inversion to the height at which the tangent to the minimum intersects
the N-profile. Finally it is easy to see that profile G gives rise to both a
surface and an elevated duct.
Although ray tracing yields a convenient qualitative picture of the
trapping phenomenon, it leads to error in two respects: (1) It gives no hint
of the way in which frequency enters into the effect, and (2) it suggests
that appreciable effects can be obtained only when the receiver and trans-
mitter are in the duct.
z

FIG. 1.9.—The rays associated with a single mode of propagation in a waveguide

Let us consider the frequency dependency first. The physical situation

in the presence of a duct is in many ways analogous to that in a waveguide.
In both cases the field may be resolved into a sum of elementary waves or
modes; but whereas in the case of a guide all of the modes are completely
confined to the guide, in the case of a duct all of the modes to some extent
penetrate the top of the duct. Those modes for which this penetration or
leakage is small may be represented by rays that proceed by a series of
hops just as in the case of the guide. To pursue this analogy further let
us consider a waveguide filled with material of constant index N. Fig-
ure 1”9 shows the mode whose rays are inclined at angle B to the sides of
the guide. Let r be the coordinate measured along the axis of the guide
and z be the coordinate perpendicular to the axis. Then the phase change
due to a displacement da along a ray inclined at angle ~ is

(8)

where x is the wavelength in vacuo. Because the phase is the sum of a

part that depends only on r and a part that depends only on z, it is possible
to separate the mode into waves traveling in the r and z directions and to
consider the two parts separately. The waves that travel in the z direc-
tion bounce back and forth between the surfaces of the guide and interfere
with each other. In order that this interference be not chaotic and the
SEC. 1 5] THE MODIFIED INDEX 19

reflections mutually destructive, it is evideht that a wave starting upward

at a certain height must upon returning to that height after reflection from
the top and bottom surfaces have the same phase as it had initially. In
this way the interference effects are repeated periodically in each cycle of
reflections. Put briefly, this means that the part of the phase depending
only on z must be a periodic function of z, and this leads us to write

47r b
Nsinfldz -~-~= 2(m -1), m=l,2, . ) (9)
To /
where b is the width of the guide. The r’s are inserted to represent the
phase changes at the reflection points. Thus
b
mh
N sin /3 dz — (10)
\o T;
or as N and P are constant,

This is the familiar relationship among the width of the guide, the angle
of inclination of the allowed modes, and the wavelength.
z

I Earth’ssurface ‘r—
Fm. 1“10.—Theraysassociated with a single mode of propagation in an atmospheric duet.

In the case of propagation of a single mode in an atmospheric duct w

represented by Fig. 1 10, one can use the same arguments with slight
modifications. (1) N and j3 are no longer constants but are functions of z.
(2) There is no metal surface producing the reflection at the upper turning
point. In fact, at this height the family of rays forms a caustic and there
is a change of phase of 90°. This phase change is characteristic of points
at which neighboring rays of a family intersect and is well known in optics
in connection with rays that pass through a focus.
With these changes we obtain
b
Nsinfidz= m–~ ~, m=l,2, ””., (12)
/ o ()
where b is the height of the turning point. Now Snell’s law states that
the product of the index and the cosine of the angle of inclination is con-
20 ELEMENTS OF ‘THE PROBLEM [SEC. 15

stant along a ray.’ Thus

N(z) Cos p = N(b). (13)

Hence

N(z) sin ~ — <N’(z) – N’(b), (14)

and Eq. (12) becomes

b
. lx
N’(z) – N’(b) dz m=l,2, .... (15)
Ido () ‘–i 2’

Equation (15) is a condition on b and shows that there is a discrete set of

allowed values of b. This set may be denoted by bl, b’, etc., corresponding
tom= 1,2, ””” and indicated on the N-profile as shown in Fig. 1.11.

d– ——. .

b3 .—— ——
———— —

o N
Fm. Ill. -The discrete set of turning points for the modes of propagation in an atmos-
pheric duct.

& N(z) and N(b) are both nearly equal to unity, Eq. (15) can be
simplified to

ti ~;” V“N(2) – .V(b.) dz = (m -+)$ m=l,2, ... (16)

But N(z) – N(bm) is just the spacing bet~veen the N-profile and the char-
acteristic through the point on the profile for which z = bn; hence, we
see that b~ increases both with m and also with i. Because bm in-
creases with X, an upper limit is set to the wavelength of trapped radiation
by the fact that the modified index decreases over only a finite height
interval d, and bl cannot exceed d. Using d for b] in Eq. (16) yields the
following condition for determining ~~.., the longest wavelength trapped:

A.8X = % fi [ <N(Z) – N(d) dz. (17)

1For a demonstrationsse Sec. 2.3.

SK 1.5] THE MODIFIED INDEX 21

If it is asumed that within the duct N(z) is a linear function decreas-

ing at the rate of 4 X 10–* per foot, an assumption that experience shows
to beressonable forlow ducta, Eq. (17) leads to

Am., = 0.014(W, (18)

where Am,xis in centimeters and dis injeet. Thus we arrive at the follow-
ing suggestive values.

TABLE 1.1.—MAXIMUM TRAPPED WAVELENGTH AS A FUNCTION OF DUCT HEIGET

k=, cm d, ft
1 20
10 so
100 400
1000 2c!m

Because atmospheric ducts are generally of the order of several tens of

feet in depth and are perhaps never more than 500 or 600 ft, the duct
phenomenon is important chiefly for microwave frequencies. As will
be pointed out later, the values of k. given above do not represent cuto~
conditions. Although radiation at these or shorter wavelengths is strongly
guided, radiation at several times these wavelengths may also be aflected
strongly by the duct.
The picture just presented is, of course, oversimplified. When the
problem is examined in detail,’ it is found that the field E at a range r and
height z from a dipole at height Z1 in the presence of the earth for which
the free-space field is E, is given by

(19)

where us) is a solution of

(20)

representing upward traveling waves as z ~ m, and the Km’s are a set of

characteristic values chosen so that u# (0) = 0, The u~’s are normalized
so that

/ 0
m
[u:)]’ dz = 1.

Equation (19) is subject to certain simplifying assumptions that need not,

however, concern us here.

1See Chap. 2.
22 ELEMENTS OF THE PROBLEM [SEC. 1.6

The expression for lE/Eo\ is in the usual form for expressing the diffrac-
tion field; and when N2 is taken as a linear function of z with positive
gradient it yields values in agreement with those of the classical treatment
of Watson, van der Pol, and Bremmer. When Nz is not linear, the solution
of Eq. (20) is difficult and requires extraordinary techniques involving in
general a great deal of arithmetical labor.
The important point here is that the K’s are in general complex with
negative imaginary parts. The imaginary part represents attenuation
with range and for standard refraction is comparable in size to the real
part. The effect of a duct is to reduce the size of the imaginary part of K
and thus to decrease the exponential attenuation with range. If the wave-
length is sufficiently short for the depth of the duct, the K’s for the first
few modes may be essentially real. In this case it can be shown that’

(21)

where the b~’s are calculated by Eqs. (15) or (16). Modes with small
attenuation are said to be trapped, but the expression is meaningless unless
the word “small” is defined. If we assume that an exponential attenua-
tion of less than 5 db per 100 miles is “small,” we arrive at essentially the
same relationship between the maximum wavelength trapped and the duct
height given in Table 1.1.
As the degree of trapping increases, the character of the height-gain
function u:) varies as well as the attenuation. For standard refraction
the height-gain function is complex with a magnitude that increases expo-
nentially with height. As the trapping increases, the height-gain function
of the mode assumes a constant phase throughout the duct and appreciable
amplitude within the duct, but essentially zero amplitude without. Thus
a strongly trapped mode cannot be excited by a transmitter far from the
duct. There are, of course, all sorts of intermediate conditions, and fre-
quently a mode exists that is much less attenuated than standard but
nevertheless “leaks” sufficiently to be excited by transmitters above the
duct. Transmission may then be considerably improved even though the
terminals are not within the duct.

ATMOSPHERIC SCATTERINGAND ATTENUATION

BY- DONALD E. KERR

1.6. Radar Echoes from Precipitation.-It was pointed out in Sec. 1.2
that echoes from spherical particles much smaller than the wavelength
scatter radio waves according to a simple law, but numerical magnitudes
were not given. It will be shown in Chap. 7 that both theory and experi-

1Equation (21) is readilyobtainedby comparingEq. (15) withEq. (240) of Chap. 2.

SEC. 1.7] SCATTERING AND ABSORPTION BY PARTICLES 23

ment supply ample evidence that raindrops and other forms of precipita-
tion very often are large enough and exist in sufficient concentration to
produce strong radar echoes. Because of the Rayleigh law mentioned in
Sec. 1.2 the echoing power of a given rainstorm increases rapidly as the
wavelength is decreased. Thki trend does not continue inde6nitely with
decreasing wavelength, however.
The mere fact that radar detection of precipitation is possible is of
irnmediati practical value, for it permits advance warning of arrival of
storms, often from distances exceeding 100 miles, and is an excellent means
for guiding both aircraft and surface vessels around dangerous precipita-
tion areas. The practical experience obtained during the war has built
up a large fund of rule-of-thumb information concerning the relation of
the characteristics of the precipitation echoes to their effects upon various
contemplated activities in the vicinity of the storm.
Of possibly greater long-range importance is the fact that radar storm
detection offers the meteorologist a new tool for exploring such poorly
understood matters as details of storm structure, turbulence, and the
general physical processes connected with formation and growth of pre-
cipitation. The subject is extremely complex and thus far has not pro-
gressed far beyond the stage of correlation of various characteristic typea
of meteorological echo with the general types of meteorological structure
associated with the precipitation causing the echo. Even these prelimi-
nary correlations permit recognition of isolated thunderstorms, cold fronta
accompanied by showers or thunderstorms, hurricanes and typhoons, and
certain other characteristic meteorological phenomena.
Although radar storm detection is at present only a qualitative research
tool, it is reasonable to expect that this is not a permanent condition. A
large amount of theoretical work has been done to calculate echoes from
precipitation, and the point has been reached where much purely meteor-
ological information on drop sizes, concentrations, and related quantities
is needed before great progress is likely. The few wartime attempts at a
quantitative experimental approach are discussed in Chaps. 6 and 7, and
later work is described in a series of reports issued by the Department of
Meteorology of Massachusetts Institute of Technology.
1“7. Scattering and Absorption by Particles. -Precipitation scatters
radiation in all directions from a passing wave; and if the particle size and
concentration are sufficiently large, this scr.ttering results in an appreciable
rate of attenuation of the primary wave. in addition, as the precipitation
particles comprise a lossy dielectric, they absorb energy from the wave
and convert it into heat. Both phenomena are entirely negligible at
wavelengths greater than about 10 cm; but as the wavelength decreases,
the scattering and absorption become important, until at wavelengths
around 1 cm they place a limitation on transmission over appreciable dis-
tances through rain.
24 ELEMENTS OF THE PROBLEM [SEC, 1.7

When water forms into droplets, as in fog or clouds, each drop acts as
a small “blob” of absorbing and scattering material; if the drop is suffi-
ciently small, the dielectric absorption is independent of drop size and is
proportional to the total water content per unit volume. Thus, if M is
the concentration of liquid water in grams per cubic meter, the absorption
coefficient is 0.28 M db/km for a wavelength of 1.25 cm and a temperature
of 18°C. As M seldom reaches 1 g/m3 in fog or clouds, except possibly in
very heavy sea fogs, attenuation by fog and clouds is generally negligible.
As the drop size increases, the dielectric absorption also increases, but
it now depends upon drop size in a complicated way, increasing at a fairly
rapid rate. Also the scattering begins to become important, until its con-
tribution to the total attenuation is comparable to that from absorption
when the drops are large and the wavelength is in the neighborhood of 1 cm.
As very little is known of drop sizes and concentrations high above the
earth, it is necessary to work with measurable meteorological quantities
that are related to the desired quantities in a known manner. One gen-
erally uses the rate of precipitation of rain (or snow, etc. ) reaching the
ground. The theory developed thus far is reduced to a form in which the
attenuation is expressed in terms of wavelength and rate of precipitation.
This procedure rests upon a number of questionable assumptions and
empirical relations (meteorological, not electromagnetic, in nature), but
they are probably less important in most cases than the natural inhomo-
geneity of a rainstorm. Tests have shown that even for path lengths as
short as 2 or 3 miles the rainfall is usually so nonuniform in space and
time that there is no possibility of obtaining a single value of rate of
precipitation which will characterize the rain for our present purpose.
Because of this fundamental limitation imposed by the inhomogeneity of
the rain no satisfactory method is available for calculating attenuation
by precipitation over distances of several miles.1
Although attempts at direct calculation of attenuation for long paths
is not a fruitful procedure, considerable practical radar experience supports
the earlier statement that attenuation at wavelengths greater than about ,
10 cm is entirely negligible. In the vicinity of 3 cm it begins to be notice-
able but is still of little importance, except possibly in the heaviest cloud-
bursts or tropical rains. At snorter wavelengths it becomes rapidly more
important, however, until at wavelengths of 1 cm or less a heavy rainstorm
verges on being opaque, For instance, for 1 cm, theory predicts an
attenuation in a heavy rain of about 3 db/km and in a cloudburst about
18 db/km. The attenuation increases monotonically with decreasing
wavelength and probably reaches a maximum value at about 0.3 cm in

1 AS satisfactory agreement with theory has been obtainedover path lengthsof a

fewhundredmetersin heavy rain,thereis littlereasonto questionthecorrectnessof the
existingtheory. The dificult~ seemsto lie in lackof adequatemeteorologicalinforma-
tion, Seealso Sec. 8.9,
SEC. 18] ABSORPTION BY GASES 25

very heavy rain, but the details at this and shorter wavelengths have not
yet been explored because of the laborious calculations required.
For frozen precipitation the dielectric loss is considerably smaller than
for liquid water. If the particles, such as hailstones, are sufficiently
large, the scattering loss can be appreciable at the shorter wavelengths,
however. As these two types of loss are interconnected in a fairly corn-
plicated manner, we defer further discussion to Chap, 8, where attenua-
tionfrom allcauses is treated in detail.
1“8. Absorption by Gases.—Not on]y particles but uncondensed gases
in the atmosphere are capable of absorbing energy from a passing wave.
The mechanism is different from that of the scattering and dielectric
absorption described above, however. The reaction occurs in this case
because the molecular structure of some gases is such that the individual
molecules behave like dipoles; that is, they possess permanent dipole
moments, which may be of either electric or magnetic type. These dipole
moments furnish the mechanism by which the electric or magnetic field of
a passing wave reacts with the molecules, causing them to rotate end over
end or to oscillate in many other possible ways. According to quantum
theory, to each of the possible modes of vibration there corresponds a
possible energy level of the molecule.1 The important features of these
energy levels are that in general they are numerous and are separated by
very small energy differences. Let us assume that the energy difference
between two of these levels is AE ergs and that the incident wave has
precisely the frequency v and wavelength A corresponding to

AE=hv=~,
A

where h is Planck’s constant. The result is that the wave delivers to the
gas molecules discrete units of energy AE that are used to keep the mole-
cules continually in a state of transition from one energy level to the other.
They absorb energy from the wave each time the transition is made from
the lower to the higher level and reradiate it during the reverse transition.
The downward transition is a random process however and does not rein-
force the exciting wave, hence the total effect of the continued absorption
to reduce the amplitude of the wave. In addition to the pure resonance
effect described, damping occurs, and it controls the width and height of
the resonance curve just as in familiar mechanical or electrical oscillators.’

I We ignoredegeneraciesand otherquantum-mechanicaldetails.
2All of the effectsdescribedherehavebeeninvestigatedin the field of conventional
spectroscopy,whichbecauseof the enormouslyhigherfrequenciesinvolvescorrespond-
ingy largerenergylevel spacings. The new field of microwaoespectroscopypromises
to be invaluablein exploringthe closely spaced levels and in deterrainingquantities
such ea the widths of the lines to a much higherdegreeof accuracy than has been
obtainablepreviously.
26 EI.EMENTS OF THE PROBLEM [SEC. 1.8

Investigation of the principal atmospheric gases reveals tha~ only

oxygen andwater vapor have both permanent dipole moments and energy
level spacings of the appropriate value to be of interest at wavelengths
above 1 mm. Oxygen has a magnetic moment, as it is paramagnetic, and
water vapor has an electric moment. Together they cause gaseous absorp-
tion to become noticeable at a wavelength as small as 1.5 cm and very
pronounced below 1 mm.
The spacing of the oxygen energy levels results in resonance peaks at
wavelengths of 0.50 and 0,2,5 cm, The attenuation by atmospheric oxygen
at sea level and 20°C is given by theory and experiment as about 14 db/km
at the 0.50-cm wavelength and is predicted theomticall,y to be about
2 db/km at 0.25 cm. There are other resonance peaks at wavelengths
less than 0.25 cm, but we shall not consider them here. On the long-
wavelength side of the 0.5-cm peak the attenuation drops to about 0.01
db/km at 1.25 cm and 0,0066 db/km at 10 cm.
In the case of water vapor there is a resonance peak at 1.33 cm,l as
determined by J. M. B. Kellogg and his collaborators at the Columbia
Radiation Laboratory (see Sec. 85). It was necessary to explore this
region in detail, as ordinary spectroscopic data were not capable of pre-
dicting the position of the resonance wavelength accurately. The attenua-
tion at the resonance peak was found to be 0.03 db/km per g per m3 of
water vapor. In temperate climates the vapor density on an average
day is likely to be around 10 g/m3, resulting in an attenuation of 0.3 db/km.
In the tropics it can be two or three times this value. This is sufficient
to produce a noticeable effect on transmission over long distances, particu-
larly in radar applications.
Theory predicts other water-vapor and oxygen absorption peaks at
short er wavelengths with considerabley higher values of attenuation. The
total effect is to render the atmosphere nearly opaque for wavelengths
between 1 mm and the visible region. There are, of course, “windows” in
the infrared region, but on the whole this wavelength range is not likely to
be useful for transmission over appreciable distances.
LMore recent measurements place this peak at 1.3481 cm. See C. H. Townes and
F. R. Merritt, Phys. Rev., 70, 558 (1946).
 CHAPTER 2

THEORY OF PROPAGATION IN A HORIZONTALLY

STRATIFIED ATMOSPHERE
BY JOHN E. FREEHAFER, WILLIAM T. FISHBACK, WENDELL H. FURRY,
AND DONALD E. KERR

This chapter presents a development of the theory of propagation of

very short electromagnetic waves in free space, over a plane earth, and
over a spherical earth, including the effects of the electromagnetic prop-
erties of the earth and refraction by the atmosphere. In a sense it is two
chapters, for it presents detailed specific results and methods for computa-
tion of field strength in the absence of refraction or with a linear modified
index profile, as well as theory and a few numerical examples for certain
types of nonlinear profiles. In order to prevent duplication and to pre-
serve generality w much as possible, however, the presentation has been
designed to adhere closely to fundamental electromagnetic theory, from
which specific results are developed as special cases. Because of the
mathematical complexity of even the simplest cases of nonstandard refrac-
tion of practical interest the numerical results for these cases are few.

FUNDAMENTALCONCEPTS
BY DONALD E. KERR

2.1. Transmission in Free Space.—In order to introduce fundamental

concepts of propagation in a simple manner and to obtain formulas that
will be required throughout the remainder of this volume we begin by
considering the properties of transmission in “free space, ” that is, trans-
mission in vacua between terminals so remote from all other objects that
these objects exert no measurable influence on the transmission.
We begin by considering an isolated antenna radiating into free space.
In general an antenna radiates more strongly in one direction than in any
other; this direction of maximum transmission will be taken as the polar
axis of a spherical coordinate system with its origin at the antenna. Any
direction from the antenna may be specified by the angles d and & where 6
is measured as a zenith angle from the polar axis and o is measured about
the axis in a plane perpendicular to it. The radiating properties of the
antenna are specified in terms of the antenna pattern junction j(d,~), which
is de$ned aa the ratio of electric (or magnetic) jield strength in the direction
(9,4) to the jiefd in the direction of maximum radiation, all ji.elds beirq deter-
27
28 HORIZONTALLY STRATIFIED ATMOSPHERE THEORY [SEC. 21

mined at a jixed distance much larger than the wavelength and the largest
dimension of the antenna. In symbols,

(1)

where ZL is the field in the direction of maximum transmission, for which

0 = O. In general .f(O,O) is a complex function of the angles, although for
most purposes in this volume only real forms for ~ will be employed, The
generalization of the present material for complex j is obvious.
The Poynting vector of the radiated wave S(@,O) is directed radially
outward from the antenna, and the time average of its magnitude ~(~,~)
gives the rate of rncrgy flow per unit area in the direction of transmission.
It is well known that’

(2)

where Tois 1207rohms, the intrinsic impedance of free space and all field
strengths are given in peak values.z Combining Eqs. (1) and (2), we have

(3)

where SOis the value of S in the direction of maximum transmission, cor-

responding to EO.
Equation (3) may be used as the basis for a definition of antenna gain.
We shall select as our reference antenna ~vith respect to which all gains
are defined as an isotropic antmna,3 a hypothetical antenna that radiates
equally in all directions and for which consequently J(8,0) = 1. For such
an antenna radiating an average po!ver PI watts,

(4)

where R is the distance from the antenna. 4 Let us now find the power Pt
that must be radiated by the directional antenna in order that it may
produce the same Poynting vector in its direction of maximum transmis-

1The distancefrom the antennais alwayslargeenoughthat any limited~ction of

the wavefrontmay be consideredplane.
2In all developmentsof electromagnetictheory in this volume the rationalized
inks-coulombsystemof unitswill be employed. The permeability y and permittivity of
free space are w = 4. X 10-7 henry/m and 4,1==10+/3&r farad/m, respectively,and
m = Go = 1207rohms.
~SeealsoS. A. Schelkunoff,Etectmrnagnetic Waves, Van Nostrand,New York, 1943,
sec. 9.4.
dExceptwherespecificallystatedotherwise(principallyin Chap. 6) all expressions
for powerdenotedby P with appropriatesubscriptsand all Poyntingvectorsdenoted
by S will refer to time averagesof power (over the period of a single pulse for pulse
transmission),whereasall fieldstrengthswill be in peakvalues.
SEC. 2.1] TRANSMISSION IN FREE SPACE 29

sion that the isotropic antenna produces in all directions at the same dis-
tance. This power is obtained by integrating Eq. (3) over the surface of a
large sphere of radius R, for which the element of area is R2dQ, where Q is
the solid angle viewed from the antenna.

(5)

We now dejine the absolute antenna gain for transmission G, as the ratio of
the power radiated by an isotropic antenna necessary to produce a given
field strength (or ~) at a given distance to the power radiated by the
directional antenna producing the same field strength at the same distance
in the direction of maximum transmission. In terms of the quantities
given above,

Thus the antenna gain is uniquely specified by the absolute value of its
pattern function. 1
By previous definition, if &*~ in Eq. (3) is equal to ~iso of Eq. (4), then
P, = G,P,, and

sm.. = & = g.

Employing this result in Eq. (3) yields the Poynting vector in the direc-
tion (d,+) from the antenna in terms of the radiated power Pz and the
pattern function. Henceforth in this volume P2 will be called P, (trans-
mitted power); then

WM) = ~ 12.
IM(W) (7)

Alternatively, the field strength in the direction (13,1#1)

is, with the aid of
Eq. (2),

(8)

Earlier practice in radio engineering refers antenna gains either to a

Hertzian dipole or to a half-wave doublet, for which gains relative to an
1The delicatequestionof the polarizationof the radiatedwave has heen ignored
shove. Thereis no difficultyif we aseumethat all fieldsare linearlypolarizedat large
distancesfrom the antenna,and we shall tacitly make this wumption until reaching
the end of Sec. 6.3; a furtherdiecuzzionie given in AppendixA in connectionwith
scatteringhy radartargets.
30 HORIZONTALLY STRATIFIED ATMOSPHERE THEORY [SEC. 2,1

isotropic radiator are ~ and 1.64, respectively. If these antennas are to

be used as gain standards, the gain G in all formulas in this volume should
be divided by j or 1.64. In passing, we note that the field strength in the
equatorial plane of a half-wave doublet, obtained from Eq. (8), is

74P,
E—
rm. = volts/m, (9)
R

where we have shifted temporarily to rms values to obtain the formula

commonly used in radio engineering.
Equations (7) and (8) are important relations that will be amplified
considerably in later discussion of the coverage problem. It is frequently
desired to obtain the locus of all points in space at which E (or ~) has a
specified magnitude, this magnitude being selected from requirements to be
considered later. The locus, given by Eq (7) or (8), will in general be a
threedimensional surface having a shape determined by the antenna
pattern and enclosing a volume determined by the specified value of E
and the antenna pattern. This threedimensional surface is called a free-
space contour diagram, although for most purposes we shall consider only
a cross section in a plane passing through the polar axis, and the contour
diagram becomes a polar plot in the coordinates R,t?.
It is usually most convenient for the present purpose to rewrite Eq. (8)
in dimensionless form. If we denote by E, and ~, the electric field and
the attendant magnitude of the Poynting vector respectively at a refer-
ence or standard distance R, in the direction of maximum transmission,
Eq. (8) becomes .
(lo)

This equation can be rewritten to give the locus corresponding to a speci-

fied attenuation of the field:
h? = R, Ij(e,@)l, (11)

where R, is defined by

(12)

The quantity Rf is the numerical scale factor converting the antenna

pattern into a free-space contour diagram. It is the greatest distance
reached by a contour of the attenuation given by Eq. (12). For instance,
if the contour corresponding to a field strength 100 db below the field at
a distance 1 m from the transmitter is desired, R, = 1 m, E,/EO = 105,
RJ = 106 m, and the contour detail is obtained from Eq. (11). Thus
E@. (11) and (12) afford a means of describing the important features of
SEC. 21] TRANSMISSION IN FREE SPACE 31

the propagation without reference to any property of the transmitter

except the antenna pattern, which is of direct interest.1
Thus far the only consideration has been the distribution of the radiated
energy in free space. In order to beuseful for communications purposes
part of this energy must be absorbed by a receiving antenna and delivered
to the receiver. If thereceiver ismatched properly totheantenna and is
oriented for maximum reception, the received power P,is given by

where At is the eflective cross section of the antenna, usually from 50 to

85 per cent of the geometrical cross section. The gain of the receiving
antenna G, is related to A, by

G,= 4+, (14)

where A is the wavelength.z If the receiving antenna is oriented in such a

way that its direction of maximum reception makes angles of o’,1#1’with the
direction of the incoming plane wave and it is polarized in the same direc-
tion as the incoming wave, the expression for received power in Eq. (13)
must be multiplied by the square of the antenna pattern function, just as in
the case of the transmitting antenna. By combining the receiving antenna
pattern with Eqs. (7), (13’), and (14) we obtain the fundamental equation
for transmission bet ween two antennas in free space:

(15)

where the subscripts t and r designate quantities connected with the trans-
mitter and receiver, respectively. This not ation will be used throughout
this volume. In particular, if both antennas are aligned for maximum
transmission along the line joining them, Eq. (15) becomes

~
P = G,GJ2
(16)
P, (4rrR)2’

LThe presentmethodof approachdiffersfrommostearlierradioengineeringpractice,

in whichcontoursof constantfield strength(in microvolt per meteror a similarunit)
areplottedfor a specifiedradiatedantennapower. From thepoint of viewof propaga-
tionthe questionof transmitterpowerandabsolutefieldstrengthis oftenirrelevantaod
at times confusing. In this volume field attenuationwill he emphasized;and when
apparatusdetailsare introduced,they will appearthroughthe free-spacerange,to he
definedpresently. For the microwaveregiontheprecentmethodis generallypreferable
to the oldermethods. Althoughthe differencesare formallylittle more thana matter
of notation, thereare numerouspracticaland conceptualadvantagesto the methods
given here. The force of theseremarksis best appr-eciatcdafter reading SSC.2.16.
2See S. A. Schelkunoff,op. cd., Chap. 9; a paperby H. T. Friis and W. D. I.ewis,
“Radar .kntennaa,”BefJ Sf@-m Tach. Jour., 26, 220 (1947),or Vol. 12 of thmseries.
32 HORIZONTALLY STR.4 TIFI17D ATMOSPHERE THEORY [SEC. 2,1

Fcr Hertzian dipoles Eq. (16) assumes the familiar form P,/P, = (3 A/8mR)’
used commonly in radio engineering practice.
It is highly desirable (and sometimes a vital necessity) in propagation
investigations to preserve as clearly as possible a distinction between
measured quantities that are properties of propagation alone and those
which are properties of the associated equipment. To this end we intro-
duce the free-space range R, for one-way transtnission, defined as the largest
distance at which a usejul signal is received. Henceforth the minimum
useful received potver will be designated as I’,,, i.. From Eq. (16), we
obtain lto.
~. = yGfGr h P,
(17)
4rr
‘d” P,,,,m”

The free-space range is the most convenient standard of performance (it

represents the best possible performance), and it \villbe used freely through-
out the remainder of this book.1
If R, is now introduced into Eq. (15), we obtain an expression for the
coverage diagram in terms of Ro and the patterns of the two antennas:

R = R, lf,(O,O)j,(tY,O’)1 (18)

This equation may be recognized as an extension of Eq. (11), in ~vhich the

receiving antenna pattern has been added and RI has the special value
of Ro connecting the system properties with the corresponding value of
IEJEOI, Usually the receiving antenna is aligned for maximum recept ion,
and the coverage diagram is simply

R = R, lf(o,~)l (18a)

The distinction between a contour diagram and a coverage diagram is

now clear. A contour diagram is a three-dimensional surface giving the
locus of all points corresponding to an attenuation given by Eq. (12) and
enclosing a volume inside which the field strength is always greater than
that on the surface, A coverage diagram is a special case of a contour
diagram, for which R, = RO, thus introducing the properties of a specific
set of apparatus; the coverage diagram encloses a volume inside which
the field is always greater than the minimum useful value. As mentioned
earlier, in practice these diagrams are almost always used in two rather
than three dimensions (in the vertical plane).

! TWO reminders are appropriate here, (1) F’rnim

and consequentlyRo are in general
dependentupontheway in whichthe apparatusis used,and a singlenumberfor a given
equipmentmay not be obtainable. (2) All valuesof transmittedand receivedpower
referto poweractuallyradiatedand to powerabsorbedby a lossleasreceivingantenna;
henceall the transmissionequationsgivenheremustbe correctedfor lossesfrom ohmic
resistanceor impedancemismatch. Suchmattersareomitted,as theyareof no interest
here.
SEC. 21] TRANSMISSION IN FREE SPACE 33

The concepts developed above are easily applied to radar transmission

after introducing a parameter describing the properties of the radar target.
This parameter is called the radar cross section, or alternatively the back-
scattering cross section, to be denoted by u, and having the dimensions of
area. For reasons that are explained in detail in Chap. 6, u is in reality
only a convenient mathematical fiction, as for most practical targets it
cannot be assigned a unique numerical value. Until reaching Chap. 6 we
shall ignore difficulties of this kind, however, and we shall formulate the
transmission equations on the assumption that somehow a meaningful
value of u has been obtained. The definition of u is the area intercepting
that amount of power which, when scattered isotropically, produces an echo
equal to that observed from the target, 1
From this definition, we see that the back-scattered Poynting vector %
at a distance from the target R is related to u and the irwiden.t Poynting
vector Ei by

(19)

or in a form that is a useful analytic definition,

s’
~ = 4TR2=. (20)
s’

The power received by the radar antenna is, from the previous discussion,

,
p – ‘j: J-r(@’,@’) 2= N* .fr(e’,l)’) ‘u. (21)

The incident Poynting vector ~ can now be obtained from Eq, (7); and
when it is employed in Eq. (21) we have the f ree-space radar transmission
equation,
(;!~,o
P,
P,=
(4=),~, f(elo) ,.4 (22)

(For convenience we shall always assume identical transmitting and receiv-

ing antennas for radar systems, )
Henceforth in this volume in any discussion involving u, unless there
are specific statements to the contrary, we intend it to be the quantity u
appearing in the radar transmission equation in the form of Eq, (22).
In a manner similar to that used for one-way transmission, we dejine
the free-space radar range R. as the maximum value oj range that reduces P,

1 It is tacitly assumed in most applications that the wave incident on the target is
linearly polarized only that componentof the back-scatteredwave with similar
and
polarizationis consideredin determiningu. More generalsituations involve com-
plications that will not be consideredhere, For further discussion sce the end of
Sec. 6.3 and AppendixA.
34 HORIZONTALLY STRATIFIED ATMOSPHERE THEORY [SEC.2.2

to da .wrmUestuseful value. From Eq. (22) we obtain

~o= GA4P, — U
—. (23)
JJG Pmin 4.

This equation should be compared with its analogue for one-way transmis-
sion [Eq. (17)]. If we assume for the sake of simplicity that for a given
system the ratio P1/P~i. is comparable for both radar and one-way opera-
tion (not an unreasonable assumption for some purposes), Eqs. (17) and
(23) show that —
lh(radar) = {: / ~R,(one-way). (24)

It is clear that increasing radar range by increasing system performance

is considerably more expensive for radar than for one-way transmission.
The jree-space coverage diqram jor radar may be employed by combin-
ing Eqs. (23) and (22):
R = W(t@)l, (25)

which is identical with Eq. (18a) after allowance is made for the difference
in definition of Ro for the two cases. The significance of the coverage
diagram for radar is identical with that discussed for one-way transmission
if proper interpretation is made in terms of the properties of u (see Chap. 6).
The results of this section apply only to free-space conditions, which
in some applications may be approximated very satisfactorily, whereas in
others the role of the surroundings may predominate in determining the
properties of the transmission. We proceed now to this second case.
2“2. The Transmission Medium and the Pattern-propagation Factor.—
Insertion of reasonable numerical values into the equations of the pre-
ceding section show that the free-space ranges predicted by the formulas
given there are often several orders of magnitude greater than the values
obtained in practice. The reason for this discrepancy is, of course, that
operation of the equipment in the atmosphere and near the surface of the
earth often does not correspond even remotely to operation in free space.
We shall now discover that instead of discarding the concepts of the pre-
ceding section, however, we shall continue to apply them with appropriate
modifications; in fact, it is in obtaining these modifications that we are led
naturally into the problems of the several branches of the propagation field.
The presence of the earth complicates the situation in three ways:
(1) The earth’s surface reflects or scatters radiation and in certain regions
produces an interference pattern; (2) the earth casts a shadow and gives
rise to cliffraction phenomena; and (3) the earth’s atmosphere is inhomo-
geneous and can produce violent refraction effects. For purposes of
formulation it is convenient to group all of these factors into a single
quantity called the pattern-propagation factor.1
1 D. E. Kerr and P. J. Rubcnstein, “Introduction to hlicrowave Propagation,”
RL Report No. 406, Sept. 16, 1943.
SEC. 2.2] THE TRANSMISSION MEDIUM 35

The pattern propagation jackw F is de$ned as the ratio of the amplitude

of the electric field at a given pw”nl under specifid conditions to the amplitude
oj the electm”c ji.eld under jree-space conditions with the beam oj the transmitter
directed toward the point in question. In symbols,

(26)

where as before Eo is the magnitude of the free-space field at a given point

with the transmitting antenna oriented directly toward the point and E is
the field to be investigated at the same point. It will be seen that F
involves both the effects of the external features of the transmission path
and the pattern function j (0,0) of the transmitting antenna but is inde-
pendent of other properties of the source. In accordance with earlier
remarks, it is desirable to obtain a-scomplete separation as possible of the
source and the transmission medium, and experience has shown this
method to be most convenient. Only the component of E having the same
polarization as EO is generally useful in computing F.
For a given orientation of the transmitting antenna, F is a scalar func-
tion of position. Furthermore, F’ is the ratio of the magnitude of the
Poynting vector at the field point under the specified conditions to the
magnitude of the Poynting vector at the same distance along the direction
of maximum transmission under free-space conditions. In the special
case of free-space transmission, F = lf(L9,@)1. In the presence of the earth,
F involves interference, diffraction, and refraction effects and is not a
function of angle alone (although cases wili be shown at a later point in
which for some purposes F is a function only of angle of elevation, to a
good degree of approximation).
It follows directly from the definition of F that for one-way transmission
the generalized transmission equation is

~
P, _ G,G,A2
_— F’ f,(d’,o’) (27)
P, (47rR)’ ,

In the radar case, the power of the isotropic source equivalent to the
target is (P,G,u/47rR2) F’. Because of the reciprocity relationship it turns
out that F2 is the factor to be applied to convert the free-space energy
flow into the energy flow that, if it were incident on the antenna in the
direction of the maximum of the antenna pattern, would produce the same
signal as the target.1 Thus the generaked form of the radar transmission
equation is

5– ‘2A2U F, (28)
P, (47r)3R4
I Consider a transmiwionpath whose terminalsconsist,of an arbitrary an~nna
havinga gain G and an isotropicanknna whosegain is unity and whosecraw section
36 HORIZONTALLY STRATIFIED ATMOSPHERE THEORY [L?)EC.22

Equations (27) and (28) serve to formulate the problem of field-strength

calculation in the presence of the earth and the atmosphere. They are
subject to the restriction that the waves incident upon either the antennas
or the targets are essentially plane in spite of complications from the
presence of the earth or atmosphere. Furthermore, Eqs. (27) and (28)
follow from Eqs. (15) and (22) as a result of the definition of F, in which
all of the diflicultiee of propagation theory are hidden.
If the definitions of IL?Ogiven by Eqs. (17) and (23) are employed in
Eqs. (27) and (28), respectively, the jundumeniul equation jor the coverage
di~ram including the e.fects oj earth and atmosphere is obtained:

R = RoF. (29)

This, however, is an implicit relation, as F is in general a pronounced

function of R, and it may appear that no simplification has been obtained
by employing the form of Eq. (29), but it will be seen in later sections that
Eq. (29) and its companion equation
IEl = lE,I F (30)
are, in fact, extremely useful relations.
The remainder of this chapter will, for the most part, be devoted to a
discussion of the techniques for obtaining F.
Simple Properties oj the Pattern-

display the qualitative properties

of the pattern-propagation factor
in the interference region we shall
-Z:ti::-;::;
‘r
+, ,-”
L >“ smooth, plane, reflecting surface
FXG. Z 1.--Oeometry of reflection from a without an atmosphere. Let a
pIane earth. The convention for signs of the transmitting antenna having a
angles is explained in the text.
pattern j(0) in the vertical plane
be located at height z, above the earth as indicated in Fig. 2.1.

by Eq. (14) is Xz/47. Let power P, be radiated by the arbitrary antenna. Then the
power P,+ receivedby the isotropicantennais

If on the other hand the same amount of poweris radiatedby the isotropicra&ator,
the power P, receivedby the arbitraryantennacan he written

whereF’ takesinto accountthe presenceof the earth and the fact that the antennais
not necessarily
y pointing at the isotropic source. From the reciprocity relationship
(AppendixA) which holds even in the pre.wncsof the earth and attendingcomplica-
tions, Prn = P,, and we eeethat W = (P)x.
SEC. 2.2] TRE TRANSMISSION MEDIUM 37

The angles 01 and & are meazured between the direction of maximum
transmission of the antenna pattern (which makes an angle ~ with the hori-
zontal) and the direct and reflected rays, respectively. At a distance R,
large compared with the dimensions of the antenna, the field in the direc-
tion of maximum transmission under fre~pace conditions is denoted
by EO.
At a field point at distance R in the direction inclined at angle $1 with
the horizontal, the field will be the sum of Ed, the field due to a direct
wave, and E,, that from a wave reflected from the earth and appearing to
come from the image of the source at a height —Z1. From the definition
of j,
Ed = E,f(d,). (31)

From elementary geometry the length of the direct-ray path is

#T’ + (ZZ – 2,)2,

and the length of the reflected-ray path is

<Tz + (ZZ + 21)2.

The path-length diference between the two paths AR is easily obtained by

expanding each path length by the binomial theorem and subtracting;
thus,

This expression is cumbersome, but fortunately in almost all cases of prac-

tical interest #1 and 42 are very small. The customary approximation is
to retain only the approximate value

22,2.2
AR = —, (33)
T

which will be used throughout the remainder of this volume for all plane-
earth cases (with T = R) and in a modified form for the spherical earth. 1
Because of AR the reflected ray is retarded in phase behind the direct ray
by the angle k AR = 4Tz,zJhR.
For the present we assume that the presence of the plane earth can be
represented by a quantity called the plane-wave reflection coefiient, r,
which in general is a complex quantity represented in this volume by

r = pe-’~, O<p <l. (34)

The quantity p is the magnitude of the reflection coefficient, the fraction

1An equally commonform for AR is obtainedby consideringthe directand reflected
raysto be parallel(*1 = #J and by droppinga perpendicularfrom the antennaposition
to the dotted line. For this constructionAR = 22,sin $.
 38 HORIZONTALLY STRATIFIED ATMOSPHERE THEORY [S=. 22

nf the incident field that is reflected, and 1$ is the angle by which the
reflected field is retarded in phase upon reflectional
The total excess phase retardation of the reflected wave is the sum of
- k AR and ~, and the amplitude of the reflected wave is Ewf(6J. Thus
the total field strength at the second terminal is

An interference-pattern is formed in space, the shape of which is given by

the quantity in brackets Referring to Eq. (26), however, we observe
that the magnitude of the quantity in brackets is just F for the plane earth.z

where for convenience we introduce

47rz,%2
a=4+k AR=~+~. (37)

To calculate F one must know the behavior of p and ~ (which are dis-
cussed in Chap. 5) and 61and dz must be determined. It is necessary to
establish a convention for signs for the angles of Fig. 2.1. The angles *I
and .$are measured positive upward from the horizontal, whereas 01and Oz
are measured positive upward from the antenna beam maximum; #z is
always considered positive.’ (In the example of Fig. 21, 0, and tk are
numerically negative, and ~1 and ~ are positive.) The defining equations
are
f?l= *l-t,
02 = –(*2 + g), )
a—z, ,

I
tan $1 . — (38)
r
ZZ+Z1
tan $2 = ~.

Returning to Eq. (36), it is instructive to investigate the range of

variation of F for a plane earth. For the moment we shall assume p, ~,

1See Chap. 5 for a detaileddkcussionof r.

2No allowancehasbeenmadefor thefact that thewavefrontsat thesecondtermimd
aretravelingin slightlydifferentdirections. This is of importanceonly whenthe wave
is polarizedin the planeof incidence(“vertical” polarization)and 1, differsappreciably
from $*, or when it is desiredto know the field in a specifieddirection (the vertical
component,for instance). Also the slightdifferencein spatial (l/R) attenuationof the
direct and reflectedwaves has been neglected. Such considerationsare of negligible
importancein mcst practicalcases.
aThe &-s of O,and 0~are immaterialfor a symmetricalantennapattern, but for
an unsymmetricalpattern,such as that of a coeecant-squaredantenna,they may be
important. The right-handsideof Eq. (36) hsebeenwrittenfor a realantenna-pattern
functionj.
 SEC. 2.2] THE TRANSMISSION MEDIUM 39

0,, and 82to be constant’ and observe that as k AR changes by m, F varies

from a maximum to a minimum through an average value:
F m.,x = f(h) + .4(82),
~rnin = .f(el) – Pj(02), (39)
F ,“, = j(e,). 1

Thus the field strength as a function of position in space varies (over

sufficiently small intervals) between symmetrical limits above and below its
arithmetic mean, which is the fraction of maximum free-space field radiated
in the direction under investigation. Several special cases are of interest.
Asp approaches zero, the interference pattern disappeam and free-space
transmission conditions are reached. This is the case for microwave trans-
mission over very rough land at large values of #z.
Locusof
ma Ima
f Free-space

‘=5
o Ro= 25 miles
Fm. 22.<overage
50 males
diagram for a free-
space range of 25 miles over a plane earth
1
=
0
Fm. 2,3.
Qualitative
R. 2R.
appearance of
coverage diagram over a plane earth for
with reflection coefficient of —1 and beam- which P is unity for zero grazing angle but
width of 6° with the antenna pointed hori- decreases aa grazing angle increnses. The
zontally. The angular male has been exag- angular scale haa been exaggerated for the
gerated for the sake of clarity. The lobe sake of clarity and is not directly com-
spacing of 0.5” corresponds to ZI/i = 57.3. parable to that of Fig. 2.2.
A, drawn, the lobes are slightly too thick.

The second and more interesting case occurs when o = 1 and 6 = r.,. a
condition well approximated for horizontally polarized waves over smooth
sea water. For this case F is determined solely by the antenna pattern,
varying between the limits j(f?l) + f(tr~). Let us assume further that the
antenna is pointed horizontal y (~ = O) and that the pattern is symme-
trical, that is, f(0) = j( – 0). Equation (36) then becomes

‘=1-(+ -’-’’AR] = 21f’*Jsin(w” ’40)

Usually ~, is sufficiently small that except for very sharp beams j(~,) is
essentially unity, and we have the well-known plane~arth formula

2?rz,22
F=2sinx. (41)
101
The expression for F is converted into a coverage diagram by Ro, as
shown in Fig. 2.2. The “solid” coverage in free space, shown by the
I If z,/k >>1 and +? is small, this condition may be approximatelysatisfiedover
severalneighboringlobes of the interferencepattern.
40 HORIZONTALLY STRATIFIED ATMOSPHERE THEORY [SEC. 2.2

dotted line, is now broken up into a series of lobss given by Q. (40). As

0< F <2 1~(~1)1, the detection range in some directions is reduced to
zero, whereas in others it is twice the range in the same direction under
free-space conditions. The lobes in the figure are drawn somewhat too
thick; but even after allowance is made for this fact the gaps in coverage
inside the range Ro are fairly small. In terms of total volmne no coverage
has been lost, for it can be shown that the area inside the Iobea is equal
to the area inside the total free-space antenna pattern, but it has been
redistributed in space. This redistribution of field strength may be an
advantage or not+ depending upon the problem at hand.
An important feature of Eq. (40) is the fact that for small anglea the
first maximum of the interference pattern occurs at an elevation angle
viewed from the base of the transmitter by

(42)

which predicts that for fixed transmitter height ZI the low-angle coverage
improves as the wavelength X is decreaaed. On the other hand, because
the spacing between consecutive maxima (or minima) is given by A/2z,,
the number of lobes in the interference pattern increases.
The preceding ideal case is modified considerably if p and @ are not
constant but vary with the grazing angle #z. For vertically polarized
waves this dependence is pronounced (even for a smooth surface), and the
effect is indicated qualitatively in Fig. 2.3. Instead of varying between
zero and 2, F now varies as shown by Eq. (39) except that in this case
p, 0,, and 02all vary between the maxima and minima. The result is that
the coverage fluctuates less than in the preceding example but the extreme
extension of range is not obtained. As the direct wave is not so strong as
the reflected wave, interference is not complete in the minima nor is the
field strength doubled in the maxima.
The curvature of the earth introduces complications that are discussed
in detail in Sees. 2’13 to 2.16, 5.2, and 5“3. It is sufficient at this point”
to mention that because the reflection occurs at a spherical rather than at
a plane surface, the wave diverges at an increased rate after reflection.
This is taken into account by multiplying the reflection coefficient for a
plane surface p by a divergence factor D which is unity at high angles and
decreases toward zero as the angle decreases. This has the double effect of
diminishing the range at low angles and of filling in the minima.
Another matter that has not yet been mentioned is that in addition to
the direct and reflected waves there is also a surjace wave, which at short
distances and low angles can become important.1 At frequencies above
1By surfacercwe we imply, not the well-knownsurfacewave of Sommerfeld,but
ratherthewavecomplexgiventhisnameby K. A. Nortonin Proc. IRE, 26, 1192(1937).
see ak!OC. R. BUITOWS, ~TOC.IRll, 25, 219 (1937).
SEC. 23] RA Y-TRACING FORMULAS 41

about 100 Me/see, however, the surface wave is so rapidly attenuated with
range that for most applications it may be neglected at ranges of more
than a very few miles. For an excellent discussion of transmission over a
plane earth that gives much more detail than we have room for here see
C. R. Burrows, “Radio Propagation over Plane Earth—Field Strength
Curves,” Bell System Tech. Jour., 16.45 (1937).
Other forms for F }vill be derived in later sections in connection with
specific problems (see particularly Sees, 2.13 through 2.16).

GEOMETRICALOPTICS
BY JOHN E. FREEHAFER

2“3. Ray-tracing Formulas.-1 t happens many times that a solution of

Maxwell’s equations can be made to depend upon a suitable solution of
the scalar wave equation. This is, in fact, the case when dealing with
propagation through the atmosphere, as we shall see in Sec. 2.6. Accord-
ingly we shall need to discuss means for dealing with the scalar wave
equation
V’+ + k’n’$ = 0, (43)

A time-honored way to find approximate solutions of Eq. (43) is to use

the methods of geometrical optics, These methods yield in many cases
useful graphical results which, however, may lead readily to false conclu-
sions unless they are carefully interpreted. For this reason we shall
review the method at some length.
Let us seek solutions of Eq. (43) in the form
$ = Qe-iks, (44)

where we assume that Q and S are real functions of position. Substituting

Eq. (44) into Eq. (43) and equating the real and imaginary parts of the
resulting equation to zero yield

(VA’)’ – $$– n’ = O, (45)

WS + 2(vSCVQ) = o
(46)
Q’

Equations (45) and (46) are exact. To obtain a tractable simplification,

we assume that WQ/Qk2 << nz and write Eq. (45) as

(VS)2 = n’. (47)

Provided that WQ/Q remains finite, this becomes a better and better
approximation as k and therefore the frequency increase. We shall return
to this point later. Equation (47) is frequently referred to as the equation
of the eikonal,
42 HORIZONTALLY STRATIFIED ATMOSPHERE THEORY [SEC. 2.3

Id us now consider how to construct solutions of Eq. (47). The

problem is to find a function the magnitude but not the direction of whose
gradient is prescribed. Accordingly we may choose a surface z at each
point of which we arbitrarily assign a constant value & to S. Just how
this surface is chosen depends on the boundary conditions and the kind of
wave that we are trying to represent. This choice need not concern us at
present. The gradient of S is then perpendicular to z at each point; and
hence through Eq. (47), VS is known completely. To find the surface
along which S = So + AS, we erect at each point of z perpendiculars
whose lengths are equal to As/n, where n is the value of the index at the
foot of each perpendicular. The tips of these perpendiculars form the
desired surface. This process may, of course, be repeated to produce the
whole family of surfaces along which S is constant. In the limit as
AS ~ 0, the scalar field obtained in this way satisfies Eq. (47).
Instead of constructing the level
surfaces of the field S, we may adopt
the more usual alternate procedure,
namely, to start at each point on the
initial surface and draw a family of
lines to which the surfaces of constant
S are perpendicular. These lines are
the rays, and the surfaces of constant
S are the wavefronts of the solution
P of the wave equation with which we
are dealing.
\ The differential equation of the
A rays may be obtained in the following
FIG. 2.4.—Process for continuing a ray. way. In Fig. 2.4, P is a point on
This figure is drawn in the plane of t and
v n.. the wavefront .4B on which S has a
constant value S.
Here t is a unit vector normal to AB at P and is in the direction of
the ray through P. With P as origin, the position vector of a point P’
on the ray and also on the wavefront along which S equals S + dS is t do
where da = dS/n. This follows from the fact that n is the magnitude of
VS and da is measured in the direction of VS. The problem is to find
t + dt, the direction of the ray at P’. To do this, it is necessary to con-
struct a segment of the wavefront at P! and to draw t + dt as a unit vector
perpendicular to this segment. Let u and v be unit vectors perpendicular
b t, u lying in the plane of t and Vn and making an acute angle with Vn.
By definition, v = t x u. If now we proceed for a short distance dp in the
direction u to the point P“ and then a“distance equal to dS/(n + Vn -udp)
in the direction of t we arrive at the point P’” which lies on the segment
of the wavefront through P’. As the index does not change in the direc-
tion of V, which is perpendicular to Vn, all points near P’ on a line through
SEC. 2.3] R.4Y-TRACING FORMULAS 43

P’ in the v direction also lie on this segment. Therefore t + dt is per-

pendicular to the plane determined by ~Pm and v. Thus

and
==dpu+:

()
l+—
Vn. udp
n
t=dpu+du
(
l– ~ dp
)
t (48)

—-
$ = PP’” – PP’ = dp u – ~d(rt . (49)
( )
Making use of the fact that u x v = t and t x v = —u, we obtain to
the first order in du

t+ ‘~ du U, (50)
‘+dt=pr~lv=
!2– Vn. u u,
(51)
do n

Equation (51) is one form of the differential equation of the ray. In

principle a ray can be drawn piece by piece in the following way. At
point P, n and Vn are given. If, in addition, the direction of the ray
through P is specified, t and therefore u are both known. If we choose
an element of length du, the position of a new point P’ on the ray is given
relative to P by
-
PP’ = t du (52)

and the direction of the ray at P’ is given by

t(P’) = t(P) + :( P)du, (53)

where dt/du is calculated by Eq. (51). The process may now be repeated,
and the ray continued. In the limit as da ~ O, the chain of line segments
so obtained approaches the ray. This argument shows that given the
scalar field n, a ray is determined when one point on it and its direction
at that point are specified.
When the rays have been determined, S is obtained by the relationship

s(p) = OIVSl do+&= ‘ndu+ S,, (54)

/% / PI

where the integral is to be evaluated along the ray from the point with
position vector PI on 2! to the point with position vector p at which it is
desired to evaluate S.
44 HORIZONTALLY STRATIFIED ATMOSPHERE THEORY [SEC. 2.3

A useful relationship can be obtained by equating the magnitudes of

both members of Eq. (51). Thus

dt _ lvnl sin -y,

(55)
~–n

where -y is the angle between t and Vn. As t is a unit tangent and u is the
arc length measured along the ray, ldt/du/ is the curvature of the ray.
Thus if R denotes the radius of curvature,

1
—. It%l sin -y
(56)
R n

In radio propagation problems Vn is nearly vertical and the rays are

nearly horizontal. Hence -y and sin ~ are approximately 90° and unity
respectively. As n is also nearly unity, a convenient approximation to
Eq. (56) is
1
=Vn. (57)
E

If, therefore, the gradient is constant, the rays are approximately arcs
of circles. In applying Eq. (55) or (56) it must be borne in mind that
the position vector of the center of curvature relative to a point on the
ray makes an acute angle with Vn. Thus, for instance, if in the atmos-
phere n decreases with height, Vn points downward and the ray is concave
downward.
Equation (51) can be written in a different form which exhibits certain
important geometrical properties of the rays. i% t is a unit vector in the
direction of the ray, we have
&=vnt,
[58)
du “

Multiplying Eq. (58) by t and Eq. (51) by n and adding, we obtain

n: + t$ = (Vn. u)u + (Vn. t)t (59)

or

~(nt) = Vn. (60)

Q2
Let us consider now the integral n du evaluated qlong a curve C
\ %
joining the two points whose position vectors are PI and PZ. A funda-
mental problem of the calculus of variations is to determine the necessary
and sufficient conditions on C in order that the integral have a stationary
value. It turns out that these conditions may k expressed in tams of
SEC. 23] RAY-TRACING FORMULAS 45

Euler’s equation which is just Eq. (60). Thus if the line integral of the
index of refraction be evaluated along the ray joining two points, the
integral has a stationary (usually minimum) value. Conversely, if a
curve C be found connecting two points such that the line integral of the
index of refraction evaluated along it has a stationary value, then C is a
ray. This statement of the stationary properties of the rays is Fermat’s
principle and is frequently used as a starting point in developing the
theory of geometric optics.
There are two special cases in which Eq. (60) is readily interpreted.
Suppose first that n is such that Vn is constant in direction. Let j be a
unit vector in the direction of Vn. The vector product of j with both
members of Eq. (60) yields

&(njxt)=O. (61)

From this it follows that nj x t is a constant along the ray. Equation (51)
shows, however, that dt always lies in the plane of t and Vn. Thus if Vn
has a constant direction, the rays are plane curves. Hence j x t is per-
pendicular to the plane of the ray and is therefore constant in direction.
Equation (61) then reduces to

(62)

where as before -y is the angle between the ray and Vn. Equation (62)
means that if Vn has a fixed direction, the product of the index by the sine
of the angle between the ray and the gradient of the index is constant
along the ray. This is S’nel.l’s law.
Suppose next that Vn is always in a radial direction from a fixed center.
An example of this is the case of the atmosphere in which Vn is ideally
always vertical. Let p be the position vector of a point on the ray referred
to the center as origin. As p and Vn are parallel, the vector product of
Eq. (60) by p yields

pX-&(nt)=O. (63)

Now

$(p Xnt)=$Xnt+p X$(nt). (64)

But dp/du is tangent to the ray and hence parallel to nt. Therefore

pX~(nt)=da A (p X nt), (65)

46 HORIZONTALLY STRATIFIED ATMOSPHERE THEORY [SEC, 23

and Eq. (63) becomes

$@xnt)=o, (66.)

As in the previous case, the rays are plane curves and indeed lie in planes
containing the center. Thus for any ray p x t is constant in direction
and Eq. (66) can be written

d (1p]nsin~)=O,
~ (67)

where ~ is the angle between p (and therefore Vn) and the direction of the
ray. Thus Ipln sin ~ is a constant along any ray. This is the generaliza-
tion of Snell’s law to the case of a radially directed index gradient.
The Stratified Atmosphere.—In treating atmospheric refraction, it is
convenient and indeed almost necessary to assume that the properties of
the atmosphere vary only with height. Such an idealized atmosphere is
said to be stratified, and it is with stratified atmospheres that we shall be
concerned in the remainder of this chapter.
To simplify the problem further and to derive equations that can later
be generalized, we shall assume at first that the surface of the earth can
be treated as a plane and its curvature neglected. Let us introduce a
cylindrical coordinate system (r, +, z) with the z-axis in the vertical direc-
tion and the plane z = O coincident with the surface of the earth. We
shall treat the source of radiation as a point on the z-axis at height ZIabove
the earth and assume cylindrical symmetry so that all quantities are inde-
pendent of ~. Because Vn is everywhere in the zdirection, it follows
from Eq. (51) that the rays are curves lying in planes passing through the
z-axis. It is therefore necessary to examine only one of these planes.
Consider now a ray that as shown in Fig. 2.5 is inclined at angle a to
the r-axis at the transmitter height. By Snell’s law

n(z) Cos /9 = c, (68)

where B is the angle of inclination of the ray at any height z and C is a

constant characteristic of the ray (C can be evaluated whenever the angle
of inclination is known at a given height).
Thus
C = n(zl) cos a; (69)

or because the angle of inclination at the turning point I’o (ro, ZJ is zero,

C’ = n(zO). (70)
From Eq. (68)
n(z) sin 19= * V n*(z) — Cg. (71)
SEC. 23] RA Y-TRACING FORMULAS 47

Dividing Eq. (71) by Eq. (68) yields

*4 nz(z) — C* dz
tan B = (72)
c = z’

where z and r are the coordinates of a point on the ray. As dr is always

positive, the radical must be assigned the same sign as dz.
Equation (72) is a convenient form of the differential equation of the
ray. It may be separated, and the solution reduced to a quadrature.
Thus
z dz
r=c (73)
/1z, 7n2(z) — C2 ‘

The absolute value signs are included to emphasize that dz and the radical
z

%(ror 2.)

du

l’Ie. 25.-Geometry of a ray for the c~e of a stratified atmosphere. T is the transmitter,
and Po is the turning point,

have like signs. Thus in case the point (r,z) lies to the right of PO of
Fig. 2.5, Eq. (73) becomes

~=c
u a

z, d
dz
nz(z) — C2
+Z”dz”
/4z nj(z)

When the ray family has been determined from Eq. (72), S, the optical
— C2)
(74)

length from the source to any point (r,z), is obtained by using Eq. (54).
From Fig. 2.5, we see that

do = cos D dr + sin /3 dz. (75)

Hence, from Eqs. (68) and (71),
dS = n d. = C dr + 1~’- dzl. (76)
Therefore

(77)
48 HORIZONTALLY STRATIFIED ATMOSPHERE THEORY [SEC. %3

For a qualitative discussion of the ray family such as is given in Chap. 1,

it is convenient to introduce a further simplification in Eq. (72). In many
applications n and C are nearly unity, and then we can write

72Z-C2= (n- C)(n+C) =2(’ –c), (78)

and Eq. (72) becomes

dz
z-= ktidn -C. (79)

This shows qualitatively how the inclination of the ray depends upon the
difference between n and C. By making use of Eq. (69), Eq. (79) can be
transformed into
dz
ka tin(z) - n(zl) cos a. (80)
&=

Now for rays inclined at small angles,

dz
~r=fi (81)
.
and

n(zl) Cos a = n(zJ

()
1 - ; = n(zl) — ~; (82)

consequently Eq. (80) may be written

6 = * W n(z) – 72(zJ + ~. (83)

r

Squaring Eq. (83) yields the symmetrical relationship

d’ – a’ = 2[n(z) – da)]. (84)

Up to this point, the surface of the earth has been treated ss plane.
Equations will now be developed that take the curvature into account.
Let us set up a spherical coordinate system (p,~,~) with center at the
center of the earth. A point source is located on the line for which 6 = O
at a height ZI above the surface of the earth, the radius of which is denokd
by a. For a stratified atmosphere, Vn is always parallel to the direction
in which p varies, and the rays are therefore cuwes lying in the planes
containing the source ,and the center of the earth. Figure 2.6 shows a
typical plane of this kind; and since as before we shall assume cylindrical
symmetry about the vertical line through the transmitter, all functions
are independent of ~ and we can limit our attention to a single meridian
plane.
SEC.23] RA Y-TRACING FORMULAS 49

Under these conditions Eq. (67) applies, and we can write

pn cos j3 = const. along a ray. (85)

By dividing both sides of Eq. (85) by a, we obtain

pn
—cos13=c, (86)
a

where C is a constant characteristic of the ray.

Equation (86) can be made to resemble Eq. (68) by introducing the abbre-
viation N = pn/a; whence

Ncos~=C. (87)

FIG. 2.6.—Path of a ray in a vertical plane through the source. T repux,cn ts the transmitter.

Just as Eq. (68) leads to 13q. (72), Eq. (87) leads to

f ~N2 – Cz dp
tan ~ = (88)
C ‘pale”

Now let us change variables from p alid .9to z and r where

p=a+z, (89)

O=:. (90)

The coordinate r- represents distance measured along the earth’s surface.

Eq. (88) then becomes

— dz
— (91)
l+:dr
()

Equation (91) is exact; but because in problems concerning atmospheric

50 HORIZONTALLY STRATIFIED ATMOSPHERE THEORY ~~EC.2.4

refraction z/a is small compared with unity, we arrive at the approxi-

mation

(92)

ThM equation is just Eq. (72) with n replaced by N. Thus, subject to

the provision that z/a <<1, the effect of the curvature of the earth can be
taken into account in computing ray paths by replacing the index of refrac-
tion by the quantity N = pn/a and using the same differential equation
that applies when the earth is treated as flat.
Next let us consider the expression for the optical length. From
Fig. 2“6
d.=pdOcos (3+dpsinflJ (93)

and from Eqs. (89) and (90)

ndv=~drcos~+ndz sin P. (94)

Application of Eq. (86) yields

2
_c2L .
ndu=C’dr+ y (95)
J( ) 1+:

If as before we neglect z/a in comparison with unity, we obtain

dS = C dr + lti.\’z – C2dz\. (96)

By comparing Eq. (96) with Eq, (76) it is evident that subject to the
condition z/a <<1 the optical length can be calculated from the plane-
earth formula if n is replaced by N.
Equations (92) and (96) suggest on the basis of geometrical optics that
the discussion of propagation near the surface of the spherical earth may
be reduced to a discussion of propagation over a plane earth by the artifice
of replacing the index n by the modified index

(97)

This matter will be examined from a different point of view in the next
section.
2.4. The Modified Index.—If the earth had no atmosphere the rays
would be straight lines which, with increasing distance from the source,
w-ould become separated farther and farther from the earth’s surface.
The rays would be straight, and the earth curved. Actually what is of
importance is not the separate curvatures of the ray family and the earth
but the relative curvature of the rays with respect to the earth. It turns
SEC.24] THE MODIFIED INDEX 51

out that it is sometimes convenient to regard the earth as flat and the
rays as having sufficient curvature to maintain the same relative curva-
ture as before. To account for the curvature of the rays we must assume
that the refractive index instead of being constant increases with height,
and indeed at such a rate that the derivative of the index with respect to
height equals the reciprocal of the earth’s radius. Thus the earth may be
treated as flat if the index is taken equal to 1 + (z/a). In this way diffrac-
tion is treated as a problem in refraction.
The general idea of regarding the earth as flat and modifying the index
distribution appropriately is a useful one, and we shall now examine the
procedure more closely. The method is due to M. H. L. Pryce in an
unpublished manuscript. Let r, d, and o be the spherical coordinates of
a point, the origin of the system being at the center of the earth, and let
us introduce new coordinates XI, x2, and z, defined by
xl = a sin e cos 4, (98a)

X2 = a sin Osin 4, (98b)

Z=r—a (98c]

where d is to be measured from the line connecting the transmitter to the

center of the earth.
The element of arc du is given by
2 ~z; + ~z; + (z, dxl + x, dz,)’
du’=
( )[
1+;
az—z~—x$ 1
+ dz’. (99)

In general, we are interested only in the region for which zJa and r,/a
are sufficient y small to justify neglecting their squares and higher powers,
and we can therefore write
(hz = ~’(dz? + dz:) + dzz, (loo)
where

(101)

Maxwell’s equations for free space become, in the new coordinate system,
dH,
&3-:( qE2)+T#~=q (102a)

$(@)-& E3+W9=o, (102b)

(?E, _ dE1
~+w$=o, (102C)
dxl

&Hz–~(qH2)– Tca~=0, (102d)

E.G. & G. LIBRARY (:; “1:

- . ,,
LAS VEGAS BRANCH ,,
52 HORIZONTALLY STRATIFIED ATMOSPHERE THEORY [~EC. 2.4

(102e)

(lo2j)

(lo2g)

The terms (c?/dz) (qE,), (c3/dz) (qEl), (13/&) (VqdlJ and similar terms
involving H complicate the demonstration. They are all of the form
(d/13z)(qF’) Now

:(7F)= g+; : . (103)

()
The field points in which we are interested are all at low angles as viewed
from the transmitter, and in this region the field components vary much
more rapidly in the horizontal than in the vertical direction. For this
reason we are justified in neglecting (d/dz) (zF’/a) in comparison with
derivatives with respect to z, and U. With this simplification and the
introduction of the notation p’ = qp and c’ = qc, we obtain
dES
~E, +p’~=O, (104a)
az2 – az

&-~+p’ $=0, (104Z))

dE, dE,
—+#’g=o, (104C)
13x, – ax~

13HS
h-t ’~=0, (104d)
dxz – dz
dH,
~H, –e’~ =0, (104e)
az – ax,

dHz ~H1–et~=(), (lo4j)

axl – azz

& (/.I’HJ + & (p’H,) + ; (JHJ = O, (lo4g)

& (c’EJ + & (c’E,) + : (c’E,) = O. (104h)

These equations, however, are just Maxwell’s equations in rectangular

coordinates in which the surface of the earth is given by z = O and the
permeability and permittivity of the medium are p’ and c’. We have
SEC. 2.5] LIMITATIONS OF RAY METHODS 53

thus reduced the problem of propagation around a spherical earth to pro-

pagation over a flat earth with an atmosphere whose electromagnetic
properties are represented by p’ and d.
The index of refraction of the atmosphere modified to account for the
curvature of the earth is called the modified index of refraction and is
denoted by N. From the preceding discussion, it follows that the rela-
tionship between N and the true index n is given by

N=qn=
()
l+~n=n+~.
a
(105)

It should be noted that whereas n usually decreases with height, the

modified index, except for limited regions, increases with height. In par-
ticular when n decreases linearly with height, that is

dn
‘= n”+ ()
Zz’
(106)

where w and dn/dz are constants and (dn/dz)z is small compared with ~,
we can write

N=n,
()I+:, e
(107)

in which

(108)

When a, is a positive constant, it may be considered as an effective radiusl

of the earth. Measurements have showm that the average gradient of n
over height intervals not including layers within several hundred feet of
the surface of the earth is usually such that a, = +a. (This point will be
considered in detail in the next chapter, ) It is customary, therefore, to
refer to the condition in which a, = +z as standard refraction, For stand-
ard refraction
dN
— = 3,6 X 10-8 ft-’,
dz

dn
– 1,2 x 10–’ ft-’.
z=
It is sometimes convenient in numerical work to take a, = 5280 miles.
2.5. Limitations of Ray Methods.-The ray-tracing formulas of Sec. 2-3
may be integrated analytically in simple cases and numerically or mechani-
cally in more complicated cases so that it is possible to obtain the ray
patterns for a large variety of index distributions. It is necessary, how-
1The conceptof an equivalentor effectiveearth’sradiuswsa introducedin a some-
whatdiffer@ntway by Schelleng,Burrows,and Ferrell,P~oc, IRE, 21, 427 (1933).
54 HORIZONTALLY STRATIFIED ATMOSPHERE THEORY [Sac. 25

ever, to examine each case to determine if the conditions are fultilled upon
which the validity of the technique depends. These conditions are to be
examined in this section.
The first condition to be satisfied is that the index must not change
appreciably in a distance equal to a wavelength of the radiation. This
requirement is expressed by the inequality

1 \Vn[
j-- <<l. (109)

Insofar as inequality (109) is concerned, a given ray pattern becomes a

better and better approximation as the frequency and therefore k is
increased. On the other hand, inequality (109) certaiuly does not repre-
sent a sufficient condition, for even in a homogeneous medium for which
Vn = O, ray methods fail to account for dtiraction phenomena. As we
shall see, the additional requirement is that the fractional change in the
spacing between neighboring rays must be small in a wavelength. A ray
pattern therefore leads to questionable results in regions where rays either
diverge or converge rapidly and especially where neighboring rays cross to
form foci or caustics.
It is to be noted that whereas the first condition depends alone upon
the frequency of the radiation and the structure of the medium, the second
condition depends upon what sort of wave the ray pattern is to represent.
Whether or not the first condition is satisfied can be determined in advance
once the structure of the medium and the frequency of the radiation are
specified, but whether or not the second condition is satisfied can be deter-
mined only after the ray pattern has actually been traced. In this con-
nection, it is well to recall that a single ray has no significance by itselj but
has meaning only when related to the other members oj the jamily to which
it belongs.
To develop the argument that supports the preceding assertions, it is
first necessary to integrate Eq. (46):

(110)

Now

V - (Q2VS) = 2Q VQ . VS + Q’ V% (111)

so that Eq. 110 can be written

$ V.(Q’ VS) = O (112)

V. (Q’ VS) = 0, (113)

SEC. 25] LIMITATIONS OF RAY METHODS 55

Equation (113) states that the vector Q’ VS is solenoidal. Therefore a

solution of Eq. (113) is obtained by writing

Q2VS=VXU, (114)

where U is any vector field whose curl is parallel to VS.

Now let us suppose that Eq. (47) has been integrated by constructing
the family of rays normal to the initial surface z at each point of which S
has the value SO. The family of rays may then be given in parametric
form
z = Fl(g,q,s),
Y = ~z(.!,%s), (115)
z = F3(.f,q,s), }

where ~ and q are the parametem that determine the point on z through
which the ray passes. Thus if S is put equal to So, Eqs. (115) are the
parametric equations of the surface z and z, y, and z are the coordinates
of the intersection of the ray with the surface. Let the result of solving
Eqs. (115) for f, q, and S be represented by

f = .fl(w,z), (l16a)

T = fz(w,z)) (l16b)

s = j-,(z,7J,z). (116c)

Equations (116a) and (116b) are two families of surfaces whose intersec-
tions are the rays. It should be noted that these families are not uniquely
determined by the ray pattern, as it is possible to setup an infinite variety
of families having the same intersections.
As the rays are perpendicular to the wavefronts, V~, and Vj2 are per-
pendicular to VS and Vj, x vjz is parallel to VS. Hence the identity

v x (jl Vf,) = Vjl x g, + fl v x W-z (117)

shojvs that V x (f, Vjz) is parallel to VS. It follows therefore that a suit-
able choice for U in Eq. (6) is

u = j, Vj,. (118)

Accordingly Eq. (114) bccomcs

Q’ V,f’ = v x f, Vj, = Vj, x Vj,. (119)

Taking the scalar product of each mcrnbcr of l’;q. (1 19) with VS and mak-
ing use of Eq. (47), we obtain

Q, _ WI x W2°vs. (120)
nz
56 HORIZONTALLY STRATIFIED A TiWOSPHERE THEORY [SEC. 2.5

Even on the assumption that S is known, Eq. (120) does not deter-
mine Q uniquely, for as was pointed out previously, jl and jz are not cle-
termined uniquely by the ray family. The significance of j, and j, may
be established in the following way. We note first that

djl aj, ~
ax a~ az
(121)

aj3 aj3 aja

%~az

where J is the Jacobian of Z, y, and z with respect to jl, jz, and jt. If dr
denotes the volume element bounded
by the surfaces j, = &j, = .$+ dt,
f j,=~, j,=~+dv, jt=S, j~=S
+ d,’1, then it is a property of the
h Jacobian that

dT = J(~I,j2,js) d~ dq dS. (122)

Let dA be the element of area

b bounded by the traces of the surfaces
j, = constant an$ j, = constant on
c the wave front ja = S as shown in
Fm. 2.7.—The volume element d, Fig. 2.7.
bounded by rays and surfaces of constant
phase. The face abed lies in the surface As the rays are perpendicular to the
f, = S and the face ./u/t lies in the surface wavefronts, it follows that
A = S1 + dS. similarly ~bfe and dcuh
are portions of the surfaces fz = v and d, = dA du, (123)
/, = . + d., respectively. The remaining
two faces adhe and bcof lie in the surfaces
~1 = t and fI = t + ~[, rewc~tl~’eh.
where, as before, u is the arc length
measured along the ray. Equations
(122) and (123) yield
dA do
J= (124)
d~ dq dS”

But
As
—. Ivsl = n, (125)
da

Hence

From Eq. (120) and (121)

s~(-, ~.~] 1,1.W1TA TIONS OF RAY METHODS 57

Eq. (126) and (127) yield

d{dq = QzndA = Q2VS. ~qdA. (128)

AS v,$/ n is a unit vector normal to dA, we see that dt dq = djl dj, is the
element of flux through a \vavefront of the vector field Q2 VS. In many
applications of the wave equation Q~V~Sis either proportional to the power
density or approximately so. Hence Eq. (128) showw that the functions f,
and jz arc drtcrmined by the radiation pattern of the source.
As pointc(l out, in Sec. 23, the development of ray-tracing formulas
depends upon the assumption that

V2Q
— <<1. (129)
k’n’~

It is now possil]le to examinr this inequality more carefully. From the

identity

‘“H)‘%+(%)”V(’ (130)

it follows that

From Eq. (127)

VQ
—=— g+~$. (132)
knQ ( .’ )

Equations (131) and (132) yield

=k~+~
VJJ1 1 Vn
V*Q
k2n2Q
– –“--+(=WG$)+”G3
kn n
‘133)
From Eq. (133) it is readily seen that inequality (129) is satisfied provided
that the vector fields (1/kn) (Vn/n), and VJ$~/kn.J~4have magnitudes small
compared with unity and are smooth so that the divergence terms are
likewise small, Thus we arrive at the two ray-tracing conditions

(134)

The meaning of the first inequality is clear and has been discussed
previously. TO interpret the second condition we consider the pencil of
rays bounded by the surfaces fl = & fl = ~ + d[, f’ = q, and ft = n + dq,
Equation (126) shows that J is proportional to dA, the cross section of
58 HORIZONTALLY STRa4TIFIED ATMOSPHERE THEORY [SEC. 26

this pencil, and hence J!$ is essentially the spacing between neighboring
rays. Then condition (134) states that the fractional change in the spac-
ing between neighboring rays in a wavelength must be small compared
with unity. Obviously condition (134) is violated at those points where
the cross section of the pencil vanishes as it does when the pencil comes
to a focus or passes through a caustic.

PHYSICAL OPTICS
BY JOHN E. FRERHAFER

2.6. The Field from a Dipole in a Stratified Atmosphere Near the

Earth.—In this section we shail show that the calculation if the field from
either a vertical electric or magnetic dipole near the earth can be reduced
to finding a suitable solution of the scalar wave equation
V2# + lc2N2# = 0. (135)

Here + is the z-component of a Hertz vector ~, whose x,- anti z~-component.

are zero.
It will also be shown that a solution of Eq. (13.5) ~vhich satisfiw th(,
appropriate boundary conditions is given by

+= “ K~o(KT)tJ(Z, K) dK, (136)

/ o
where r and z are the cylindrical coordinates of the field point and
2 u;(o) – w(o) ~’(z’) U2(zl)u’(z),
z > z,, (137a)
u = ~ [ d(o) – W2@) 7A’(2,) 1
2 u:(o) – Pw(o) ~’(z) U2(Z,)U2(Z),
z < 2[. (137b)
u = w [ u;(o) – pu,(o) ?&(z) 1

The symbols used in the expressions for ZJhave the following meanings:
1. z, is the height of the dipole, (The dipole is located at r = O,
z = 21.)
2. v, u,, and U2are all solutions of the equation

d%
@ + (k’N’ - K2)V= O; (138)

UIand M, however, are those solutions of Eq. (138) which for large z
represent waves traveling in the direction of decreasing and increas-
ing z respectively; W is the Wronskian of UI and uz and is inde-
pendent of z.
3. p is a function of K that depends upon the polarization. For a
vertical electric dipole

p(Kz) = 2“‘;~ ~k? – C’, (139)

SEC. 2.6] THE FIELD FROM A DIPOLE 59

where ko is the propagation factor of the atmosphere at the surface

and kl is the propagation factor of the earth. For a vertical mag-
netic dipole
~(K2) = i <k; – K2. (140)

The radicals are to indicate the root with the negatioe imaginary
part.
Although the results stated above apply strictly to dipole sources, they
may be used to discuss more elaborate sources. It is frequently a good
approximation to assume that the ratio of the field strength to the free-
space field strength at a point is the same for an actual transmitter as it
is for the dipole. When this is not permitted, we can in principle approxi-
mate the source by a suitable array of dipoles. The field is then the sum
of the fields from the dipole elements.
From this point on we shall suppress the time factor e’”’. Let us
consider the Hertz vector n = (0,0,+) which satisfies the equation
vxvxrI-vv”n-#’6’J n=o (141)

and derive a field of the electric type in the usual way:

B = ip’c’uV X II; E=vxvxrr. (142)

Because H has only a z-component and ,u’ aml d vary only in the
z-direction, it follows that

V(p’c’). v x II = o, v(J/) x II = o. (143)

From Eqs. (141), (142), and (143), we find that

v x E = – iuP’H, (144a)

vxH=iwc’E+~x H, (144b)

v-D = VC’.E, (144C)

v.B=O. (144d)

Equations (144b) and (144c) show that the fields obtained from
Eq. (142) do not satisfy Maxwell’s equations exactly. For the atmos-
phere, however, the gradient of c’ is so small that the terms involving it
can be neglected, Thus the ratio of the magnitude of the second to the
first term on the right-hand side of Eq. (144b) can be written

Except quite C1OS6to the source, the field will be almost a plane wave for
which lH1/]El is approximately ~. Furthermore, \Vc’1/C’is of the
order of l/a, and therefore the ratio of the second to the first term is of
60 HORIZONTALLY STRATIFIED ATMOSPHERE THEORY [SEC. 26

the order of X/a, which is always very small compared with unity. From
Eqs. (144a) and (144c) it followst hat

and this again is of the order of h/a. It follows that 13q. (144) differs
from Maxwell’s equations by a negligible amount, and we may regard
Eq. (142) asavalid waytoobtain the electromagnetic field,
From a solution of Eq. (141), afield of the magnetic type can be con-
structed by using the equations

D = – i,u’,’coV X ~, H= VXVX IT. (14!5)

The D and H obtained in this way satisfy the equations

VxE=–iuW’H+~x E, (146fl)
#
v x H = IXE, (146b)

v.D = O, (146c)

v*B = V/.t’.H. (146d)

It follows from the same arguments applied to Eq. (144) that, the
field given by Eq. (145) is an acceptable approximate solution of ihfax,vell’s
equations.
Because # is the only component of II that differs from zero, and be-
cause moreover ~ is a rectangular component of II, Eq. (141) reduces to
Eq. (135). W’e have thus shown that the solution of our problem depends
upon finding a suitable solution of the scalar wave equation.
We now seek a solution of Eq. (135) that satisfies the proper boundary
conditions at the source, at the surface of the earth, and at great heights.
If we introduce the variable r = ~-, and make use of the
cylindrical symmetry of the field, we can write Eq. (135) as

ld
—— r% +~+kZN2# =0. (147)
r dr ()

Integration by the usual separation procedure leads to elementary solu-

tions of Eq. (147) given by Z,(w) v(z,ti) where ZD is any integral of the
Bessel equation of zero order, K is the separation constant, and v is a
solution of Eq. (138). From the elementary waves we can construct a
solution independent of K by integration over K. Thus

+ = ~ ~(x) zo(K~) O(Z,K) dK, (148)

where D(K) is to be regarded as a function of K that is at present undetermined.

SEC. 2%] THE FIELD FROM A DIPOLE 61

Ourprocedure isnowguided by the fact that near the source, +must

behave like e–ikR/R. The expansion of a suherical wave in terms of cylin-
drical waves is well known and is given by;

?<0, (149a)

2>0, (149b)

where R = 4T2 + Z2. The source is at z = O = r-. When K > k, the

radical stands for the positive root and when # < k, dl(’ – k2 is
21-1.
Comparison of Eq. (148) with Eq. (149) suggests integration from
zero to infinity and choosing

D(K) = K,

Zo(Kr) = Jo(Kr).

Finally we note that

d exp(–ti~z)
z [ 4,2
—_ ~2
IZ=o-aexp$%az=
‘2
Thus the part of the integral that depends upon z is continuous at the
height of the source, but its derivative suffers a discontinuity equal to – 2
at that height. It is important, as we shall see, that the discontinuity in
derivative is independent of K. Accordingly we shall require that u satisfy
the conditions

u — v
2,+0 ,, —0’
(150)
do dv
– 2.
dz .,+O = -dz ,L_o }

It has now been established tentatively that Eq. (148) takes on the form
of Eq. (136). To verify that Y of Eq. (136) does indeed have the proper
behavior, we need only to evaluate the volume integral ~ (V2 + k2iV2)#d.
over a small region containing the source. This integral is essentially the
moment of the dipole; and for a unit source such as is represented by
e-i’R/R, itshould be equal to – 4rT. The verification follows:

(V2 + k’N2)~ d, = “ K(V2 + k2N2)Jo (KT)U dK dT

/ // o

‘/l””JO(”’)[%+(’2N2 -”2)”ldKd,
1J. A. Stratton,Etectrmgrteh’c Theory, McGraw-Hill,New York, 1941,p. 575.
62 HORIZONTALLY STRATIFIED ATMOSPHERE THEORY [SEC. 26

Now d, = 2n-rdr dz, and from Eqs. (138) and (150) it follows that
(d%/dz’) + (k’N’ – K2)U is independent of K. Therefore
zl● a d,v
(V2 + k2N2)# d, = lim ~z + (k’N’ – K’)V dz
\ ~+o /[ z)—. 1
r m
o lim 2n-r K~II (Kr) dK dr.
r-o Ho 0
But
2,+Q &v 21+=

H ,,_a ~z+ (k’W- – K’)V

1
dz = $ “:”
21 ‘1 +
1 .,—a
(k’N’ – K2)U dz = –2.

1/
lim
r+ o
‘ 27rr
0
m K~O(Kr) dK dr = ‘h lim
/
T+OOKO
‘dK

.
-/
‘
w~o(w) d(w)

o’
= 27rlim ~,(Kr) d(Kr) = % ~,(Kr) = 2T.
T+(I / o m
Hence

(V2 + k’N’)~ d, = –47r,

/
and this confirms that ~ given by Eq. (136) and subject to conditions (150)
has the proper behavior in the neighborhood of the source.
We shall next examine the boundary conditions at z = O. Consider
first the case of the electric-type field given by Eq. (142). Using the
cylindrical coordinates (r,d,z) and making use of the cylindrical symmetry
of the field, we obtain

B= ‘J’’”(o+$o) (151)
E= ~r,o,–~.
( ) }

Let ~ be used to denote the z-component of the Hertz vector within the
earth, then the boundary conditions for z = O are

where kl is the complex propagation factor of the earth. Integration

with respect to r yields

(152)

Because of the conductivity of the earth, the field within the earth is
rapidly attenuated with depth. For this reason it is not necessary to take
into account the curvature, and we shall assume that the properties of the
SEC. 26] THE FIELD FROM A DIPOLE 63

earth are independent of the coordinates. If now *1 is expressed as an

integral

*,= “ K~o(Kr)tJI(z, K) d/c, (153)

/ o
the boundary condition is satisfied if

(i!)z=o=w)=;
U(O,K) = +( O, K).
- (154a)

(154b)

Equation (154b) is a condition on v, and is of interest only if the field

within the earth is to be calculated; v, must be a solution of the equation

fl’v,
~+ (kf – K’),,, = O. (155)

Therefore
VI u exp (2 Vk! — Kzz), (156)

where, in order to ensure attenuation as z becomes larger negatively, the

branch of the square root having a negative imaginary part must be taken,
Then Eq. (154a) becomes

dv

() z
—
v .=O
= p(K2),

where p(z) is given by Eq. (139), In a similar way one can show that
(157)

the boundary condition for the case of the magnetic-type field represented
byEq. (145) leads toEq. (157) where p(K2)isgivenby Eq. (140).
Now ./k is essentially the cosine of the angle of inclination of the
normal to the wavefront of the elementary wave characterized by that
ValUeOf K. Forthefield points in\vhich \veareinterested, the values of K
near kwillcontribute most strongly tothe integral of Eq. (136), and there-
fore for purposes of estimating the order of magnitude of p we may regard
K = k, Thus for horizontal polarization

As is shown in Sec. 5.1, lk,/k12is much greater than unity except in the
case of very dryground; for example, at 3000 Me/see, (kI/k)z = 70 – ~40
for sea water. Hence Ipl is of the order of ten times k, and 11/pl
amounts to about 0.02A The same argument holds also for vertical
64 HORIZONTALLY,TTRA TIFIED ATMOSPHERE THEORY [SEC. 2.6

polarization. Equation (157), together with Fig. 2“8, tells us that 11/pl
is essentially the distance by which a node fails to occur at the surface of
the earth. Again for those values of R which contribute most to theinte-
gralof 13q. (136), kis small compm-ed with thevertical distance in which
v varies significantly. Thus, for practical purposes, it is a convenient
approximation to use as the boundary condition for both polarizations
that ti havea rmkat thcsurfacc of ttmearth, that is,
0(~, K) = O. (158)
It should be noted that thcassurnpti onthat
theearthis a perfect con-
21

+ r(o)- J
(
I
I
I
t
I
4 v

1+1= ~
(1(1

——_—d-

FIG. 28.-Theg
t’
eometricali l,terpretationo fll/pl

ductor leads toEq. (158) for horizontal polarization. For vertical polar-
ization, however, it leads to

g (o,/c) = o;

hence Eq. (158) is not equivalent to assuming infinite conductivity for

the earth.
The final step istoexamine conditions forlargez. Although it is true
that at sufficiently great heights the unmodified index of refraction ap-
preaches unity and N approaches 1 +z/a, it isan experimental fact that
atthemoderate heights to~vhich ourapproximations limit us anyway, the
unmodified index nhasasmall essentially constant gradient. Accordingly
we shall assume that for large z, N approaches 1 + z/a, where a, is a con-
stant that maybe regarded as the effective radius of the earth.
For any real value of K, the expression fc2N2– X*eventually becomes
and remains positive. Let z~denote the height at which the last zero of
kzNz – ~’occurs. Then Eq. (138) hastwoindependent solutions that can

I
SEC. 2.7] THE FUNDAMENTAL THEOREM 65

be represented asymptotically for z >> zo by

z
U1 = (kzN* — Kz)–}i exp i (k’N’ – ,2)% dZ , (159)
[/ z, 1
z
w = (kZNZ — ~z)–}i exp _ i (?c’iV2– K9LZdz (160)
[/ ,0 1
The fractional powers are to mean the positive roots. The functions U1
and u’ represent waves traveling in the direction of decreasing and increas-
ing z, respectively. Accordingly we shall require that for large z, u shall
behave like u,. As the transmitter height is the only height at which it
is possible to change from one linear combination of solutions to another,
we write
V = Auz, z > 21, (161)

u = Bul + CU2, z < z~. (162)

Equations (150) and (157) permit the determination of A, B, and C’, and
we obtain Eqs. (137a) and (137 b).
When Eq. (158) is substituted for Eq. (157), the expressions for v given
in Eqs, (137a) and (137b) are replaced by

2 u, (o) U,(z,)
v = ~ ~ – = u’(z,)u?(z) z 2 21, (163a)
[ 1
2 u,(o) _ w(z)
~ U2(Z,)U2(Z) z < z~. (163b)
v = m [–u,(o) 1
2“7. The Fundamental Theorem.—In Sec. 2.6 it was shown that the
field from a dipole near the earth can be expressed in the form of a gener-
alized Sommerfeld integral. The next step is to devise means of evaluat-
ing this integral. It turns out that there are two ways of doing this, one
way being appropriate to the diffraction region and the other to the inter-
ference region. In this section we shall discuss the diffraction region and
show that subject to certain restrictions the potential ~ may be expressed
in the form

where ( 1) Km stands for the roots of

u~(O,K) – P(K2)112(0,K) = O, (165)

(2) the “normalized’] height-gain functions u!,,(z) arc defined by

66 HORIZONTALLY STRA TIFZED A TMOSPHERE THEORY [SEC. 2.7

the integral being along a ray in the fourth quadrant of the z plane,
(3) s~ denotes integration around the branch cuts in the K-plane of the
~UIICtk)n
V(Z,K).
The expansion represented by Eq. (164) is referred to as the funda-
mental theorem. This theorem has been established only subject tc
certain assumptions that must be justified along lines to be explained
below for each special form of N that it is desired to discuss. When the
simplification given in Eq. (158) is used, v has no branch points and the
integral is missing. In the general case, however, the presence of the
double-valued function p in the expression for v produces branch points
at . = + k,. The integral part of Eq. (164) is then present and
represents a “surface wave, ” which at high frequencies is rapidly attenu-
ated both with range and height. From a practical standpoint, however,
in the region for which z/R and zl/R are very small compared with unity,
#is given by a few terms of the series of Eq. (164).
To begin the demonstration we shall first transform the integral expres-
sion for ~ into one that involves H$) (Kr) instead of ~o (KT).
Because

Eq. (136) can be written

*=;[Jw.
.
o
K~~l) (KT)tJ(z,K) dK +
J
0
KH~2)(Kr)V(Z, K) dK
1
(167)

It is now convenient to introduce an assumption that is difficult to

establish in complete generality but can be verified for all cases of prac-
tical interest. This assumption is that V(Z,K) has no singularities in the
first quadrant of the K-plane.
That v has poles in the first quadrant is ruled out because it may be
shown that the presence of such poles would lead to terms in the final
expression for ~ that represent waves converging toward the source, This
is physically impossible.
The question of branch points is more difficult to decide. When N(z)
is an integral single-valued function of z, it may be shown that UI(Z,K)and
UZ(Z,K) are integral single-valued functions of K for all z. Likewise, when
the real positive axis of z can be divided into a finite number of segments
in each of which IV(z) is free of singularities and is so defined that a funda-
mental set of solutions of Eq, (138) exists, then for all real positive values
of z, UI and & are integral single-valued functions of ~. In this case the
solution having the proper behavior in the outer segment is continued
inward by joining a linear combination of solutions in one segment to a
linear combination in the next and requiring that the function and its first
SEC. 2.7] THE FUNDAMENTAL THEOREM 67

derivative be continuous at the joints. The fundamental solutions and

their coefficients are integral functions of Kand also, therefore, areul and
M. Accordingly, we shall assume that for the values of z with which we
are concerned, UI and % have no singularities in the finite portion of the
.-plane. Subject to this assumption, the branch points ofpare the only
branch points ofv. These OCCUrat K = fh. But k~lies in the fourth
quadrant, and therefore the branch points lie in the second and fourth
quadrants.
Because of this assumption concerning the singularities, we can deform
the path of integration and write
. i-
K~$) (K~) t@,K) dx = KH#) (Kr) u(2,K) dK
/ o / o r
+ ] tiH#)(Kr)~(Z,~)dK, (168)
.

where means integration over the quarter circle of infinite radius lying
/ .
in the first quadrant. The path of integration of the first integral on the
right is the positive axis of imaginaries. Set . = iu; then
i- .
K~~l) (Kr)2J(z,K) dti = — UH$*) (iur)v(z,z’u) du.
\ o / 0

But
H#) (iur) = – H~2)( – iur);

and as the equations defining v contain X2 only,

V(.z,iu) = ?)(Z,—iU).
Therefore
i- m
K~#) (Kr) U(Z,K) dt( = uH~2J ( — iur)v(z, — iu) du.
/ o / 0

Now if we put K = – iu, we obtain

im o
K~#) (Kr) V(Z,K) dx = KH~2) (Kr)2&K) dK. (169)
/ o / —i-

As H$) (Kr) ~ O as K * m along any ray in the first quadrant, we intro-

duce another assumption that must be verified for each specific case,
namely,
XH&(Xr)2J(Z,X)dti = O. (170)
/ m
Using Eqs. (169) and (170) in Eq. (168), we obtain
m o
KH$) (KT)V(Z,K) dx = KH$2) (KT) V(Z,K) dK. (171)
/o / -*”m
68 HORIZONTALLY STRATIFIED ATMOSPHERE THEORY [SEC. 2.7

Finally, Eqs. (167) and (171) lead to

# = :/L .~$’) (fl)V(Z,K) dK, (172)

where the path of integration L extends from —i m to m along the negative

imaginary axis and the positive real axis as shown in Fig. 2.9.

Fm. 2.9.—Equivalent paths of integration in the .-plane.

The next step is to reduce the integral to a sum by deforming L into

a quarter circle of infinite radius in the fourth quadrant plus loops around
the poles and branch points as indicated in Fig. 2“9. Now because of the
same assumption involved in Eq. (170), the integral over the quarter
circle is zero, and Eq. (172) becomes

where ER~ means the sum of the residues at all the poles of v lying in the
fourth quadrant. The integral is along the branch cut.
Reference to Eqs. (137a) and (137b) shovw that the poles of v are the
roots of Eq. (165). The values of K that satisfy Eq. (165) are the char-
acteristic values of the problem and will be designated by Km. They are
the values of K for which the solution of Eq. (138) representing an out-
going wave itself satisfies Eq. (157). On the assumption that the poles
of v are simple poles, we obtain
m
+=–~
z
m=]
KmH~2)(Knr) —
W(Km)
2

~
[[
~;(o,%)
~
~(O,K)
— P(K~)~l(O\Km)

– PUZ((), K)
1} x=””,

X W(z,Km)uZ(zI,Km) + ~ ~ K~L2) (Kr)v dK. (173)

/

We shall order the Km’s so that Im(K~_l) > Irn(%) > Im(x~+,). NOW the
SEC. 2.7] THE FUNDAMENTAL THEOREM 69

Wronskian is given by

~(Km) = u,(O,Km)u;(@m) – uz(O,#~)u{(O,GJ. (174)

Because for K = Km, Eq. (165) is satisfied

W’(Km) = – UZ(O,KJIUf(O,Km)– p(K~)u,(O,KJ]. (175)

The use of Eq. (175) reduces Eq. (173) to

.

In the discrete sum only w appears; accordingly we shall adopt the shorter
notation
u2(z,Km)= Urn(z), (177)

U2(Z,K) = u(z). (178)

We shall next obtain an alternate form for the expression within the braces
of Eq. (176). The procedure is the usual one for proving the orthogonality
of solutions of the Sturm-type equation. Thus by multiplying the differ-
ential equation for u~ by u and the equation for u by u~, we obtain
&u
u # + (k’~’ – K;)UmU = O,
(179)
dzu
— + (kzNz – K2)UUm = 0. (180)
‘m dzz

Subtracting Eq. (180) from Eq. (179) and integrating with respect to z
from O to ~ along a ray in the z-plane, we have
.

(
dum
‘m–(K~– K2) UUm dz = O. (181)
‘~–u”dzo ) / o

It turns out that a ray can be chosen (one in the fourth quadrant is
satisfactory) such that U(m) and u~( m ) both vanish. Accordingly

(K2 – K:)
/ o
m
‘Umdz= 45).-”4); (182)

But
d?l~
= ~(K~)Um(()) ;
(-) dz o
70 HORIZONTALLY STRATIFIED ATMOSPHERE THEORY [~EC. 28

hence Eq. (182) can be written

(K+ Km) ~-
?&(o)
[
~(K;) zt(0) –
()1
‘< ~

p(K’)u(0) – 4 + u(O) P(dI) – P(K’) (183)

‘=::( L; [ 1}
K—K.

Now if we let K approach Km, we obtain

a
2Km U: dz = %(o) : P(K*)U(0) – u’(o) ~=xm
/o [[[ 1}
ap
– u.(o) ~ ~2 (184)
01 m

and

I&(o) :
H u’(o) – p(K2)u(o)
II , -Km
m
= – 2Km
/ o
U% dz — u;(o)
() dp
~ & (185)

Substitution of Eq. (185) in Eq. (176) yields

,1
Kf{$’) (Kr)V dK. (186)
/B

Equation (186) is equivalent to Eqs. (164) and (166).

2“8. Phase-integral Methods.—In order to apply the fundamental
theorem to a given case of atmospheric refraction] it is necessary to find
the normalized characteristic functions u:) and the characteristic values
~~. This is in general a difficult task, as the detailed behavior of solutions
of Eq. (138) is known for only a very limited number of index distributions.
Fortunately means exist for constructing quite general approximate solu-
tions of this differential equation, because the same equation was encoun-
tered early in the development of quantum mechanics. It is from this
field that the techniques discussed in this section are borrowed.
The first step in obtaining approximate expressions for the character-
istic functions is to find a pair of asymptotic representations of solutions
of the differential eauation. Next it is necessary to examine how the same
exact solution is approximated by different linear combinations of the
asymptotic expressions in different parts of the complex plane. This leads
 SEC. 28] PHASE-INTEGRAL METHODS 71

to a discussion of the Stokes phenomenon and the derivation of the con-

nection formulas of quantum mechanics, By means of the connection
formulas it is possible to show how the function that satisfies the boundary
condition at great heights can be represented at the surface. The bound-
ary condition at the surface then determines the characteristic values.
The final step is to normalize the functions so that the various terms or
modes in the expansion given by the fundamental theorem have the cor-
rect relative magnitudes. Two separate formulations result depending
upon whether the characteristic value is nearly real and the mode is
strongly “trapped” or the imaginary part of the characteristic value is
comparable to the real part and the mode is “leaky.” Trapped and
leaky modes are sometimes referred to as Gamow and Eckersley modes
respectively.’
It is convenient for our present purpose to write Eq. (138) as

~ + k’su = O, (187)

where

s= N2—< (188)
k,

and u, the dependent variable, is an abbreviation for UZ(Z,K). We shall

retain the notation adopted in Sec. 2.7 of attaching the subscript m to
any function of K in which K is replaced by Km. Thuss. means N2 – K2./k2.
Let us seek solutions of Eq. (187) in the form

and assume that P can be expanded in a series of descending powers of k.

Thus
f’ = kw(z) + w,(z) + k-%,(z) + ~ ., (190)

where the w’s are to be determined. Substitution of Eq. (189) into

Eq. (187) yields
~zp
%2+k2,q+) (191) “
‘~– () dz

When Eq. (190 is substitutmf into Eq. (191) and the coefficients of k’ and
k equated to zero, we obtain

and
‘–z’ ()
dw’=o
(192)

(193)

I This treatment of phase-integral methods follows clod y that given by W. H. FU rry

in RL Report No, 680.
72 HORIZONTALLY STRATIFIED ATMOSPHERE THEORY [SEC. 28

Integration of Eq. (192) and (193) leads to

(194)

wo=~lnw’=~lns!fi. (195)
2 2
Constants of integration are unimportant, as additive constants in the
expression for P are equivalent to constant factors multiplying u. Thus
neglecting all but the first two terms of Eq. (190), we obtain from
Eqs. (189), (190), (194), and (195)
z
u = @ exp (z~ S% d.z). (196)
/ a

To be definite we have chosen zO,a zero of s, as the lower limit of the

integral. Obviously, a similar expression with the sign of the exponential
changed is also an approximate solution of the differential equation so that
the general solution can be written

u=-4f1+ @-2, (197)

where for the sake of brevity we have put

j, = S-)i &, (198)
j, = s-% #w, (199)
z
w. S% dz. (200)
/ .%

Note that the zeros of s are singularities of j, and j~ but not of u; hence
Eq. (197) fails in the vicinity of zeros of s.
Equation (197) is the so-called Wentzel-Kramers-Brillouin, or WKB,
approximation to the solution of Eq. (187). If functions ./1 and jz were
exact solutions of the differential equation, A and B would be constants,
independent of the value of z. Because of the asymptotic nature of the
approximation, however, A and B take on different values in different
regions of the complex plane and change abruptly at the boundaries
between these regions. This is known as the Stokes phenomenon, and to
this matter we must next give careful attention.
In the following discussion it is assumed that s has a simple zero zo
which is sufficiently isolated that there exists a region around it free of
other zeros in which the functions jl and fz are good approximations to
solutions of Eq. (187). In the neighborhood of zo

5=(2– Z,)
()& (201)
SEC, 2.8] PHASE-INTEGRAL METHODS 73

ByEq. (2oo)
2 ds ‘$
w .—— (z – zo)~~. (202)
3 [01dz .,

Equation (202) shows that there are three directions at z, separated

by 120°along which w is real. Starting in anyone of these directions we
can construct a line alon~ which w is real by choosing increments dz such
that .s’~dz is real. There are three lines of this nature which will be
labeled arbitrarily I, II, and III as shown in Fig. 2.10. Similarly there
are three lines, making angles of 120° with each other and 60° with the
first set of lines at the point z,,
along which w is pure imaginary. 4 /s,
11
These are labeled Sl, Sz, and Sj in /
Fig. 2.10 and are referred to as the /
Stokes lines. /
It is now essential that the
branches of w be carefully defined. \ _ _’”/’ +
S2 _- 1
We shall establish a cut along the
%.
line & and require that w be pos- f, -+%
itive on Line I. Then w will be
positive imaginary on S1, negative %% ~
on II, negative imaginary on S2,
~ ~:
positive on III, and positive imag- ‘/ + 111 23
inary on shaded side of Ss.
FI~. 2.10,—S,,S,, and S, are the Stokes
Along the anti-Stokes lines I, lines associated with the point z,. I, 11, and
II, and III, the functions j, and .fj III are the anti-Stokes lines. Algebraic signs
refer to w. ~ominant terms are indicated on
are oscillatory and of equal abso- each Stokes line.
lute values. On the Stokes lines,
however, the functions are real exponential; and as w increases with
increasing distance from ZO,the positive exponential is very much larger
than the negative. Thus j, is dominant on S,; j, is dominant on L%;and
j, is again dominant on the shaded side of S,.
Now although z, is a branch point of the functions f, and f~, it is not a
singular point of the differential equation. Exact solutions of the differ-
ential equation are, in fact, single valued. Therefore, if an exact solution u
is to be represented by a linear combination of the multiple-valued func-
tions f, and f, as in Eq. (197), it is necessary that the coefficients A and B
change values as the independent variable z makes a circuit about ZO.
This takes place in the following way. In the neighborhood of the Stokes
line the dominant term is so much larger than the subdominant that the
coefficient of the latter may change without having any appreciable effect
on the value of the linear combination. The coefficient of the dominant
term may not change, however, nor may the coefficient of the subdominant
term change if the dominant term is missing, because in either case the
74 HORIZONTALLY STRATIFIED A TMO19PHERE THEORY [SEC. 2.8

value of the linear combination would be obviously affected. Thus the

Stokes lines divide the complex plane into three regions in each of which
the coefficients A and B are constant except near the boundaries, where
the coefficient of the subdominant term changes rapidly. These regions
will be designated I, II, or III according to whether they contain the
lines I, II, or III. The values of the coefficients A and B in Region I will
be designated AI and BJ, with similar designations in the other regions.
As the differential equation is linear and any solution can be repre-
sented as a linear combination of two independent solutions, it follows
that the values of A and B in one region are linear combinations of their
values in any other region. Thus, for instance, using a’s to represent
undetermined coefficients we can write

z411 = a,, fiI + h BI, (203)

BI1 = a,, AI + alj BI (204)

Now A is the coefficient of j,, which is subdominant on S,. Accordingly A

changes when z crosses the Stokes line from Region I into Region II and,
unless BI, the coefficient of the dominant term, is zero, A II differs from AI.
Furthermore, under no circumstances may the coefficient of the dominant
term change. BII must equal BI. Thus a,, = a,, = 1 and a,, = O. This
leads to
A1[ = AK + a BI, (205)

B1l = B1, (206)

where a has been written as an abbreviation for the undetermined coeffi-

cient alz.
By similar reasoning, we may justify writing the equations

A1ll = ~11, (207)

h = @ AII + BII, (208)

in which B is to be determined. Substitution of Eqs. (205 and (206) into

Eqs. (207) and (208) yields

A1ll = AI + aBI, (209)

Now w has been given a single-valued definition by cutting the plane

along the line Sa. This same cut may serve to make S-M single-valued.
Consider the expression for u on the unshaded edge of the cut:

u = S-% (~1 e’kw + BII e-i’’”). (211)

On the shaded edge

SEC. 2.8] PHASE-INTEGRAL METHODS 75

In both Eqs. (211) and (212), .sandustand forthevalues of the functions

on the unshaded edge of the cut where w is negative imaginary. Hence
ettmis the dominant term. As u is single-valued, the dominant terms in
Eqs. (211) and (212) must be equal. Therefore

AI = –iBI1l. (213)

From Eqs. (210) and (213),

A,(I + i13) + i(l + a@)B1 = O. (214)

Equation (214) must hold for all values of -41 and BI, and this requires
the coefficients to vanish. Inspection shows that the coefficients all vanish
if a = (3 = i. Thus Eqs. (205), (206), (207), and (208) become

A,r = AI + iBr, (215)

B1l = BI, (216)

A1ll = A1l, (217)

B:ll = iA1l + B1l. (218)

These are the fundamental connection formulas which show how an

asymptotic representation in one
Stokes region must be transformed % /)

to represent the same solution of

Eq. (187) in another Stokes region.
We are now ready to consider the
(2 —
(
case of a surface duct for which the
N-profile is as shown in Fig. 211.
N.profile
By referring to the fundamental
theorem and recalling that the
asymptotic representation of H~2~
(K#) contains a factor e- “n’, we see a
that Im (Kn) determines the rate at I
N+
which the mode is attenuated with FIC. Z.Il.—The height-gain function of
distance. Thus, strongly “trapped” a trapped mode. The region for which
r,< z <f, servesas a barrierto confinethe
modes for which the attenuation is mode@ theduct.
small have characteristic values that
are ahnost entirely real, and it is with these modes that we shall be con-
cerned for the present.
Because N is very nearly unity, Eq. (188) can be approximated by

s=2(N—a —iT), (219)

where

(220)
76 HORIZONTALLY STRATIFIED ATMOSPHERE THEORY [SEC. 28

If, in accordance with our assumption that the mode is strongly

trapped, we neglect 7 in comparison with a as a first approximation, s is
real and has real zeros fl and ~j, which are the heights at which N equals u.
Then <, and {~ can be obtained graphically as shown in Fig. 2“11 by finding
the heights at which the line ab drawn at a distance u from the z-axis
intersects the N-profile. Under these conditions u is also real, and it
follows from Eq. (187) that u is oscillatory or exponential according to
whether s is positive or negative. This is shown in Fig. 2.11 where the
line ab is used as the axis for which u = O. Thus when O < z < ~,, s >0
and u is oscillatory, the case illustrated being the first mode, which has
only one loop. For {1 < z < {z, s is negative and u behaves like an expo-
nential. Finally, for fz < z, s is positive and u is again oscillatory.
Although the differential equation permits of solutions that both in-
crease and decrease exponentially with height in the region for which
{1 < z < {z, it turns out that the solution which satisfies the boundary
conditions always decreases. For this reason the region f, < z < (2 is
referred to as a barrier, a term borrowed from quantum mechanics. This
barrier may bethought of asa lid that tends to confine the mode to the
duct.
Now7is never strictly zero, nor is u strictly real. It is better there-
fore to regard Fig. 2.11 as representing the real part of u rather than u
itself. As we shall see, the imaginary part of u is essentially zero until z
becomes greater than {,, after which it gradually increases in oscillatory
fashion. Well above the barrier u spirals about the origin of the complex
plane in a clockwise direction with increasing magnitude as z increases
toward infinity.
The qualitative description of the behavior of u may now be made
quantitative by the application of the asymptotic approximations. Con-
sider first the behavior of the asymptotic solutions in the neighborhood
of {z. As the characteristic value is essentially real, s is real on the real
axis and Line I becomes that portion of the real axis for which {2 < z.
Line Saisthat portion of therealaxis lying totheleftof ~,. Because the
boundary condition at infinity requires a wave traveling upward, we must
choosejz as the asymptotic representation of u on Line I. Accordingly
we have
AI = O, (221)

BI = C, (222)

where c is a factor independent of z to which a convenient value is to be

a.ssigned later. Hence from Eqs. (215) and (216)

AII = ic, (223)

B1l = C. (224)
SEC. 2,8] PHASE-INTEGRAL METHODS 77

Along S2, jl is dominant, and except in the “mmediate neighborhood of ~z

the subdominant term can be neglected. Thus weare led to

u = CE–W
exp ( — ik z S%dz),{z < Z, (225)
/ <2

u = ice-i(~’4)1.31-~’exp (k “ IEl}’rlz),~l < z < {,. (226)

/ z
In Eqs. (225) and (226) 3 is written to represent s when the imaginary
part of K has been neglected. Thus

The reason that s and not 3 appears in the exponential of Eq. (225) is that
for large values of z the imaginary part of the product of k times the inte-
gral, though small compared with the real part, is nevertheless large com-
pared with unity and hence affects the magnitude of u appreciably.
Since

(227)

Eq. (226) can be written

u = ce’(*/4)lSl-” (exp k
J “ [31’4dz) exp (–k
<J / ‘ 1~1)’dz), ~1 < z < ~,. (228)
f!
Next it is necessary to examine the behavior of the asymptotic approxi-
mations in the neighborhood of ~1. In this case Line I extends along the
real axis to the left of ~1and the Stokes line Sz extends to the right. If jl
and f~ refer to the asymptotic expressions associated with the point ~],
then along Sz
jl = 1:1–x&(x/4) exp (~ ‘ I:j’+ dz), (229)
/ rz

Comparison of Eqs. (229) and (230) with Eq. (228) shows that

A,, = O, (231)

B,, = cef(rlz) exp k ,: 1:1~’dz. (232)

/
From Eqs. (231), (215), and (216)
A, = –zB1,, (233)
B, = B,,; (234)
78 HORIZCJNTA LL Y .YTRA TIFIED A T.VOSI>HIIRE THEORY ~SEC.2.8

and hence, along I,ine I

u = B, I S_’i (– ie’ku + e-~tm) (235)

–
— Ze–t(.l,) B,, :–1, ~os
()
~u _ ?! .
4
(237)

Account is taken of the fact that u) is positive along Line I by writing

(238)

Equations (238), (237), and (2:32) yield

“= 2’p’(r’4’(expk1’’’’’(’’)
os@rE’’dzEi)dz- O<z <f,. (239)
For trapped modes it is proper to use the simplified boundary condi-
tion, which requires merely that the height-gain function vanish at the
surf ace. Thus by equating the argument of the cosine to an odd multiple
of 7r/2 we are led to the followin~ relationship for determining the char-
acteristic values Km:

where {} ““ is the smaller root of the equation

l#N2 – Re(K~n)= O. (241)

In terms of the simplification represented by Eqs. (219) and (220), the
phase-integral condition given by Eq. (240) becomes
~k r!”’
~. dz = (m – +)m, m=l,2, ..., (242)
/o
where ~~”) is the smaller root of the equation

N–u. =0. (243)

Analytic application of the phase-integral method is limited to those

index distributions for which the integrations indicated in Eq. (240) or
(242) can be carried out. It is to be noted that the conditions just derived
determine only the real parts of the characteristic values. Means for
determining the imaginary parts will be discussed later.
The unnormalized height-gain functions and the real part of the char-
acteristic values have been obtained. Next, we shall normalize the heighti
gain functions. The first step is to obtain the fundamental theorem for
SIX 28] I’JIASJLINTEGRAL METHODS ?9

the simplified Iwuntl:lry condition by kitting p become infinite in Eq. (173),

Thus

+i Kf~:;) (Kr)ll dK. (244)

/ 1<
To obtain 13q. (244) use is made of the fact, that for the simplified boundary
condition
Wronskian }1’ = U,(O,KJU~(O,Kn). (245)

By comparing l;qs. (244) :lnd ( 164), IVCsw that the normalized height-
gain functions are giv(,n I)y

Itxamination of ICq. (240 SIIOIVS thnt the right-hand side is unchanged

Ivhen U! is multiplied by an :Lrl]itrnry fllnction of ~. ‘~hus if f(K) denotes
an tirl)itrary function of K and use is made of the fact that w(O, Km) = O,
}Ve obtain

(247)
[ :f(K’u’(OJK’l:.{(Km)[ :u’(OK)lh=.
From this it is oll~ious that if w is repkcd by f(K) u? in Eq. (246), the
equation is unchtingcd. It is therefore proper and convenient to choose
c!SOthat
(248)
2’et(”’4)expoI’’’’’’d’)= 1
Then Eq, (239) becomes

Now a giren by 13q. (249) may be used for w in Eq. (246). Then neglect-
in~ the imaginary part of K completely, we obtain

(251)
80 HORIZONTALLY STIL4 TIJ’IEII .4 T.WOSPHERE THEORY [SEC. 2,8

Because {, is a zero of S, the second term on the right vanishes.

From Eq. [188)
ds – 2K
(252)
z= k“

and Eq. (251) simplifies to

(253)

When K = x.,, It (0) = O and because of Eq. (240), the argument of the
sine becomes an odd multiple of u/2. Thus from Eqs. (250) and (253)

[
: 1
u(o)
.= .,”
–
— ; ;#(o)(_ l).l-l
/
‘p) .>”
u
:–!., - dz, (2.54)

where i~ is used to denote the value of i ~vhen ~ = x~. Similarly from

Eq. (249)
~ (O,,m) = kF;(0)(– l) ’”-l. (255)

Hence from Eqs. (254) and (255),

Equation (256) may be used in Eq. (250) to obtain the normalized

height-gain functions.
The results so far obtained may be summarized as follows

(257)

where
r!-’ T
Urn(Z) = i;’”
(/
COS k
2
i~dz—~
)
, 0 < z < (f”)) (258)

Z&(z) = ; 1%1

~–l(r/4)
-’exp(-kL-’’~’d’)’)
‘r) ‘z<r’m) (259)

Urn(z) = j
‘~)’exf’(-kl~ l’J’dz)

(260)
Xexp(-ikbdz) “m) ‘z

Fm . ~z _ ~#, (261)

2
Sm =N’–~” (262)
SEC. 28] PHASE-INTEGRAL METHODS 81

Here~\mJand~j”’) arezeros of~~and~fnl < {~~); and Re(K~) is determined

byEq. (240).
Equations (258) to (260) aregood approximations tou~ except in the
neighborhood of {j”Ij and ~~’’Il,where the expressions on the right have
singularities. Although it is possible to find other analytic expressions
that are good approximations in the neighborhood of ~\~ and ~~’’IJ,it is
usually sufficient to bridge the gaps by graphical interpolation.
In order to complete the phase-integral formulation for the strongly
trapped modes, it is necessary that an expression be obtained for the
imaginary parts of the characteristic values. This may be done in the
following way.
As mentioned above, uisessentially real forreal zupto values some-
what greater than {2, after which it acquires an imaginary part and spirak
about the origin with increasing magnitude. Let Hbe avalueof zgreater
than ~z for which uisstill essentially real. From Eq. (187),

!&+kzs*u* co, (263)

where the asterisk is used to denote the complex conjugate of any quantity
towhich it is affixed. Subtracting the result ofmultiplying Eq. (263) by
ufrom the result of multiplying Eq. (187) by u* yields
●

u“% – ?+ + P(S — S*)U”U= 0, (264)

By integrating from O to H by parts, we obtain

* du” H H

(
dlL
+ W (s – s*) U*1L d.? = O. (265)
‘Z–”zo ) / o

But from Eq. (188),

k2(s –s*) = –2i Ire(#). (266

If the normalized characteristic function (I)

u~ be su~>stit,i]tfid for ?L ‘n
Eq. (265), the result is

Now H is in the region where Eq, (260) is valid even with s~ replaced
by~~in the exponential. Using Eq. (260) with this modificaticm, we can
82 HORIZONTALLY STRATIFIED .4 TMOSPIIERE THEORY [SEC. 28

(268)

For the simplified boundary condition, Eq. (166) becomes

=*’”
(269)

“)(z)
From this it follows that
.
[u:)(z)]’ d.z = 1, (270)
\o
where the path of integration goes to infinity along a ray in the fourth
quadrant. Now the path may extend along the real axis from O to H
and then go to infinity in the fourth quadrant. Thus

H [?,;)(z)]2 dz + m [U:)(’j]’ dz = 1. (271)

/ o / H

By careful examination of 13q. (260) it can be shown that us) decreases

rapidly as z departs from the real axis and mo~es into the fourth quadrant,
It is therefore a good approximation to neglect the second integral in
Eq. (271) and write
H
[u:’(’)]’ (?Z = 1. (272)
/ o

Because u(~)is essentially real for o < z < H, we have

H IM:’I’ d’ = ‘f [u:’(z)]’ (1Z= 1, (273)

/ o / 0

Then Eq. (268) becomes

-kexp(-2k /’ \E,n,’fdz)
Im (.;) = -–—- ~’- “ (274)
<1
2 iz’~ dz
I o

This is the phase-integral expression for the imaginary part of the char-
acteristic value and completes the set of formulas for the trapped modes.
There is a close relationship between phase-integral and ray-tracing
methods. To illustrate this point we shall show how a physical meaning
can be attached to the denominator of the right-hand meml)er of Eq. (274).
SEC. 2.8] PHASE-INTEGRAL METHODS 83

Let us define a. by

N’(o) cm’ ..= R*. (275)

From Fig. 2.11 it is evident that for aGamow mode, cos am is less than
unity and a., is, in fact, a real angle. We may therefore draw a ray using
am as the initial angle of inclination at the earth’s surface. The differ-
entialequation for this ray is by Eq. (92)

.4
dz
dr =
,V,_ Re(.i)

Re(fi~)
k,
(276)

In writing Eq. (276) .% is assumed to be so nearly real that Re(K~) is a

good approximation to w’-. From Eq. (276) it follows that ~jm)is
the height of the turning point of the ray. Accordingly, if r~ be used to
denote the distance from the starting point of the ray at the surface to
the point at which the ray returns to the surface again, we can write

(277a)

Now Re(K~)/k is very nearly unity so that to a good approximation

r,
?-.=2 3:}4 d~. (277b)
/ n

Thus the denominator of the right-hand member of Eq. (274) is just the
length of the “first hop” of the ray that has been associated ~vith the
mode. This is the physical meaning of the integral.
Making use of Eq. (277b) and the fact that lKm~ = k, we find that for
a Gamow mode

(278)

The numerator of the right-hand member of Eq. (278) is never greater

than unity, and the denominator, which is essentially the length of the
“first hop” in wavelengths, is always much greater. In this connection
it shoul,d be pointed out that the length of a first hop is often measured in
miles. Accordingly Eq. (278) confirms that for a Gamow mode, the
imaginary part is a very small fraction of the total characteristic value.
It should be noticed that for a mode to be treated as a Gamow mode
it is necessary that there be a barrier. This means that the coefficient of
the term involving u in Eq. (187) must be essentially real and negative
84 HORIZONTALLY STRATIFIED ATMOSPHERE THEORY [SEC. 2.8

over an interval of values of z. For an N-profile such as is shown in

Fig. 2“ll, this condition may bestatedin terms of the inequality

f%,. < R*), (279)

where N~in is the minimum value of N. The inequality (279) is fre-

quently used as a criterion for determining if a given mode is to be con-
sidered trapped, a trapped mode being one that satisfies the inequality.
It should be emphasized that this is an arbitrary criterion and that physi-
cally there is no sharp demarcation between trapped and untrapped modes.
The phase-integral method, which is now to be examined for dealing
with strongly leaking or ‘‘ Eckersley modes, ‘‘ is most readily int reduced
by discussing a simple example. Let us consider the case of a linear
N-profile for which
N = rz,(l + ~ qZ) (280)
or
N’ = ?2:(1 + f?z), (281)

where no is the value of the index at the surface and q is twice the recip-
rocal of the effective radius of the earth. Then
K’
s = ng(l + qz) — ~ = W?q(z — 20), (282)

where ZO,the zero of s, is related to K by

I(2—.k;
zo=— (283)
k;q “

In Eq. (283), ko is an abbreviation for kn,. Then

From Eq. (284) it is obvious that the anti-Stokes lines make angles of O,
2m/3, and 4r/3 with the positive axis of reals. We shall choose the line
parallel to the axis of reals as Line I of the Stokes pattern. The solution
representing a wave traveling outward for large real values of z must be
given on the real axis by
u = jz = [rz~q(z — ZO)]–!4 exp ~ kn,q’~(z – Z,)$+ . (285)
[ 1
Thus A, = O, B, = 1 and from Eqs. (215), (216), (217), and (218)

AII = i,

BJI = 1,
A1lI = i,

BIII = o.
SEC. 28] PHASE-INTEGRAL METHODS 85

Consider ~ow the simplified boundary condition which requires u to

vanish when z = O. This can occur only if the asymptotic representation
of u contains both jl and jz, as jl and jz cannot vanish individually. Thus
the origin of the z-plane must fall in Stokes region II because only in that
region are both A and B different from zero. Making use of the values
of A II and BII as given before we find that in region II

2
u = z [njq(z — 2.) ]–~ief(T/4] cos ~ kr@(z
– – 2,)$* + : . (286)
[ 1
The simplified boundary condition is satisfied if the argument of the
cosine for z = O is an odd multiple of 7r/2. Thus

(287)

whence

(288)

From the fact that the origin must fall near Line II, it is obvious that of
the possible values 7r/3, m, and – m/3 for arg z~m~,– 7r/3 is the proper one
to choose.
The simple case just treated points the way to a generalized discussion
of Eckersley modes. The procedure is to assume that for a characteristic
value K;, a zero z$’] of s~ exists for which the Stokes pattern is similar to
that encountered in the example above; namely, Line I extends to the
right roughly parallel to the real axis, and the origin of the z-plane falls
near I.ine II. Then because u~ must represent a wave traveling outward
for large z,

w(z) = *e–*(”/4)s;’4 exp z’>> 2A, (289)

(-i’b$dz)
where z~ is the point at which the real axis crosses the Stokes line S1. The
constant factor is simply for convenience. Making use of the connection
formulas we can establish that in Region II
&)
Urn(z) = s;’~ Cos
(/ k
z
s~dz—?
)
4’
z << ZL. (290)

As before, it is only in Region II that u~ can possibly vanish, and hence

z = O must lie in Region II. For the simplified boundary condition, it is
necessary that the argument of the cosine be an odd multiple of ir/2 when
z = O, and hence
$)
k (
Jo
s~ dz = (m — ~)m. (291)
86 HORIZONTALLY STRATIFIED ATMOSPHERE THEORY [SEC. 2.8
m from which ~ can be obtained
Equation (291) determines ZO from the
relationship
K%= k2N*(zl”)) . (292)

It is possible to modify Eq. (291) to include the general boundary con-

dition. From Eq. (290)
&)
u~(z) = s# sin k S~ dz — : h?S~. (293)
(/ z )

In obtaining Eq. (293), SZ% is treated as a constant according to the

rule for differentiating asymptotic expressions.
From Eqs. (290) and (293), it follows that

pure(o) – ?JJo)
&‘
. S# (0) #p2(&) + /c2sm(()) COS k s)fdz-:+a~, (294)
u o )

where

p(K;) ?@(o)
Cos am = sin ~~ = (295)
<pz(.%) + Mm(o); <p’(x%) + I#sm(o) “

The boundary condition is now

k ‘:”’ s~ dz = (m — ~)m — Sm. (296)

/ o

Equations (292) and (296) are a pair of simultaneous equations for the
determination of K; and z~n). It is evident that solving these equations
in any given case is far from a trivial problem.
The final step is to determine the normalized height-gain functions u~l.
By comparing Eqs. (164) and (176), it is evident that

2Km —
U:) = Uz(Z,Km) (297)

~2(o,Km) $ [PU,(O,K) – U;(O,K)]

JI } .= .”,

Let us use u~(z) as given in Eq. (290) for u,(z,.n) in Eq. (297). Making
use of Eq. (294) and dropping the subscript m because K is not required
to be a characteristic value, we obtain

: pu(o) – u’(o) (298)

[ 1
—! ~–!i(o)
dK [ ~p’+k’s(o)lcos(k[ ’’’d:+’)’)
.0 a
K s_,i ~z _ @
+ S-’i(0) ~p’ + k’s(0) sin k
[ 1 (/ 0 ‘($dz–i+6 ) x Hz 0 dK1 “
SEC, 2,9] THE PROPERTIES OF SOLUTIONS 87

Because of Eq. (296) when K is put equal to K* in Eq. (298), the term
involving the cosine vanishes and the sine becomes (—l)”’+l. Thus

: [pU(o) – U’(o)] (299)

( I.= .”,
&1
= (–l)n+lS;M(@ ti~2(K:)+k2S~(0);
U o
k
s~~$dz — — dc!
—
Km01dK (Km) “

Now from Eq, (290)

4“’
Urn(r))= s;~(o) Cos k s~dz—~ . (300)
(/ 0 4)

But from Eq. (296],

&
~Bdz_?=m—–r 1 —6m,
k -m (301)
/ o 4 () 2

and hence,
,:-1
COS k .s$ dz — ~ = (– I)m+’ sin b~. (302)
U o 4)

Coml)ining Eqs. (2%5), (297), (299), (W()), and (302), \re obtain finally

u:) (303)

“~o surnrnarize, Eq. (3o3) gives the normalized height-gain functions for
:Ln Eckersley mode where u~ is given in turn by Eqs, (289) and (290).
The characteristic values are determined by Eqs. (292) and (296).
The va!idity-of the phase-integral method for the Eckersley modes has
not been established in general. Each application must stand on its own
merits. In particular, the method is based on the tacit assumption that
%@@is an isolated zero. It is likely in the case of modes bordering on the
Gamow type that the formulas developed for Eckersley modes fail because
of another zero approaching too close to z~m).

THE LINEAR MODIFIED-INDEXPROFILE

FIY Jolm I;. FREIMAFMi

2“9. The Properties of Solutions of d2y/d~’ + {y = O.—In the special

cases that follow, use m~lst be made of the sollltions of the differential
equation
88 HORIZONTALLY STRATIFIED ATMOSPHERE THEORY [fiEc. 2.9

The nature of the integrals of this equation must therefore be discussed

briefly.
The only singular point of Eq. (304) is an irregular singular point at
infinity. Appropriate solutions will therefore be sought in the form of a
Laplace integral
~= 8 ~rlo(~)~~. (305)
! .

To determine v(t), Eq. (305) is substituted into Eq. (304), leading to

8
$+ (Y’ / a
[t’dt(t) + i-d$,(t)] d.

But

i-e[L~= ~ (~e~t) – ~ti !$!!;

hence,

3+”=[(’’”-
3’’’’’+
(’’’”1
Thus, Eq. (3o5) is a solution of Eq. (304) provided that v is any solution
of

‘%-$=O, (306)

and provided that the limits of integration are so chosen that

P
uer’ = o. (307)
.

A solution of Eq. (306) is

v = et3/3 (308)

whence Eq. (307) becomes

(309)

Equation (309) is evidently satisfied if 6 and a are infinite in magnitude

having arguments that are the arguments of the cube roob of – 1. Fig-
ure 2“12 shows suitable contours in the t-plane along which the integral in
Eq. (3o5) can be evaluated to obtain a solution of Eq. (304).
Three functions are now defined which are solutions of Eq. (304),

(310)
SEC, 29] THE PROPERTIES OF .fWL~:TIflN,’3 89

The subscript j takes on the values 1, 2, and 3, and the corresponding j

adjacent to the integral sign indicates lvhich path of integration in Fig. 2.12
is to be used.
A simple additive property of the solutions folk)ww immediately:

!/1+ 1/2+ 1/3=o.

The following rotation properties may also be demonstrated readily by

replacing ~ in Eq. (310) by fez” 1/3and changing the variable of integration
to te2r’/3:
y] ({e2”1’3) = e-2=”3v2(~),
v2(j_4’271’3)= e-2~i/3y3((), \ (311)

t-plane ~

FIG, 2.12.—Paths of integration in the t-plane.

In addition, the symmetry of Fig. 212 gives rise to the reflection property

?41((”)
= –w. (312)

If in Eq. (310) et’ is expanded in a power series in (t and the integration

is carried out term by term, one obtains
-5ra/6y,(r) + e ‘d6Y2(~) ,
yl=e
y2=e ‘“i’6Y1(~) + e -5TL’’6Y2(r), (313)
y3 = iY1(r) + ~ y,(r), I
where

~;(3)!t m \
—Y*=l+ (– 1)’’’(3rra– 2)(3rrz – 5) “ ~. (1)&,
r(+) z
m=l
(314)
6-
— Y2 = { + ~ (- l)m(3r?z- l)(3rr3 - 4) ~. . (2) ~3y;’1),
r(~)(3)%
m=l
90 HORIZONTALLY STRATIFIED ATMOSPHERE THEORY [SEC. 2.9

The expressions given in Eq. (314) are the basic fundamental set of
solutions at the origin, and Eq. (313) enables us to evaluate the functions
for small values of 1~1. To obtain expressions that are convenient when
1~1is large, the integrals will be evaluated by the method of steepest
descent. This procedure will be presented in some detail because it con-
tributes to a thorough understanding of the important properties of the
functions.
Let

W=t+iq=rt +$)

and
t=u+z.

Imagine a surface constructed by plotting L against (u,7), the coordinate $

being perpendicular to the t-plane. In the directions A, B, and C of
Fig. 2.12, there are deep valleys in this surface that become deeper as Itl
increases. The structure for large Itl is independent of ~, but the detailed
structure for ~t comparable to ‘3/3 depends in an important way on ~. In
particular at points where dw/dt = O, it is also true that d~/du = d~/dr = O;
and because / is a solution of Laplace’s equation and can have neither
maxima nor minima, the surface has saddle points. These saddle points
may be thought of as passes that connect the three main valleys. If the
paths of integration in Eq. (310) proceed from valley to valley along the
lines of steepest descent through the passes, the region that contributes
appreciably to the integral can be confined to an interval near the saddle
points. This is the essence of the method of steepest descent.
In the following discussion fractional powers of f will always denote
the principal roots of ~; that is, – m < arg { S m. Further restrictions
will be imposed from time to time and will be specifically stated. As the
roots of dw/dt = O are t = ~ i~’~, there are, for each value of ~, two saddle
points symmetrically placed with respect to the origin. There is always,
therefore, one pair of valleys not directly connected by a pass. Thus, for
instance, when ~ is real, the saddle points are on the imaginary axis. It is
then possible to pass directly from Valley C to Valley A and obtain y2 by
evaluating the integral in the neighborhood of – i{’f. There is, however,
no pass that directly connects Valley A to Valley B, and the path of inte-
gration for determining YSmust therefore first go through the pass from A
to C and then through the pass from C to B. Hence the integral y,
receives contributions from the neighborhood of two saddle points. If,
on the other hand,

~<arg~<~,
SEC. 2,9] THE PROPERTIES OF SOL CATIONS 91

there is no direct pass between Valleys Canal A, but yz may reevaluated

by passing from C to B and then to A. It is therefore given by the sum
of two contributions near two saddle points. Thus, depending upon the
argument of {, there are different approximations to YZ or to any of the
other solutions of the differential equation. Thk interchange of the con-
nections between valleys and the attendant representation of the same
exact solution by different approximate solutions for different ranges of
the argument of the independent variable is known as Nolces’ phenomenon.’
Let fl({) and j,(r) represent the approximations obtained by evaluating
the integrals in the neighborhood of ij+ and – z’~’~respectively, and let us
consider for the present only -il. Expanding w in a power series about
i{~~yields
W’ = : if$4 + i{}f(t — if%)z + ~(~ — ~f}i)3, (315)

and changing variables from t to

Z4= e ‘“’” {%(~ – Z{ti) (316)

leads to

(317)

Then

Integration along the path of steepest descent is assured by requiring

that u be real. By expanding exp [$(es”z’4/f%)u3] in a series of powers
of the exponent, integrating the individual terms by parts, and making
use of the fact that
m
e–”’ du = 6. (319)
/ —.
we obtain

j,(,) = ei(:;:’)[l +%(2$4)

- +1:2KX*Y+”””I ‘320)

Equation (316) leads to

(321)

1 Tram. Cambridge Phil. Sot., 10, 106 (1S64).

92 HORIZONTALLY 8TRA TIFIED ATMOSPHERE THEORY [b%C.2,’J

and as arg (du) = O, it follows that

(322)

But arg (dt) gives the direction and sense of the path of integration in the
neighborhood of the saddle point. The portion of Fig. 2.13 lying in the
first and second quadrants indicates by means of arrows the direction, in
accordance with Eq. (321), of the path of integration at the saddle point
whose position is marked by the initial point of the arrow. Thus if the
t-plane saddle point lies in the sector between
17 B the positive real axis and the line OB,
I
I the sense of integration is the same as
the sense of Path 3 of Fig. 2.12; if it
lies in the sector between OB and OC,
the sense of integration is opposite that
of Path I. If now —7r/3 ~ arg ~ ~ m,
c– I —-— a saddle point lies in the sector BOC;
c
therefore, with reference to the sense
indicated in Fig. 2.13, we have

yl = –f,, –~~arg~~m (323)

t
I A The symbol = is used in this section
Fm. 2.13.—Directions at the saddle points
to mean that the function on the left is
of the path of steepest descent.
represented asymptotically by the one
on the right. The nature of this representation becomes clear when we
consider how the expression in Eq. (320) was derived. For a given value
of r there is a definite limit to the number of terms of the series that it
is profitable to carry. For as u increases and requires the use of more
terms, the path of integration deviates more and more from the straight
line in the direction of steepest descent at the saddle point. No matter
how many terms are carried, this deviation is not corrected, and the
situation is improved only when ItI becomes larger and confines the
portion of the path that contributes to the integral to a smaller interval
about the saddle point.
By expanding w about the point – i~~ and using
u = eir/4(}i(t + zf}$),
we obtain the expansion

The direction of the path of steepest descent at the saddle points is given
by the portions of Fig. 2“13 that lie in the third and fourth quadrants.
SEC. 2.9] THE PROPERTIES OF SOLUTIONS 93

When – rr < arg ~ s – rr/3, a saddle point lies in the sector between
the positive real axis and the direction OB and another one in the sec-
tor AOC. To reach Valley C from Valley B, we must first go through the
pass from B to A, which yields a contribution –j,; and then from A to C
through a pass, which adds a further contribution –j~. Thus

y] = - (fl + J-z)! —7r<argf ~-T ~. (325)

Equations (323) and (325) give the complete asymptotic representa-

tions of y,. When arg (~) = – m/3, there are two different expressions. This
difficulty is not serious, however; for when arg (f) = – rr/3 and 1~1is large,
j“, behaves like an exponential with large positive exponent and j, like an
exponential with large negative exponent. The function j~, therefore, con-
tributes only a small amount to the sum in Eq. (325) and in fact contributes
less than the uncertainty already inherent in the asymptotic representation,
By the methods already described one can readily obtain asymptotic
representations of y~ (() and of dy, tdf and dyz/d~. A summary of the

(326)

(327)

(328)

(329)

1In the statementof the limits on arg (t), the equality signshave heeninsertedin
sucha way that whentwo expressionsare equally valid, es pointed out in the discussion
following Eq. (325), the simpler one is indicated. Thus when ~ is real and negative, it
turns out that y, ia given either by Eq. (330) with arg (c) = –r or by I%. (332) with
94 HOIUZONTALL Y STRATIFIED ATMOSPHERE THEORY [SEC. 29

y2=’
‘-’(r+;)[’
-x+)+
—, Z<%+?
w- ““J‘330
‘:LV2P
y; = _&)i ~ (331)
‘3 ‘)[’+%(&)-”””l
~<arg{<7r,

‘;= -2~’’1’in(:’’’+ :)[’+’””l

(333)
+’”’(:’’’+:)[%(+) +”””11
In passing it should be noted that

YIY: — yzyl = Wronskian of YI and y~ = 2i. (334)

Tnm functions h, and h, are now introduced, which are related to ~, and
yz by
h,(f) = ~ e“t’yl((), (335)
d; ‘

hz(t) = ‘lX
%“2
e2”i’3y2(r). (336)

The numerical factors are chosen so that

(337)
‘$(’) ‘(~’’’YHf(~(”)”)
The h’s, unlike the y’s, have been tabulated’ for complex values of the
argument and are used instead of the y’s when numerical values are needed.
The zeros of h, are the zeros of v2. Let them be denoted by ~.. Then
it can be shown that {~ = l~nlel~tlsj

arg (c) = m. Equation (330) is the simpler expression, for it does not contain the sub-
dominant function; hence the limits are stated so that Eq. (330) and not Eq. (332) is
used to obtain v*, although this is a slight departure from the convention concerning
principal roots used in this chapter.
‘ “Tables of the h’fodfied Hankel Functions of Order One-third and of Their Deriva-
tives, ” Ann. Harvard Univ. Computation Laboratory, 2, 1945. The functions h,(f),
h,(~), and their derivatives are tabulated to eight deciinal places at the points of a
square lattice of spacing 0.1. The lattice covers roughly a semicircle of radius 6 in the
upperhalf planewith center at the origin.
SEC. 2,10] THE FIELD IKTIN71{,II, 9.5

where the first three valuw of i(,,l arc given to fi!c figures I)y

1~,1=2,3381, I(,1 = 4.0879, ~{~1= 5.,7206,

By requiring the dominant term in l;q. (332) to vanish Ire arc Iedtnthc
approximate formula
Irnl = [;(’1–+”)~1”) // =1,2,..., (338)
This expression is good to about 1 pcrccnt \\-hen~~= 1, :ind its accuracy
improves \vith increasing n.
Inadditiontoh, (j-) and h,(~) jthe Air~-functiorls Ai(~) andkli(~) have
been tabulated.1
These are related to the V’S by

(339)

(w))

For reference the following additional rck~tiomsllip+ among the ~arlous

solut,inlls of 13q. (I) are listed:
h,(~) = – i 2’33’f Ai(fe-’iJ3) = –h, ((c -‘W ~), (341)
h?({) = ~2’+3J~Ai(~e~l@) = – ~l({eZrI/S), (342)

Ai(–~) = * [e’’’h,({) + e-~’’h,(~)], (343)

Bi(–~) = ~ [e~’/’hl({) – e-~’J6h,(~)], (344)

h,({”) = x(~). (345)

2.10. The Field Integral. —Although the formulation of the theory of
propagation in a stratified atmosphere can be outlined with considerable
generality, the degree to which the details can be treated and numerical
results obtained depends upon the specific index distribution assumed.
The case that can be carried through most completely with regard to both
mathematical detail and numerical results is the important one where the
square of the modified index is a linear function of height. This corre-
sponds physically to the situation where the unmodified index is either
constant or falls off linearly with height; it therefore includes the special
case of standard refraction.
‘ J. C, P. hfiller, “The .kir,v Integral,” British Association Mathematical Tables,
Cambridge, London. These tables give values of Ai (~) and Ai’ (t) to eight decimal
places for –20 s { s 2 at intervals of 0.01 in ( and values of Bi(~) and Bi’(~) to eight
decimal places for – 10.0 S f S 2.5 at intervals of 0,1. See also, P. hf. and A. 11. W.
Woodward, “Four-figure Tables of the Airy Function in the Complex Plane, ” TRE
Report No. TISOO, Feb. 14, 1945. Ai(~), Bi(~) and their derivatives are given to four
figures for –2.4 S Re(() S 2.4 and –2.4 s Im(~) s O at the points of a square
lattice of spacing 0.2.
96 HORIZONTALLY STRATIFIED ATMOSPHERE THEORY [SEC. 2.10

Let us assume that

N=no(l+; z) (346)

and
N’ = n:(l + ~Z), (347)

where no is the value of the index at the surface and g is twice the reciprocal
of the effective radius of the earth.
If Eq. (347) is inserted in Eq. (138) and the independent variable is
changed from z to Z = (kzn~q) Hz, we obtain

(PU
~+(Z+Ak=O, (348)

where
,1.:_ ~z
A=— (349)
(k:q)’$

and
k. = kn,. (350)

The quantity (k~q)-~~ has the dimensions of a length and occurs with suffi-
cient frequency to warrant introducing the abbreviation
H - (k:q) ‘%. (351)

Numerical values of H, the natural unit of height, are given for standard
refraction in Fig. 2.17. The dimensionless quantity Z = z/His the height
in natural units, and A is the dimensionless separation constant.
The solutions of Eq. (348) that represent incoming and outgoing waves
respectively are
UI(Z,K)= VI(Z + ~), (352)

%(Z,K) = yz(z + A). (353)

The y’s are the functions defined by Eq. (310) and discussed in detail in
Sec. 29. The substitution of Eqs. (352) and (353) in Eq. (137b) yields

~=iH ~~ + Y,(Z + A)
(354)
v,(21 + A)w(Z + A),
[ Y2(J4) ?42(Z+ -4)1

where

(355)

and
SEC. 210] THE FIELD INTEGRAL 97

It will appear later that r is the reflection coefficient. For the simplified
boundary condition, p+m andr = –1.
Only the case in which Z, is greater than Z need be considered, for by
the reciprocity theorem it does not matter whether ZI refers to the posi-
tionof thetransmitter or to the position of the field point. For the sake
of symmetry in the equations that follow, Z and z will be replaced by
Zz and ~.
It may be verified that assumptions (1) and (2) of Sec. 2.7 and Eq,
(170) are satisfied, and we can start the present argument with Eq. (172),

# ‘~ \
~K~$)(Kr)L’(Z,K)dK

By means of Eq. (349), the variable of integration ran be changed from

Kto A. Thus making use of Eqs. (351 and (354), we obtain

where the integration is entirely along the real axis. The square root in
the argument of the Hankel function is a positive real number when
(1 – qHA) >0, and is a negative imaginary number when [1 – qH.4) <0,
Equation (356) is an exact solution of the wave cqllation (135) in which
N’ is given by Eq. (347) and the bounchuy ronditious are appropriate to
a dipole near a plane surface. The question of convergence will be ignored,
and various methods for approximating this integral considered.
A useful transformation of the integral of Eq. (356) is based on the
assumption that over the region for which the integral is essentially differ-
ent from zero, qIIi4 is small compared with unity. Then when r is larger
than a few wavelengths, the asymptotic expansion for the Hankel function
may be used:
2 - i(b,,– W,’4)e,kWZH,A/2 (3.57)
H$)(k”t” <1 – qHA) = — e
r 7rkor

Now let us introduce a natural unit of range L which is analogous to II

and is defined by

L=~ = 2(koq’)-’”. (358)

k,qfl

The natural unit of range L is given as a fnnction of h for standard refrac-

tion in Fig. 2,18. The rang-e in natural units will be denoted by X; that is

(3.59)
98 HORIZONTALLY STRATIFIED ATMOSPHERE THEORY [SEC. 2.11

Equation (356), by virtue of Eqs. (357) to (359), becomes

-’(’”’-i) *(X,21,22),
+= ~
2L
~d; (360)

where

@(x,z,z,) =+x/-:m
,~~x
~ w(A)
—
[ Y2(A4)
+ SA(zz + A)
Y2(22 + A) 1
Y2(Z1 + A) Y2(Z2 + A) dA. (361)

It is 1+1with which we are ultimately concerned.

From Eq. (360),

141= * IO(X,ZI,Z2)I,

F=~ @(x,.z1,z2)l. (362)

2& ‘
Thus the ratio of the field in the presence of the earth to the free-space
field can be expressed entirely as a function of the natural coordinates
X, Z,, and 22. In the case of the simplified boundary condition, when
r = – 1, 0 does not depend explicitly upon frequency. Equation (362)
then expresses the field without explicit mention of the frequency, and the
use of natural coordinates serves to summarize all of the cases for which
q, ZI, 22,r, and Icoare so related that X, Z,, and ZZ have the same values.1
It is important to note that whereas, at frequencies of 100 Me/see and
above, r = —1 is a good approximation for both polarizations in the
diffraction region, it is not an acceptable approximation for vertical polar-
ization in the interference region,
2.11. The Interference Region.—To obtain the field in the interference
region, the integral of Eq. (356) will be evaluated by replacing the func-
tions in the integrand with the appropriate asymptotic representations.
The method of steepest desccut will then be applied, and it will be found
that each value of A for which the phase of the integrand is stationary
1For generalized coverage dia~rums in the intcrfercmce region, see El, K. Howard,
H. Dodson, and .J, Gill, “Field tntcllsity Contours in Generalized Coordinates,”’ RL
Report No. 702, May 2, 1945. The rf)ordinatcs and parameters used for cases where
h/h, <1 are related to X, Z,, and Z,, by

h Z. d
‘P–=~—PJ=z;
G= z, do ~zl

When h/h, >1, subscripts 1 and 2 arc intt.rrhangml. Sce also C, Domh and M. H. L.
Pryce, “Intmim Report on I’ropagat io!l \Yithin and lk>yorrd the Optiral Range, ” ,AS13
Report No. k1448, Sept. 1942, and Jour. IEE, 94, Part 111, 325 (1947).
SEC. 2.11] THE INTERFERENCE REGION 99

corresponds toapossible ray. tirough thetransmitter md field point. The

fact that significant contrititbns to the integral occur only in the neigh-
borhoodof stationary values of thephase is just Fermat’s principle. The
resulting expression forv is given essentially by

(363)

where 01 is the phase of the direct wave, OZis the phase of the reflected
wave and D is the divergence factor that takes into account the fact that
a pencil of parallel rays incident upon the convex side of a spherical surface
diverges after reflection because of the curvature of the surface (see
Sec. 52).
Recalling that
F = l$~r = 11+ rDe-@-@\,

we need concern ourselves, in so far as numerical results are concerned,

only with establishing that

(364)
~2_,1=2k(’2-F)(’-F) —,
II ~

(365)
‘= * “;~:-y’
T r sin 2#.z

In these equations r, and r, are the distances from the terminal points
to the reflection point and ~Z is the grazing angle of incidence at the reHec-
tion point (see Fig. 2.14).
In the development of 13q. [363) from Eq. (356) the ray picture will
be used as a guide. First to be obtained, therefore, are the equations of
the rays and the expressions for the optical lengths. From Sec. 23 it
follows that the equation for the rays in terms of r-and Z, is

—=H
r
Cos x u z,
z ~qHZ
dZ
+ sin’ x

The symbols in Eq. (368) have the following meanings:

+ “
1 ~ ~qHZ
(IZ
+ sin’ x )“
(368)

1. The symbol x is defined by

qHZ,
cosx=l+— (369)
2’
100 HORIZONTALLY STRATIFIED ATMOSPHERE THEORY [SEC. 2.11

where ZO is the height at which the ray has its turning point. If
the ray intersects the earth, ZO is negative, cos x < 1, and x is a
real angle. If the ray approaches the earth but turns around before
reaching it, ZOis positive, cos x > 1, and x is imaginary. In either
case cos x and sin~ x have perfectly definite meanings, and the
trigonometric notation is retained as a matter of convenience.

r-

FIG.2.14.—Thegeometry of the ray pattern. P, and P, represent Case a and Case b geom-
etry respectively. Because of the scale factor involved in Z, t, is distorted.

2. The coordinate of the lowest point reached by the ray between

the terminal points is denoted by Z’. If the ray does not turn
between the two terminal points, then Z’ = Z,. If the turning point
does occur between the terminal points, then, Z’ = 20. In the case
of a reflected ray, Z’ = O.
The optical length S is given by

“= /Nd”=nJrcOsx
–
u4
+H
b’ z
22
sin2 x + qHZ dZ +
z,

z
sin2 x + qHZ dZ

There are obviously always two, and only two, rays between any two
)1
(370)

terminal points above the horizon. Let us consider first the direct ray.
There are two cases, as shown in Fig. 2.14, according to whether the far
terminal is to the left of the turning point P,, as at P,, or to the right of
P,, as at Pz. They will be designated as Case a and Case b, respectively.
The relationship among Z,, 22, T, and X, obtained from Eq. (368) by
taking Z’ = 22 for Case a and Z’ = 20 for Case b is
r — ~ (qHZ, + sin’ x)”J T (qHZz + sin’ x)% , (371)
Cosx —q [ 1
and the optical length S1, given by Eq. (370), is

SI = nO “ cos x + $
[
[(qHZI + sinz x)~i T (qHZ + sinz x)%]
) (372)

The upper sign refers to Case a, and the lower to Case b.

SEC. 211] THE INTERFERENCE REGION 101

To be consistent with the notation commonly accepted, #a will be used

to designate the angle of inclination of the reflected ray at the point of
reflection. lncontrast totheangle xforthe direct ray, #,is always real.
Forthereflected ray, Eqs. (368) and (370) Ieadto
r
— =~[(qHZl +sin242)’$ +(qHZ, +sin212))i –2sini21, (373)
Cos +2

S2 = n, rcos #2+$ [(qHZ, +sin’#,);fi

[
+ (qHZ, +sin’#2)}i

where Sz is the optical length along the reflected ray.

– 2sin3 x,] ,
I (374)

Let us now return to a consideration of the field integral. To avoid

unimportant complications that hide the essential parts of the discussion,
no attempt to present a completely rigorous argument will be made; the
purpose is rather to outline the procedure and make it plausible.
To begin with, the Hankel function may be replaced by its asymptotic
expression
—a(!wtil—g~A–7
/’4)
H~i) (k~r ~ 1 – qH.4) = &r e — 375
c ~1–qHA

In calculating the roots of (1 – qHA) for use in Eq. (37.5) we must take

arg (1 – qHA) = O, qHA < 1 (376)

arg (1 – qHA) = –~, qHA > 1. (377)

Equation (375) is then usable everywhere except in the neighborhood of

qHA = 1. If r exceeds a few wavelengths, this region is small and can be
dodged by means of a short detour in the complex plane.
The next step is to replace the y’s by their asymptotic expressions. In
so doing, we must bear in mind that the asymptotic expressions break
down when the arguments of the
functions become too small. As the -Zl -22 0 1
m
.–
armments are A, Z, + A, and 22 + FIG. 2.15.—Points on the real axis of
A, the asymptotic expan~ons fail in the A-plane ~Xpan,iOn,
~~YmPtOtiC in whose ~ail,
neighborhood the

the neighborhood of O, –z,, and –22.

These points, together with the point in the vicinity of which the expan-
sion of the Hankel function breaks down, are indicated in Fig. 2.15.
Because the functions themselves are well behaved in the critical re-
gions of the asymptotic approximations, these regions will be ignored;
they are unimportant when they do not include saddle points, and our
simple analysis does not apply when they do.
By using the asymptotic expansions we can now make plausible
the assertion that contributions to the integral outside of the re ion
,i,5 Jo
E.G. & G. LIBRARY
L/is VEGAS BRANCH J /’>; .,/
102 HORIZONTALLY STRATIFIED ATMOSPHERE THEORY [SEC. 2.11

– Z, < A < 1/qH may usually be neglected. Let us consider first the
region A < — Z2. To the accuracy to which the asymptotic expressions
are valid
v,({) = –y,({), when t <<0; (378)

hence, for A <<O by Eq. (355),

r= –1, (379)
and Eq. (354) becomes

YZ(Z, + A) (380)
v = iH v,(ZZ + A)yz(A) –Y2(z2 + A)vI(A)
[ 1 v2(A)

Therefore when A << – Z,, we conclude from Eqs. (378) and (380) that v
is zero. The accuracy of this approximation improves M Zz increases.
Now let us consider the region A > l/qH.
For A >>0, Eqs, (328) to (331) and (355) lead to

iA ~j — Hp
r (381)
= iA}* + Hp”

From Eqs. (139), (140), (349), and (351), it follows that

Po = i:di? – ~1(1 – ~~~) for vertical polarization, (382)

p, = ~ V’fi – JL3(1– qHA) for horizontal polarization. (383)

The square roots indicated above are to have negative imaginary parts.
From Eqs. (381) to (383), we obtain

k? – k; (384a)
r,=—
k; + ki
,HA > Ill; ; k’~
n
,.
u
H’(kg – k;)
rh = 4A (384b)

Making use of the fact that A > 1,/qH implies that A is large compared
with O, Zl, and Z,, we obtain from Eq. (354) and the asymptotic expansions
for the y’s
—ir{e– ,.l!i(~l+zi)[r + ~2iZ,Aj*]
v= —. (385)
A 4f

When the exponential behavior of the Hankel function is taken into

account, it is obvious from Eqs. (384a), (384b), and (385) that the
integrand of the field integral approaches zero rapidly when lcor is large
compared with unit y. According y contributions to the integral for
A > l/qH will be neglected.
SEC. 2.11] THE INTERFERENCE REGION 103

By virtue of the preceding discussion the range of integration will be

limited to –22 < A < l/qH. It should be noted that by so doing we
are discarding the surface wave, which is unimportant for most applica-
tions at frequencies above 100 Me/see.
Now let us define three integrals l,, 12, and IS by

11 =
& e-’’”’-=
Y,(Z, + A) Yz(Z] + A) dA, (386)
/ .Z, +1 - qHA
1
Q!I e -AW’i=ii= ~ YI(A)
12 = — y,(z, + A)y,(Z, + A) dA, (387)
/- o ~1 – qHA v,(A)

– ih,~~
13=”C ~ Y,(A)
~ v,(Z1 + -4)v,(ZZ + A) dA. (388)
/ _z, +’l -qlIA c

In Eqs. (386) to (388), it is to be understood that integration is not to bc

carried all the \vay to the imlicatecf limits but stopped at a sufficient
distance from them to permit the use of the asymptotic expansions.
Then Eqs. (3,56), (375), and (386) to (388) lead to

(389)

Let us consider 1, first. If the expressions for y, and y, as given by

the dominant terms of Eqs. (328) and (33o) arr insrrtecl, then

where

To obtain tlw values of A for Ivhich O, is stationary NWnext equate the

derivative to zero:

do, — – qllkor
— -— – (Z, +A)”+ (Z, +.4)” = 0, (392)
dA — 241 – qIIA

Comp:~rison of Eqs. (~71) and (393) sho~~s th:~t qlIA for stationary phase
is related to r, Zl, and Z in the same way that sinz x is rclatrd to them in
case a. Accordingly, when the geometry is that of Case a, .4,, the value
 104 HORIZONTALLY STRATIFIED ATMOSPHERE THEORY [SEC. 211

of A for stationary phase [that is, the solution of Eq. (392)], is given by

Al = & sin’ x = k~H2 sin2 x. (394)

As A, is a solution of Eq. (393), differentiation of Eq. (392) yields

d2&q –k,qHr

(-)
dA >
AL = ~v’(l – q~A,)(~, + AI)(Z2 + A,)

~ + qH v’(.Z + AI)(Z2 + AI) , (395)

[ 1 – qllA, 1
Thus (d2@l/dA2) A, is negative.
Let +, be expanded in a power series about A = A;, and let the terms
involving higher powers of (A — A ~) than the second be discarded. Then
1
@ (A – A,)2 @@,
exp —i—
~ – i@(’41) j- [ 2 -01 ~ A, ‘A (396)
I,=–
–Z, [(1 — qHA)(ZI + A)(Z2 + A)]fi’

NOW the chief contribution to the integral is in the neighborhood of

A = A,. Furthermore, except for the exponential, the functions in the
integrand vary slowly. Accordingly,
————
— ~–t4, (A,)
1, =
[(1– q~AJ(zl
+AI)(Z+ ~])1” Jol
I~ ;2
’20’
AL (397)
+.11 ‘-
Xe
/ _me-”’ds’

where

As the integral equals ~, Eq. (397) becomes

–i[#, (A!) –T14]
-w”Ge
I,=— (398)
(1 – qlIA,)(Z, + A,)(Z2 + .4, )
[ ‘l@i[])’”

When A, from Eq. (394) is substituted into Eq. (391), we find that
OI(A ))/k, the optical length, is given exactly by the right-hand member of
Eq. (372) with the upper sign. Thus for the geometry of Case a, 1, is
interpreted as representing the contribution to the field from the direct ray.
SEC. 211] THE INTERFERENCE REGION 105

Let us next consider 1,. When the asymptotic expansions for the
y’s as given by Eqs. (328) and (33o) are inserted in I~;q. (387), \veol)tain
1 /“n re-,bz dA
I,=– (399)
/ () [(1 – qff.1)(~1 + A)(Z2 + .4)1’”

Proceeding as before to locate the values of A for \vbic]l ~, is st~tio~,:~rj

by equating d@z/dA to zero, we obtain

= : [(f?f~zl + QJ~.4)’~ + (qIlz* + ql~A)” – ~(qf~<l)”l. (.401)

<I ~ qHA

If Aj be used to [Iesignate tllr valu(: of A for trhirh Oz is stationary, a

comparison of Ihp, (373) and (40 I ) shf)jvs that

(402)

Expansion of O, about AZ and application of the standard procedure of

steepest descent yields

We note that when Eq. (402) is used in Eqs. (381) to (383,), we obtain
Eqs. (366) and (367). The expression< on the right of Eqs. (366) and (367)
are readily identified as the plane reflection coefficients for two media
whose propagation factors are k, and k“, The reflection coefficients are
discussed further in Sec. 5.1.
When Eq. (402) is substituted into Eq. (400) we obtain for OZ(A2)/lc
just the right-hand member of Eq. (374). Thus It is interpreted as the
contribution to the field from the reflected \vave.
Finally let us consider I,. Because of Eqs. (378) and (379), Eq. (388)
becomes
II
e – ‘*AdA
13= –i -—
/ -z, [(1 – qIIA) (Z, +A)(.Z2+A)]’~ (404)
where
O, = k,r vi – gHA + :1(Z, + A)$? + (Z, + A)$z]. (405)

The equation
(i~3
—=0
dA
106 HORIZONTALLY STRATIFIED ATMOSPHERE THEORY [SEC. 211

leads to

(406)

Comparison of Eqs. (406) and (371) shows that if the geometry is such
that we are dealing with Case b, ~~ has a stationary value at A = A,,
where Al is given by Eq, (394), Thus it appears that whereas in [’ase
a, 01 has a stationary value at A = A, and 43 does not, in Case b, ~j has a
stationary value at A = .4 I and 01 does not. Hence, either 1, or 1,,
represents the direct ray, depending upon whether the geometry cor-
responds to Case a or Case b.
By continuing the method of steepest descent and noting that in this
case d2~s/dA* is positive, Ive obtain

_ ~~~e-:[.,(A,) -r,,,
z, = (407)

[ ‘1 -~’’~)(z+A)(z,+A’[ (%) A12J””

The term o,(A ,)/k, as expected, is just the right-bond member of Eq.
(372) with the positive sign.
In Case a, Eq. (389) together with Eqs. (398) and (403) and the fact
that 13 is negligible leads to
~- L.$,[AL) + rDe -@,(.42)
$=>. (408)
2 h’
; 2H ~k,r
(1 – qHA,)(Z, + A,)(Z, + A,) ~, “
[ 1( )11 1
where

D=

J4
(1 – qHA,)(Z, + A,)(Z,

(1 – qIIA,) (Z, + A,) (Z, + A,)

By differentiating Eq. (400) twice with respect to A and making use of

+ A,)
( )1.
()
$$A

~A
2
2

2
(409)

the fact that (dO’/dA) A, = 0, we find

d’+, – qHkOr

()
~A2=
4ti(z1
qH(Z,
+ A,)(ZZ + A2)(1
+ A,) Li(Z2 + -42)%
– qH-4z)

2Hlcor,r~
x 1+ (410)
[ 1 – qHAZ + A~i(l – qHA,)% 1

In Eq. (410), r, and r, are the distances to the reflection point from the
terminal points.

TI = 2(1 ;;~’)}$ [(z, -i A,)% – A;]; (411)

SEC.2.11] THE IN TERF17REiVFIi Rfi:GI<),V 107

A,)” – ii~i]; (412)

(413)

By making use of Eqs, (395) and (41 O), \vc can write Eq. (408) as

Eqs. (395) and (410) reduce F,q. (409) to

(415)

In practical cases,

andl when these terms are neglected, Eq. (414) becomes I<;q. (363) and
13q. (415), by virtue of Eq. (402), becomes Eq. (365).
In Case b, we obtain Eqs. (408) and (409) with O, rcplacwl erer,vivhere
by ~,,. Now
$+3 koqIIr .
~, = ‘—
() A, 4 V(1 – qHA,)(Z; + A,)(Z, + .4,)
{II I<(Z, + A,)(Z2 + .41)
l– (4 16)
[ 1 – qHAl -:1

The difference in the distribution of negative signs in Eqs. (395) and (416)
is such as to change the sign of a term that is neglected in the final result.
We then arrive as before at Eqs. (363) and (366), where O, is noiv to be
interpreted as the phase of the direct ray obtained from the optical length

I The expression on the left of this inequality can hv \vritten

d( :“ ‘*:)(%+*;) f(,r,her,,flt,c~c,d wave

1–+:
and
2
(2, – 2,) (2, – 20)
;. d for the. dir[,ct wave.
1+:

In practice $, usually does not exceed 0.1 and is generally much less. The other terms
involved are at most of the order of the ratio of a few miles to the radius of the earth.
108 HORIZONTALLY STRATIFIED ATMOSPHERE THEORY [SEC. 2.11

given by Eq. (372) with the proper sign to suit the geometry, that is,

+, = LS,. (417)

Now let us obtain an expression for ~, – rfJ,. For brevity, only Case a
will be considered. If we solve Eq. (371) for cos x and discard the higher-
order terms, we obtain
(21 + m _ g _ : (z, – 22)2,
cos~x=l+qH z (418)

Equations (417), (372), and (418) lead to

+ qH(Z, + 22) r q’ra

–r+~(Z1–Z2)2+ —— . (419)
k, – 4 96

By applying Eq. (419) separately to the two portions of the reflected

ray between the terminals and reflection point, we obtain

whence

If we define’
r’ ~l_gj=zl_fi,
~;=Hzl—ti= (422a)
4 4 2ae

rz qT; r;
~;=HZ2_ti (422b)
4 ‘Z2– T= Z’– Z’

Eq. (421) becomes

(423)

From Eqs. (411) and (412), it can be shown that

qrf qr~
Z,H – — Z2H – —
4 COS242 = 4 cost 4’ (424)
tan +2 =
‘rL r2

As cos $, is approximately unity, Eq. (424) yields

I The quantitiesz{ and ~ are the terminafheightsabove a pLanetangent at the

reflectionpoint to an earth of ra&usa.. In the conventionaltreatmentsof the inter-
ferenceregionproblemthey are derivedby a geometricalargument.
 ,
SEC. 2. 12] THE DIFFRACTION REGION 109

Equations (425) and (413) then reduce Eq. (423) to

(426)

from which Eq. (364) follows.

2“12. The Distraction Region.—In Sec. 2.11 there was outlined a means
of evaluating the integral of Eq. (356) when the terminal points lie above
the horizon. In this section it will be shown that when one terminal
point is below the tangent ray drawn from the other, # is given, for fre-
quencies of 100 Me/see or above, by

or,
1- 1

F= 24.X eiA=x Um(Z1) U~(Z2) , (427a)

- 2
~=,

where

yz(z + AJ = ~hz(z + Am).

Urn(z) = i (428)
Y;(Am) h;(Am)

For horizontal polarization the A m’s may be replaced by ~~’s, the zeros
of yz(f). Numerical values for the first few ~~’s are listed in Sec. 2“9.
The antenna pattern is neglected in Eq. (427a).
In Eq. (427) it is tacitly assumed that the transmitter is at such a height
that the distance to the horizon is several miles. At this range and at
frequencies exceeding 100 Me/see, the surface wave may be neglected and
Eq. (427) represents the essential part of the field.
To obtain Eq. (427) from Eq. (356), the path of integration is deformed
into an infinite semicircle lying in the upper half plane with its center at
the origin; ~ is then expressed as the sum of three parts:
1. An integral along the branch cut associated with the branch point
at A = H(k~ — k;). Physically this represents the surface wave,
which for the cases envisaged here can be neglected.
2. An integral over the infinite semicircle. This can be written by
reference to Eq. (356) as

fi lim Hj’)(k,r ~1 – qHA) u,(Z2 + A) Yz(Z1 + A)

?-= / c [
_ Y;(A) – HPW(A)
Y;(A) – ~py,(fi) ~’(z’ + A)Y2(z2 + A) 1 dA,
 8
110 HORIZONTALLY STRATIFIED ATMOSPHERE THEORY [SEC. 2.12

where C is a semicircle of radius q lying in the upper half plane and

centered on the origin. It can be shown by using the asymptotic
representations of the functions together with Jordan’s lemma that
this integral is zero.
3. The sum of the residues at the poles in the upper
.. half plane. Obvi-
ously, only the second term of the bracketed expression in the
integrand displayed above has poles, and these are the roots of

v,(A J I
(429)
yj(Am) = H=”

The order of the A’s, all of which are distinct, is to be such that
Im(A~-,) < Im(AJ < Im(A~+l).

By the usual procedure for determining the residues at the simple

poles of a function, we obtain
m
# = (2Ti) & H~2) (k,r v’1 – qHA.)
2
m=“1

x
~((Am)– HP(~J~l(AAy,(z, + Am)y2(Z2 + Am). (430)
& [Y;(A) – Hp(A)y,(A) ]
[ 1 A = .4,.,

The terms of the sum in Eq. (430) can be written in a more convenient
form. From Eqs. (334) and (429), it follows that

‘ (431)

whence

m H$’(k,r ~1 – gHAnJy,(Z, + Am)v,(Z, + Am),

#=+z
‘zm=l % & [v:(A) – HP(A) ?AA)I
(432)
{ I A=A.

As we shall see later, Am is nearly equal to ~~, and hence for all values
of m with which we are concerned, qHA m is small compared with unity.
Equation (357) may therefore be used with Eqs. (358) and (432) to
obtain Eq. (427), in which, however, U~(Z) is given by
iy2(Z + Am)
Urn(z) = )4‘
~~(Am) 1 Y ~Zp2\Am) [Am + HP’(A-)] (433)
[ 1

and not by Eq. (428).

Now consider Eq. (429), from which we see that Am = ~m when
~~p = O. It is reasonable, however, to assume as a fimt approximation
SEC. 2.12] THE DIFFRACTION REGION 111

that .4~ is still equal to f~ when p is large though finite. Equations (382)
and (383) then show that p is nearly independent of A. By neglecting
the variation of p with A it is possible to estimate the correction required
to take into account the finiteness of p. Expansion of the left-hand
member of Eq. (429) about thr point* {,. yields

(Am _ {m) ?/i’((m)~+rm — (J2 1

(434)
2g2(fm) +“””=rp”

But from Eq. (NM), u1’({,”) = – y~({,n) = O. Therefore, as a second

a,pproximation,

.4”, = {m + -~. (435)

Hp

By neglecting gHA in comp~rison with unity iu Eqs. (382) and (383),

we obtain

(436)

Representative values are given in Sec. 51 for (kdlro)2, which is there

called e,, Inspection of Table 51 shows that (kI/kO)2 — 1 k smallest and
consequently 1 /Hp* takes on its grmtest value for dry land. Using
(k, ik,)’ = 2 – il ,62 the appropri:]te value for very dry sandy km at
9 rm we find that \V’(k,/kO)2 – I I = 1.4. For dry ground at 1 m,
(k,/k,)’ = 4 – 20.006, tmd l~(kl/kO)z – Ii = 1,7 As (q/kJ}$ varies
from 1.5 x 10-’ to 4.7 X 10-3 as k varies from 10 cm to 3 m, we conclude
that, Il/Hphl is of the order of 10–8 in the region below 3 m. From a prac-
tical standpoint 1/Hph is thus a negligible correction to ~,,,.’
The largest value of I/Hp, in the frequency range below 3 m is ob-
tained for the constants appropriate to sea water at 3 m. Using
(lc,/kO)z = 80 – i774, and A = 3 m in Eq. (437), we obtain l/HpO
~ o,~3e-3rf/4; the corresponding value for horizontal polarization is
l/Hph = 1.8 X 10–4 e-”i~4. The departure of Am from {~ is negligible for
horizontal polarization but not for vertical. In both cases, the correc.
tion term reduces the attenuation with range, the reduction in the case
of vertical polarization being very much greater than in the case of hori-

Jsee also (’. L. Pekeris, .Iorw. Applied Phgs., 19, 102 (1948)
112 HORIZONTALLY STRATIFIED ATMOSPHERE THEORY [SEC. 212

zontal. On this basis, the field for vertical polarization tends to be some-
what greater than for horizontal. To be sure that it actually is greater,
we must examine the effect of the departure from the ideal boundary con-
ditions on the height-gain functions.
From Eqs. (382) and (383), it follows that

(438)

(439)

Equations (438) and (439), together with the estimates already made
of \1/pHI, show that the denominator of Eq. (433) is given to within 1
per cent for the first few modes by y~(A~). Thus Eq. (433) becomes Eq.
(428). In addition, we have already justified using {~ for Am when the
polarization is horizontal.
By replacing A ~ by ~~ + (1/Hp) in Eq. (428) and expanding about
(~ it is readily shown that for small Z

Urn(z) ~z+$.

It follows, therefore, from the examples given that at least near the
surface the height-gain function is greater for vertical than for horizontal
polarization. As it has already been shown that the attenuation with
range acts in the same direction, theory indicates that at wavelengths
of 3 m and below the field close to the surface in the diffraction zone is
greater for vertical than for horizontal polarization. The difference
between the polarizations decreases with increwing frequency.

METHODS FOR CALCULATINGFIELD STRENGTH

WITH STANDARD REFRACTION
BY WILLIAM T. FISHBACK

Methods of calculating field strengths for an essentially linear modified-

index profile have been well established for some time. 1 Unfortunate y
they are not amenable to easy calculation, and computing field strengths
involves considerable labor. Recently simpler methods have been evolved
for both the interference and cliffraction regions.’
I C. R. Burrows and M. C. Gray, “The Effect of the Earth’sCurvatureon Ground-
wave Propagation,” Proc. IRE, 29, 16 (1941); K. A. Norton, “The Calculation of
Ground-waveField Intensityover a FinitelYConductingSphericafEfih,” P70c.ZRE,
29, 623 (1941).
2 W. T. Fishback,“SimplifiedMethods of Field IntensityCalculationsin the inter-
ferenceRegion,” RL ReportNo. 461,Dec. 8, 1943;P. J. Rubens@inandW. T. Fishback,
SEC. 213] THE INTERFERENCE REGION 113

2s13. The Intefierence Region. -The determination of Ffora point in

space over a plane earth can be carried out in a perfectly straightforward
manner using Eq. (36). The geometrical quantities required are the
path difference AR and the grazing angle #2 (to obtain the value of p
for a given #J; both of these can be calculated directly from the two given
heights and the distance between the terminals. When calculations of
field strength for a spherical rather than a plane earth are desired, we
find that we must introduce a new geometrical quantity, the divergence
factor, and that to compute AR and *2 we must know the reflection point,
or how r is broken up’ into r, and rt. It is possible to find r, and rtif r,
21,and .z2are given, but to do so we must solve the cubic equation,
2;; – 3rr~ + [r* – 2a,(zl+z2)]rl + 2a,z1r = 0.

This equation has the formal solution

()
@+rr
rl’:+pcos —
2 3’

where
~ ~
‘=izi d“’(’’+2’)+ (); ‘
2ac(z2 – z,)r
@ = co-’
[ Pa 1‘
and it is assumed that z, > ZZand thus rl > rj. The labor involved in
determining r, and r, is excessive and can be avoided by using the tech-
nique described below, 2 The simplified method presented here consists
of the use of a set of graphs with ~vhich AR, D, and *2 can be determined
from r, z,, and 22 alone. The process of determining r, and r2 has been
completely absorbed in the graphs.
From Eq. (426) \vc find

AR= +. (440)

“=(’‘:2)-’ (441)

“(;mphs fur ( ‘,jn]p!ll ing thr I)iffrnct ion I~icld ~vltII Siall<lard tin{l SuIjt,rstandard Re-
fra[ti[,n.” RI, Report So. 7!)!), AIlg. 13 l!M5; (‘. Doml) and J1. H. 1.. I’rycc, “Interim
ltcp~wI uu l’ropagation within and I){,v{md the ( )ptiral Rtmgc,” ASK Iteport No. M448,
,Sel~t(,mlJrr1%42; and ,Jom. IEE, 94, Part III, 325 ( 1!)47).
‘ Figure 2.16 shn(ll[i k con<!lltcrl for (Ictinitions of thc quwntities )nvolvwl.
‘ A graphical soluti,,l] of the cljbir cq~latioll is alst~given by It. A. Hutn(,r. H. W.
Dodson, J. R. GII1, F. l). I’arkcr, and B. 1;. Hnwanl, “Fiel{l Intensity Fnrmillas,”
RI. Report No. 23, S(.pl. 28, 1943.
 114 HORIZONTALLY STRATIFIED ATMOSPHERE THEORY [SEC, 213

Finally, by using Eqs. (424) and (425), we find

z; + z;
tan $, = ~. (442)

These expressions can be calculated more easily if we introduce the di-

mensionless height and distance parameters

= &&
s,,, <1, (443)

(444)

(44,5)

The requirement that S}, S2, and S be less than unity is fulfilled auto-
matically if we stay within the total horizon range rr. = ~2a,z, + ~2a,zY.
As in Sec. 2.10 advantage is taken of the reciprocity theorem, and z.? is
defined as the smaller of the ttvo terminal heights in the remainder of this
section in order to keep 7’ less than unity.
Fly means of these nelr parameters Eqs. (-MO) to (442) can lx, rc-
wi-ittm in the form

AR = ~~ (1 – S;’)(1 – S;) , (446)

‘= [ l+,w]
4,T;&T
–s;)(1 +T). 1
““
(448]

From Eq. (44S) it follm~s that the divergence factor can br expressed as
a function of the family of ,S and 7’ variables alone. Thr exprrwions
for the path difference :m(i ~r:~zin~ :Lngle htve been reduced to the produrt
of two factors, of Jvtlich one is just the expression for the desired qu:mtit~
under ffat-mrth conditions ami the other is a function of the ,S :LII(I 7’
ffimily of variables alone. ‘l%e part of the expressions for AR and tan #,
that is a function Only of the AS:Lnd T variables is thus a correction factor
tlx~t converts the plane-earth expressions for Aft md tan ~? into the
corrmt values for O spherical rurth !Vith a Iinr:lr N-profile. For my point
in space the plane-earth qu:~ntities may lw c~sily calculated anti the
parameters S and T dcternlirwd; the quantities ,S, and Sz cannot IN de-
termined directly, but it will be shown that they are functions of ,S am] 7’
alone. We know that
z:_
. — 4
f$Ec. 2.13] THE INTERFERENCE REGION 115

and
r-=r’l+rz.

These expressions lead to the equations

S,(1 –s;) = SIT(1 –s;),

S(l + T) =s, +s,2’,

which can be solved for SI and SZ in terms of S’ and T.’ Thus it has been
shown that anyquantity whichis a function of S,, S2, S, and Tis actually
a function of S and T alone. Let

J(S,T) = (1 – S!) (1 – S;)

and

~(S, T) = (1 – X)l+T’
+ T’(1 – s“)

so that Eqs. (446) to (448) become

AR = ~ J(S, T), (449)

tan 42 = ~ K(S, T), (450)

D = D(S, T). (45 1)

Contours of constant J, h’, and D are plotted as functions of ,$ and T

in Figs, A to D, included in the envelope in the rear cover of this book.
W-e can now determine the path difference, grazing angle, and di-
vergence factor for any point in space, given z!, z~,r, and a,. In practice
we may use any positive value of a,, that is, any positive slope for a linear
M-profile, but this model is usually of practical importance only for the
standard case,z where

a, = 8.,5 X 106 m = 5,280 statute miles.

Having determined 4,, we can make use of theoretical curves of P and

o vs. ~a to determine these quantities. Figures 5.4 to 5.6 arc graphs of
p and ~ for smooth sea water for several wavelengths. For a given \vave-
length and isotropic radiator we can now find F from

F = II + Dpe–’al = 11+ Dpe-i(k ~R+~)l. (452)

1In the construction of the graphs of J, K, and D, values of S, and Z’ were assumed
and used “to determine values of ,5’*and S.
2In this case the total horizon range ccmvcnicntly becomes
7’L= V%+&,
where rL is in statute miles and Z1and 22are in feet.
116 HORIZONTALLY STRATIFIED ATMOSPHERE THEORY [SEC. 2.13

If we know the antenna pattern function ~(d) and the angle of tilt f of
the beam maximum, we can find F from the general expression
F = Ij((?l) + ~(Oz)Dpe–ict‘R+$)l, (453)
where 01 and 62 are the angles between the antenna beam maximum and
the direct and reflected rays, respectively, given by
el=#l–t,
ez=–lj2 -q-~.
The various angles are indicated in Fig. 2.16. The angles 8, and 19Zare
positive if measured upward from the beam maximum and negative if
measured downward. Similarly 7, #,, and f are positive if measured

ae %
\ /
FIG. 2.16.-Geometrical parameters for standard propagation in the interference region. See
the text for explanation of the conventions for signs of the angles.

upward from the horizontal at the transmitter and negative if measured

downward. As they can never change sign, 4, and q will always be con-
sidered positive. In most practical cases,

41 = *2,
and

T=: <<#z,
so that we can rewrite Eq. (453) in the simplified form of

F = l~(~z – f) +f(–~z – f) Dpe-’t’ AE~@l. (454)

SEC. 213] THE INTERFERENCE REGION 117

This expression for the pattern-propagation factor is not valid all the
way to the total horizon range for reasons discussed in Sec. 2.11. No
exact analytic expression is known for the limit of validity of Eq. (454),
but it is believed that it ~villallvays be valid for

For very low antenna height.~ at microwaves or for moderately low

antenna heights at longer \ravelengths, AR declines to k/4 at only a small
fraction of the total horizon range.’ In this case Eq. (454) will remain
valid well beyond this point and may on occasion be used until the phase
k AR is less than 1°. If there is any doubt about the validity of the result
obtained using Eq. (4154), it is recommended that the result be checked
by the methods described belolv for the intermediate region.
As an example let us calculate F for a 10-cm radar system sited at a
height of 100 ft and viewing a target at a range of 80 statute miles and
height of 11,000 ft over sea water. The set uses vertical polarization and
a paraholoiclal mtenna with a symmetrical beam 3° in width between
half-poi~er points’ tilted up 0.5°. WC have

~L = %“200 + d22,000
= 162 statute miles,
so t,hat

100
T= — = 0.09.5.
J 11,000

Now from Figs. A, .!?, and D we find that

J = 0.713,
K = 0.72,
D = 0.990.

These values of J and K can now be substituted along with the given
2L,.22,and i- in Eqs. (449) and (45o) to get
AR = 2 x 11,000 x 100 x 0,713 = 3,72 ft
.5280 x 80
1In the atmosphere the index of rrfmction a is slightly different frOm unity and h~
diffcmnt vahws at different points in space. .\s a result, wavelength and wave number
will vary throughout spare and will nowhere be equal to the free-space value. The
variation is so slight, howwwr, that it may be ignored in the types of calculations being
discussed here. Throughout this section subscripts will he discarded and the free-space
wavelength and \v:ivc numhcr referred to as h and k, respectively.
1In all cases the total width between the angles at which ~ = ~ will be meant.
118 HORIZONTALLY STRATIFIED ATMOSPHERE THEORY [SEC. 213

and

or
#, = 1.04”.

The values of p and ~ for vertical polarization and A = 10 cm are,

from Figs. 5.4 and 5.5,
P = 0.722,
@ = 175°.

Finally, we find

COS[– (k AR + o)] = COS (–4082° – 175°) = 0.454.

We must now consider the antenna-pattern effects. We know that

f = 0.5° and ~Z = 1°, and we must determine -f(0.5°) and j( – 1.5°) for
the direct and reflected rays, respectively. For a paraboloidal antenna
the form

f(L9) = 1 – 0.293
() ~ ‘, (455)

where 00 is the beam width between half-power points, is a good approxi-

mation for 2tI < tIO. From this expression we find that

j(O.5) = 0.967,
j(– 1.5) = 0.707.

We know all the parameters involved in Eq. (454) and can substitute to get

F = 1.28

It is more convenient to express this in the logarithmic form

20 ]og,, F = + 2db.

This indicates that the field strength incident on the target is 2 db greater
than it would be under free-space conditions with the antenna pointing
directly at the target.
So far we have been concerned with finding the field strength at an
arbitrary point in space. It is often desirable to find the point in space
at which a given value of a occurs. We can solve this type of problem
by using the S- and T-parameters provided ~ = r. This is always true
for horizontal polarization and is a good approximation on vertical polari-
zation for microwaves at small grazing angles. If this restriction is
made, it is possible to find the height at which a given maximum or
minimum occurs, given the transmitter height and range, or to find the
distance at which a given maximum or minimum occurs, given the termi-
SEC. 2.13] THE INTERFERENCE REGION 119

nal heights. Because of its great utility in the construction of coverage

diagrams, the latter procedure will be outlined here.’
If ~ = ir, the phase between the direct and reflected waves is

The first maximum will occur when a = 27, and the nth maximum will
occur when a = 2nu, so that
Zn= = 2rn AR ~ ~
A’

Similarly, the condition for the nth minimum is

AR = nh.

This technique can be extended for any arbitrary value of the phase
difference a. It has been shown that when @ = T, the problem of finding
a given point in the interference pattern is equivalent to finding the point
at which a specific value of AR occurs. Because of this equivalence
a direct solution of this type of problem is possible, using the S- and
T-parameters. Let us replace r by rfi in Eq. (449) and rewrite the
equation as
Q(S,T) = =, (456)

where
(1 – S;)(l – s;)
(457)
~(~,T) =

s“

We know the terminal heights and consequently the total horizon range;
we also know the value of AR corresponding to the desired value of a;
hence, Q can be determined. Knowing Q and T, we can determine S
from the relation implicit in Eq. (457). Figures E to G, in the envelope
in the rear cover, give contours of constant S as a function of Q and T,2
! The former problem can be solved in an analogous manner by replacing IS by S’,
where S’ = r/<2a.z,, and writing Eq. (449) in the form
r AR _ J(AS’,’T)
2z; — T%
A statement of the technique employed and the graphs neceeaary for ita use may be
found in W. T. Fishback, “Simplified Methods of Field Intencity Czlctdations in the
Interference Region,” RL Report No. 461, Dec. 8, 1943. -
z For values of Q larger than those shown on Fig. G, the desired distance may be
found with sufficient accuracy by using the flat-earth formula,
2Z,Z,
‘=x’
120 HORIZONTALLY STRATIFIED ATMOSPHERE THEORY [SEC. 2.13

which may be used to find the S corresponding to the given Q and T.

The unknown distance can then be determined from the total horizon
range and the value of S previously determined.
As an example, let us consider the case of a horizontally polarized
3-cm radar set sited at an elevation of 20 ft and tracking an airplane
flying over water at a height of 1500 ft. We want to find the range at
which the plane will be in the maximum of the lowest lobe. For a wave-
length of 3 cm and horizontal polarization, o = r, and we can use this
method. We know that
2* = 20 ft,
ZI = 1500 ft,
so that
r. = ~ + ~3000 = 61.0 statute miles,

T =
C~
1500
= 0.115.

To be at the first maximum, we must have

AR = ; = 0.0492 ft

We find
5280 X 61.0 X 0.0492
Q= = 0.264.
2 x 20 x 1500

From llg. F’ we find that for Q = 0.264 and ‘1’ = 0,115, we htive
S = 0.817. Hence,

r = rLS = 61.0 X 0.817 = 49.8 statute miles,

which is the desired range.

Although the examples have been presented using physical units,
the methods previously developed are directly applicable to problems
with either physical or natural units of height and distance. When only
“spot” calculations for the interference region, such as the previous ex-
amples, are desired, there is no need to convert to natural units, It is
often necessary, however, to make plots of field strength that include
both the interference and the ditiraction region, particularly in the de-
tmmination of coverage contours, The calculation of field strengths in
the diffraction region requires the use of natural units, and in such cases
it is often preferable to do all work, including the plotting of the coverage
contours, in natural units. The conversion factors H and L for changing
from physical to natural units arc plotted in Figs. 2.17 and 218 as a
function of wavelength. They have been drawn for stiandard refraction,
for whir}l (1. = ,52S()st:ltut(~ mll(,s,
 In terms of n:~tur:~l units, the fun(l:~m{,otal relations rxprcswxf in
Eqs. (444), (41.5), (4 19), ( l.-)()), and (457) c:m IJC Irrittcn as

(458)

T=JL,,
, (459)

k AR = ‘:,? .1(/S,T) (460)

where
k 41? = (2n – l)7r

at the nth maximum and

/c AR = 2ri7
at the nth minimum.
The problem of where it is neces.tiry to use the spherical-earth formulas
for interference rc~ion calculatiorls and where it is possible to use the
flat-earth formulas has not at present been answered precisely. Subject
to c(!rtain limitations to be discussed presently, a rough criterion can
be developed with the aid of Fig. A in the back of the book. The most
critical difference between the spherical and the flat-earth formulas is
probably contained in the expressions for the path difference AR, for a
change in the value of AR \villha~rea profound effect upon the value of F.
Figure A can be used essentially as a percentage error graph in the value
of AR obtained from the flat-earth formula. Fortunately the values
of the flat-earth correction factor J are only slightly dependent upon T
and can be considered a function of S alone to a first approximation; thus
the requirement that the value of AR calculated from the flat-earth formula
differ from the spherical-earth quantity by less than a specified per-
centage can be fulfilled by requiring that S remain less than some value
determined from F]g. .4. This is equivalent to saying that AR can be
calculated to a given accuracy provided one stays within a certain fraction
of the total horizon range,
This procedure should prove helpful in determining the regions of
validity of the flat-earth formula for F, particularly in the microwave
region; the resulting limit of validity will probably be conservative. In
many cases the flat-earth formulas can be used with impunity over a
122 HORIZONT.1 1.1,1“ s5TR.4TIFIED A T.I(),SPI{ERE THEOR 1’ [SEX.2.14

much greater range of distances than would appear possible from an

inspection of Fig. A. The extent to which this is possibk is a function
of the terminal heights in natural units. As the values of Z1 and ZZ are
decreased, the flat-earth formulas \vill give accurate values of F through-
out an increasing proportion of the interference region; indcrti, for suf-
ficiently small values of Z the flat-earth formulas will he relitil)lc out to
the total horizon ran~e.1 (Maculations made \vith both Z, all(l Z, equal
to 0.01 have indicated that the flat-earth formulw gave reli~blc values
of F for a short distance bejrond the total horizon ran~c into the diffrac-
tion rr~ion. Such IOIWvalues of the terminal heights in natural units \vill
not often be encountered in the microlvave region }Jut tvil] often be present
for sometvhtit Iongcr wavclcngtbs, AS r is often very closely – 1 for
horizontal polarization on these longer wavelengths, the familiar flat-
eart]l iLppI’OXkIILLtiOnS fOI’ sma]l ValUCS of ArZ1Z2,/~~/ will bc valid, ‘1’hi.
\rill often not Iw true, hofvcvcr, on microlraves, ~rhere the tcrrnillal
heights in natur:ll units arc greater for a given phy.~ical height. In tbi>
casf> it ~vill USU:LIIY}x: nccwsary to usc the spherical-earth formulas
outlinccl in this section.
2“14. The Diffraction Region.—At points sufficiently far below th~
tangent ray the diffraction field can be rcprcscntml by one mode alone,
and the expression for F is given by Eq. (427a). In the case of a stanflard
IV-profile, C, = 2.02, and Eq. (427a) }Jecomes, for a dipole antenna with
its direction of maximum transmission in the direction of the horizon,

For convenience }ve shall let

VI(X) = 2- e–z.ozx,
so that
F = t’,(x)! [Y,(z,) [’,(2,)1. (463)

In the regions where Eq. (463) is valid, it is very simple co determine F,

Figures 2.17 and 2.18 are plots of H and L as functions of wavelength for
standard refraction and may be used to convert the terminal heights and
distance into natural units. Once these quantities are known in natural
units, Figs. 2.19 and 2.20 can be used to find F or 20 loglo 1’. Figure 2“19
is a plot of the attenuation function, 20 log10 [VI(X)], as a function of X,
the range in natural units, for the first mode with standard refraction.
This figure also gives 20 log,, [Vi(X)/X] as a function of X and should
be used when it is desired to find 20 log,o (F/X) rather than 20 log,, F (as
is usually the case in drawing coverage diagrams). Figure 2.20 is a plot
of the corresponding height-gain function 20 loglo IU1(Z) I as a function of
Z. It was computed by means of a series solution and the exact solution
in terms of the tabulated values of hi(z) and hz(z) for small values of Z
1Seefootnote,Sec. 2.15, p. 125.
 SEC. 214] THE L)IFFRACTIO.\’ REGIOX 192
----
600

400

100

Wavelengthin cm
FIG. 2.17,—Natural unit of height H as a function of wavelength for a. = 5280 statute miles.
 124 HORIZONTALLY STRATIFIED ATMOSPHERE ?HEOR Y [SEC.214

and by means of the asymptotic expansions for these func~ions for large
values of Z (see Sec. 2.9). These graphs have been computed for the
simplified boundary condition r = —1, strictly satisfied only for hori-
zontal polarization and a perfectly conducting earth but generally
applicable at wavelengths below 3 m (see Sees. 2.12 and ,5.1).
Calculations in the diffraction region with the aid of these gra~hs mav
be made very rapidly; for example, suppose we \vish to find ‘ho\r f;r

40

20

10

3
Wavelength in cm
FIG. 2.18.—Natural unit of lengt,h L a> a function of wavelength for a, = 5280 statute mde~.

below the free-space level the signal ~vill be on a 10-cm, 80-statute-mile

link between terminals at 200 and 300 ft, From Figs. 2.17 and 2.18, we
see that for 10 cm
H = 33.3 ft,
L = 8.35 statute miles,
In terms of natural units, the geometry of this path is given by

z_200_60
1
33.3 ‘
z2_300_ 9,0
33.3 ‘

X=&=,.,.
SEC. 215] THE INTERMEDIATE REGION 125

Finally we find from Fig. 2.19

20 log,, [V,(9.6)] = – 148

and from Fig. 220

20 log,,l U,(6.0)1 = + 27,

20 IOg,,l L’1(9.0)] = + 37,

and thus

2010g,, F = –148+ 27 +37 = –84db,

At the total horizon range and for a slight distance beyond it, one
mode is not sufficient to obtain a correct value of F. No simple condition
is knoivn for finding the distance beyond which the l-mode representation
is valid but for standard conditions the total horizon range needs to be
increased by only a small fraction of itself to make the l-mode repre-
sentation valid. (’are should be taken in determining field strengths
near the horizon range, and it is suggested that in such cases the calcu-
lations be checked by the method for finding field strengths in the inter-
medi:ite region, to be discussed in the following section,
2.15. The Intermediate Region.—We have seen that the ray-tracing
metho(h by \vhich the field strength is determined in the interference
region l)reali down before the total horizon range is reached, In a like
mannrr, \~t,must start the use of a l-mode expression for the diffraction
field not at, l~ut beyond the total horizon range. As a result, there is u
region lmo\vn as the intermediate region near the horizon for which no
generally applical)le method of determining field strength is yet availal]le,l

] A method of finding the ficl(i at the total horizon range X-L is outlined by C. Domb
and \l. H. L. Pryce, “Intc>rim l~cport on Propagation within and beyond the Optical
Rallgv, ” WE Report No. 31448, Sept. 1942, and~our. IEE, 94, Part III, 325 (1947),
For lalg~.values of Z, and Z? it was found that at this particular range the first few terms
of the series ~ e[’~r~U~(Z,)U~(Z i ) were closely in geometric progression and rapidly
,,,
decreasing. The ratio of the first twoterms wastakenss the ratio of a geometric series
and was used in conjunction with the first term to sum the series. For very small
heights (Z < 0.05), it was possible trrfind thetield atthetotal horizon range by using
flat-earth ray theory. Tl)efif,ld forintermediati values of Zw~found byinterpolatlon.
Thercsulting curve shavebeen used frequently at the Radiation Laboratory as an aid
to drawing field-strength curves in this region and have proved useful, although the
possible error seems to be slightly greater than the l-db maximum error claimed for
tbe metbcxl.
Burrows and Gray [C. R. 13urrmvsand 11. C. Gray, “The Effect of the Earth’s
Curvature on Ground-wave Propagation, ” Proc. IRE, 29, 16, (1941)] have extended
the diffraction formula so that it can be used at somewhat shorter ranges than can the
l-mode solution for tbe special case where
z, >20,
z, <0.5
126 HORIZONTALLY STRATIFIED A TMOSPHIIRE THEORY [SEC. 21.5
 TIIE IN TER.VEI)I.4 TE RIWIO,V 127

-200

-220

-240 -

-280

% –300
.-c
C
0
.-
g
~ -320

-420

-44C

RangeX in naturalunits
(b)
128 HORIZON7’A I.[>Y i~l’li.i TIFIED A T. VOL7PHERE THEORY [SEC. 2,15
0

IT

0.04 006 0.080,1 0.2 0.4 06 0.8 1

Height Z in natural units
(a)

T
—

1
-h
I I ‘use
: right

1 2 46 8 10 20 40 60 80100
HeightZ in naturalunits
(b)
Fm. 2.20.—Height-gain function for the first mode, 20 log,, IU,(Z) 1,as a function of height
in natural units for (a) Z < 1 and (b) Z ) 1.
SEC. 215] THE .INTERMEDIATE REGION 129

aside from summation of the series of Eq. (427). To determine the

field strength in this region, it is in general necessary to prepare a plot
of field strength as a function of distance for the given terminal heights,
extending the plot from the region in which interference region methods
are valid through the intermediate region into the region of validity for
diffraction methods by bold interpolation. The value of the field strength
at the desired distance can then be read on the plot. Because the inter-
ference-region points needed to make such a graph will occur at very
small grazing angles, it is usually true that q$= r, hence Figs. E to G can
be used. In mast cases, the best procedure is to find the distance at
which the first maximum 1 (AR = h/2 and F = 1 + Dp) and the first
point of quadrature (AR = X/4 and F = <l + D2p2) occur. Once these
distances are known, D, p, and consequently F can be determined. Next,
about three ranges at a sufficient distance in the diffraction region should
be chosen, and the value of F for these ranges and the given terminal
heights should be determined. The points thus determined for the inter-
ference and diffraction regions should be plotted and connected with a
smooth curve. The value of F for the desired range in the intermediate
region may then be determined from the curve. The procedure is shown

In this case an asymptotic approximation to h,(Z, + ~~) can be used in conjunction

withthe relation

so that
F = 2MX[J$Z,-MZ2FL,
where

.
The function FL is plotted as a function of L = 2Li(X – Z,’i) in Fig. 10 of this paper
(taking 6<<1 for a perfectly conducting earth). The technique described is valid as
long as the series for FL converges rapidly enough so that for all modes used
Irr”I <<z,
and

It will not be valid at the horizon (X = Z,~$), for ~ [h(((m)]-’ converges extremely
slowly. “n

1In calculations for the int~~rnwdiatcand diffraction regions, the effective raciiation
all comes from the same part of the tmam, and the expressions given above have neglected
the antenna pattern. Thus, when the beam maximum is pointed horizontally, the
rxpmssion for F is as shown. Wh(,n the hcam is clcvatcd so that Ij( – () I <1, the
transmission equations (27) tLIIIl(28) rcquir’chthe :Uhlitiona) factors on their right-h:md
sides 0[ ]Ji( —fLj~,( —:, ) I aIIIl ~,fl—~) 11,rcs[xc[iv~,ly.
130 HORIZONTALLY STRATIFIED ATMOSPHERE THEORY [SEC. 2.16

schematically in Fig. 2.21. Point A k the first maximum; Point B is the

first point of quadrature; and Points C, D, and E were calculated for the
diffraction region using one mode. This process is frequently used in
determining coverage contoum and will be illustrated in detail in the
following section.
A Totalhorlzor
2“16. Contours of Constsnt Field
B - range Strength-Heretofore we have been con-
cerned with methods for finding the field
strength at any point in space, either
above or below the tangent ray. In many
\ cases the desired information is not the

L_l_!?-
field strength at a given point but rather
contours of constant field-strength values
—in short, a contour or a coverage dia-
Range_ gram. In general these loci cannot be
FIG. 2,21. —Examnle of techni[{ue determined directly; the methods pre-
for finding 20 log,, F-in the intermed-
iate region. viously discussed must be employed in
what is essentially a graphical solution for
the desired contour. This method of determining coverage can be used
anywhere in space and will give a complete picture of the detailed lobe
structure. As the fine detail is often of no interest, one frequently uses
this method to obtain the bottom of the first lobe, whereas above the
maximum of the first lobe only the locus of maxima of the lobes is
plotted. This is called a coarse coverage diagram. Both of these tech-
niques will be discussed in detail.
The fundamental equation upon which coverage calculations are
based is (see Sees. 2. I and 2.2),
R = R,F, (464)
where
(4(i5)

for one-way transmission, and

(;A ~n
R!= — ---– (466)
d- 41r WI’, 4T

for radar. The quantity ItJ is the range in free space at which the received
power is P, with antennas ali~ned for maximum transmission; if P, is
the minimum detectable po~ver of a system, R, is just RO, the free-space
detection range. Equation (464) then becomes l?,,,m~= R~F, where Rrn~~
is the maximum detection range at the given angle of elevation ~1. The
quantity RO is useful when discussing a complete system, but 1/( has greater
generality and will be used in discussing field-strength contours (see Sees.
2.1 and 2.2).
SEC. 2.16] CONTOURS OF CONSTANT FIELD STRENGTH 131

Equations (464) to (466) may berelated tothe field strength in the

following way. In free space,

where Eo and E, are field strengths at ranges of R and R,, respectively, in

the direction of maximum transmission and R, is a reference unit of length.
Under actual physical conditions the field strength E is related to Eo
through the defining equation for the pattern-propagation factor
F = lE/EOl. Making this substitution in the free-space equation above
yields
(467)

Combining Eq. (467) with Eq. (464) gives the additional relation

(468)

which, in conjunction with Eqs. (465) and (466), gives the connection
between transmitted and received power, system parameters, and field
strength. A contour of constant field strength, chosen by fixing either
lE/E,l orthequantities inEq. (466), determines R7, andthe contour is
found by solving Eq. (464) or its equivalent [Eq. (467)]. Thus

20 loglo ; = – 20 loglo g = 20 loglo y! (469)

s s

from which it can be seen that the field is given directly in decibels rela-
tive to the maximum free-space field at reference distance from the
source. The term on the far right is the sum of the free-space attenua-
tion’ 20 log,O (R,/R) and the attenuation relative to the free-space field
20 log,. F. This method of expression allows separation of the system
parameters from propagation phenomena to the greatest possible extent,
the only implicit relation being the role of the antenna pattern function
in F.
The preceding sections have treated methods of finding F that permit
direct calculation of 20 loglo (FR,/R). Points on a contour for a chosen

1In the interference region the choice of R, is largely a matter of preference. For
oar present purposes, R, = 1 m. In the diffraction regionit is most convenientto use
R. = L, the natural unit of length. Then 20 10g,O(FRJR) gives the field in decibels
above the field at 1 m or at a distance L from the antenna. When R. = L, Eq. (469)
can be written in the useful form
E F
20 log,o ~, = – 20 log,, x, = 20 log,, ~

It is convenientto rememberthat
2010gIO(Rmete,.)= 20 log,o(Lat.te nA + 64.13.
 132 HORIZONTALLY STRATIFIED ATMOSPHERE THEORY [SEC. 2.16

value of lE/E,\ are obtained by finding values of R that satisfy Eq. (467)
or (469). These values of R will be denoted by R,; the locus of all values
of R, forms the desired contour. If lE/EJ in Eqs. (467) and (469) is
fixed, thus determining the contour to be investigated, the values of R
must be found that satisfy these equations. These values, denoted by
R, or XC, determine the form of the contour.
For high-performance communications systems the desired contour
may penetrate well into the diffraction region; hence for such systems the
95

90

85

80

75
1 2 4 6810 20 40 60 100 200 400 600
Wavelengthin cm
FIG. 222.-The function 20 log,, (L/R,) as a function of wavelength, where R, is 1 m.

difficulties peculiar to the intermediate region are not encountered. When

this is true, the desired coverage contour may be obtained by a direct
application of the relation

20 log,,; = 20 log,, ~ + 20 log,, ) U,(z,) I + 20 log,, IU,(z,)l. (470)

c ‘

From X = R/L and knowledge of 20 log,, (R f/R,), 20 log,, (FR./R,) is

known, and we can find 20 log,O (F/XC) from

20 logul ; = 20 loglo y + 20 logjo ;. (471)

c c 8

A plot of 20 log,, (L/R,) as a function of wavelength is given in Fig.

2.22. To find X= one needs only to determine 20 log10 IU1(Z1) I and
20 Iog10IU1(ZJ I and to use these values along with the determined value of
20 log,, (F/X,) to solve Eq. (470) for 20 log,, ( V,/X,). Figure 2“19 may
then be used to find X, in natural units. By repeating this process for
several receiver heights, one obtains sufficient points on the coverage
contour to draw that part of the contour which is well within the diffrac-
tion region.
Unfortunately, for all radar systems and many one-way circuits the
bottom of the lowest lobe lies very near the horizon in the intermediate
 SEC. 2.16] CONTOURS OF CONSTANT FIELD STRENGTH 133

region, where in general no direct analytical solution is possible. The pro-

cedure to be followed is very similar to that outlined in the previous
discussion of the intermediate region. TO find X, for a @ven tra~mit~r
and target or receiver height, a graph of 20 Ioglo (l’/X) must be drawn as
a function of distance X through the intermediate region. This can
usually be accomplished by finding 20 loglo (F/X) at the first maximum
(AR = x/2), at the first point of quadrature (AR = X/4), and at several
points in the diffraction region and drawing a smooth curve through the
points so obtained. The range X, at which Eq. (469) is satisfied is the
maximum range for the given terminal heights. By repeating the pro-
cedure for various target or receiver heighb, enough points can be ob-
tained to plot X, as a function of target or receiver height.
This technique can best be illustrated by means of an example. Con-
sider a vertically polarized 9-cm radar whose free-space detection range
RO on a certain type of airplane is 63 statute miles. Then,

–20 log,, ~ = – 100 db.

8

At what ranges will the plane be detected over smooth sea water for
altitudes between 50 and 1000 ft if the radar is at a height of 100 ft? We
must plot 20 loglo (F/X) as a function of X for heights between 50 and
1000 ft for a transmitter height of 100 ft. Let us choose heights of 50,

TABLE2.1.—INTERFERENCE-REGION CALCUL.ATIONS
FORASAMPLE COVEPAGEPROBLEM
(a.) Determination of 20 log,, (F/X) at the first maximum (k AR = r and

——
__
F = 1 + DP) for Z, = 3,23.

D —-l--1
o
Q s K
z, XL T IEq. (Figs, x
(Figs.
C’and
(Fig. [k ,Jq, 20 log,, 20y
(456)] E to G) B) (450)] (5.6)] F y
D)
_ — . . —

JJ_
1.62 3.06 0.707 1.84 0.394 1.21 0.867 0.83 0,14 0.96 +5 +3
3.23 3.59 1.08
1.000 0.510 1.83 0.767 0.74 0.11 0.97 +5 o
9.69 4.90 0.577 0.492 0.667 3.27 0.650 0.53 0.09 0.97 +4 – 6
16.15 5.80 0,447 0.350 0.724 4.20 0.620 0.43 0.09 0.97 +4 – 8
24.2 6.70 0.365 0.269 0.763 5.11 0.600 0.36 0.08 0.98 +4 – 10
32.3 0.590 0.31 0.08 0.98 +4 –11

(b) Determination of 20 log,, (F/X) at thefirstpoint of quadrature(k AR = 7r/2

and F = ~) for ZI = 3.23.
1.62 3.06 0.707 0.919 0.548 1.68 0.750 0.69 0.09 0.97 +2 –2
3.23 3.59 1.000 0.540 0,643 2.31 0.643 0.59 0.07 0.98 +1 –6
9.69 4.90 0.577 0.246 0.760 3.72 0.540 0.40 0.06 0.98 +1 – 10
16.15 5.80 0.447 0.175 0.802 4.65 0.513 0.32 0.06 0.98 +1 – 12
24.2 6.70 0.365 0.135 0.833 5.58 0.493 0.26 0.05 0.99 +1 – 14
32.3 7.48 0.316 0.113 0.854 6.39 0.480 0.22 0.05 0.99 +1 – 15
134 HORIZONTALLY STRATIFIED ATMOSPHERE THEORY [SEC.2.16

100, 300, 500, 750, and 1000 ft. In natural units the transmitter height
Zl is 3.23 and target heights Z, are 1.62, 3.23, 9.69, 16.15, 24.2, and 32.3.
The angles are low enough that # = r. We can find the distance at
which the fimt maximum and first quadrature points occur for each of
these height combinations by determining Q and T and using Figs. E
to G to find S and X. With S known we can use Figs. B to D to tind D
and K (and consequently ~J. Finally we find the value of p for the

TABLE2.2.—DIFFRACTION-REGION
CALCULATIONS
FORA SAMPLE
COVERAGE
PROBLEM

v
z, z, x 201CW1OIUl(zl) !0log,oIU1(Z2)I 20 loglo
()
~ 20 Iog,o
()
;

3.23 1.62 4.0 +16 +7 –65 –42

5.0 –83 –60
6,0 – 102 –79
I

3.23 3.23 4.5 +16 +16 ‘ – 74 – 42

6.0 – 102 – 70
7.0 – 121 – 89

3.23 9.69 6,0 +16 +39 – 102 – 47

7.0 –121 – 66
8.0 – 139 – 84

3.23 16.15 7.0 +16 +56 – 121 – 49

8.0 – 139 – 67
9.0 – 157 – 85

3.23 24.2 8.0 +16 +71 – 139 – 52

9.0 –157 – 70
10.0 –175 – 88
—— —
3.23 32.3 8.5 +16 +82 – 148 – 50
9.0 – 157 – 59
10,0 I – 175 –77

given $2 from Fig, 5“4, or more accurately from Eq. (5.6). The values of
p listed in Table 2.1 were computed from Eq. (5.6) with e, = 69 – i39, as
given in Table 5.1 for h = 10 cm. It is then possible to find 20 loglOF and
20 loglo (F/X) directly. The numerical work required in this process is
given in Table 2.1.
The calculations must now be made for the diffraction region. For
each set of heights let us choose three points below the horizon separated
by about one X unit and calculate 20 log,, (l’/X) by means of Figs. 2“19
and 2“20. The calculations are shown in Table 2“2.
We have now made all necessary field-strength calculations and can
draw curves of 20 Iog,o (F/X) as a function of X for each set of heights
chosen. The resulting curves are shown in Fig. 2.23. Since we know
SEC.2.16] CONTOURS OF CONSTANT FIELD STRENGTH 135

that for the given system and target – 20 Ioglo (Ro/R,) = – 100 db, we
use Eqs. (469) and (471) with R~ = Ro, and then Fig. 2“22 to obtain a
figure of merit in natural units. We find

20 log,o ~ = – 18 db.
e
The line corresponding to 20 log,o (F/X,) = – 18 db is also drawn on
Fig. 2.23. The range at which this line intersects a given field-strength
+10

-10

-20

*- -30
k
-i _40
#
0.
w -50

-60

-70

-60

-90
0123456 78910
Range X m natural units
Fro. 2.23.—Field-strength curves employed to determine the coverar?e contour shOwn in
Fig. 2.24.

curve is the maximum range for the target height for which the curve
was drawn. By using all six such points of intersection we may con-
struct the desired coverage diagram shown in Fig. 2“24 with the height
and distance scales marked both in natural units and in physical units.
On occasion it will be found that the given line of 20 log,O (F/X,) will
lie above the first maximum for the highest or higher heights chosen.
This indicates that the lowest lobe will have been closed before this height
is reached; for example, if
20 IOW,: = –9 db
,
for the given system and target, this would mean that the first lobe would
have been closed between 500 ft (ZZ = 16.15) and 750 ft (22 = 24.2).
Figure 2.23 can actually be used for many more coverage problems
than the one worked out here, particularly because it has been drawn in
 136 HORIZONTALLY STRATIFIED ATMOSPHERE THEORY [SEC.2.16

terms of natural units. In the first place, we may choose as many different
figures of merit as we wish for any circuit as long as Z, = 3.23; the desired
contour diagram is obtained by drawing the appropriate 20 log10 (F/X,)
line on the diagram and finding the points of intersection. It is a cus-
tomary procedure to draw many such contours on a coverage chart
such as Fig. 2.23, thereby increasing its applicability. The second great
advantage of this type of coverage
diagram is the result of using nat-
ural units throughout the computa-
tions. Although we have worked
a coverage problem for ZI = 100 ft
and k = 9 cm, the resulting dia-
gram shown in Fig, 2.24 is equally
applicable to another wavelength if
the proper physical unit coordinates
are added and the transmitter
height is changed consistent with
the relation between physical units,
20 30 40 50 wavelength, and natural units.
True rangein statute miles
Thus a coverage diagram for z, =
FIG.2.24.—Coverage contour of a ver- 100 ft and A = 9 cm can equally
tically polarized 9-cm radar at a height of 100
ft viewing an elevated target over smooth sea well be a coverage diagram for z,
water. The free-space range is 63 statute
miles.
=48 ftandk= 3cm, z,=500ft
and X = 1 m, etc. In view of this
fact, it can be seen that a set of coverage charts, each for a different Z,
and each having many values of 20 loglo (F/X,) drawn, can be used to
determine coverage for circuits with a wide range of system performance,
operating wavelength, and transmitter height. 1
The method of determining coverage contours previously discussed
can be extended as far into the interference region as desired by extending
the graphs of 20 loglo (F/X,) vs. X back into the interference region.
Although we used the method only to locate the bottom of the first lobe,
by extending the plots we could have located the top of the first lobe, the
bottom of the second lobe, and so on. For microwaves the lobe structure
is usually so fine that there is no practical need for determining the detailed
lobe structure, and it is sufficient to draw the locus of the lobe maxima.
In the case of radar transmission, no moving target will be able to escape
detection for a long period within this locus. For fixed point-to-point
transmission, diversity reception may often be a sufficient safeguard
against being caught in a minimum. z

] Cj. B. E. Howard, H. W. Dodson, and J. R. Gill, “Field Intensity Contours in

Generalized Coordinates,” RL Report No. 702, May 2, 1945.
2Diversity reception is’ accomplished by combining the output of two or more
receivers separated by an appreciable distance.
SEC. 216] CO,VTO UR,Y OF ~OiVSTA NT FIELD 9TRENGTH 137

If only the locus of maxima is desired, we can write

R ma. –— R,[~(t, – t) + .f(– IJ2 – ~ – t) ~P(#2)1, (472)

where the quantity in brackets will be recognized as the expression for F

in a lobe maximum. For transmitter heights of less than 1000 ft a rapid
construction of the coarse coverage can be made in terms of ~, the elevation
angle measured from the base of the transmitter. For ranges of more
than 20 miles, it will almost always ~C true that -y = #1 = 1A and v <<Y;
hence Eq. (472) becomes

The maximum range can thus be found as a function of y if the divergence

1.0

0.9

0.8

0.2

0.1

0
-1012345678 910
f
ae tan 7
Fm. 2.25.—Divergence factor D(() as a function of f, where f = —
G“

factor can be expressed as a function of -y. This can be done 1 with Figs.
2.25 and 2.26.
If we let
a, tan T
r = ~2a,z1’

where ZI is the transmitter height and a, = 5280 statute miles for standard
refraction, then D is given approximately by

(474)

‘ R. A. Hutneretal., “Field IntensityFormulae,” RL Report No. 23, Sept.28, 1943,

pp. 31–33.
138 HORIZONTALLY STRATIFIED ATMOSPHERE THEORY [SEC. 2.16

Equation (474) is plotted in Fig. 225. A better approximation is given by

D(7) = D(r)
()
1+ & ~

where the percentile error factor c can be determined approximately from

(475)

Fig. 2.26. The contours of c in Fig. 2“26 have been determined in terms
of the quantity q = 4~0, where ZI is in feet. The contours of Fig.
2.26 are accurate only for Z1 = 200 ft but are reasonably accurate for
1000
800
c=q~
600

400 (– \
2TJ

g 200 \
E
~ 0 5q
= II
%
: 100 w \
\ ,\ \
“; 80
10TJ
:60 f—
157J
40 m ‘ \ \ .
Q

20 \
50? \ \

19 ~ “’ \ \ \
o +1 +2 +3 +4
r
I?m. 2.26.—Contours of per cent error e in D(r) as a function of ~ and approximate range.
These contours are correct for z, = 200 ft and are approximate for other heights.

heights of less than 1000 ft and ~ >0. Calculations of D for { <0 are
apt to be appreciably in error. As the free-space range of the set is known,
it will usually be possible to estimate the range well enough to use Fig.
2“26, Although subject to numerous limitations, this method of deter-
mining the divergence factor approximately for transmitter heights of
less than 1000 ft is in general very satisfactory. Coarse coverage diagrams
can be prepared rapidly from Eq. (473) by this method. Such coverage
diagrams are usually drawn on specially prepared coordinate paper” on
which curves of constant ~ are straight lines, On this paper, height is
measured vertically, whereas distance is measured along a parabola.
The parabola representing the earth’s surface falls off r2/2 ft at a range of
r statute miles. Figure 2.27 is drawn on such a graph.
SEC. 2.16] CONTOURS OF CONSTANT FIELD STRENGTH 139

The reader is advised to be thoroughly familiar with Sees. 55 to 5“12

before using Eq. (473). It is pointed out in these sections that for micro-
waves over land, specular reflection may be very small. If reflections
are neglected, Eq. (473) reduces to
R max = Rrj(~ – f). (476)
For horizontally polarized microwave radiation over sea water, measured
values of p are often considerably less than unity, and values of p used in
20° 10° 7.5” 5.0°
20 /
18

: 14
: 12
~ 10
5 /
.E 8
=6
,~
24 /

Range m miles
.“
100
FIG. 2.27.—Coarse coverage diagram for a 10-cm radar employing vertical polarization
and sited 200 ft above a smooth sea. The free-space range is 50 miles, and the half-power
beamwidth is 6“. The slopingdashedlinesindicateelevationangle,and thecurveddaahed
line shows the free-space coverage diagram.

determining the coverage contour should be chosen with the material in

Sec. 5“5 to 5.8 in mind.
As an example the coarse coverage diagram will be found for a 10-cm
radar system with a horizontally pointed, symmetrical paraboloidal

TABLE 2.3.—CALCULATIONS FOR COARSE COVERAGE DIAGRAM OF VERTICALLY

POLARIZED RADAR SYSTEM WITH A = 10 CM,z, = 200 FT.AND
R, = W STATUTE MILES’

7°
D([)
%
D(y) P(-t’)

T
f(7)
R=,
Statuk

LJ-i-1
f (Fig.2.25) (::. % [Eq. (475)1 (Fig 5“4) [Eq. (455)] F
mile.?

00 0.58 7 0.62 1.00 1.00 1,62 81

0.5 2.3 0.93 1 0.94 0.86 0.99 1.79 90
1.0 4.6 0.98 0 0.98 0.73 0.97 1.66 84
1.5 6.9 0.99 0 0.98 0.62 0.93 1.49 74
2.0 9.2 1.00 0 1.CNI 0.53 0.87 1.33 66
2.5 . . .. .. .. .. . . . . . . . . . . 1.00 0.45 0.80 1.16 58
3.0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.00 0.37 0.71 0.97 48
3.5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.00 0.31 0.6Q 0.79 40
140 HORIZONTALLY STRATIFIED ATMOSPHERE THEORY [SEC. 2.17

antenna having a beamwidth of 6°. The system uses vertical polariza-

tion and has a free-space range of 50 statute miles on a given type of air-
craft target. It is sited at an elevation of 200 ft and looks out over sea
water, We can find D from Figs. 225 and 226 and P from Fig. 5.4. For
such an antenna Eq. (173) reduces to

R max = Rof(-i)(l + DP), (477)

where j(~) can be found from Eq. (455) by setting 190 = 6°. The necessary
calculations are shown in Table 2”3 and the coarse col-erage diagram may
be found in Fig. 2“27.

THE BILINEAR MODIFIED-INDEX PROFILE

BY WENDELL H. FURRY

2“17. Definition of the Problem and Preliminary Formulation. -In tbe

treatment of modified-incle>: profiles that are more complicated than the
linear profile the following compensatory simplifications will be used:
1. Only the diffraction region will be considered. No attempt will
be made to accomplish s reduction of the field integral for the inter-
ference region, as was done in Sec. 2“11 for the linear modified-index
profile.
2. The fundamental theorem of Sec. 2“7 will be applied immediately;
the distributions to be considered are such that the necessary
assumptions are certainly valid.
3. (corresponding to the fact that only the diffraction region is to be
considered, the boundary condition at the earth’s surface will always
be taken in the simplified form given in Eq. (158). The expression
for ~ [Eq. (164)] then reduces to the series term only. Also, there
is no remaining dependence of the results on polarization.
The formula for ~ will now be written in terms of the natural units
defined in Sec. 2“10 and shown in Figs. 217 and 2’18. Substitution of
r = XL = 2(koq9-~ x, (478)

q ‘A ~=kO–~, (479)
Km = ko ~1 — qHAm = kO
J 1– () 10
in the series of Eq. (164) and the use of the asymptotic expansion of the
Hankel function [Eq. (357)] lead to the result

* ‘e-i(ti+r”) +(t)z’i’”x~~’(”)~~)(
‘480)
all m

The only approximations involved in this transformation are the use of

the asymptotic expansion for the Hankel function, which is strongly
justified, and the approximation indicated in Eq. (479). The latter
SEC. 2.17] DEFINITIO.V OF THE PROBLEM 141

approximation depends on the smallness of (q/kO)~$]A”l. For the first

few terms of the series, the values of l-4~1 are not large numbers, and
,kO/qis roughly the number of wavelengths in the earth’s circumference;
thus this approximation is strongly justified for the terms of the series
that are of importance.
Equation (480) still contains the heights z,, 22 in ordinary units.
Because the simplified boundary condition of Eq. (158) is to be used,
Eq. (166) can be written
m
[U:’(z)]’dz= 1, (481)
/ 0
the integral being along a ray in the fourth quadrant of the z-plane.
The definition
Urn(z) =IW#(z) (482)

gives a function of Z normalized; hence

m U~(Z) dZ = 1, (483)
/ o
the integral being along a ray in the fourth quadrant of the Z-plane.
Since
(484)

Eq. (480) now becomes

+ = ‘:2‘-’(’”’+””)–
Az m
ei~-.YUm(Z1) U~(Z2). (485)

This is the same as Eq. (427). The pattern-propagation factor F is

equal to the magnitude of @; accordingly,

F=2m eiA-x Um(Z1) Um(ZZ) . (486a)

Y4
m
If only one mode makes an appreciable contribution,

F = 2<mX e- C-,X1Um,(Z,) Um,(Z,)l. (486b)

Here the index ml refers to the significant mode, and C~l is the attenuation
constant, equal to Im(A ml). The method of determining the numbers
A. and the functions U~(Z) for a given distribution of the modified index
has still to be specified.
The numbers A. and functions U.(Z) are determined by the solution
of a boundary-value problem. The problem in question is obtained by
translating into natural units the boundary-value problem that deter-
mines Kl and u:) (z). When Eqs. (479), (137), (482) and the expression

z = HZ = (q?c:)-%Z (487)
142 HORIZONT.4LL Y STRATIFIED A T.lfO.~PHERE 1’HEuRY [SEC, 217

are substituted in Eq. (138), the resulting differential equation-for Urn(Z) is

~ + [Y(z) + Am]um= o. (488)

Here

y(z) = ~o
~“(N,_l)=. l”-l (489)
() qH

and is a function of Z that expresses the distribution of modified index.

Since

y’(z)=~~y=%’ (490)
qdz ‘

it is seen that Y’(Z) = 1 wherever the curve N*(z) has the standard
slope q.
The boundary conditions on LTm(Z) follow directly from those on
U2(Z,Kn) :
Urn(Z) eio’ s upward-mo~ring wave, Z + rn; (491)

Urn(o) = o. (492)

The condition of normalization has already been stated in Eq. (483).

An alternative expression of the normalization condition, which is some-
times more convenient, can be obtained from Eqs. (479), (482), (483),
(165), and (185) by using stipulation 3, as a result of ~(.’)~ o. The
condition so expressed is

– [1:(0) !?!!f!! = 1. (493)

[1 dA A.Am

Here the function U(Z), whose partial derivative is taken, satisfies Eqs.
(488) and (491) but does not satisfy Eq. (492) for A # Am,
This formulation applies to all cases of modified-index profile, subject
to stipulations 1 to 3. The remainder of this section and the three that
follow; treat the problem of a distribution given by a curve made up of
portions of two straight lines; hence
dN2
———= g = const., z>d, (494)
dz

dN2
———= p = const., z<d, (495)
dz

lim N, =
z+d+ ,!?-N’ (496)

This is called the bilinear distribution. For p <0, a duct exists, and d is
the duct height; in general, d is the depth of the nonstandard layer. By
SEC. 2.17] DEFINITION OF THE PROBLEM 143

using ~q. (~{)t)) a function Y(Z) can be determined for use in calculations
made in natural units:
Y(z) = z – g, Z>g; (497)
Y(z) = S’(z – g), Z<g. (498)
Here

~=! (499)
H

is the depth of the nonstandard layer in natural units, and

~a=?? (500)
Q
is the ratio of the slope of the curve of N* in the nonstandard layer to the
standard slope of the curve above the layer. Equations (497) and (498)
contain the convention, adopted for the sake of convenience and definite-
ness, that Y = O for z = g. It is clear from Eq. (488) that if Y is changed
by an additive constant, the quantities Am are simply changed by the
negative of the same constant.
The definition [Eq. (500)] gives meaning only to S3,but s and S2occur
often in the calculations. There is no 10SSin generality and a considerable
gain in convenience in stipulating
that s shall always be regarded z t
as real.
Figure 2.28a shows the curve
of Y against Z for a case with a
negative value of s; in such cases ~
there is a duct, and g is the duct g
K&
Y— 0 y—
height in natural units. Figure 0
(a) (b)
2.28b shows a case in which s is
Ft~. Z28.—Examples of bilinear N-profiles,
positive and greater than unity; drawn to scales exmwsed k natural units.
this gives a substandard layer.
The curves shown are of course the same in shape as the M-profiles for
such cases, with a particular choice of units and of the axis Y = O.
The formal solution of the boundary-value problem for the bilinear
profile can be obtained in terms of the functions discussed in Sec. 2.9.
In order to have the equations in a form that facilitates numerical cal-
culation of the functions Urn(Z), most of the equations are written in terms
of the functions h,(~) and hz({), which have been tabulated for complex
arguments.
When Eqs. (497) and (498) are substituted into Ea.. (488),. it is at once
apparent that the solution has the general form
Urn(Z) = Y.(Z – g + A.), Z 2 g, (501)
U~(Z) = ?/$(.s2 – sg + s -’A ~), Z<g. (502)
144 HORIZONTALLY STR.4 TIFIED ATMOSPHERE THEORY [SEC. 217

Here y=({) and V8({) are solutions of J3q. (304). From Eq. (491) it follows
that y= must be a multiple of hi:

u.(z) = K?A(Z - g + Am), Zzg. (503]

The factor h-n must eventually be determined from Eq. (483) or (493).
The function yP must be a linear combination of hi and hz and must be so
chosen that Urn(Z) and U:(Z) are continuous at Z = g. ‘l’hen,
. h,(s-’.4 ~) h,(A ~) h,(s-’A ~)
u.(z) = ~h? sh/(s-2A ~) h;(A ~) Sh;(S-’fi
~) (504)
h, (sZ – sg + .s”-2.4
~) O h,(sZ – sg + S-2A m)
Here
W = h,hj – M: = – 1.457495i. (505)

The boundary condition [Eq. (492)] must now be applied. This step
gives a transcendental equation whose roots determine the characteristic
values A ~. For conven~ence in writing many formulas in the following
section one can introduce the symbol
w = S~A m. (506)

From Eqs. (492) and (504) there follows the transcendental equation
for w
h,(w) sll*(s’ul) h’(w)
I#J(w) == h:(w) h:(s’w) h:(w) = o. (507)
h,(w – sg) O h,(w – sg)

Methods of solving this equation are discussed in the following section.

The simplest formula for the constant Km is obtained from Eq. (493).
From Eqs. (504) and (507) it is seen that

UL(0) = –*:. (508)

Then from Eqs. (493), (504), (507), and (508), it follows that

(w(w)=..=
1 (509)

Since, by the rule for implicit differentiation,

do
dA . XJ (510)
dg=–db ‘

(-)dA ,4.A,.
Eq, (5o9) can be written
db ‘2 dA. (511)
K~ = –(sW)’ ~~ —
() dg
SEC. 2.17] DEFINITION OF THE PROBLEM 145

Then, by Eq. (508),

[U4(())]2 = –~. (512)

In all these equations s is, of course, to be regarded as a given constant.

Whenever values of A. have been determined for a sequence of values
of g with fixed .s and dA ~/dg is not too small to be readily evaluated and
used, Eq. (511) or (512) provides a convenient rule for normalizing U~(Z).
Another formula is needed, however, for cases in which A ~ has been
found for only one value of g or in which dA~/dg is very small.
The required formula can be obtained from Eq. (483). For any
function y(~) that satisfies Eq. (304), the formula of indefinite integration
r
b({)]’& = f {Y({)]’ + [g’(f)]’+ const.
/
can be verified by differentiation. Then from Eqs. (483), (501), and (502),
it follows that
(s-3 – l){Am [Urn(g)]’ + [~~(g)]’] – S-’[u;(())]’ = 1. (514)

The first term can be evaluated from Eq. (5o3), and the second from
Eqs. (5o4) and (507); the result is
2

K;z = (S-3 – 1) {Am [h(Am)]2 + [h;(Am)]2] – S-5~–2

()
: . (515)

By comparing Eqs. (512) and (514), it is seen that when the condition
dA
~ << Is’1 (516)

is satisfied, the last term of Eq. (515) can be neglected.

Most of the preceding equations cannot be used directly for the case
s = O. The simplest way to get the results for this case is to begin again
with the differential equation [Eq. (488)]. Equation (503) still holds
for Z > g, but for Z < g the differential eqtiation is not of the type of
Eq. (304); instead it is

% + AmUm = O, Z<g, S=o. (517)

The solution that vanishes at Z = O and makes U~(Z) continuous at

Z= ais
.
~ (z) = Km .hz(Am)
m sin (A~Z), S=o. (518)
sm (A#g)

The requirement that U~(Z) be continuous at Z = g gives the trans-

cendental equation
h:(A ~)
(519)
~o (A ~, ~

— – A;~ tan (Afg) = O, S=o.

h,(Am)
146 HORIZONTALLY STRATIFIED ATMOSPHERE THEORY [SEC. 2.18

The formula that replaces Eq. (511) for s = O is obtained by substituting

Eq. (518) into Eq. (512):
sinz (A Mg) dA ~
K% = ‘Am [h2(A~)]2 @ ‘ S=o. (520)

A formula to replace Eq. (515) can be obtained by direct evaluation of

the integral in Eq. (483):

‘;2=‘[(1 – ~
2L) secz (A#g) + ~ A;% tan (A#g)
1
[h~(A ~) ]’. (521).

2“18. Methods for Calculating Characteristic Values.—In this section

a number of formulas are obtained for the approximate calculation of
characteristic values A ~ for various values of s and g. These formulas
cover cases in which g is either small or large. When the value of g is
neither small nor large, none of these formulas applies, and A ~ must be
computed by direct numerical solution of the transcendental equation
[Eq. (5o7) or (519)].
The numerical solution of the transcendental equation may be ac-
complished in either of two ways:
i. The method of mapping. Values of @ are computed numerically
for several complex values of w, and the results are plotted on the
complex @-plane. From the resulting pattern of points the value
of w that makes @ = O can be estimated approximately.
2. The Newton-Raphson method. Successive estimates wO, wI, “ “ .
of the value of a root are connected by the formula

@(lL~_,) .
w. = (522)
~’”-’ – @’(fLn-,)

The details of the application of these two methods need not be cli~-
cussed here.1 The attempt to reduce the amount of numerical work re-
quired has affected the choice of cases to be treated. Tt’henever values
of any of the functions hl, h, h{, hj ‘have to be obtained for an argument
not given directly in the existing tables, a rather laborious process of
interpolation is necessary. For this reason the values of s that are chosen
are usually such that S2is a simple rational number, and values of g are
chosen so that 10sg is an integer. At least the earlier part of the com-
putation can then be accomplished with values taken directly from the
tables.
The first approximate formula that will be discussed is the one for small
values of g. For q = O the bilinear case reduces to the linear case; and

1They arc discussed in W. H. Furry, “hlcthods of (’calculating Characteristic Values

for Bilinear .tf-curves,” RL Report No. 795, Feb. 6, 1946. The appendices to this
report contain further details of the derivation of the approximate formulas given in
this section.
Szc. 2.18] METHODS FOR CALCULATING 147

because of the use of the simplified boundary condition [Eq. (158) or

(492)], thecharacteristic values A ~ are just the numbers cm that satisfy

hzkm)=0. (523)

This may be seen by using Eqs. (492) and (503) for g = O. The numbem
~~ all have the same phase,
~~ = l~~le2-’13. (524)

Values of the first few ~~ and an asymptotic formula for large ]fml are
given in Eq. (338).
For s = 1, g # O, the distribution is still essentially the linear one;
but as shown by Eqs. (497) and (498), Y has been decreased by the amount
g; hence A ~ must exceed ~~ by g. For s # 1, further corrections appear,
all proportional to S3– 1 and to higher powers of g. Am is thus expressed
as a power series in g.
In the derivation of this series, use is made of the Riccati equation
corresponding to the linear differential equation [Eq. (304)]. If y(~) is
a solution of Eq. (304), then the function

(525)

is a solution of the Riccati equation

(526)

The zeros of r(~) are the same as those of y(~), as y’(() is an integral func-
tion. We denote by ~’ the correction to be applied to ~~ to obtain A ~,

S2W= Am = ~m + ~’. (527)

Then if r-a(~)is a solution of Eq. (526), which also satisfies the requirement

?-.(S2W– f’) = o, (528)

it follows from Eqs. (523), (525), and (501) that

Y,(.Z – g + Am) _ h2(Z – g + Am)

r=(Z–g+ A~)=Y~(Z_g+A~) – (529)
hJ(Z – g + Am)
Urn(z)
Z>g.
= w)’

Similarly, if rp(r) satisfies Eq. (526) and the requirement

rp(w — sg) = O, (530)

then, by Eqs. (525), (492), and (502),

Un(z)
s–l Tp(sz – Sg + w) = ~~iJ Z<g. (531)
148 HORIZONTALLY STRATIFIED ATMOSPHERE THEORY [SEC. 2.18

The requirement that Urn(Z) and U~(Z) be continuous at Z = g reduces

to the equation
Ta(stw) = s–%’~(lu). (532)

Equations (526), (527), (528), (530), and (532) now define the problem of
determining r’ as a function of s, g, and ~~. The symmetry of Eqs.
(528), (530), and (532) greatly simplifies the calculation. The procedure
used is first to find f’ as a power series in g with coefficients involving s
and S*Wand then to use Eq. (527) to obtain from this series a series whose
coefficients involve s and ~~. The final series could be obtained in a single
step but only with much greater effort.
The series,

obviously satisfies Eq. (530). By substituting it in Eq. (526) and equat-

ing coefficients of successive powers of (~ — w + sg), we can determine
the quantities am(~):
al(r) = 1, a4(f-) = —A,
az({) = o, a5({) = T%tz, (534)
a3(r)=?r, ““’”’”’”””.
Then
m
r~(w) = ~ an(w) (Sg)”. (535)
fi=l
Similarly,
.
7=(S2W)= ~ an(s2w)~’”. (536)
fi=l

We can express ~’ formally as a power series in g,

!?’= ~ 0.9”. (537)

n=rl

The coefficients B. can be determined by using Eqs. (534) to (537) in

Eq. (532) and equating coefficients of successive po;vers of g:

... (538)

Use of Eqs. (537) and (538) in Eq. (527) gives the result
1–s3 s3–l Amg6 +....
Am=rm+g+~g’+~ (539)

An algebraic process is now required to obtain a series in which the

coefficients depend on ~~, not on Am. For the calculation of terms to and
SEC.218] METHODS FOR CALCULATING 149

includlng g12it stices to replace Am, where it appears in the coefficients,

by the approximate value

(540)

The final result is

7s – 47s9 119s’ – 190s’ + 11s ,0

90,720 9
+ 11,340 ‘“9’ + ( – *O ‘~ + )
+ 17s’ – s
23.100 ‘W
–
+ (—sr&+
1
935,550
15,709S’ + 10,826L!Y– 265S
14,968,806
fm g“+”””,
)
(541)

where
S=l–sa. (542)

This series predicts the initial behavior of Am M a function of g for

given s, but it does not allow the behavior of A ~ to be followed very far.
The power series in Eqs. (535) and (536) has a fairly small radius of con-
vergence, and the same is presumably true of the series of Eq, (541). The
labor of obtaining additional terms of this last series mounts very rapidly.
For large values of g, separate formulas must be used for the three cases
s < 0, s = O, and s > 0. The first case s <0 gives strongly trapped
modes when g is large. The values of A ~ are very nearly purely real
negative numbers. The functions in terms of which Eq. (507) is written
cannot in such cases be reliably and unambiguously evaluated by means
of the asymptotic expansions [Eqs. (326) to (333)], because the arguments
in question fall very near the boundaries of the ranges stated for the use
of the expansions. For this reason it is best to rewrite the equation in
terms of the Airy integrals, which are defined by Eqs. (339) and (340).
The Ahy integral Ai( – ~) is proportional to the integral g~(~), described
in Sec. 2“9. From Eqs. (311), (328), and (329) it is seen that for values
of ~ near the negative real axis the functions Ai( —~) and Ai’( —~) have
a uniquely defined asymptotic behavior: It is a strong exponential decrease
as 1~1increases. When the asymptotic expansions given in Sec. 2“9 are
applied to the functions Bi( —~) and Bi’( —~) for such values of ~, am-
biguities are found in connection with the exponentially decreasing terms.
These terms can, however, be ignored in evaluating Bi( – f) and Bi’(–f),
for the exponentially increasing terms are enormously larger and the use
of Ai( —~) and Ai’( – ~) as the other basic solutions takes proper account
of the possibility of the negative exponential behavior for a solution.1
1This proceduregivesformulasthat agreewith the‘asymptoticexpansionsgiven in
the introductionto the British Association Tables of ths Airy Intsgrcds.
150 HORIZONTALLY STRATIFIED ATMOSPHERE THEORY @EC. 2.E3

The first and third columns of the determinant in Eq. (507) can be
rewritten by replacing the hl and hj functions by the Airy integrals, since
the function ye of Eq. (502) bould equally well have been regarded as a
linear combination of the latter. The middle column must be trans-
lated by using Eqs. (343) and (344). The resulting transcendental equa-
tion is
Ai(–w) .s[Bi(-s2w) – iAl(–s2w)] Bi(–w)
–Ai’(–w) – [Bi’(–slw) – iAi’(–sZw)] –Bi’(–w) = o. (543)
Ai(–w+sg) o Bi(–w+sg)

This equation can be rewritten in the form

s[Bi(–s2w) – iAi( –s*w)] Ai(–w)

– Bi’( –szw) + iAi’( –S2W) –.ki’(–w)
- +{::j:]. (544)
]s[Bi( –s’s) – iAi( –T2W)] Bi(–w) ~ –
l–Bi’(-s2w) + iAi’(-s2w) –Bi’(- w)I

For strongly trapped modes, w and Szw are sizable negative numbers.
Then in the left member of Eq. (544) the values of Bi and Bi’ are very
large compared with those of Ai and Ai’. Accordingly, the roots of the
equation are values of w that make Ai( —w + sg) take very small values.
From Eqs. (342), (523), and (5X), it is seen that the zeros of Ai( – f) are
the absolute values of the zeros of hz(~). Hence a zeroth approximation
to the roots of Eq. (<544) is
Wo = Irml + Sg. (545)

As s is negative, WOis negative for large values of g.

When the value
W= WO+AW (546)

is substituted in the right-hand member of Eq. (544), this member becomes

Ai(– u) + sg) = Ai(–1~~1 – AW) = Ai’(–’~,,, ~)

Atr + f)[(Aw)2]. (547)
Bi(–w + sg) Bi(– ~(m,l– Au,) ‘-Bi( – ,fml)

For large g the correction Aw is exponentially small. In the left member

of Eq. (544) we can replace w by WOand use the asymptotic expansions
of the Airy integrals. The asymptotic value of ALUcan then be found.
The resulting formula is

+(-:-9”-’’+””]
+~e-’’+)-+)’+
+* (1 – S-’) IWOI-$5+ & (1 – S-’) ’lu)o]-’ + ~~
II
(548)
SEC. 2.18] METHODS FOR CALCULATING 151

Here w, is given by Eq. (545), and

Bi(– lf~l)
am=— (549)
Ai’(– Irml)”

The first few vah.ms of am are a, = 0.6474, cw = 0.4935, cu = 0.4252.

The asymptotic formula

am = [#(m – +)T]-% (550)

gives the values of further am’s very well and gives even al with an error
of less than 1.5 per cent.
If the first square bracket in Eq. (548) is neglected and the second is
replaced by unity, and if the approximate formulas of Eqs. (338) and (550)
are used throughout, Eq. (548) becomes just the result given by the
Gamow phase-integral method. This is the only case for the bilinear
model in which a phaae-integral method gives correctly the first term of a
valid asymptotic series.1
Equations (545), (548), and (549) provide a sequence of solutions for
m=l,2,3, ...; Eq. (548) can be used only when wo is negative and not
too small numerically; hence there is a limitation on the number of
solutions that can be obtained in this way for given values of s and g.
Attention must be called to the fact that use of the same value of m in Eqs.
(541) and (548) does not necessarily give values of Am that actually corre-
spond to each other in the sense that one goes over into the other contin-
uously as g increases from small values for which Eq. (541) holds to large
values for which Eq. (548) holds. Actually this is not the case in general,
but there is good reason to believe that the correspondence does always
hold for m = 1. The use of the subscript (m) instead of m is a reminder
of this lack of general correspondence.
Some of the values A ~ given by Eq. (541) for small g and negative s
do not go over for large g into any of the values given by Eq. (548). In-
stead they approach certain constant values, functions of s, as g * ~.
These modes should ordinarily make no important contribution to the
field strength, as they are always more strongly attenuated than the first
mode of standard propagation, whereas trapped modes have small attenu-
ations. These cases will not be discussed at this point; formulas for these
values of A ~ in the limit g -+ co can be stated more conveniently after the
case of positive s has been treated.
For s = 0, g * m, there are two possibilities: Either Am* O, or Am
remains finite. The case A ~ * O is the important one in practice, for it
gives modes with small attenuatiorm The first step in the solution of

1The Eckersleytype of phaae-integralmethod cannot be used because Y(Z) is not

an analytic function. The failure of attempts to use asymptotic expansions to obtain
solutions of thw sort is discussed in Furry, op. d., Appendix B.
 152 HORIZONTALLY STRATIFIED ATMOSPHERE THEORY [SEC. 2.18

Eq. (519) for g>> 1, lA~l <<1 is to write one of its terms as a Maclaurin’s
expansion,
h,(Am)
=a+bArn+cA: +”... (551)
h;(Am)

The coefficients are found to be

h,(0)
— – 1.3717 e’”’l’ = –0.6859 + 1.1880i, (552)
a = h; (0) –

b=], c=~az d=~a,.,. (553)

The differentiations required in obtaining the coefficients are most readily

performed by means of Eqs. (525) and (526). The radius of convergence
is equal to the magnitude of the first zero of h~(f), or 1,0188.
When Eqs. (551) to (553) are substituted into Eq. (519), the resulting
equation can be written

For g >> u it is clear that the zeroth approximation to the roots must be

(555)

If
(556)

The quantity ~ can be assumed to have the form,

-f ==;+;+””’. (558)

When Eqs. (,556) to (558) are substituted in Eq, (554) and the coefficients
of successive powers of g are equated separately, the ronstants 72, -y’, ‘ “ “
can be evaluated. The final formula for A ~, found by squaring Eq.
(.556), is
.% ~+;+y+ 4a3 + 2(7nm)’(1 – ~ a3)
A (m)
[ 93
5a4 + 10(m7r)’a(l – ~ u3)
+ (559)
94
6u’ + 30(rtZT)2a’(1 – ~ a’) – (m~)’az(l – ~ a’) + . .
+
9’ 1
Here a is the complex number given in l+lq. (.552).
SEC. 2.18] METHOD*Y FOR CALCULATING 153

Use of thesame value of min Eq. (541) (withs =0) and Eq. (559)
does not necessarily give values of Am that actually correspond to each
other; the situation is similar to that of Eqs. (541) and (548) for negative
values of .s. For m = 1, however, numerical calculation of values of Al
for intermediate values of g shows that it actually does go over into the
functional) given by Eq. (559).
If Am remains finite, with positive imaginary part, for g+ CO,then
tan (A~g)~i. Equation (519) shows that finite limiting values of Am
fors = O, g-+ m must satisfy the equation
h~(Am) +zA;h&4m) =0, (560)
Roots of this equation will be denoted by A(,~~(0), to indicate that they
are limiting values for g-+ ~ and for s = O. The two smallest roots are
AIJ)(0) = –0.446+2.962i,
(561)
A[~)(0) = –1.334+4.380,’,

and an approximate formula for large m is

(562)

This equation gives the value of A&)(0) correct within 1 percent.

It would not be difficult toobtain anexpression forlarge finite values
of g to correspond to the foregoing results forg+ m, but this has not been
done. The imaginary part of A&)(0) is 1.46 times as Iargeas that of fl,
the smallest characteristic value for the standard case; hence all such
modes are strongly attenuated and are of little actual importance.
The case of positive values of s and large values of g can be discussed
most readily by using the symmetrically defined functions yl(~), yz(~),
ys(~), introduced in Sec. 2.9, to express the solutions written in Eqs. (501)
and (502). The transcendental equation [Eq. (507)] can then be written
V1(w) Syz(snw) W(w)
v:(w) ?J;(S2W) y;(w) = o. (563)
Y,(W– Sg) o Y3(W–s9)
The most natural assumption, on general principles, is that Re(w) -+ + ~
for g ~ ~ ; the reasons why this is an attractive hypothesis will appear
in the next section, where the consequences of its falsity are studied. On
considering the elements of the first two rows in Eq. (563), one sees from
Eqs. (311) and (320) to (325) that for Ire(w) >0, Re(w) >>.1, these ele-
ments in the first column become very small whereas these elements in
the other two columns are very large. Then the last element of the first
column must be very small; and as g a W and Re(w) - aJ, w — sg must
approach a Zero of Y1(f). Because these zeros, namely, ~~, have negative
imaginary parts and this would violate the general theorem that Im(A m)
>0, the hypothesis that Re(w) + co for g -‘~ leads to a contradiction.
 154 H()l{lZONTA LI. Y,77'RAT1F1ED .4 T.4f0SpKK1t1C THE0[t1" [SEC. 218

Itisestablished, accordingly, tklat Re(u, – ,sq)- – m asg~ m, Then

V3(W – s9) -0, and Thus the chwu.cteristic values
Iyl(w – !sg)l- m.
approach certain finite va]ucs, determined by the roots of the equation

‘slJ2(s%) ?/3(u’)
= () (,s>o, g+ m). (!564)
!);(,s %1) TJ:(IL’)

The limiting characteristic values ~vill be denoted by .-l[,;))(T) or Af~l(s)

and are equal to S2times the roots of Eq, (564). Thp usc of subscripts
(m) and [m] \villbe adjusted sothatthe n,,tatior~ isc,,rLsistent \vitll that
already used in Eqs. (.5,59) and (,562) for ,s = 0.
The form of Eq. (564) makes it possible to estal)lish a useful ~eneral
relation between A(m)(s) and A(~)(l/s). From I<lIs. (:311) and (312) and
the results of differentiating those equations !rith respect to l~e((), one
readily obtains

:y,((”f’~’l’) = [-y,(~e-”’’)j’ = [e-”’/~j/3((,”’’’, ]’, (565)

yj({”er’;) = [–y{(~e-7’/3)]* = [er’j3yj(~e”Z3)]*. (566)

When the substitutions

w = .S-ZeZTZ13z*;s = ~–1 (567)

are made in Eq, (.564), the two columns are intwchanged, the first row is
multiplied by ue–m’l!, and the second rowby eT*)3the
, resulting eqUatiOn is

~e–r~/3V~(u2z*eri/8emi/3) e–r~/sy2(~*e~,~~e~Zl;)
e~V3g~(u2z*em{13e.i/s) (568)
e~i13y~(~*e7Z/3emi)3)
= O.

The complex conjugate of this equation is just

U?J2(IPZ) !/3 (z)
U;(2) = 0. (569)
y;(u%)

Comparison of Eqs. (564) and 569) shows that z is the same function of u
that w is of s. Then by Eq. (.567) it follows that

‘e2=’’3
‘2W(’) [431’
‘s2e2”’3[:’”(w
(g+ m, s > 0). (570)

That is,

A(m)(~) = s2e2d3
(s > o). (571)
[A(m)(w

This relation holds whether the subscript is (m) or [m]. It can be written
in the form

(s > o). (572)

‘(m)(s) ‘s’e”i’’[e-’i’’A(m)(:)]
SEC. 2.18] METHODS FOR CALCULATING 155

This shows that the complex point A(m)(s) can be obtained by reflecting
thepoint A(m)(l/s) in the line making theangle60° with the realaxis and
multiplying by S2.
According to Eq. (559), A&)(s) approaches zero for s-O. As v,(O)
is finite andneitherys(0) nory~(0) vanishes, it is clear from Eq. (564) that
w must not vanish for g+ m, s- O, S2W+ O. Indeed, w must approach
one of the zeros of ya(~), which are the numbers ]~~1. Equation (564)
can be written
Syz(S2W) _ Y3(~).
(573)
y;(szw) Y:(w)

Asyj(~) is proportionalto hz(~), Eqs. (551) to (553) provide an expansion

of theleft member of Eq. (573);

SY2(S2WJ) =
Sa+stw+ ;a*sSwz+; as’wt +“””. (574)
y;(szw)

The right-hand member of Eq. (573) can be expressed by setting

W=lf-ml+ti (575)

and making use of Eqs. (525) and (526) to obtain the Taylor’s series

Y&
=a+~lrmlbt+~~’+:lrml’a’+”” “. (576)
Y{(w)

The quantity 6 can be assumed to be a power series

6=~@+&s2+&~3 +’””. (577)

By the use of Eqs. (573) to (577), the coefficients 61, h, “ “ “ can be de-
termined. The resulting formula for A [~j (s), valid for small s, is

A~~l)(s) = l{~lsz + as3 + (1 – ~ a3)l~~ls5 + a(l – ~ a3)s6

+az(– 4 +~a3)l~~12s7 + (1 –-$a3+*a’)l~~ls6+ .“”. (578)

The notation used is consistent with that of Eq. (559). The complex
quantity a is defined in Eq. (552); a3 is real. By means of Eq. (571),
one can at once obtain from Eq. (578) an expression valid for large s; in
doing this we make use of the fact that

arg(a) = arg(~~) = ~. (579)

The resulting formula for large s is

Expressions will now be obtained for A&)(s) for smalls and for large s.
For s ~ O, A&)(s) remains finite, and w must become infinite. Equa-
156 HORIZONTALLY STRA TZFIED ATMOSPHERE THEORY [SEC. 2.18

tions (561) and (562) show that arg(w) is nearly equal to but somewhat
less than 2m/3. From Eqs. (311), (328), and (329) we find that for w
becoming extremely large with this phase angle,
Y,(w)
— = ~w–~$ + O(W–2) . (581)
Y:(w)

When Eq. (581) is used in Eq. (573), Eq. (560) is again obtained as the
equation satisfied by A $)(0). A more accurate asymptotic expression
than Eq. (581) can be obtained either from the formalism of Sec. 2.9 or
more simply from the Riccati equation [Eqs. (525) and (526)]. The
result is
Y& . ~w–}i _ –1 7.
(582)
Y;(w) 4 ‘-’– z’w-’’ +””””

When the quantity e is defined by

AL]‘) = S2W= A/J)(0) + c, (583)

a Taylor’s expansion gives

s’w’~Y2(s2w)= ~ + ~
y;(szw) 2A[; )(o) 6
1
C2+”””. (584)
+ { – 2[A/;)(o)]’~ – 8[A/;’ “}(o)]’

The quantity c can be assumed to have the form

c=61s3+62s~ +.... (585)

The coefficients cl, 620 ‘ “ can be found from Eqs. (573) and (582) to (585).
The final result, valid for small s, is

A/j)(s) = A[; )(0) + *Z [A[$)(0)]-1i(s3 + S6) – ~[A&)(0)]-2SG + “ 0-. (586)

The formula for large s, found by the use of Eq. (571), is

A&)(s) = sjeZ~i/s[A&)(0)]* + ~ e7i/G{[A f~)(0)]–5i) ●(s–l + S+)

(587)
– ? e2”i’’[A[$)(0)l*-’ S4 + . ~-.

The formulas obtained show that the loci in the complex plane of the
numbers A [~))(s) start from the origin for s = O and reach the values f~
for s ~ ~, whereas the loci of A(;)(s) start from the values A[~) (0) for
s = O and recede to infinity, in the asymptotic directions given by rays
from the origin through the points eri/s[e–”’/~A & ) (0) ]*, for s - OY.
For values of s very nearly equal to unity, the limit points are given
approximately by the roots of the equation
WeiT13
@(w) = MW)MW) + 2W( [h;(w)]’ + W[h’(w)l’} = ~ (588)
SEC.2.18] METHODS FOR CALCULATING 157

This equation is obtained from Eq. (564) by replacing Y2(S2W)by hz(s’w)

and ys(w) by a linear combination of hi(w) and hz(w), by means of the
formulas of Sec. 2.9, and expanding the functions of S2Win terms of those
of w to first order in s — 1. It should be noted that W is the Wronskian
defined in Eq. (505). As h’(w) has no singularities for finite w, it is clear
that s+ 1 means - ~. From the formulas of Sec. 2.9, one finds
that for large w,

o(w) = ~ JVe~’/3w*4e-(4’3’U$i[l + O (w-~$)], (589)

for – T < arg(w) < T/3; actually this result is valid beyond these limits,
up to the vicinity of the line on which ~~, the zeros of h~(~), are located.
From Eq. (588) it is seen that loci of real s, with s very nearly equal to
unity, are curves on which ~(w) is large and has constant phase. By
Eq. (589), these curves are asymptotic to one of the lines arg(w) = – m,
arg(w) = 7r/3. The requirement that these lines shall be related as
shown in Eq. (571) and shall all be in the upper half plane shows that
the asymptote is arg Am(s) = arg(w) = Ir/3. From Eqs. (588) and (589)
one finds that the branches for.s > 1 and s < 1 that approach the asymp-
tote most rapidly do so approximately symmetrically from the two sides
andthat for large Iwl theperpendicular distance between adjacent branches
lying near the asymptote and corresponding to different signs of s – 1
is approximately

/wl (arg w),>, - (arg w),<, = * (590)

The approximate formulas that have been obtained for small s, large s,
and s nearly equal to unity, together with a number of exact results
obtained in connection with numerical calculations of characteristic
values, make it possible to draw fairly accurately the loci of A [~j (s) and
A&) (s) in the complex plane. The result is shown in the solid curves of
Fig. 2.29. The labels on the curves are the subscripts (m) and [m]. The
branches below the line arg A = 7r\3 correspond to s < 1 for (m) and
s > 1 for [m]; the opposite is true for the upper branches. A few exactly
calculated points are marked on the curves for future reference.
NO attempt has been made to map the location of values of s along the
curves, apart from labeling end points and asymptotes. Considerable
portions of Curve (1) will be presented in more detail in the next section.
One important general feature of the distribution of values of s is that
the part of the lower branch of any curve that lies fairly within the system
of roughly parallel asymptotes to the ray arg A = 7r\3 corresponds to the
values of s very near to unity. This is exemplified by the points marked
A‘ and A” for s = 1.02) and B“ (fors = -; indeed, these points fall
on parts of the curves that are scarcely within the system of asymptotic
portions of the curves.
158 HORIZONTALLY STRATIFIED ATMOSPHERE THEORY [SEC. 2.18

Equation (563) can be written

y,(w) V42(.S2W)
y{(w) y;(s%) = Y3(W – ~9).
(591)
W(w) 8y2(.s%) ?J1(W – Sg)
Y;(w) yj(s’w)
,
If g is large but not infinite, the right member is small but not zero and
w must depart slightly from its limiting value. This difference is im-

5 -
m

C4
/

/
3

0
4 -3 -2 -1 0 +1 +2 +3 +4 +5 +6
B
FIG. 229. -l. oci of A(,~j (s) and .l$~~ (s) in the complex plane.

portant only for the numerator of the left member, ]vhich vanishes when
w has its limiting value. The value w. that w has lvhen g is large but
finite is accordingly given by the approximate formula

y,(w) s?y2(s?u!)l
IJ; (IL’) y;(s%) y3(w — Sg)
Wu— w== (592)
d fJ3(w) - Syz(s%) yl(w – Sg)
& rJj(w) y;(s’w)

When the differentiation is carried out and the expression is put into
form for numerical computation by replacing the y-functions by their
equivalents in terms of the h-functions, the formula obtained for large
SEC. 2.18] METHODS FOR CALCULATING 159

but finite values of g is

We—w=’
h, (W) shz (S2W)
h:(w) h:(s’w) 1 +e-mii~h(~ – 59) ~593J
~~,_ lJ ~;(w) + e - “’3h,(w] h~(s’w) ,[ h,(w – Sg) 1
h,(w) +e - ‘i’3h~(w) — wsh2(s2w)

Here w means the limiting value for gs ~ ; only the last factor depends
on g; it is small because hZ({)/hl(~) ~ e – 2T”3 for —Re(~) >>1.
The case in which w approaches a constant value for large g and nega-
tive s can be discussed by means of the sort of argument that has been
given for positive s. For negative s the more important solutions are
those for the trapped modes, whose characteristic values, denoted by A (m,,
are given by Eq. (548). The characteristic values for negative s that
approach finite limits for g - ~ are, accordingly, denoted by A ,~1,
and their limiting values by A&)(s). The equation for the A(;) (.s) for
negative s is obtained by applying to Eq. (507) the sort of argument
that, for positive s, was applied to Eq. (563). Because Ire(w) >0,
~ g -+ m for fixed w and negative s, h](w – sg) becomes small and
hi(w – sg) becomes large, by Eqs. (328) and (330). The equation for the
limiting value of w is, accordingly, in the g-notation

Y1(W) sy2(S2W)
=O(s<o, g+-). (594)
Y:(w) y;(szw)

The symmetry condition analogous to Eq. (572) is readily proved; it

involves reflection in the real axis and thus does not actually show a
valid relationship between acceptable solutions, as Eq. (594) is derived by
using the fact that Ire(w) > 0. The fact that for negative s the sym-
metry condition cannot be used to obtain a further solution for g -+ w
from any given solution can be regarded w connected with the fact that
one of the sets of characteristic values for negative s, the A(m), does not
approach finite limits for large g.
A formal connection between the solutiona of Eq. (594) and those of
Eq. (564) can be obtained by setting

s% = A, s = — ve’ils. (595)

Equation (594) then becomes, on multiplying the first row by dT{13and

the first column by e2”ili and using Eq. (311),
y,(u-2A) W2G4) = o
(596)
y:(v-2A) Y&4) “

On the other hand, Eq. (564) can be written

y,(s-2A) sy2(A) = ~
(597)
y~(s-2A) Y:(A) “
The solution of 13q. (596) is the same function of v = – se – ‘i’s that the
solution of Eq. (597) is of s. When ., is Icplticmf lJY – se ‘“i’3 in Eqs. (578)
and (587), the resulting quantities hare negative imaginary parts and
must be rejected. When this replacement is made in Eqs. (580) and (586),
the resulting formulas, valid for negatloe s, are

i4&)(s) = (m + a“s-’ + (1 – * a3)~ms-3+ a’ (1 – ~ a3)s4

+ a“(- * + $a’)~&5+ (1 –$a’++a’)~~sq+ .... (598)

A:;) (s) = A!,;)(0) + i;[~[,r,l

(m) (()) ]–~~ (s3 + .56) — *[.4[)CI(M~(o)]-2s6 + ---- (599)

Equation (599) is the sxme in form as MI. (5W) but applies for s <0 in-
stead of .s > 0. Tlius the Iori of A ~r,~)(s) are continuous and smooth
through s = 0.
For s = – 1, g ~ ~ lVC h~vc from Eq. (,,594), using the h-notation
for purposes of nurnericfil calcul:~tion,

h,(A) hj(.4) + h;(A) h,(A) = O. (600)

A root of this equation, found by Newton’s method, is

Affl)(-l) = –0.591 + 2.830i. (601)

By the use of asymptotic formulas, an approximate formula for large nz

Application of the standard procedure for implicit differentiation to Eq.

(594) ~iws an approximate expression for values of s near – 1:
A:x)(s) = .1!,;,’ (–1)
huh,
+ ‘s + 1) [ 2h{(.4)h;(.4) – 2.4h,(A)h,(A) – A 1 .~=.~f~)(-l) + “ “ ‘ “ ‘603)
Equations (598) to (603) make it possible to plot the loci of A&) (s)
for negative s with reasonable accuracy, These loci are shown as dashed
curves in Fig. 2.29.
An argument like that used in the derivation of Eq. (593) gives a
formula for large but finite g and negative s:
hz(w) sh~(szw)
hj(zo) h~(szw) h,(w – sg),
Wa (604)
h~(szrv) h,(w – sg)
–“’=(s’–l) :;&]
1 – wshz(szw)

As in Eq. (593), w, means the value for the given finite value of g, and
w means the limiting value S–2A (~~~(s).

LThe derivations of Eqs. (602) and (562) are given in Furry, op. c~~.,Appen .dies E
and D.
SEC. 2.19] BEHAVIOR OF CHARACTERISTIC VALUES 161

2“19. Behavior of Characteristic Values and Characteristic Functions

for the Firat Mode.-The characteristic value A, has been computed over
a range of values of g for each of the following values ofs: —3, –2, –@,
–1, 0, W, w, d, 6, d, 2. The quantity Al is defined bY using
the series of Eq. (541) with m = 1 for small values of g and continuing
the calculation numerically for intermediate values of g until it becomes
clear which formula holds for large g. In all of the cases in question it

.$ =+1

S=+(iizl

s=+/6T3

S=-3

1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Anomaly hetght g
FIG 2.30. —.*ttenuation constant of the first mode as a function of anomaly height for a
bilinear N-profile.

was found that for large g the values were those given by the proper one
of the various formulas for A,,
The results are given in Fig. 2.30, which shows C, = Im(A,) as a
function of g for the various values of s, and in Fig. 2.31, which shows
B, = Re(AJ in the same way,’
In Fig. 2.32 the paths traversed by the characteristic value Al are
shown in the complex A-plane. All of the curves start from the value
~1 for g = Q and at first they practically coincide, because only the first
two terms of the series in Eq. (541) are important for small values of g.
For negative s the curves have as asymptote the negative real axis, and for
positive s they end at finite limiting values. Figure 2.32 also shows a
1Graphsof thesefunctionson a largerscalearecontainedin W. H. Furry,RL Report
No. 795. These graphs can be read to an accuracy of about, 0.01, which is also about
the accuracy of the computations.
 HORIZONTALLY STRATIFIED ATMOSPHERE THEORY [SEC. 2.19

{
S.+@x

S=+m
c s=+ 0.5

S=o
d \
s.+~
8=+2

0
s=- 3

I [
1 .,
I I
2
\
3
1
4
I \

Anomaly height g
I
5
tl I
6 7
I

FIG, 23 1.—Phase constant of the first mode as a function of anomaly height for a bilinear
N-profile.

2.5

2,0

1.5

c1

1.0

0.5

0
-1.5 -1,0 -0.5 0 +0.5 +1.0 +1.5 +2.0
B,
FIG. 232. -( ’ll:ira(teristic values .1, = B, + iC’, for a bilinear A’-profile.
SEC. 2.19] BEHAVIOR OF CHARACTERISTIC VALUES 163

number of other limit points which belong on Curve (1) of Fig. 2.29,
labeled with the corresponding values of s.
These three figures also include lines for s = 1. For this one value
of s, which corresponds to the mere introduction of a new convention into
the description of the case of the linear distribution of modified index,
the characteristic values Am are given exactly by the series in Eq. (541),
which reducw to its first two terms. It is physically evident that for
values of s very near unity the behavior of Al should closely resemble that
for s = 1, at least up to rather large values of g. For this reason com-
putations of A, were carried out for s = 1.02 and for s = ~.
The results are shown in Fig. 2“33. For s = 1.02 the characteristic
value A,, which starts at ~1, for g = O, does not approach the limiting

c
2

1
-2 -1 0 +1 +2 +3 +4
P
Fro. 2.33.—Characteristic values for s nearly unity. Squares give points for g = O, and
circles for g - -

point A’, which lies on Curve (1) of Fig. 2.29, Instead, it continues to lie
closer to the straight line A = ~1 + g, which it would follow for s = 1,
until it reaches the limiting point A”, which lies on Curve [1] of Fig. 2.29.
For s = m the point representing A, follows a somewhat longer and
straighter path than that for s = 1.02 and ends at the limiting point
Z?”, which lies on Curve (2).
In order to learn the actual significance of the limiting point A’ for
s = 1.02, values of A were computed numerical y, starting from the
value A‘ for g infinite and continuing down to smaller values of g. The
resulting locus is also shown in Fig. 233, and leads for g = O to the second
standard value ~Z,
Thus it is evident that for values ofs very near unity the limiting values
of Al do not lie on Curve (1) of Fig. 2“29 as they do for other positive
values of s. From Eqs. (588) and (589) it can be seen that for any given
numerically very small value of s — 1 values of A ‘mJ(s) can be found
such that their imaginary parts are not very different from Im (~1); more-
over, the smaller Is — 1 I is made the larger the real parts of such values
will be. This fits in exactly with the idea of the behavior of A ~—. for
Is – 1I <<1 which is suggested by the results for s = 1.o2 and s = {0.9s.
164 HORIZONTALLY STRATIFIED ATMOSPHERE THEORY [SEC. 219

For Is – 1[ <<1, -4, is roughly equal to ~, + g up to values of g, at which

it approaches its limiting value; and as Is — 1 I is made smaller, the approx-
imate relation A 1 = t, + g k more closely correct for given g and also the
value of g at which it breaks down becomes larger.
The behavior of the first mode’s characteristic value A 1 is, according] y,
acceptably stable against very small departures of the M-profile from the
Height Z in natural units (upper cwve)
2 46 10 20 40 60 100
1001

80

60
s
b-
—~
2 40
0
N
c
.g
s
:.= 20

~~
,3
3
0

-20

- Ao
“-0.01 0.02 ‘ 0.04 0.06 0.1 0.2 0.4 0.6 1
Height Z in natural units flower curve)
FIG. 234.-Height-gain function of the first mode for a bilinear N-profile with s = – 1,
g = 1.37, and C, = 1,3.

standard form. This is not necessarily the case for the other modes, as is
illustrated by the curve of AZ given in Fig. 2.33. The first mode here makes
the dominant contribution to the field strength in the diffraction zone.
The practical conclusion is that any observed M-profile which corresponds
to a value of s nearly equal to unity should simply be treated as a case
of standard refraction.
SW. 2.19] BEHAVIOR OF CHARACTERISTIC VALUES 165

The characteristic value Al being known, the heighhgain function

U,(Z) can be computed e~ctly from the tables of h,(~) and h(t) by
means of Eqs. (503) and (5d4). The normalization can in most cases be
accomplished by means of Eq. (512). For casea of positive s and fairly
large g, however, A, will be so close to its limiting value that Eq. (515),
with the last term omitted. should be used.
For negative s, both the attenuation constant Cl = Im(Al) and the
behavior of U,(Z) depend essentially on the degree to which the mode ia
Height Z in natural units (upper curve)
1 2 46 10 20 40 60 100
+40

Use bight scale beiow’

-40
0.01 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.1 0.2 0.4 0.6 1
Height Z in naturalunits(lowercurve)
Fm. 2.35.—Height-gain function of the fimt mode for a bilinear N-profile with s = – l’,
0 = 1.93, and C, = 0.5.

trapped. What this degree is can be learned at once from the value of
C, read from Fig. 2“30. The qualitative effect of trapping on the shape
of the height-gain function has been discussed in Sec. 2.8. Figures 2.34
through 2.37 show the actual curves of 20 log10IU, (Z) I for four values
of g with s = – 1. In two of these cases the mode is untrapped, and in
the other two it is trapped, according to the criterion given by the phase-
integral method [Eq. (242)] which here becomes

9 y>~dz = ~(–sg)$f > ~ir = 2.356. (605)

/ o
The actual values of the integral for the three cases shown are
Figure 2.34: g = 1.37, ~(–sg)~ = 1.07,
Figure 2.35: g = 1.93, $(–sg)~ = 1.69,
(606)
Figure 2.36: g = 2.68, ~(–sg)~ = 2.93,
Figure 2.37: g = 4.34, ~(–sg)~ = 6.03. }
166 HORIZONTALLY STRATIFIED ATMOSPHERE THEORY (SEC.219

o ~ _

~ .
~
L
-5-20
1 2 46 10 20 40 60 100
s
Height Zin natural units
0
L-u
g o
~
;
.:
~%’ -20
.-m
2

-40
0.01 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.1 0,2 0.4 0.6 1
Height Z in natural units
FIG. 236.-Height-gain function of the first mode for a bilinear N-profile with s = –1,
g = 2.68, and C’, = 0.1.

-20

~
a-
<-40
.%
~
G
.8
U -60
c 2 46 10 20 40 60 100 200
.2
.: Height Z in natural units

E* o
,?
2

-20

-40
0,02 0.04 0.06 0.1 0.2 0.4 0.6 1 2
Height Z in natural units
Fm. 237.—Height-gain function of the first mode for a bilinear N-profile with s = — 1,
~ = 4.34, and c, = 0.000089.
SEC. 2191 BEHAVIOR OF CHARACTERISTIC VALUES 167

In Fig. 2.35, even though there is no trapping according to Eq. (605),

the value of 20 log,O IUll has a flat minimum at the top of the duct. In
Fig. 2“36, which represents a case of very weak trapping, the minimum
has shifted to greater heights and becomes much broader; even at
Z = 100, IU,l has not regained the value that it had at the top of the
duct. Figure 2“37 shows a case of strong trapping; the decrease in ]U~l
above the duct is very pronounced and for practical purposes continues
indefinitely, ending actually near Z = 3 X 107. For this case another

o
\
L . ~ . — . . . — . — . . . – . /
5
s~ -20
2 46 10 20 40 60 100 200
z
0 Height Z in natural units
N
c o
.-Q
2
~
,:
u
g -20
,%
2

-40
0.02 0.04 0.06 0.1 0.2 0.4 0.6 1 2
Height Z in natural units
FIG. 2.3 S.—Height-gain function of the second mode for a bilinear N-profile’ with a = – 1,
0 = 4,34, and C, = 0.1.

mode is trapped according to the phase-integral criterion, which requires

~ (– sg)% >5.50 for two modes to be trapped. The characteristic
function of this second trapped mode is shown in Fig. 2“38. The sharp
minimum at Z = 1.78 corresponds to the node of the curve of Re[Ufzj ];
the small imaginary part, which does not vanish at this point, becomes
extremely small when the mode is more strongly trapped.
The general behavior of trapped modes illustrated here is not, of course,
a special feature of this model but will appear in trapped modes for other
shapes of the M-profile as well.
For positive values of s, qualitative arguments such as those given
in the explanation of the Gamow phase-integral method can be used to
predict the general behavior of the function U1. The most important
factor affecting this behavior is the fact that B, = Re(AJ does not increase
steadily with g but approaches a limiting value. The qualitative situa-
tion in regard to the first modes of two substandard layers of different
thicknesses, but the same value of s, is shown in Fig. 2“39. It is sup-
posed that in both cases A, is very near its limiting value, – B1 therefore
168 HORIZONTALLY STRATIFIED ATMOSPHERE THEORY [SEC. 220

having about the same value in the two cases. It is seen that the thick
nonstandard layer acts w a formidable “barrier” between the upper
region and the earth’s surface. In both cases the solution in which
IUI decreases downward predominates throughout most of the thickness
of the barrier; the term that increases as Z decreases becomes appreciable
only near the earth’s surface and makes possible the fulfillment of the
boundary condition 271(0) = O. The solutions in the two cases differ
practically only in the size of this
term, and Ul has almost precisely
the same values near and above
the top of the barrier in both
cases. The contribution to the
normalization integral of Eq. (483)
from the region near the earth’s
surface is negligible.
~ increase of the thickness of
an already fairly deep substandard
layer does not change the hori-
zontal attenuation of the mode.
(a) (b) It transfers the region in which U
FIG. 2.39,—Substandard !ayers, (u) mod- has given values of order of mag-
erately thick and (b) thick with the same
nitude unity or greatir to a greater
vzhaeaof 8. Horizontal scale reduced.
height, and it reduces the values of
IUI at small heights by a strong exponential factor. Because for given r,
and g larger than some modest value, the height-gain function always has
the same value at the top of the anomaly and decreases strongly down-
ward from a point somewhat below this, it seems appropriate to speak
of a “depth-loss” effect.
The same phenomenon occurs also, of course, in transitional cases for
which O < s < 1. It is seen from Fig. 2.30 or 2.32 that in substandard
cases the range at tenuat ion does not rise much above the standard value,
but in transitional cases it can fall to much lower values. In both cases
the depth-loss effect will often be very pronounced.
2s20. The Problem of Calculating Field Strength for the Bilinear
Protile.-The bilinear modified-index profile was chosen for study for two
reasons. (1) In many cases the measured profiles are approximated more
closely by this model than by any other that could readily be considered,
as the gradient dM/dz is frequently roughly constant throughout most of
the thickness of the nonstandard layer and changes markedly only in a
small region near the top of the layer (except for a very thin layer at the
surface). (2) With this model the solution of the boundary-value problem
can be formulated explicitly in terms of a few functions having simple
properties. This circumstance was regarded as offering the possibility
that it might be possible to obtain a fairly complete account of propagation
SEC.2.20] THE PROBLEM OF CALCULATING FIELD STRENGTH 169

into the diffraction zone for this model without excessive numerical
labor. 1
In cases for which the possibility of trapping is the important feature,
that is, for negative values of s, the bilinear model works reasonably well.
It makes possible the fairly rapid determination of characteristic values
and functions, both for trapped modes and for cases in which a mode is
affected by the presence of the duct but cannot be said to be trapped.
Figures 2.34 to 2.36 illustrate cases in which a single mode makes the
dominant contribution to the field strength, and hence Eq. (486b) can be
used for practically all heights and distances. The effect of the factor
e–cl~ is to lower 20 log10 F by 8.68C, db for each natural unit of range.
In these three cases the advantage of the value of this factor for the first
mode over its value for any other mode will in general be decisive.
q A case in which no single mode is sufficient to determine the whole
pattern is illustrated by Figs, 2.37 and 2.38. We may consider, for
example, the case of a transmitter at a height of 1 natural unit. For
receiver heights lCSSthan about 4 natural units and distances larger than
20 or 30 natural units, and also for greater receiver heights and distances
greater than perhaps 60 natural units, the first mode suffices because of
its much smaller attenuation. At receiver heights greater than 6 natural
units, however, 20 log10 [ Ull is less than 20 log10 IUC2)I by 30 or 40 db,
and in spite of its larger attenuation the second mode will be dominant
for distances less than 20 or 30 natural units. If both transmitter and
receiver are at considerable heights, the range for which the second mode
is dominant extends to 60 or more natural units. There are, of course,
considerable regions in which contributions from both of these modes
must be taken into account; for this purpose, one needs to know the phases
arg U1 and arg Uz, which are not shown in the figures but can readily be
computed. In particular, when more than one mode is strongly trapped
and both transmitter and receiver are at fairly small heights—’’within
the duct,” as it is called—all of the trapped modes must be taken into
account.
The calculation of field strengths for general cases in which s is positive
is much less simple, and the account given here of these cases of the
bilinear model must be regarded as far from complete. The main obstacle
that appeam consists of the appearance of characteristic values that
approach finite limiting values as the thickness of the anomalous layer
increases. For deep layers, the phenomenon of depth-loss, associated
with the existence of these limits which the characteristic values approach,
introduces very serious complications.
In discussing in a qualitative way the effects of depth-loss, one can use
the rough rule that the square of the contribution of the mode in question
I The linear~xponential profile often represents the measured profiles considerably
better, but the numerical calculations are more difficult (see Sec. 2.2 1).
170 HORIZONTALLY STRATIFIED A TMOS’PHERE THEORY [SEC. 2.20

to the field strength at a height of one natural unit, that is, for Z = 1,
is affected by a depth-loss factor that is about equal to the distance
1A – A ‘m){ measured in the complex .4-plane. This follows from Eq.
(512) and the fact that the approach to the limiting value A ‘m’ is roughly
of exponential type. 1 Application of this rule to Figs. 2“30 to 2“32 shows
that for the first mode an anomaly of a few natural units in height pro-
duces a depth-loss effect of 20 db or more; the height required is especially
small for the more pronouncedly substandard cases. It is accordingly
clear that cases can easily occur in which the first mode can scarcely make
the dominant contribution to the field strength. Some other mode,
which may have greater horizontal attenuation but which does not suffer
so strongly from depth-loss, will presumably make a larger contribution.
This shift of the dominant role from one mode to another clearly compli-
cates greatly the task of obtaining a complete account of the results to be
expected with the bilinear model,
How one mode replaces another as the dominant one can be discussed
more readily for the transitional case than for the substandard. For
values of s appreciably less than unity—let us say s < ~—the important
limiting points are the A $/ (s), which lie on the lower branches (l), (2),
(3).”” of Fig. 2“29. It can be seen that these A[:) (s) all have roughly
equal imaginary parts; for as a3 is real, the first four terms of the right
member of Eq. (578) give an imaginary part that is independent of m.
Actually the imaginary part decreases slightly with increasing m. The
real parts are fairly evenly spaced, with the intervals gradually decreasing
along the sequence of points A [g;(s).
For g = O, the propagation is standard and the first mode is the dom-
inant one. ,For moderately small values of g, the attenuation fails corl-
siderabl y below standard and the cent ribution of this mode increases. For
larger values of g, the depth-loss effect sharply reduces the contribution
to the field strength at small or moderate heights. Meanwhile, however,
as g increases, another characteristic value is approaching the limiting
value A $ J(s) and thus is coming to have a rather small attenuation with-
out, as yet, suffering as sharply from depth-loss as the first mode does.
It accordingly makes a sizable contribution to the field strength and
replaces the first mode as the dominant one. For still larger values of
g, this mode is in turn strongly affected by depth-loss, and the mode whose
characteristic value has the limit A ~~) (s) replaces it as the dominant
mode, and so on. It is natural to assign the terms second mode, third
mode, etc., on the basis of this succession, which goes according to the
subscript (m). The question of the correlation of this subscript with the
subscript m of the formula for small g [Eq. (541)] is difficult and unimpor-
tant.
I Further discussion of this rule, which is admittedly very crude, is contained in
W. H. Furry, RL Report No. 795, Appendix B.
SEC. 2.20] THE PROBLEM OF CALC ULATI.VG FIELD STRE.VGTH 171

When g has a value in a critical range such that the contributions of

two modes to the field strength are of comparable magnitudes, interfer-
ence between the two terms in the series of Eq. (486a) must, of course,
be taken into account.
Some evidence as to the way in which this replacing of one dominant
mode by another takes place is provided by the computations sum-
marized graphically in Fig. 2,40. The two curves are both fors = W and
show the approaches of the characteristic values of the first and second
3,

I
c

1— —
g = 2.5
3.0
4.0

0
-2 -1 0 +t +2 +:
B
40.-Behavior of characteristic values for large values of o and s = +v”~. The
circles are for g = w.

modes to their limiting values A ~~)(~) and A $)(W). By using

1A – A ‘m’ [ as an estimate of the depth-loss factor, one can discuss the
general effects of attenuation and depth-loss for these two modes. From
Curve I it is seen that for g = 2.5 the horizontal attenuation of the fimt
mode has fallen to less than half the standard value and at g = 4 it is
about one-fourth of standard. At g = 4, however, the depth loss is about
10 db, and it grows stronger fairly rapidly, reaching 20 db at about g = 6.
One sees also from Curve II that at g = 4.5 the second mode has less than
half of standard attenuation and that the depth-loss does not amount to
10 db until g is 6.5 or more. Thus as g increases, the second mode re-
places the first as the dominant mode but will in its turn, upon a further
increase in g, fall a victim to depth-loss and give way to the third mode.
The nature of the minimum of field strength between the ranges of values
of g in which the two modes dominate depends on the particular values
of the heights and the horizontal distance. Certainly in many cases the
minimum will be rather marked.
In the case of substandard layers the situation is less clear. For s
appreciably greater than unity-say s ~ ~the limiting values A&)(s),
172 HORIZONTALLY 8TRA TIFIED A TMOSPHERE THEORY [SEC. 2.20

A&) (s), “ ~ , which lie on the upper branches of Curves (2), (3), . “ “ of
Fig. 2.29, are probably approached about as rapidly as is the value A[~ )(s).
The modes whose characteristic values approach these limiting points may,
accordingly, be supposed to have no great advantage over the first mode
in regard to the onset of depth-loss. As they have much larger attenua-
tions, it is reasonable to assume that in general they do not become domi-
nant modes for any values of z. The modes that can become dominant
and may be called “second mode, “ “third mode,” and so on, presumably
must have characteristic values that approach the points A[~ )(s), A&) (.s),
. . . , which lie on the lower branches of Curves [1], [2], “ . ‘ of Fig. 2“29.
The limiting values in question lie on the parts of these branches that
extend toward the asymptotes of rather small inclination, for the parts
that extend toward the asymptote arg A = 7r/3 correspond to very small
values of s – 1. For practical purposes one is concerned with values
of s that are always smaller than 2. From Eqs. (587) and (562) and the
appearance of Fig. 229, it is evident that the imaginary parts Im [A [~ )(s) j
do not greatly exceed Irn(~J for small [m] and decrease very appreciably
with increasing [m].
One source of complications affecting the propagation through thick
substandard layers is the fact that the limiting values of the attenuation
are not practically the same, as they are in transitional cases, but instead
decrease markedly along the seriw of higher modes after perhaps showing
an increase for the second mode as compared with the first. Another
complicating feature of the situation is the fact that the real parts of the
successive limits A~~) (s), Af~) (s), Af~ )(s), “ differ by rather large amounts;
the difference Re[Af~) (s)] – Re[A [~)(s)] is particularly large. If, as seems
rather likely, the limiting points A $) (s) are approached essentially from
above, as is apparently the case with the limiting points A [~ ) (s),
A&)(s), . . “ considered in discussing deep transitional layers, then these
large dtierences between the real parts probably mean that the minima
encountered, for values of g intermediate between those for which one mode
is dominant and those for which the contribution of the next mode be-
comes appreciable, will be extremely pronounced. It may be, however,
that the limiting points A&) (s) are approached in the same way as A&) (s),
that is, essentially from the left. If this should be so, the transitions
from one dominant mode to the next, as g increases, may not be ac-
companied by pronounced minima.
It is obvious that reliable predictions of the sort of behavior to be
expected in transmission through deep substandard layers cannot be
made without much more numerical evidence than has now been obtained.
For transitional layers the general situation seems to be clearer, but the
bulk of the detailed information remains to be filled in.
This rather distressing situation with the bilinear model may be due
in part to the fact that for this model it has been possible to study analyt-
SEC. 2.20] THE PROBLEM OF CALCULATING FIELD STRENGTH 173

ically the whole variety of possible solutions. The main difficulties,

however, seem to come from the presence of the finite limits that char-
acteristic values approach as g becomes infinite, and it does not seem
likely that this phenomenon will appear for other models. Its occurrence
is presumably to be attributed to the effects of waves reflected from the
point at which Y’(Z) is discontinuous. The question thus arises as to
whether or not the complications that are encountered may originate
mainly in the use of an analytic formulation involving this discontinuity.
The simplest model having the principal qualitative characteristic
of the bilinear distribution-that the gradient Y’(Z) is constant through-
out most of the anomalous layer, the change from nonstandard to standard
gradient being localized in a small thickness at the top of the layer—is
that in which the change of gradient occurs in an intermediate layer in
which Y is a quadratic function of Z. This can be realized by setting

Y(z) = z – g, Z>g+T, (607)

Y(z) =z–g+ ~(z–g –,)’, g–l<z<g+~, (608)

Y(z) = S’(Z – g), z<g–7; (609)

Y(Z) and Y’(Z) are then everywhere continuous, and the change of gra-
dient takes place in a layer of thickness 27. As in Eqs. (501) to (503),
the solutions of the differential equation for the regions above and below
the transitional layer are

u.(z) = Kmh,(z – g + Am), z>g+T, (610)

Urn(z) = y~(sz – Sg + s-’Am), Z<g –,. (611)

rhe solution in the transitional layer g – 7< Z < g + 7 has been ob-
tained in terms of power seriesl in T. The requirements that U~(Z) and
U~(Z) be everywhere continuous and that Urn(O) = O suffice to determine
the characteristic values A ~.
Because of the use of power series, the computations were feasible
only for modest values of the transition thickness 27 and involved consid-
erable labor. The method of mapping was used exclusively. The re-
sults are shown in Table 2.4. They indicate that the results are not
sensitive to changes in the precise shape of the joint. The bilinear model
may accordingly be regarded as the appropriate one to use in obtaining
theoretical information for application to the whole class of actual pr-
files in which dI?/dz is roughly constant throughout almost the whole
thickness of the nonstandard layer.
It appeam that analytic features of the shape of the modi6ed-index
profile do not in themselves have any strong effect on the results, at least
1DCtiIS in ~, op. cd., AppendixF.
174 HORIZONTALLY STRATIFIED ATMOSPHERE THEORY [SEC. 2.21

TAELE2.4.—EFFEcTOFROUNDING
THEJOINTIINTHEBILINEAR
MODELBY
INSEETING A PARABOLIC SEGMENT

s 9 27 A,

0 0.96 +0.48i
0.2s3 0.96 +0.48i
0.s49 0.96 +0.50i
o o.84+1.28i
0.849 0.79 +1.26i
0 –0.47 +2.06i
0.400 –0.51 +2.09i

for the dominant mode. Although the analytic structure of the curve is
all-important in determining the ‘methods that must be used, the results
depend essentially only on the numerical values of N for real z. This
statement is confirmed by the evidence obtained by considering a mod-
ification of the bilinear model. If it were not true, any theoretical ap-
proach to the problem of propagation would be of little actual use, for in
practice only approximate numerical values of N can be known.

NONLINEARMODIFIED-INDEX PROFILES
BY JOHN E. FREEHAFER

2“21. The Linear-exponential and Power-law Proiiles.-Although

N-profiles composed of one or more linear segments provide attractive
idealizations because they lead to characteristic value problems that may
be discussed in terms of the tabulated functions h, and ht, it is by no means
necessary for analytical reasons to exclude from consideration models
not having this property. Two such models have been extensively
studied: the linear~xponential and power-law profiles.
In the linear~xponential profile the modified index is given by

w
— – 1 = gz + a’e~”, (612)
n;

where a’ and T’ are parameters that determine its detailed form. The
second term on the right-hand side of Eq. (612) may be regarded as a
perturbation term that represents the departure from a linear profile. If
q has the standard value, as will be assumed throughout this section, then
the surface layer is superstandard or substandard according to whether
a’ is positive or negative. As the parameter + is always taken as pasi-
tive, it follows that in either case the perturbation term approaches zero
with increasing height and the N-profile approaches the standard profile
asymptotically.
SEC. 2.21] THE LINEAR-EXPONENTIAL PROFILE 175

The linear-exponential profile was introduced by T. Pearcey’ in con-

nection with a ray-tracing investigation of surface ducts. The properties
of the modes associated with this model of the atmosphere have been
studied principally by Hartree,2 Pearcey, and Pekeris.3
The power-law profile has an Ndistribution defined by
N, n
—–l=qz–g: . (613)
n$ ()

The parameter d is always taken as positive, and the parameter n is limited

to values between zero and unity. The N-profile in this case is horizontal
at the surface regardless of the values of the parametem and has a surface
inversion extending to height d. It therefore always provides a surface
duct. Although the ratio of the perturbation term to the linear term in the
case of the power law approaches zero as z becomes infinite, the perturbation
term itself, unlike that of the linear-exponential profile, becomes infinite.
The power-law profile was proposed by H. G. Booker’ originally for
the special case for which n = ~, because for this form of index distribu-
tion it is possible to evaluate analytically the integrals encountered in
phase-integral methods. He later proposed the generalized form for
reasons based on a special theory of the structure of the lower atmospheres
The power law was the basis of an extensive cooperative program in the
United Kingdom during the war involving groups at Telecommunications
Research Establishment, Air Defense Research and Development Estab-
lishment, the University of Manchester, and Cambridge University.
When either the power-law or linear-exponential index distribution is
substituted into the second-order propagation equation and the height in
natural units is introduced, the resulting equation can be written:

;; + [Y(z) + A]u = o. (614)

Here Y(Z) is a two-parameter function of Z given by

Y(Z) = Z + ae–i~z (615)
I ‘tThe ~~culation of Field Strength near the Surface of the Earth under Particular
Condition of Anomalous Propagation,” ADRDE Rezearch Report No. 24)3, Octgber
1943.
2D. R. Hartree, P. Nicholzon, N. Eyrea, J. Hewlett, and T. Pearcey, “Evahmtion
of the Solution of the Wave Equation for a Stratified Medium,” (I), ADRDE, M.R. No.
47, May 1944; (II), RRDE ResearchReport No. 279,March, 1945. Seealzothe article
by D. R. Hartree,et uL,in AfeteorofogidFactors in Rudio-WwePropag&un, published
by the Physical Society and the Royal Meteorological Society, London (1946).
3C. L. Pekeris, Jour. Applied Phys., 17, 678 (1946); Proc. IRE, 96, 463 (1947).
i ilThe TheoW of ~oma]ous Propagationin the Troposphere ~d i~ ~latiOn ‘0
Wave-guides and Di5raction,” Meteorological Factors in Radio-Wave Propogohbn.
6 ‘tElemen~ Of wdio Meteorological Forec&ing,” TRE Report No. T1621,
February 1944; “Application of Diffusion Theory to Rarho Refraction Cauzed by
Advection,”TRE Report No. T1 647, April 1944.
176 HORIZONTALLY STRATIFIED ATMOSPHERE THEORY [SEC. 2.21

for the linear~xponential profile and by

Y(z) = Z–EZ” (616)

forthe power law. Theparameters area and~in Eq. (615) andeandn

inEq. (616).
Because in the case of the power law there is always a surface duct
whose thickness is d, it is also possible to reduce the propagation equation
to dimensionless form by usingdas the unit of height. Thus if s = z/d
be introduced as independent variable, thepropagation equation becomes

(617)
~+ [G(S-3+A’1”=”

where G and n are the parameters and A’ denotes the dimensionless sep-
aration constant. Equation (617) is of the same form as Eq. (614) with

Y(Z)=
()
GZ–: (618)

For some purposes, it is more convenient to discuss the power law by

using Eq. (618) rather than Eq. (616).
The problem is threefold: (1) the determination of the characteristic
values of A as functions of the two parameters appearing in Y(Z) for
which the solution of Eq, (614) which vanishes at Z = O represents an
upward-traveling wave for large Z, (2) the evaluation of the integral neces-
sary for normalizing the characteristic functions associated with the char-
acteristic values, and (3) the calculation of the characteristic functions
for real values of Z.
The analytic expression of the condition that a solution represent an
upward-traveling wave needs to be carefully examined. Because the
characteristic values of leaking modes are complex and enter into the
height-gain functions in such a way that the upward-traveling wave
dominates the downward-traveling wave as Z becomes large, it is evident
that any linear combination of the two waves becomes, at sufficient height,
indistinguishable from the pure upward-traveling solution. Careful
analysis shows that when Y(Z) is analytic, there exists an arc of the-circle
at infinity along which the condition u + O, together with the condition
u(0) = O, defines a set of discrete characteristic values of A. It turns out
that these are the values sought and that the solution for which u(Z) ~ O
as Z -+ ~ along the arc mentioned above is in fact the solution that
represents the pure upward-traveling wave. For the power law the arc
of the circle along which u(Z) -0 extends from a distance Im(A )/G
below the real axis to a point at about arg Z = – 2m/3. The character-
istic values of A are independent of which point on this arc the variable
Z approaches.
SEC. 2.21] THE LINEAR-EXPONENTIAL PROFILE 177

Similarly, the integral upon which the normalization of the charac-

me?pie
teristic functions depends can be expressed by u2dz, where the
/ o
path of integration extends from the origin in such a direction o that the
integral converges. The permissible values of 0 are such that u ~ O as
Z + m along the arc previously mentioned. The value of the integral is
independent of the precise point of the arc that Z approaches.
The characteristic value problem of radio wave propagation, when
expressed in terms of the vanishing of the functions at the origin and at
infinity, is formally similar to problems encountered in quantum me-
chanics, and the means used to solve it are similar. The only innovation
necessary is to modify suitably the formal procedures in order that they
may be applied when both Z and A are complex. The principal methods
that have been used are
1. Mechanical integration of the differential equation by means of the
Manchester and Cambridge (England) differential analyzers.1
2. Numerical integration of the associated Riccati equation. 1
3. Perturbation calculations starting with the standard N-profile.z
4. Phase-integral methods.a
5. Variational methods.4
The differential analyzer in the hands of Professor Hartree’s group has
proved to be a powerful tool for the solution of problems of this type.
The exact method of using the analyzer depends upon the degree to which
the mode leaks. In the case of strongly trapped modes, the analyzer is
set up to plot the path of u in the complex plane as Z increases along the
real axis, the initial condition being u(0) = O. The value of A is adjusted
by trial and error until the path of u in the complex plane becomes cir-
cular as Z becomes large. If the path is elliptical, suitable adjustments
must be made in both the real and imaginary parts of A and checked by
running out another solution on the machine. The effective determina-
tion of characteristic values by a trial-and-error method of this sort de-
pends upon devising means for analyzing the behavior of solutions for
values of A near the characteristic values in order that the magnitude of
the correction to be applied to A may be reliably estimated from the
behavior of u. In the case of strongly leaking modes the procedure is
varied to permit integration along a path lying in the complex Z-plane.
I D. R. Hartree, etd,in Meteorological Factors in Radio-Wave Propagation.
2C. L. Pekeris, Jour. Applied Phys., 17, 678 (1946).
3Ibid., p. 1108.
4G. MacFarlane, “Variational Method for Determining Eigenvalues of Wave
Equation of Anomalous Propagation,” TRE Report No. T1756, November 1944; also
PTOC,Cambridge Phil. L%c., 43, 213 (1947); C. L. Pekeris and S, Ament, “Characteristic
Values of the First Normal Mode in the Problem of Propagation of Microwaves through
an Atmosphere with a Lmear-exponential Modified Index of Refraction, ” Phil, Maq.,
%r. 7, 38, 801 (1947).
178 HORIZONTALLY STRATIFIED ATMOSPHERE THEORY [SEC, 2.21

Two paths have been used. One path is a ray in the fourth quadrant,
and the other is a step-type contour formed by three connected linear
segments, the first starting at the origin and lying along the positive real
axis, the second lying parallel to the negative axis of imaginaries, and the
third lying below and parallel to the positive real axis. In this case the
criterion for a characteristic value is that u(Z) ~ O as Z ~ m.
The Riccati equation is the differential equation that expresses the
dependency of u’/u on Z. For modes that are not strongly leaking, u’/u

Range X in natural units

Fm. 2.41 .—Contours of constant field strength in the presence of a surface duct with the
transmitter within the duct. The modified index is given by JV2– ~ = (q/k),’” (Z +
.20e-001,62). The broken line is the tangent ray, (Afkr P. IZTC.V.)

is known for large Z for the outward traveling wave. The Riccati equa-
tion may then be integrated inward along the axis of reals by numerical
means and at an intermediate point compared with the result of inte-
grating Eq. (614) outward by an iteration process. The value of A is
adjusted until the values of u’/u at the intermediate point obtained by
both outward and inward integration agree, For the case of strongly
leaking modes, the integration is carried out along a suitable ray in the
complex plane.
It is beyond the scope of this discussion to describe in detail the tech-
niques available for solving the characteristic value problem by mechan-
ical and numerical integration. The two procedures that have been men-
tioned briefly are intended merely to indicate in a very general way the
method of attack that has been used.
Perturbation methods lead to an interesting formulation of the problem.
From a practical standpoint, however, their use is limited to strongly
leaking modes that differ only slightly from those of the standard at-
SEC. 2.21] THE LINEAR-EXPONENTIAL PROFILE
-
180 HORIZONTALLY STRATIFIED ATMOSPHERE THEORY [SEC. 2.21

mosphere. The application of the variational method is Iiketie some-

what limited, as the method becomes unwieldy for other than the first mode.
When the characteristic values and normalization factors have been
obtained, it is still necessary to calculate the complex values of u for real
values of Z unless these values have been obtained as by-products of the
procedure used to solve the characteristic value problem. To present
the data in the most useful form, it is desirable to draw contours of con-
stant field strength in the vertical plane containing the transmitter. The
first step in this process is to combine the various modes in proper phase
for a fixed range and variable height. When a number of vertical sections
have been obtained in this manner, a contour map may be constructed
by interpolation.
Three field patterns obtained by Pearcey for the linear exponential
atmosphere defined by a = 20.0 and y = 0.6356 are reproduced in Figs.
2.41 and 2,42. For this choice of parameters there is a duct extending
to a height of 4 natural units. The range is measured in the natural
units defined in Sec. 2“10. The contours A, B, C, D, E, and F are for
values of F/X proportional respectively to 1, 2, 4, 6, 8, and 10. The set
of three figures shows how the pattern varies as the transmitter height
is increased. In Fig. 2“41 the transmitter is at a height of 2 natural units
and is therefore at the center of the duct. Under these conditions contour
A extends to a maximum range of 70 natural units. When the transmitter
is placed at the top of the duct, the range of contour A is reduced to about
32 natural units, as shown in Fig. (2”42b). Finally, when the transmitter
is raised above the duct to a height of 6 natural units, contour A is shrunk
to a maximum range of only 10 units, as shown in Fig. (242a). The closed
contours representing peaks in the field-strength pattern of Fig. 2.41
are produced by interference between the first two modes in the region
within which they are of comparable magnitude. At ranges beyond
about 25 units the first mode dominates and the pattern is free of inter-
ference effects. 1

1Further examples of this type of diagram are given by C. L. Pekeris, Pmt. IRE,
35, 453 (1947).
 CHAPTER 3

METEOROLOGY OF THE REFRACTION PROBLEM

BY RICHARD A. CRAIG, lSADORE KATZ, R. B. MONTGOMERY, AND

PEARL J. RUBEN STEIN

The purpose of this chapter is to describe the types of distribution of

refractive index in the atmosphere and to discuss them in terms of the
processes producing them and of the circumstances in which they occur.
The technical meteorological terms are explained as they are introduced,
and the presentation is intended to be understandable to anyone concerned
with microwave propagation. Because the subject of this chapter is
essentially meteorological, however, the primary intention is to make
the present knowledge of the subject available to persons having the
meteorological training and experience necessary to apply it and to
develop it further.
Microwave propagation has focused attention on meteorological phe-
nomena previously neglected. Although conditions at the surface of the
earth have always been of direct concern, and although the wealth of upper-
air data of recent years has made common knowledge of the gross vertical
structure of the atmosphere to heights of 8 to 10 miles, comparatively
little attention has heretofore been devoted to the details of the vertical
structure of the surface layer up to about 2000 ft—a layer that is of primary
importance in microwave propagation. Knowledge of this layer, although
it has increased during the war, remains scant and inadequate, and much
promising investigation remains to be undertaken.
This chapter begins with a discussion of certain meteorological vari-
ables and processes and their relation to refractive index.’ A discussion
of the vertical variation of refractive index follows. As secondary ma-
terial the horizontal and time variations of this quantit y are also considered.
The chapter concludes with a discussion of new observational instruments
and techniques.

HUMIDITY AND REFRACTNE INDEX

The refractive index of air depends on pressure, temperature, and

humidity in a manner that will be described presently. First of all, it is
1For further background in meteorology a useful book is H. R. Byers, General
Meteorology, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1944.
181
182 METEOROWGY OF THE REFRACTION PROBLEM [SEC.3.1

suitable to discuss the subject of humidity because there arediversequan-

titative representations of it.
3.1. Vapor Pressure and Saturated Vapor.’-The subject of humidity
may suitably be introduced by mention of certain variables that depend
on the amount of water vapor present and that lend themselves to direct
measurement by common methods under conditions found in nature.
1. The water-vapor density may be determined by measuring the change
in weight of a hydroscopic material through which a known volume
of air is passed; this method is not adapted to rapid use.
2. The dimensions of some solid substances can be calibrated toindi-
cate relative humidity; a strand of human hair is in common use.
The hair hygrometer is an extremely simple and popular instru-
ment, but it does not afford quick response or high accuracy. An-
other method for measuring relative humidity is based on the elec-
trical conductivity of especially prepared surface; the conductivity
usually depends not only on relative humidity but also to some
extent on temperature.
3. Wet-bulb temperature and air temperature are both indicated di-
rectly by a ventilated psychrometer, an instrument consisting of
two thermometers, one with its surface wet and the other with its
surface dry.
4. Dew point is indicated directly bya dew-point hygrometer, ather-
mometer that can be cooled-just to the point where it begins to
“sweat.”
Other humidity parameters in common meteorological use, although
not directly measured, are vapor pressure and quantities giving the con-
centration of water vapor. All these will be defined, and their relation-
ship explained.
Equation of State for Water Vapor.-The relation among pressure,
density, and temperature of water vapor intheatmosphere is very nearly
independent of the dry-air components present and conforms closely to
the equation of state for a perfect gas. If eis the partial pressure of the
water vapor or vapor presstLre, if p. is the water-vapor density (or, as it is
frequently called, absolute humidity), andif Z’isthe absolute temperature,
the relation is
R
e = —p,T, (1)
m.

The symbol R is the universal gas constant, and m, is the molecular weight
of water vapor. Their values are listed in Sec. 333.
J By R, B. Montgomery.
2 A ciiscussion of methodsfor mmsuring humidity is contained in W. E. K. Middleton,
Meteorological Inslrmnerd.s, 2d cd., University of Toronto Press, 1943, Chap. 4, “The
Measurement of Atmospheric Humidity.”
SEC. 3.1] VAPOR PRESSURE AND SATURATED VAPOR 183

fiaturatid Vapor.—A vapor in equilibrium with a plane surface of the

liquid or solid phase of the same substance in pure form is defined as
saturated. The pressure and density of the vapor depend on the temper-
ature alone, and usually, as is the case in all common prob~ems involving
atmospheric water ‘vapor, the influence of the other gases present may be
neglected. Thus, for any substance there is a function of temperature
alone called saturation vapor pressure which is equal to the pressure of
saturated vapor at the same temperature.
At temperatures below freezing, saturation with respect to the solid
phase rather than the liquid phase is the natural choice. In the at-
mosphere, however, droplets of supercooled water exist so frequently in
clouds that for some meteorological purposes there is frequent use of
saturation with respect to liquid water at all temperatures.
There is a useful thermodynamic relation between the variation of
saturation vapor pressure e, with temperature and the latent heat L for
the change from the solid or liquid phase to the vapor phase. If a, is the
specific volume (reciprocal of density) of the vapor phase and al is the
specific volume of the solid or liquid phase, the relation known as Clapey-
ron’s equation is
de, L
(2)
n= Z’(a, – al)’

As the specific volume of atmospheric water vapor is of the order of lCP

times the specific volume of ice or water, the latter may be neglected in
comparison. Substituting from the equation of state [Eq. (1)] and using
ap = 1 give
de% m, Le,
(3)
dT = ~ ~’

which will be used later.

A convenient tabulation of saturation vapor pressure over ice for
temperatures below freezing and over water for temperatures above
freezing is given in Tables 78 and 79 of the Smithsonian Meteorological
Tables. I Values }vith respect to supercooled water are given by Harrison.z
In both cases the vapor pressure is tabulated for every O.I°C and is given
in millibars, the pressure unit in common meteorological usage;

1 mb = 10-s bar = 103dyne/cm2 = 10’ newton/m’.

One atmosphere equals 1013.25 mb.

1Smithsonian Meteorological Tables, 5th rev. cd., Vol. 86, SmithsonianMiscellaneous

Collections,Washington.D.C., 1939.
2L. P. Harrison,“Tables (in Millibars)of the ‘Pressureof SaturatedAqueousVapor
over Water’ at Tcmpcraturcsfrom O“ to – 50”C,” MonthlyWeatherRev., 62 247-248
(1934).
184 METEOROLOGY OF THE REFRACTION PROBLEM [SEC.3.2

Therelation between saturation vapor pressure and temperature may

be shown graphically by means of saturation curves drawn on a diagram
that has vapor pressure as abscissa and temperature as ordinate. This
diagram, which is called aclzamcteristic diagram for reasons that will be
explained in Sec. 3.8, is illustrated schematically in Fig. 3“1. The sat-
uration curve for water continues without break through the freezing
point, below which the water is supercooled. The saturation curve for
ice branches from it at a finite angle.
From this basic arrangement has
been developed thelarge+cale char-
acteristic diagram, shown by two
separate graphs in folded plates in
the rear pocket, Figs. Hand l; each
graph covers different ranges of the
—————/ basic coordinates, vapor pressure
and temperature. Above 28”F, the
freezing point of most sea water, the
large-scale diagram shows a vapor-
pressure curve for sea water. This
curve is constructed for the salinity
of 35 per thousand, and is 0.9812 of
Vapor pressure—
the saturation vapor pressure over
Fm. 3.1.—Schematic representation of char.
acteristic diagram. freshwater. Other coordinates have
been added, as will be pointed out
upon introduction of the parameters that they represent in the following
three sections. In Sec. 3.8 will be found a complete descriptive sum-
mary of this information, together with a discussion of the consid-
erations that make the characteristic diagram useful to the radio
meteorologist.
Relative Humidity .—This quantity is defined as the ratio of vapor
density to saturation vapor density. Because the vapor may be regarded
as a perfect gas, relative humidity equals the ratio of vapor pressure to
saturation vapor pressure. Therelative humidity is

J=;,=:;

it is commonly expressed in per cent. The relative humidity of saturated

vapor is 100 per cent, whereas vapor in equilibrium with sea water has a
relative humidity of 98 per cent.
3.2. Water-vapor Concentration.~The humidity variables discussed
above, namely, vapor density and pressure and relative humidity, depend
essentially on the water vapor only. In contrast, the amount of dry air
present affects the water-vapor concentration, the dew point, and the
i By R. B. Llontgonmy.
SEC. 32] WATER-VA POR CONCENTRATION 185

wet-bulb temperature. The concentration is expressed by either of two

quantities, specific humidity or mixing ratio.
~pecifi humidity is the ratio of water-vapor density to total density
and is usually designated by q. If p and p are the total density and
pressure respectively and m is the mean molecular weight of the moist air,

q=fi=?nne (4)
P m p’
which follows from the equations of state for the water vapor and for the
moist air. In order to avoid use of a variable mean molecular weight, it
is convenient to introduce the mean molecular weight of dry air rnd, the
density of the dry components of the air Pd, and the partial pressure of
the dry air pd. Hence, because P = Pd + P, and P = P~ + e,

q=~=~- e .m~
rnd
e . (5)
Pd + Po m.
p_ I_??!!e
Pd+ ~e
() () md

With this equation the specific humidity can be computed from vapor
pressure and total pressure. The value of the constant mO/m, is 0.622.
Mixing ratio is the ratio of the water-vapor density to the density of
the dry components of the air and is usually designated by w. Hence

(6)

A solution of Eqs. (.5) and (6) leads to the conversion equations

?(1 &
q=l+w’ ‘= I–q’

The results of upper-air soundings taken by radiosonde are customarily

reported in terms of mixing ratio rather than in terms of specific humidity.
The water-vapor concentration in the atmosphere is so small, of the
order of 10-2 and only in exceptional cases exceeding 4 X 10–2, that spe-
cific humidity and mixing ratio are always nearly the same, and for prac-
tical purposes they are interchangeable in most cases. It is convenient
to express both of these quantities in “parts per thousand” or “per mine”;
for example, an observed value might be 12.8 per mine = 12.8 X 10-3.
The expression “grams per kilogram” also is frequently used.
On the characteristic diagram shown in Figs. H and 1 in the rear
pocket there is a secondary abscissa scale, giving the equivalent mixing
ratio for the standard total pressure of 1000 mb. Saturation specific
humidity and saturation mixing ratio are the values for which the vapor
would be saturated at the given temperature and total pressure. For
1000 mb the saturation mixing ratio is given by the curve on the char-
acteristic diagram.
 186 METEOROLOGY OF TffE REFRACTION PROBLEM [SEC. 33

Water-vapor concentration is a conservative property of air to the ex-

tent that it varies only when the composition is changed by evaporation
(positive or negative) or diffusion (molecular oreckiy). In contrast, the
vapor pressure of an air parcel varies also with total pressure, although
it is conservative for an isobaric heating without change in composition.
Water-vapor density varies with air density, Relative humidity is greatly
changed by adiabatic or isobaric changes, except in the special case where
the vapor remains saturated. Although they are not directly observed,
both mixing ratio and specific humidity are widely used quantities in
meteorology because they are conservative.
3“3. Saturation Temperatures on Isobaric Cooling.l-If moist air is
cooled sufficiently at constant pressure, the water vapor in it becomes
saturated. Two particular methods of cooling, both occurring naturally
under common conditions, lead to definite temperatures for the occur-
rence of saturation, namely, dew point and wet-bulb temperature.
Dew point.—This is the temperature at which saturation would occur
if the air were cooled without change of pressure or composition. The
dew point is realized in nature by a dry surface which is cooled just to the
point where moisture begins to condense on itfrom the air. Dry ground
serves this purpose when cooled by nocturnal radiation until dew begins
to form. The polished metal surface of the dew-point hygrometer be-
comes clouded when cooled just below the dew point and clear again when
warmed just above the dew point. This affords a simple means of de-
termining dew point directly within narrow limits. Because vapor pres-
sure is constant for an isobaric change with constant composition, de~v
point is the temperature for which the vapor pressure represents satura-
tion. Hence, the relation between vapor pressure and dew point is identi-
cal with that between temperature and saturation ~-apor pressure, so that
conversion between vapor pressure and dew point is given directly by a
table of saturation vapor pressure or by the saturation curve on the
characteristic diagram.
Wet-bulb Temperature. —This may be defined as the temperature at
which saturation would occur if the air were cooled isobarically and adia-
batically by means of contact with a water surface. In addition to this
decrease in temperature there is an increase in dew point because of evap-
oration. The process is adiabatic in that the latent heat used in evapora-
tion is specified as being supplied by the cooling of the air. This implies
that the water surface itself, in order that the process may be achieved
strictly as specified, must be at the wet-bulb temperature; otherwise, the
final temperature of the air, after saturation is reached, would not be in
equilibrium with the water—a physical impossibility.
If the water temperature is different from the wet-bulb temperature,
it is evident that an adiabatic process is impossible and the water body
gains or loses heat from the air so that its temperature becomes more
1By R. B. Montgomery.
SEC, 3.3] SATURATION TEMPERA TURES 187

nearly equal to the wet-bulb temperature of the air. This leads to the
important result that any body of water in contact with air tends to as-
sume the wet-bulb temperature of the air, provided, of course, that (1)
the water body is otherwise insulated and (2) the cooling of the air and its
moistening are distributed to an equal degree. These processes occur
naturally when rain falls through vertically isothermal air. The tempera-
ture of the drops approaches the wet-bulb temperature of the air as they
fall, and the air temperature and dew point also approach the wet-bulb
temperature, By its definition, wet-bulb temperature is peculiar in that
it is conservative during isobaric changes involving evaporation.
Conditions (1) and (2) above are well fulfilled by a wetted thermometer
bulb that is sufficiently ventilated. Without sufficient ventilation the heat
conducted through the thermometer stem and the radiative heat exchange
are not negligible compared with the heat exchange between the wet sur-
face and the air; therefore condition (1) is not fulfilled. The ventilated
psychrometer, either a sling psychrometer or one employing mechanical
ventilation, is the commonest means of measuring humidity with high
accuracy.
Psychometric Formula.—To obtain a relation between wet-bulb tem-
perature and mixing ratio, consider the isobaric adiabatic transformation
of air at pressure p from its actual temperature 2’ to its wet-bulb tem-
perature T.. For unit mass of dry air with specific heat cpd mixed initially
with a mass of water vapor equivalent to the mixing ratio w with specific
heat c,,, the heat released by the cooling is (CP~ + WC,,) (~ – ~~). This
heat is used to increase the mixing ratio to w~, which represents satura-
tion at Tw and p, by evaporation at the wet-bulb temperature, for which
the latent heat is LW,so that
Lm (wW– w) = (cn, + wcpr)(T – Tw).

If the small term containing cD, is neglected,

(7a)

To the same degree of approximation the specific humidity is

q= +-&Q.) (7b)

and the vapor pressure, on substitution from Eq. (5), is

e=ew —cvd ~ (T – T.)j (7C)

VW

where gmand ew represent saturation at the wet-bulb temperature. For

wet-bulb temperatures below freezing, because the wet bulb becomes ice-
covered, the saturation values refer to ice and L is the latent heat of
sublimation. Any form of Eq. (7) is called the psychrmrwtric jormula,
and the quantity T — T. is called the wet-bulb depression.
188 METEOROLOGY OF THE REFRACTION PROBLEM [SEC. 3.3

There are definitions of wet-bulb temperature other than the one given
here, but the numerical differences in the values derived from them are
never large, and they approach zero as the wet-bulb depression T – Tm
approaches zero, A similar statement applies to the approximations
made in deriving the psychometric formula, namely, that the errors in-
troduced arenever large and that they approach zero as the wet-bulb de-
pression approaches zero. Because high precision is especially desirable
when thevapor is nearly saturated, and because errors of the wet-bulb ther-
mometer are normally greater with a large wet-bulb depression, it is evi-
dent that errorsin the psychometric formula are greatest when they are
least important.
To find mixing ratio or specific humidity from the psychometric
formula it is necessary to know the saturation mixing ratio or saturation
specific humidity. These may recomputed from saturation vapor pressure
andtotal pressure. Mixing ratio may bereadapproximatcly from anyone
of several meteorological diagrams (pseudoadiabatic chart, tephigram,
emagram, and Rossby diagram). The coefficient of wet-bulb depression
depends on the specific heat of dry air, cpd = 1.004 joule g-’ ‘C-’, and on
the latent heat of vaporization of water L, which at the freezing point
has the value L, = 2500 joule g-’. For atmospheric temperatures, ex-
pressed in degrees centigrade, L may be represented by

L = LJ[l – 0,00094(T – T,)],

where Z’f is the freezing point.1 The coefficient is therefore

~d
= 0.402x 10-3[1 +0.00094(Tu– Tf)]
L.

for temperatures expressed in degrees centigrade, and

c+
– O.223X 10-3[1+0.00052(TU– 2’7)],
Lm –

fortemperatures expressed in degrees Fahrenheit.

In use of the psychrometric formula to find vapor pressure thesatura-
tion value depends on wet-bulb temperature alone whereas the coefficient
of wet-bulb depression depends on pressure. The coefficient has the value

cpd; : = 0.646 X 10-ap[l + 0.00094(2’w – T,)]

for temperatures expressed in degrees centigrade, and

cpd:: = 0.359 X 10–3P[1 + 0.00052(Z’w – Tf)]

1The constantin this equation is determinedfrom data of Osborne,Stirneon,and

Girmings,“Messurementaof Heat Capacity and Heat of Vaporizationof Water in t.b-
Range0° to 100”C,” low. Rasearch Nat. Bur. Shndards, 23, 197-260 (1939).
SEC. 3.4] REFRACTIVE INDEX OF AIR 189

for temperatures expressed in degrees Fahrenheit.’ For a standard pres-

sure of 1000 mb and any common wet-bulb temperature the coefficient is
therefore close to 0.36 mb/°F.
This fixed value assumed for the coefficient, it follows from Eq. (7c) .
that for any constant wet-bulb temperature

()
~
de
T.
= –0.36 mb/”F.

Dashed lines with this slope are drawn on the characteristic diagram shown
in Figs. H and I in the rear pocket, These lines represent constant
wet-bulb temperature at 1000 mb, the value for each being the same as
the temperature at which it intersects the saturation curve. For 1000
mb this family of broken lines together with the two sets of coordinate
lines relates the temperature, vapor pressure, and wet-bulb temperat-
ure at any point. The mixing ratio is shown by a supplementary hori-
zontal scale; the dew point is the temperature at which the vertical line
through the given point intersects the saturation curve.
The deviation of sea-level pressure from 1000 mb does not usually
exceed 5 per cent, and the vertical change in pressure from sea level to
1500 ft is also about 5 per cent. To compute mixing ratio or specific
humidity from psychometric observations it is therefore always neces-
sary to include pressure as a third observation in order to avoid errors
as large as about 5 per cent. In finding vapor pressure, on the other hand,
only the coefficient of wet-bulb depression depends on pressure. For a
pressure change of 5 per cent this coefficient is changed 5 per cent, an
amount comparable to the observational error in the wet-bulb depression.
Unless extreme accuracy is desired, it is permissible to use, as on the
characteristic diagram, a fixed psychometric coefficient of 0.36 mb/ “F
for measurements made within 1500 ft of sea level. For greater heights
than this, the variation with pressure should be considered.
3“4. Refractive Index of Air at Radio Frequencies2—The refractive
index n of a gas obeys a relationship of the forms

n–lapfi+;t
()
LThe empirical ccefficieut given in the Smithsonian Meteorologic
cd Tableais
0.660 X 10-~[1 + 0.00115(Z’u– T,)]
for temperaturesexprewedin degreescentigradeand
0.367 X 10-’P[l + 0.00064(Z’V – T,)]
for temperature expremedin degrees Fahrenheit. These are probably more nearly
correct than the valuez from the approximate theory, but in most cases the dillerence
is not of practical importance.
z By Pearl J. Ruhenetein.
s P. Debye, Po.fur Mokmdcs, Chemical Catalog Co., New York, 1929; Van Vfeck,
Theorv of Electric and MagneticSuswptibilitia, Clarendon PM] Oxford, New York,
1932.
190 METEOROLOGY OF THE REFRACTION PROBLEM [SEC, 3-4

where p is the gas density and T the absolute temperature. The term
proportional to density alone arises from induced polarization of the gas
molecules in an external field; the other term results from the permanent
dipole moment of the molecules. The index of refraction of a mixture
of gases is generally assumed to obey the additivity rule; that is, the
total value of (n – 1) is equal to the sum of the contributions of the
individual gases weighted in proportion to their partial pressures.
It is convenient to treat airasa mixture of drygases and water vapor.
Because none of the dry gases of air possesses a permanent dipole moment,
only the water vapor contributes a term of the form p/Z’. The numerical
value of the constant A thus depends on both the dry gases and the
water vapor, whereas B is determined only by the permanent dipole mo-
ment of the water molecules,
There is a large amount of experimental information’on the dielectric
constantz and refractive index of dry air taken overa wide wavelength
range. The data show that some dispersion exists; the value in the
visible region is approximately

(n– l) X106 =270 at OOCand pressure oflatm.

whereas, at static or radio frequencies the measurements give values from

294 to 296. The lowest of the r-f values, given as an average in the
Smithsonian Physical Tables, is adopted here. This value determines
the constant c to be 79 °K/mb in the equation for index of refraction of
dry air
(n–l)xlo’=yj (8)

where pd is the dry gas pressure.

Experimental data on water vapor are less complete. In this case
only values determined at radio frequencies are of interest because of the
water absorption bands in the infrared region. Within the radio region
dispersion may be neglected for wavelengths greater than about 2 cm.3
The determination of both A and Bforwater vapor requires absolute
measurements of the dielectric constant or index of refraction for a series
IL. Boltzmann, Wien. Ber., 69, 795 (1874), and pogg. Ann., 155, 403 (1875);
K. Tangl, Arm. Phgsik, (4) 23, 559 (1907), and 26, 59 (1908); A. R. Jordan, J. W.
Broxon, and F. C. Wrdz, Phys. Rev., 46, 66 (1934); L. G. Hector and H. L. Schultz,
Physr”r.s,7, 133 (1936); Landol&BCnmetein,Phy=’kalisch-chmische ‘Tabelten, $te Aujfcge,
Springer, Berlin, 1923–1936; Srnz’fh.sonian Physical Tabtes, 8th rev. cd., Washington,
D.C., 1933.
zIf e and COare the permittivities of air and of free space, respectively, and the
conductivity of the air is neglected,

The ratio c/c, is commonlycalleddielectricconstantor specificinductivecapaci~.

3see sec. 8.1.
SEC. 3.4] REFRACTIVE INDEX OF AIR 191

of temperatures. The value of B, determined from the temperature

dependence of the results, is fairly well known. Absolute values are
needed if A is to be obtained, and this constant is therefore much less
accurately known. From a consideration of all the available measure-
ments and their errors a simplified expression has been adopted for
numerical use:z

‘n-’’’=~(=’+e+$
)=+(=+?’+?’ (9)

wheren = the index of refraction of moist air,

c = 79 °K/mb,
b =4800”K,
T = temperature in°K,
p = total pressure inmb,
e = the partial pressure of water vapor in mb.
On the characteristic diagram shown in Figs. H and Z in the rear
pocket, isopleths (contours of constant value) of (n – 1) X 106 are given
for a total pressure of 1000 mb. They are the curves that slope to the
right. It will be noted that for air in which thevapor is saturated with
respect to fresh water, salt water, or ice (represented by the saturation
curves as described heretofore), the quantity (n — 1) X 106 increases
with increasing temperature. Despite the fact that the increase in tem-
perature alone, according to Eq. (9), acts to decrease this quantity, the
increase in saturation vapor pressure with increasing temperature is
sufficient to cause the increase in (n – 1) X 108.
In the solution of the wave equation in Chap. 2 a transformation of
coordinates has been introduced that effectively flattens the earth. As a
result a modified form of the refractive index becomes convenient. In
Sec. 24 this modified index N was defined to be

(2.105)

where z is the height above the earth’s surface and a is the earth’s radius.
For numerical convenience a new parameter M is adopted, called
refractive modulus, which is defined by the following equation:

M=(N–1)X1O’ (lo)
‘(n-l+ :)x’O’

I C. P. Zahn, Phvs. Rev., 27, 329 (1926); A. C. Tr@dga, ifnd., 67, 294 (1940);
R. %mger and O. Steiger, Helvetica Phys. Acts, 1, 369 (1928); R. Singer, F’hys-ikZ.,
3~ 306 (1930); R. Sanger, O. Steiger, and K. Gachter, Hdseticu Phys. Ada, & 200
(1932); J. D. Stranathan, Ph~s. Res., 45538 (1935).
~Recent messureruents at a frequencyof 9340Me/s [C. M. Crain,Phw. Rev., 74691
(1948)] @ve slightly different values for the constanta in this eCpIatiOIL
192 METEOROWGYOF THE REFRACTION PROBLEM [SEC. 34

Whereas themodified index iVis used intheradio theory of Chap. 2, M

is more convenient in other applications. For purposes of qualitative
discussion Mand N may be used interchangeably, as their profiles have
the same shape.
The radio-meteorologist is primarily concerned with the effects of
atmospheric variations on the refractive modulus, particularly in the
+30

z
*-10
a
e=42 mb

-30
‘1O -8 -6 -4 -2 0 +2 +4 +6 +g +10
A2’in °FperlOOft -

(a)

+60

+40
f?=Clto satur~tion
+20
e
0
0 e= O to saturation
~o
s
/
a -20

-40 .

-60
‘~10 -8 -6 -4 -2 0 +2 +4 +6 +8 - +10
Af?inmbper100ft
(b)
FIG. 3.2. —M-gradienta produced by gradientsof (a) temperature and (b) vapor pressure.

case of verticalvariations in an air column. It follows from Eqs. (9) and

(10) that in the absence of any vertical gradient of vapor pressure, a tem-
perature inversion (temperature increasing with height) tends to cause M
to increase less rapidly with height than in the standard case. If the
temperature inversion is strong enough, it causes an actual decrease of M
with height. In the absence of any vertical temperature gradient, the
 sm. 34] REFRACTIVE INDEX OF AIR 193

vertical M-gradient varies directly with the vertical gradient of vapor

pressure. It is desirable to have clearly in mind the amounts contributed
by temperature and humidity gradients to the gradient of M. Figure
32 shows how much each factor contributes to changes in M. The top
curves indicate how much the temperature gradient alone contributes to
the M-gradient, and the lower pair of curves does the same for vapor-
prwwure gradienta These facts form the basis for meteorological refrac-
tion studies, and enlargements upon them make up the subject matter
of the meteorology of the refraction problem.

VERTICALLYHOMOGENEOUS AIR AND ADIABATIC CHANGES

A vertical column or layer of air that haa been completely mixed or

stirred will be called homogeneous. 1 In such air the vertical variation of
temperature is caused solely by changes in pressure; the water-vapor con-
centration is independent of height, although other humidity parameters
vary because of the pressure variation. The lapse ratez of temperature
in vertically homogeneous air will be discussed in Sec. 3.5, and the lapse
rates of humidity variables in Sec. 3,6. In Sec. 3.7 the gradient of refrac-
tive modulus in homogeneous air will be considered.
The concept of homogeneity is important in the study of atmospheric
refraction, for homogeneous air servw as a convenient reference for actual
conditions. Soundkgs of the atmosphere in this chapter will be pre-
sented with reference lines (broken lines) showing conditions that would
occur in homogeneous air. The M-gradient in homogeneous air is very
nearly the gradient that is accepted as standard in its effect on the propag~
tion of radio waves, as was explained in Sec. 1.4.
In addition to its function as a reference, vertical homogeneity is the
only simple distribution that exists often in the atmosphere. It is par-
ticularly frequent in the lowest part of the atmosphere, the part of pri-
mary concern in the refraction problem. It occurs when the air is heated
from below and stirred by convection (Sec. 3.14); hence homogeneous
air often exists over land in the daytime when the air is warmed because
of solar heating of the ground, and it is also found when an air mass
moves over a warmer surface, whether ground or water. In these cases
homogeneity may exist between some lower point that is about 50 ft
above the earth’s surface and some higher point that may vary widely
1The word “homogeneous” will be used in this chapter only as defined here. It
should not be confused with the term “homogeneous atmosphere,” which is used by
some meteorologists to denote a theoretical atmosphere in which air density is inde-
pendent of height. Homogeneous atmosphere as defined for this chapter is not homo-
geneous in the electromagnetic sense, as its electrical properties (refractive index) vary
with position.
2Lapse rate is the decrease per unit increase of height, Vertical gradient, as used
in this book, is the increase per unit increase of height,
194 METEOROWGY OF THE REFRACTION PROBLEM [SEC. 3.5

but is usually less than 10,000 ft. Homogeneity is also approximated in

some cases when the air near the surface of the earth is mechanically
stirred by the wind.
3“5. Adiabatic Temperature Lapse Rate and Potential Temperature.~
The lapse rate of temperature that occurs in homogeneous air is called
the adiabatic kzpse rate because it represents the decrease of tempera-
ture of an air parcel which rises and cools adiabatically. If the air is
unsaturated, the temperature decrease with height is properly called
the dry-adiabatic lapse Tate but in practice is often referred to simply
as “adiabatic lapse rate. ” However, if condensation or evaporation
processes occur, latent heat is a factor; the lapse rate under this condition
is called the moist-adiabatic lapse rate or saturation-adiabatic lapse rate and
will be discussed in the next section in connection with wet-bulb tem-
perature.
The dry-adiabatic lapse rate follows from the first law of thermody-
namics and the hydrostatic equation. The former, for an adiabatic
process, can be written as
CvdT = a dp, (11)

where CDis the specific heat of air at constant pressure, T is the tempera-
ture, a the specific volume, and p the pressure.
According to the hydrostatic equation, which assumes no vertical
acceleration of the air, the effect of gravity on a unit volume of air is
balanced by the difference in pressure above and below the unit volume,
or
adp = —gdZ, (12)

where g is the acceleration of, gravity and z is the vertical coordinate.

Strictly speaking, the a in Eq. (11) is somewhat different from the a in
Eq. (12). In the former it means the specific volume of the displaced air
parcel; in the latter it is the specific volume of the air through which the
parcel is moving. The two may be different if the parcel is displaced
very much from its original height. In general, however, the variation
is small, and they may be considered equal to a good degree of approxi-
mation.
Combining Eqs. (11) and (12) gives

dT
—— ~ = o,98°C per 100 m = 0,54°F per 100 ft. (13)
dz = c,

A quantity that is often convenient to use is the potential temperature O.

It is defined as the temperature that an air parcel under any pressure would
assume if its pressure were changed by a dry-adiabatic process to some
standard pressure. The potential temperature, in terms of the original
1 By Richard A. Craig.
SEC. 35] ADIABATIC TEMPERATURE LAPSE RATE 195

temperature T, the original pressure p, and the standard pressure PO,

follows from Eq. (11). This equation becomes, upon substitution for a
from the equation of state,
dT .— R —,
dp
(14)
T mcn p

where R is the universal gas constant, and m is the mean molecular weight
of air. It follows from integration between the limits p, p~ and T, o that

0= ‘(a%=
‘(9286 (15)

The standard pressure POis commonly chosen as 1000 mb in meteor-

ology. In meteorology associated with the refraction problem, however,
it has proved convenient to take as the standard pressure the surface pres-
sure. In practice, the potential temperature at any height can be found
by adding to the temperature the product obtained by multiplying the
adiabatic lapse rate by the height. The potential temperature determined
in this manner cliffers from that defined by Eq. (15) by a negligible amount.
The practice of referring potential values to surface pressure rather
than to some standard pressure will be followed in this and the next two
sections. The primary reason for this practice is that in the refraction
problem it is often desirable to compare temperature or humidity at some
elevated point with values at the surface; reduction of the former to the
surface pressure makes the comparison possible without any adjustment
of the surface values. Moreover, the procedure is much simpler because
in the refraction problem soundings are commonly plotted with height
above the surface as ordinate.
In any one sounding, all values are referred to one pressure, but
absolute values of potential temperature (and other potential values)
from different soundings are not strictly comparable unless the surface
pressures corresponding to the different soundings are identical. This is
an important point to keep in mind but it is not a serious consideration
at the present stage of refraction work. Such comparisons of absolute
value are commonly not made except over small intervals of time or
horizontal distance when variations due to variations of surface pressure
are negligible. One important exception may occur in the comparison of
soundings made at points where the heights above mean sea level differ.
In th~ case the two reference surface pressures may be quite different,
and all should be referred to one height for purposes of meteorological
comparisons.
Certain considerations with respect to potential temperature may be
stated. It is a conservative property for dry-adiabatic changes. In homo-
geneous air, the potential temperature is independent of height, and the
air is said to be in neutral equilibm”um. If in an air column the potential
196 METEOROWGY OF THE REFRACTION PROBLEM [SEC.36

temperature increases with height, the air is said to be in stable equilibrium;

if it decreases with height, the air is said to be in unstable equilibrium.
The importance of stability and instability will be discussed later in con-
nection with heating from below (Sec. 3.14) and cooling from below (Sec.
3“17).
3“6. Humidity Lapse in Homogeneous Air.~In homogeneous air, the
water-vapor concentration is independent of height, but the vapor pressure,
dew point, and wet-bulb temperature vary with height because of changes
in total pressure of the air. The homogeneous lapse rates that will be
derived for the parameters depending on pressure are analogous to the
adiabatic lapse rate of temperature; they indicate the changes in the
parameters caused by a change in height when no water vapor is gained
or lost by the air parcel.
Equation (4) gives the vapor pressure in terms of specific humidity and
total pressure. If the specific humidity is constant, differentiation of
this equation yields
1 de =———.—
—— 1 dp .
(16)
e dz p dz

Upon substitution from the hydrostatic equation [Eq. (12)] and the
equation of state, this becomes
de ?ng
–me. (17)
dz =

The lapse rate of vapor pressure thus depends inversely on the tem-
perature and directly on the vapor pressure. For a temperature of O°C,

de
—— = 0.0125e per 100 m
dz

= 0.0382e per 1000 ft. (18)

The lapse rate of the dew point in homogeneous air can also be derived.
Equation (3) can be rewritten as

(19)

where T, is the dew point. When de is written in terms of dz according

to Eq. (17), this becomes

dT,
—— _~gT: —— (20)
dz – m,LT

Hence the lapse rate of dew point in homogeneous air varies with the square
of the dew point and inversely as the temperature. For the temperature

1By Richard A. Craig.

SEC. 3.6] HUMIDITY LAPSE IN HOMOGENEOUS AIR 197

and dew point both equal to O°C,

dT
——8= 0.17°C per 100 m
dz

= 0.94°F per 1000 ft.

The lapse rate of we~bulb temperature in homogeneous air is more

complicated. It follows from a differentiation of the psychometric
formula, the form given in Eq. (7a) being used here. In these equations,
in accordance with the convention introduced in Sec. 3.37 the subscript
w refers to conditions at the wet-bulb temperature. If the concentration
of water vapor is constant and the coefficient of the wetibulb depression
is aasumed to be independent of height,

(21)

From Eq. (6), if the small vapor-pressure term in the denominator is

neglected,

After substitution from Eq. (3) for deW/dz, from Eq. (12) for dp/dz, from
Eq. (6) for e. (again neglecting the e. in the denominator), and from the
equation of state, the last equation becomes

When this is inserted in Eq. (21), together with the adiabatic value
for dT/dz from Eq. (13), the wet-bulb lapse rate in homogeneous air is
seen to be
Lt,m
dTW =fm
—— l+ RTW”
L2. (22)
dz
%+~~=w.

The lapse rate depends on the wet-bulb temperature, the temperature,

and the mixing ratio at the wet-bulb temperature. It may, of course,
be written in several other forms using other parameters such as specific
humidity, vapor pressure, and pressure. The form used here has the
advantage that it can be compared easily with the dry-adiabatic temper-
ature lapse rate. Assuming a temperature and wet-bulb temperature
both equal to O°C,
dTW _g
—— 1+32wW
dz – i; 1 + 180W. ”
198 METEOROLOGY OF THE REFRACTION PROBLEM [SEC. 3.7

This equation shows that the lapse rate of wet-bulb temperature is always
kss than the dry-adiabatic lapse rate g/cP. Fora mixing ratio of 10 per
mine, its value is about one-half the dry-adiabatic value.
The lapse rate of wet-bulb temperature in homogeneous air is to a
good degree of approximation the same as the moist-adiabatic lapse rate
mentioned in the previous section. Equation (22) holds for the moist-
adiabatic lapse rate if the T in the numerator and the Tm in the denom-
inator are identical and all other parameters refer to that temperature. 1
Quantities called potential vapor pressure, potential dew point, and
potential wet-bulb temperature may be defined as the values of the para-
meters at some standard pressure. In refraction work, as in the case
with potential temperature, it is more convenient to refer them always to
surface pressure rather than to an invariant standard pressure. The
potential values are found in practice by adding to the values at any
height the product of the respective lapse rate and the height. Although
the lapse rates of all three vary with height, it is sufficiently accurate to
assume a mean lapse rate over the height range of 1000 to 2000 ft, the
region that is usually considered when potential values are desired in
refraction work.
3“7. Gradient of Refractive Modulus in Homogeneous Air, Potential
Modulus/—Refractive modulus has been given in terms of pressure, tem-
perature, vapor pressure, and height in Sec. 34. Its variation with height
can be written in terms of the vertical gradients of potential temperature
and s~ecific humidity,. these parameters being desirable here because of
their constancy in homogeneous air. It follows from Eqs. (9) and (lo)
that
ditl do dq
(23)
dz = –T’z+r’z+ r’”

In this equation
o 286
~l=79A
T’ ()(
F
p,
1 + 15.5 x 10’;
)
per degree,

rz=61x104~ T,’

rs=4.78— 59& 1+4.6 x103f per 100 ft,

( )

where temperatures are in degrees Kelvin, pressures in millibars, and

heights in hundreds of feet; po is the standard pressure, usually the surface
pressure, to which the potential temperature is referred.

1A graph showing the saturation-adiabatic lapse rate and hence the wet-bulb
temperature lapse rate as a function of temperature and pressure may be found in
D. Brunt, Quart. Jour. Roy. Meteoml. Sot., 59, 351 (1933).
2By Isadore Katz.
SEc. 3.7] GRADIENT OF! REFRACTIVE MODULUS 199

In homogeneous air, the potential temperature and specific humidity

are independent of height; therefore the vertical gradient of M is simply
equal to rs. This value increases somewhat with increasing temperature
and decreases with increasing pressure and specific humidity. However,
within the range of variation of these quantities near the surface of the
earth, the vertical gradient of M is affected very little and the value 4.o
per 100 ft is accurate in nearly all cases.
It is often convenient, from the meteorologist’s point of view, to deal
with a parameter that represents the index of refraction and that is
vertically constant in homogeneous air. Such a parameter is the potential
refractive modulmi Q. It may be referred to simply w potential
modulus. ~
The potential refractive modulus is the value of refractive modulus
that an air parcel would have at some standard pressure. If the standard
pressure chosen is the surface pressure, so that z = O,

‘Kp”+b~)”
‘= Mwkn’ia’ (24)

The constants c and b are those that entered into Eq. (9), namely,
c = 79°K/mb and b = 4800”K; 8 is the potential temperature and e~ is
the potential vapor pressure, both referred to surface pressure; and p.
is the surface pressure. As the gradient of M in homogeneous air is
approximately 4.0 per 100 ft, @ can also be found by subtracting from M
at any level the product of 4.0 and the height in hundreds of feet.
In homogeneous air, all the factors on the right in Eq. (24) are inde-
pendent of height; and accordingly @ is independent of height. If the
temperature lapse rate is less than the dry-adiabatic rate, the potential
temperature increases with height and Q, because of this factor, decreases
with height. If the lapse of vapor pressure with height is greater than
the homogeneous rate, potential vapor pressure and @ decrease with
height; if it is less than the homogeneous rate, potential vapor pressure and
+ increase with height.
Definitions corresponding to those in Sec. 1,4 for M may be stated in
terms of @. The vertical gradient of @ in a standard layer is nearly zero,
having the value – 0.4 per 100 ft. The difference between a standard
and a homogeneous layer is therefore very small. The homogeneous
vertical distribution of @ may, for practical purposes, be regarded as the
dividing line between substandard distributions sloping to its right and
superstandard distributions sloping to its left. A decrease in @ of more
than 4.0 per 100 ft corresponds to an ~-inversion.

1 A concept quite similar. to this was introduced by George D. Lukes of the C’amp
Evans Signal Laboratory at a conference on wave propagation in Washington, D. C.,
November 1944.
200 METEOROWGY OF THE REFRACTION PROBLEM [SEC.3.8

3“8. Characteristic Curves and Mixing.’-It has been seen that a

characteristic diagram is basically a graph which has vapor pressure as
abscissa and temperature as ordinate, and on which the relationships
between temperature and vapor pressure over water and ice are shown by
saturation curves. It has been found convenient to add to this simple
graph certain other information needed for practical use in connection
with the refraction problem. Figures H and 1 in the rear pocket represent
the characteristic diagram as it may be used in such practical work. In
addition to the saturation curves for ice and water, there is a curve for
vapor pressure over sea water, as was explained in Sec. 31. There is also
a supplementary abscissa scale for mixing ratio (Sec. 3.2), a family of
broken straight lines showing the approximate wet-bulb temperature at a
pressure of 1000 mb (Sec. 3.3), and a family of curves showing (n – 1) X 10’
for a pressure of 1000 mb (Sec. 3“4).
In studying mixing, the coordinates of the characteristic diagram are
better taken to be potential temperature and potential vapor pressure,
which are constant during adiabatic ascent or descent of an air parcel not
containing saturated vapor. As was mentioned in the previous sections,
potential values here are referred to the surface pressure rather than to 1000
mb. Then the saturation curve is correct for the air reduced to the surface,
but not for the air at any other height. The scale for mixing ratio be-
comes approximately correct for any height and exactly correct for any
height if the surface pressure is 1000 mb. The lines sloping – 0.36 mb/°F
become correct for potential wet-bulb temperature referred to the surface
(the slope of these lines is strictly correct for certain conditions only,
Sec. 3“3). A vertical line through any point intersects the saturation
curve at the temperature that is the corresponding potential dew point.
The fourth family of lines becomes potential modulus o according to the
approximate formula in Sec. 3.9.
With these coordinates the diagram becomes very like the Rossby (or
equivalent potential temperature) diagram, in common use, on which the
coordinates are logarithm of potential temperature and mixing ratio. o
The characteristic diagram is intended to fill much the same purpose but
is drawn on a larger scale and is especially designed for low-level soundings
rather than for the common meteorological soundings that extend into
the stratosphere.
On either diagram a homogeneous mass of air is represented by a
point, because potential temperature and mixing ratio or potential vapor
pressure are constant throughout homogeneous air. These quantities are
conservative; therefore the point remains fixed during vertical displace-
ments of the air as long as there is no exchange of heat or water by radia-
tion, diffusive processes, or evaporation. If the air is not homogeneous
but has continuously varying properties, a sounding through the air
1By R. B. Montgomery.
f$Ec. 3%] CHARACTERISTIC CURVES AND MI XIA’G 201

forms a continuous curve on the diagram. This curve remains fixed

during changes of the type described. Such a curve is called a charac-
teristic curve, and from this the name characteristic diagram is derived,
The characteristic diagram has particular advantages in the study
of mixing. Consider twosamples A,and.!3 of homogeneous air. If equal
quantities of these are mixed together, the potential temperature of the
resulting mixture is the average of the potential temperatures of A and
B, and its specific humidity is the average of the specific humidities of
A and B. Consequently the potential
vapor pressure is very nearly the average t ,
of the potential vapor pressures of A and 2
c
B, so that on the diagram the mixture is $ \
A
represented almost exactly by the mid- g
point of the straight line joining the points ~
representing A and B, as shown in Fig. 3.3. “F
If A and B are mixed in any other propor- #
tion, the mixture is represented by another
point on the same straight line. If the two
masses of air are separated by a zone of Potential
vaporpressure —.
gradual transition, the characteristic curve FIG. 3,3.—Characteristic dia-
for the transition zone is the straight line gram. Point C represents mixture of
air masses A and B in equal quantities.
joining the points representing A and B. 1
The isopleths of potential refractive modulus on the characteristic
diagram are nearly straight, parallel, and equally spaced lines; thus the
mixture of A and B in equal quantities has a potential modulus nearly
equal to the average of the potential moduli of A and B. A general
statement of this approximate result is as follows. In the transition zone
resulting from the mixing of two homogeneous masses of air A and B, at
any point P the ratio of the change from A to P to the change from A to
B is the same for potential temperature, for potential vapor pressure or
mixing ratio, and for potential modulus. This property is designated as
that of similarity in distribution of the quantities mentioned or of others
like them.
Mixing tends to shorten the portion of a characteristic curve where
the mixing occurs, as shown schematically in Fig, 3,4,
The air in immediate contact with a boundary has the same tempera-
ture as the boundary. In addition, if the boundary is pure water, the
vapor at the boundary is saturated; if the boundary is ocean water, the

1The etatementaof thk paragraphare not strictly correctfor the Rossby diagram
because the ordinateis the logarithm of potential temperature. Arakawa [“A New
Type of Rossby Diagram,” Bull. Am. Meteorol. Sk, 21, 111, (1940)] has modified the
Roaaby diagram by substituting a linear scale of potential temperature; for this rncdfied
version the statements are correct, because, as he says, “The potentiaI temperature of the
mixture is equal to the mean potential temperature. ”
20Z METEOROLOGY OF THE REFRACTION PROBLEM [SEC. 38

vapor is 98 per cent saturated (Sec. 3“1). Thus the temperature and
composition of a water surface fix on the characteristic diagram the point
representing the air at the surface. If originally homogeneous air
comes into contact with a water surface of constant temperature, and if
the transition zone is produced by mixing only, the characteristic curve
for the transition zone is the straight line joining the point representing
the original air with the point representing the air at the boundary, as
shown schematically in Fig. 3“5. It will be seen that this ideal case some-

P
\
\
\
\
\
\
\
\
t
7/
P’

Potentialvapor pressure— Potential vapor pressure ~

FIG. 3 .4.—Characteristic diagram showing FIG.3.5.—Characteristic curve produced
the shortening of original characteristic curve by mixing of air.1 in contact with saltwater
caused by mixing within the region P-P’. of temperature 2’,.

times occurs when air blows from a warm land surface to a cold sea surface.
For air over water the characteristic curve in all cases, even when not
straight, terminates at the point corresponding to the temperature and
composition of the water surface. *
An important result is that in many cases the characteristic curve
of a measured sounding over water may be extrapolated to intersect
the saturation curve, the point of intersection determining the water
temperature.

REPRESENTATIONAND DESCRIPTION OF SOUNDINGS

BY ISADOREKATZ

The meteorological questions raised in connection with the propaga-

tion of short radio waves in the troposphere have necessitated the develop-
1The temperature of the water surface, however, is not always the same as the water
temperature measured a short distance below the surface; therefore this rule must be
applied with caution.
SEC. 3.9] FORMVL.4 FOR REFRACTIVE MODULUS 203

ment of new techniques for measuring the vertical structure of the at-
mosphere in fine detail. Some of the new instruments and methods for
using them will be discussed at the end of this chapter. At this point
it is desirable to consider the methods by which these data may be con-
veniently reduced and presented in a form useful to all concerned.
The common ground between meteorology and the propagation
problem is found by use of the refractive modulus M. An approximate
formula whereby measurements of temperature and humidity can easily
be converted to values of M will be presented in Sec. 3“9. In Sec. 3“10
there will be a discussion of various parameters that may be used in pre-
senting the data graphically.
3.9. Approximate Formula for Refractive Modulus.—In order to
facilitate the reduction of raw data, certain simplifications of the formula
for M may often be made. This formula, which follows from Eqs. (9)
and (10), is

(25a)

An approximate expression for the pressure p follows from Eq. (12),

integrated under the assumption of constant density. Making use of the
equation of state, this becomes

P= Po–9P’z=Po-9; $#

where the subscript O refers to values at the surface. On substitution of

this expression, the formula for M takes the form

(25b)

If it is assumed that T and TO in the final term are equal, the coefficient
of z depends only on surface pressure and temperature. A further simpli-
fication follows from the assumption that PO = 1000 mb and l“, = 289”K.
Then the approximate formula is

M=; 1000 + 4800 ~ + 3.8z, (25C)

( )

where z is in hundreds of feet, 2’ in degrees Kelvin, e in millibars.

This approximation obviates the measurement of pressure and simph-
fies the computation of M from temperature, vapor pressure, and height.
The characteristic diagram, described in Sec. 3“8, contains isopleths of M
for zero height according to Eq. (25b) and is eaaily used for computation
purposes.
The assumptions made in obtaining the approximate formula for
refractive modulus lead to errors that will now be examined. The
204 METEOROLOGY OF THE REFRACTION” PROBLEM [SEC, 39

difference between the true value of M and the approximate value given
byEq. (25c)is
Ml = ~ (p – 1000) + z, (26)

where the quantities are in the units indicated for Eq. (25c).
The error at the surface (z = O) for T = 273°K is given by

~lf = ~ (p, – 1000) = 0.29(p, – 1000).

Sea-level pressure may vary between 950 and 1050 mb; thus the
absolute error may be as much as ~ 14.5 or 4 to 5 per cent of the usual
value of M near the surface. .Moreover, if the surface is far from sea
level, so that the surface pressure varies even more from 1000 mb, corre-
spondingly larger errors result.
Errors slightly larger than those at the surface may occur at a point
above the surface. For example, for z = 1000 ft, p = 914 mb, and
T = 273°K the error would be about – 15. These errors are large com-
pared with the error introduced by instrumental inaccuracies, which is
about 1 or 2 in M when careful measurements are made.
However, for propagation work the shape of the M-profile rather
than the absolute values of M is of most importance. Therefore it is
desirable to find the error in the gradient of M introduced by using the
approximate formula. The gradient is obtained by differentiating the
formula for M [Eq. (25a)]:

If the gradient is obtained from Eq. (25b),

the error in M-gradient &(dM/dz) is obtained by subtracting this approx-

imate equation from the preceding one:

This equation reduces to a convenient numerical form if PO= 1000 mb,

T, = 289°K, and z is measured in hundreds of feet. Then

cgm p.
—— per 100 ft,
R~=l
SEC. 39] FORMULA FOR REFRACTIVE MODULUS 205

and

6* .;g(looo–p)– — per 100 ft. (27)

() I&o () ? 2+ “

The error resulting from the approximation may be divided into two
parts:
1. An error depending on p, p~, T, 2’0 given by the last two terms.
As an example, for T = 3000K and p = 900 mb, the error amounts
to 0.16 per 100 ft. This is about 5 per cent of the standard gradient
and for practical purposes is negligible. A negative departure of
about the same magnitude would occur in very cold air at 1000 mb.
2. Another error proportional to dT/dz and to (1000 – p). It is
greatest in a high temperature inversion. For an estimate of the error
under rather extreme conditions of stability assume T = 273”K,
dT/dz = 200C per 100 ft, p = 914 mb. Then, from Eq. (27), the error

()
~d& =79dT
~ (1000 – p) = 1.82 per 100 ft.
dz

This term is zero in an isothermal atmosphere and under average

conditions is only about one-tenth the value computed above. It
should be clear that an error of even 2 per 100 ft in the M-gradient
is not large under the extreme conditions stated; for under the
influence of such stability, the actual M-gradient would be likely
to be in the neighborhood of 20 per 100 ft, and the error would be
only 10 per cent. Note in this case also that if the surface is not
near sea level, the errors may be larger than stated.
The approximate formula for the potential refractive modulus assumes
also that the surface pressure is 1000 mb. Thus

(28)

where 6 is potential temperature in degrees Kelvin and eP is potential

vapor pressure in millibars.
The absolute difference between the true value of @ and the value
computed from the formula above may be large. It is given by

(29)

where po is the actual surface pressure, with units as above.

The difference between the surface pressure and 1000 mb may be as
much as 5 per cent, and the error in * may be as much as 14 (about 4 to
5 per cent) or more if the surface is near sea Ievel.1 With * aa with M,
1For a station where the eurfaeeis not near mean sea level, a preeaurenear the
averagesurfacevalueshould be chosenratherthan 1000mb.
206 METEOROLOGY OF THE REFRACTIO.V PROBLEM [SEC. 3-10

theabsolute value is unimportant and the slope of the curve isthe impor-
tant variable. The error in slope is given by

()
d~
~(po– 1000) per loOft, (30)
% ‘–~’dz

This error is very small in absolute magnitude. It is zero for homo-

geneous air (dO/dz = O) and increases with the stability of the air. For
a rather extreme case where the potential temperature increases at the
rate of 10”F per 100 ft and the surface pressure differs from 1000mb by
50mb, theerror inslope isonlyabout 0.2per100ft This may becom-
pared with possible variationsin gradient in the neighborhood of 100 per
lOOft because of changing atmospheric conditions.
In the remainder of this chapter M and @ will be used as defined in
Eqs. (25b) and (28) respectively.
301O. Representation of Soundings. -In conventional meteorological
work soundings are most frequently plotted on a temperature-pressure
chart. Only the temperature curves are drawn; humidity values are
merely written in at the proper height. This method of designating a
vertical sampling of the atmosphere is totally inadequate for the low-level
meteorology of microwave propagation.
In plotting low-level soundings, it is customary to usea linear height
scale as ordinate, instead of pressure. It is desirable to show at least
three variables, one representing temperature, one representing humidity,
and one representing some variant form of the index of refraction.
There are two possible parameters that might be used to represent
temperature, namely, potential temperature and temperature itself.
The former has the advantage that it is conservative for adiabatic changes.
Temperature, however, is in many cases simpler to use, as it is measured
directly and is included in all standard weather reports. For this reason
it has been chosen for use in the soundings in this chapter, The temper-
atures are all plotted on a Fahrenheit scale. In many ways the centi-
grade scale may be superior for scientific work. However, in refraction
work it is frequently necessary to use standard weather reports, and
because temperatures are customarily reported in degrees Fahrenheit in
the United States and in the British Empire, experience has shown that
considerable time is saved by conforming to this custom.
Humidity could be represented by any one of several quantities.
Of these, relative humidity and wet-bulb temperature are immediately
seen to be undesirable because they do not specify the amount of water
vapor in the air, except in conjunction with a value of temperature.
Vapor pressure has much to recommend it because it enters simply
into the equations for the various forms of refractive index and is directly
proportional to the amount of- water vapor in the air. Water-vapor con-
centration (specific humidity .or. mixing ratio) is proportional to vapor
SEC. 310] REPRESENTATION OF SOUNDINGS 207

pressure and, in addition, is conservative for adiabatic changes. Any

one of these parameters could well be used under certain conditions.
Dew point, however, has been found to have many advantages that
make it a desirable parameter and prompt its use in the soundings in this
chapter:
1. It can be plotted on a single scale along with air temperature.
2. Saturated layers are clearly visible from the curves of temperature
and dew point.
3. It afforals immediate comparison with the temperature of a water
surface over which air may be traveling, to indicate the direction of
the humidity gradient.
4. All surface weather reports in the United States include dew point.
As in the case of temperature, conformity to customary usage
saves much labor if standard weather reports are to be used.
5. It is nearly conservative for height changes over an interval of a
few thousand feet.
A disadvantage of dew point is the fact that it does not vary linearly
wit h vapor pressure and water-vapor concentration.
Potential modulus @ and the refractive modulus M are both presented
as the product of meteorological soundings in this chapter. Each has
its own advantages. Potential modulus * is superior to M in that a
homogeneous air column is represented by a vertical line, deviations
toward substandard or superstandard thus being immediately recog-
nizable. It has the advantage also that its curve is ordinarily very similar
to the dew-point curve. For these two reasons, * is more readily accept-
able to the meteorologist. On the other hand, the numerical convenience
of M and the fact that the M-profile is identical in shape with that of the
modified-index profile furnish sufficient reason to employ both + and M.
One thing more may be said about the sounding presentation. The
accuracy far exceeds that of the widely used radiosonde New instru-
ments are in existence that are designed primarily for measuring, in
minute detail, the lower 1000 ft of the atmosphere. These will be de-
scribed in Sees. 3.27 to 3.31. Some of these instruments attain an accuracy
of nearly + 0.2”F, better than the radiosonde by a factor of 5 or mqre.
An expanded temperature scale on the graph is called for in view of the
instrumental accuracy.
The soundings in this chapter, then, will uniformly include tempera-
ture, dew point, potential modulus, and refractive modulus plotted against
height above the earth’s surface. The height scale will be in feet; temper-
ature in degrees Fahrenheit. Reference lines (dashed lines) will be given
showing distributions in homogeneous air. Arrows will indicate values
of temperature, humidity, and refractive modulus at the surface. Where-
ever practicable, one scale unit will represent 100 ft, 1.80F, four units of
@ and M. With this scale, the M-profile in homogeneous air slopes
208 METEOROLOGY OF THE REFRACTION PROBLEM [SEC. 3.11

45° to the right of vertical, and the ~-curve represents an M-inversion if

it is inclined more than 45° to the left of vertical.

EDDY DIFFUSION
BY R. B. MONTGOMERY

The processes of diffusion in the lower part of the troposphere are

intimately associated with boundary friction and wind distribution and
fall within the general field of fluid mechanics. There is a large fund of
information with bearing on atmospheric processes of diffusion, both from
fluid mechanicsin general and from meteorological studies in particular,
although the latter have not progressed sufficiently to answer most prac-
tical questions that arise. The material under this heading consists of
some fundamental considerations and a review of the meteorological
information available.
There are two books that afford especially extensive additional material.
The general one is Modern Developments in Fluid Dynamics’ edited by
S. Goldstein, and the one on meteorological aspects is H. Lettau’s At-
mospharische Turbubnz.z
3“11. Eddy Viscosi@ and Eddy Diffusivity.— Viscosity, conductivityy,
and diffusivity will precede the eddy counterparts. The simplest sort of
fluid friction occurs when the direction of motion is everywhere the same
and the speed u depends only on a coordinate z normal to this direction. In
many problems the coordinate z is the distance from a solid wall, and in
meteorological problems it is the vertical coordinate. Because of friction
there is a tangential stress r on any plane normal to z. The dynamic
viscosity p may be defined as the ratio of the stress to the shear, so that

au
(31)
‘= PTZ”

The positive sign in this equation conforms to the convention that a stress
in the direction of positive u is positive if momentum in the direction of
positive u is transported in the direction of decreasing z. The viscosity,
except for unusual cases, is a physical property of the fluid and is inde-
pendent of the fluid’s motion. A gradient of stress, in the absr%ce of
other forces, produces an acceleration
au a%
(32)
x=’%

where the ratio of dynamic viscosity (dimensions L-lMT-l) to density,

~ = ~/p, is by definition the kinematic visco~”ty (dimensions L2ff’_l).

1Clarendon Preea, Oxford, New York, 1938.

2Akademieche Verlagsgeeellschaft, L&pzig, 1939; reprint, Edwards Brothers, Ann
Arbor, 1944.
SEC. 311] EDDY VISCOSITY AND EDDY DIFFUSIVITY 209

In the same way, suppose that temperature is constant over every plane
normal to z but varies in the z-direction. Because of conduction, heat
is transported in the direction of increasing z at the rate per unit area

~ . _k~T,
(33)
dz

where k is the thermal wnductiw”ty, a quantity dimensionally equivalent

to the product of dynamic viscosity and specific heat, c~p. If radiation
and production of heat are negligible, a nonuniform temperature gradient
results in a rate of heating equal to

(34)

where v, = k/cpp is called thermometric conductiw”ty and is dimensionally

equivalent to kinematic viscosity.
As the third case, suppose that specific humidity q is constant over
any plane normal to z. Because of diffusion, water vapor is transported
in the direction of decreasing concentration, the rate per unit area of mass
transfer in the direction of increasing z being

E = ‘pvd~, (35)

where vd is the diffusiuity of water vapor in air. The resulting rate of

change of specific humidity is
aq a’q
(36)
z = ‘d z’”

Diffusivity also is dimensionally equivalent to kinematic viscosity.

For a gas the magnitudes of the three dimensionally equivalent quan-
tities are of the same order but are usually unequal. At O°C and 1000 mb
the kinematic viscosity and thermometric conductivity of air and the dif-
fusivity of water vapor in air are, respectively,

v = 0.1346 cm2/see, Vc= 0.189 cm2/see, v~ = 0.226 cm2/sec.

The effects of friction, conduction, and diffusion are important where

the fluid flow is comparatively steady. This is the case close to any solid
in the region called the lam inar sub layer. Steady flow in the atmosphere
occurs in a laminar sublayer of the order of 1 mm in thickness next to the
ground or water surface and in temperature inversions that are sufficiently
intense in relation to the shear. Although the laminar sublayer is thin, it
is by no means negligible, because a large part of the heat gained or lost
by the atmosphere must be conducted through the layer, and the water
vapor gained hy the atmosphere must be diffused through it.
210 METEOROWGY OF THE REFRACTION PROBLEM [SEC. 311

Most of the lower atmosphere, however, is in unsteady flow, and the

mixing effect of turbulence accomplishes a vertical transfer of momentum,
heat, and water vapor. In comparison with this eddy transfer, as it is
called, the effect of true viscosity, conductivity, or diffusivit y is of
negligible magnitude.
In this unsteady motion let u and w be the velocity components in the
directions z (a horizontal coordinate) and z respectively. Let the mean
value of u be u, and let u = z + u’, and assume that the mean value
ofwis G= Osothatw= w’. Because of the component w there is an
instantaneous rate of mass transfer per unit area in the direction of
decreasing z equal to – pw and a corresponding transfer of x-component
of momentum
–~~ = –pw’(n + u’).

In the mean the fist term on the right vanishes, leaving only – PW’U’.
This mean rate of momentum transfer per unit area in the direction of
decreasing z is called a component of eddy stress on the imaginary surface
normal to z. The ratio pK, of eddy stress to the appropriate shear of
the mean motion is called dynamic eddy viscosity, and thus
_ aii
–pwu = PKOZ. (37)

This equation is similar in form to Eq. (31). It expresses the eddy stress
as the product of the shear of the mean motion and of an eddy viscosity
depending in a specific way on the degree of turbulence or mixing. Un-
like the true viscosity, eddy viscosity is not a property of the fluid but is
a property of the unsteady flow. Eddy viscosity varies widely from case
to case and spatially within any one case.
Differentiating the last equation leads to the acceleration of the mean
flow if forces other than the eddy stress are neglected:

(38)

This equation differs in form from Eq. (32) because of the inherent vari-
ability of Ko. The quantity K,, dimensionally the same as kinematic
viscosity, is commonly called simply eddy viscosity. It is customary to
omit the bars in expressions like 13ti/13tand dli/dz when the context shows
without ambiguity that u represents the mean velocity component.
In the same way, the instantaneous transfer of water vapor in the
direction of increasing z is, in mass per unit area and per unit time,
pwq = pw’(~ + q’).

The mean rate of transfer is therefore pw’q’. Writing this as

aij
pm = –pKd~ (39)
SEC. 311] EDDY VISCOSITY AND EDDY DIFFUSIVITY 211

deties the eddy diffm”tity Kd, also of the time dimerisions as kinematic
viscosity. If water vapor is transferred by eddy diffusion alone,

(40)

Eddy dMusivity is defined above in terms of the particular ratio of

eddy dMusion of water vapor to the mean gradient of water vapor.
However, it is physically clear that eddy diffusivity is a property of the
unsteady flow and is essentially identical for water vapor and any other
component of the air such as carbon dioxide or for the eddy transfer of heat.
Consequently the eddy heat transfer is given by a relation similar to Eq.
(39),
a~
CPp~ = —cVPKd‘s (41)
az

and the resulting rate of temperature change is

(42)

The value of the eddy diffusivity Kd in these two equations is essentially

the same as its value in the preceding two equations for the same time
and place.
Equations (41) and (42), given in this form for simplicity, are correct
when the absolute value of the lapse rate is large compared with the
adiabatic lapse rate g/cP. In general, d~/dz in these equations is to be
replaced by dT/az + g/cP.l
At first sight the same identity might be expected to exist between
eddy viscosity and eddy diffusivity, but in some cases they differ consider-
abley. A hypothetical example will clarify this statement. Suppose that
the turbulence consists of random motion back and forth in the z-direc-
tion of air parcels contained in balloons that have no mass, are impermeable
to dry air, but are completely permeable to water vapor and are thermally
conductive. If the motion back and forth is repeated at a sufficiently
rapid rate in relation to the size of the parcels, the eddy transfer of heat
and water vapor is inMicient because in each excursion there is time
for only partial equalization of temperature and water-vapor concen-
tration by conduction and diffusion within the parcels. No matter how
rapid the rate, however, the equalization of momentum can be good be-
cause it does not depend on diffusion within the parcels but is effected
throughout each parcel by pressure gradients transmitted from the walls
of the balloon. For rapidly repeated motion it is evident, therefore,
that the ratio of eddy viscosity to eddy diffusivity, Ko/Kd, is greater than
LD. Brunt,Physical and Dynamical Meteorology, 2d ed., University Press, Cambridge,
1939, p. 225.
212 METEOROLOGY OF THE REFRACTION PROBLEM [SEC. 311

unity, with no apparent limit on how large the ratio may be. Also, be-
cause the eddy transfer of heat and that of water vapor depend on con-
duction anddiffusion within the parcels, the ratio of eddy diffusivity for
water vapor in air to eddy diffusivity for heat can be somewhat greater
than unity. The upper limit for this ratio is given by the ratio of dif-
fusivity of water vapor in air to thermometric conductivity, Vd/V, = 1.2,
but highly idealized conditions are required for this upper limit to be
reached and little error can be introduced by assuming the ratio always
to be unity.
Another hypothetical case is also of special interest. Suppose that
the random motion of the parcel in each balloon is discontinuous in such
a way that a relatively long period of constant z is followed by a rapid
finite change of z, and so on. If these periods of changing z are sufficiently
short, no exchange of heat or water vapor can occur during them, but
complete equilibrium can be reached during the long periods of rest.
The transfer of heat and water vapor accomplished in each change of z
approaches complete efficiency because the parcel starts in a condition
identical with its surroundings, moves without suffering any change, and
delivers its entire excess or deficit of heat and water vapor at the end of
its journey. In this process the eddy diffusivity of heat and water vapor
are, of course, identical. But during any change of z the parcel experi-
ences a pressure gradient that, at least on the average, reduces the differ-
ence in z-component of momentum between the parcel and the air through
which it is traveling. The parcel therefore completes its journey after
losing some of its excess or lack of momentum, with the result that the
eddy transfer of momentum fails of complete efficiency. In thk case
the ratio of eddy viscosity to eddy diffusivity is less than unity, with no
apparent limit on how small the ratio may be.
Although these examples are hypothetical, their less idealized counter-
parts, which lack the balloons to confine each parcel completely, appear
realistic enough, and the examples serve to give some physical under-
standing of the relation between eddy viscosity and eddy diffusivity.
From observed conditions it appears permissible as a rough first ap-
proximation to assume that the ratio of eddy viscosity to eddy diffusivity
is unity if the hydrostatic stability is close to zero or is negative. Most
of the evidence in support of this assumption is indirect, namely, the
fact that use of the assumption in a number of problems has led to answers
that are not unreasonable. There is also a little direct evidencel that
the ratio is unity in certain meteorological situations.

1Especially the following: H. U. Sverdrup, “The Eddy Conductivity of the Air

over a Smooth Snow Field,” Geofysiske Pubtikasjoner, 11, No. 7 (1936); “On the Influ-
ence of Stability and Instability on the Wind Profile and the Eddy Conductivity Near
the Ground;’ Proc. Fifth Intern. Congr. Applied Mech., Wiley, New York, 1938, pp.
369-372.
Sm. 3.12] LAYER OF FRICTIONAL INFLUENCE 213

In case of great stability it is usually recognized that the ratio of

eddy viscosity to eddy diffusivity is considerably greater than unity.
This is reasonable in view of the first example above. In stable air a
parcel displaced vertically from its origin experiences a hydrostatic force
toward its origin; hence the average parcel returns quickly after trans-
ferring only a small part of its excess or deficit of heat and water vapor,
whereas the momentum transfer can be more efficient.
Friction and diffusion are very different at a rough boundary, even
though the ratio of eddy viscosity to eddy diffusivity may be unity within
the outer part of the turbulent boundary layer. The momentum transfer
between the boundary and the fluid is partly by means of a true shearing
stress, but it is largely accomplished by normal stresses between the pro-
tuberances of the boundary and the eddies in the fluid. Eddy viscosity
is therefore effective right up to the boundary, despite the fact that
the boundary itself is coated with a laminar sublayer. Heat transfer,
however, occurs by true conduction through this layer, and water-vapor
transfer occurs by true diffusion. Eddy diffusivity is therefore effective
only up to the laminar layer.
In spite of these two major exceptions, namely, stable layers and a
region close to any rough boundary, there are important cases where
eddy viscosity and eddy diffusivity are of approximately the same mag-
nitude. As rather more basic information on velocity distribution and
eddy viscosity is available, they too must be included in a consideration
of the distribution of eddy diffusivity in the atmosphere.
3“12. Layer of Frictional Intluence in Neutral Equilibrium.-The layer
of frictional influence is the part of the atmosphere in which the wind dis-
tribution is influenced directly by ground friction, as revealed by a devia-
tion in magnitude and direction from the free-air wind. Close to the
ground the wind is usually weaker than the free-air wind and usually
has a component of considerable magnitude in the horizontal direction of
decreasing pressure, The height at which the deviation from free-air wind
ceases is indistinct and varies between a few hundred and a few thousand
feet.
The simple theoretical approach in studying this layer is to assume
steady flow and a uniform horizontal pressure gradient. Above the layer
of frictional influence, geostrophic wind prevails, that is, the wind is normal
to the horizontal pressure gradient and its speed is such that, for straight
horizontal (geodesic) flow relative to the rotating earth, the necessary
horizontal absolute acceleration is produced by the pressure gradient.
Close to the ground, friction retards the wind, which consequently blows
with a component in the horizontal direction of decreasing pressure; the
horizontal pressure gradient is balanced partly by the absolute acceleration
of the reduced wind, partly by friction. The hodograph of the complete
wind distribution for steady flow, called the Ekman spiral, is pictured in
G
214 METEOROWGY OF THE REFRACTION PROBLEM [SEC. 312

Fig. 3”6. According tottistheo~, theheight atwhich the wind becomes

approximately geostrophic, or the thickness of the layer of frictional
influence, is a few feet, in contrast with the observed height of a few
hundreds or thousands of feet. Nevertheless, except for the absolute
difference in height, the hodograph of the actual mean wind forms a spiral
that armears somewhat similar to the Ekman spiral.’
The Ekman spiral follows from

&
the assumption of steady flow. For
turbulent flow, if the eddy viscosity is
assumed to be independent of height,
the acceleration of the mean flow is
given by an expression of the same
Gsostrophic wind
form as that which appears in the
FIG. 36.-Ekman spiral in the northern case of steady flow [see Eqs. (32)
hemisphere. Arrows represent wind at suc-
cessive levels. and (38) ]. If the kinematic viscosity
is replaced by a much larger eddy
viscosity, the shape remains the same but the theoretical thickness of the
layer of frictional influence can be increased to agree with actuality. The
resulting spiral cannot, however, be regarded as a useful approximation
to actual conditions, because the eddy viscosity has been assumed constant
throughout the layer of frictional influence.
The wind distributions that would accompany certain other mathe-
matically simple distributions of eddy viscosity have been investigated
theoretically. The one that best represents natural conditions is Rossby’s. Z
For convenience the layer of frictional influence is divided into two parts:
a turbulent boundary layer, which, according to the theory, constitutes
about 10 per cent of the entire layer, and the remaining part, which has
been called the outer layer oj frictional in$uence. Eddy viscosity is
maximum at the interface. Within the turbulent boundary layer it in-
creases linearly with distance from the ground; and within the outer
layer, according to Rossby’s theory, it is proportional to the square of
the distance below the top of the layer. An example is shown in
Fig, 37.
Within the turbulent boundary layer Rossby assumes the eddy stress
to be constant, which is equivalent to assuming the horizontal pressure
gradient and the earth’s rotation to be negligible. As a consequence, the
direction of the mean wind is constant within the layer and the speed, ac-
1Two holographs of average observed conditiom may be found in H. Lettau,
Ahnospkii-ische Twbuknz, Akademiscbe Verlagsgesellschaft, IApzig, 1939, reprint,
Edwatds Brothers, Ann Arbor, 1944, p. 106.
2C.-G. Rmsby, “A Generalization of the Theory of the Mixing Length with Applica-
tions to Atmospheric and Oceanic Turbulence, ” Meteorol. Papers, Maw. Inst. of
Tecbnol., 1, No. 4 (1932); C.-G, Rossby and R. B. Montgomery, “The Layer of Fric-
tional Influence in Wind and Ocean Currents,” Papers in Phys. Ocearwg. ar@ Metewol.,
Ma&. Inst. of Technol. and Woods Hole Oceanog, Inst., 3, No 3 (1935).
●
SEC. 3.13] LOGARITHMIC DISTRIBUTIONS 215

cording to Eq. (37), is proportional to the logarithm of height. In the

outer layer of frictional influence the eddy stress veers and decreases with
increasing height. The hodograph of the mean wind consists of a
straight line representing the turbulent boundary layer and, without
break, a spiral representing the outer layer.
Rossby’s distribution of eddy viscosity has the essential feature that
it is maximum within the layer of frictional influence and small at its
upper and lower boundaries. This
1.5,
agrees with the fact that turbulence
is small in the free air and neces-
sarily small close to ~ solid boundary.
One supposition of the theory is
that the air is in neutral hydrostatic
equilibrium, so that the turbulence
is purely mechanical (not affected
by heating from below) and is not
subject to restraint by stability.
Because exact neutral equilibrium
rarely occurs, the details of the solu-
tion, especially in the higher levels,
cannot be expected to be regularly o 2 4X1( 5
EddywscosityKp in cm~sec
reproduced in nature. As long as
FIQ. 3,7.—Theoretical distribution of
the equilibrium is not far from eddy viscosity in the layer of frictional influ-
neutral, however, it is reasonable to ence (geostrophic wind 20 m Isec, latitude
43°, roughness length 3.2 cm). (After Rossby
assume that eddy viscosity and eddy and Monloornerg.)
diffusivity are of approximately the
same magnitude throughout the layer of frictional influence.
The turbulent boundary layer, which is separated from the ground
or water surface by a very thin laminar sublayer, is the region of important
vertical gradients and will be considered in further detail. The outer
layer is of less direct concern.
3s13. Logarithmic Distributions in the Turbulent Boundary Layer.—
The turbulent boundary layer of the atmosphere is similar to turbulent
boundary layers in the ocean, in channels, in pipes, and along flat plates.
The basic phenomena are common to all these problems, and the avail-
able information stems from them all. The most precise information
comes from control led experiments on the flow of liquids through circular
pipes, partly because of the simple boundary conditions. This informa-
tion forms the foundation for much of what follows.
The three basic assumptions in treating the atmospheric turbulent
boundary layer have already been mentioned. One is that the eddy
stress is vertically constant, which amounts to neglecting the horizontal
pressure gradient within the layer as well as the earth’s rotation. A
consequence of this assumption is that the mean wind direction is inde-
216 METEOROWGY OF THE REFRACTION PROBLEM [SEC. 3.13

pendent of height. It results in a definite but small error and in great

simplification. The second assumption is that over each horizontal sur-
face the mean flow and eddy stress, eA well as such quantities as the mean
humidity, are constant. The third is that neutral hydrostatic equilibrium
exists. Some effects of departures from neutral equilibrium will, how-
ever, be discussed.
lt is found quite generally, both in laboratory experiments on the flow
of fluids through pipes and along flat plates and in observations of wind,
that close to a boundary, with turbulent flow, the mean velocity increases
linearly with the iogarithm of distance z from the boundary. In other
words, the mean velocity is proportional to In(z/zO), where ZOis a constant
length. In order that the relation may hold right up to the boundary,
the more general one
uccln — z+%
a

is preferable. Because observations agree with the first form, it is seen

that %<< z for values of z within the observational range. It is to be
understood here and in what follows that u represents the magnitude of
the mean velocity, not an instantaneous value.
Controlled experiments on flow along a rough boundary show that the
eddy stress, here written r, is proportional to density and to the square
of the mean velocity at any chosen distance z; thus

7 = py%z. (43)

The nondimensional quantity y defined by this equation is the resistana

coefficient;1 it depends on z and on the character of the boundary but is
independent of the speed for turbulent flow past a rough boundary.
The last equation can be written
17
~=_
J
‘Yp
-.

The complete expression for mean velocity is therefore

(44)

The nondimensional quantity x appears to be the same for a wide range

of problems and is therefore called the universal turbulence constant.
A recent ana1ysis2 of experiments on water flowing through pipes yields
the value K = 0.45. Solving the last two equations shows how the
1This particulardefinitionis peculiarto meteorologicalusage.
aR. B, Montgomery,“Generalizationfor Cylindersof Prandtl’s Linear Assumption
for Mixing Length,” Ann. New York Acad. Sti., 44 Art. 1, “Boundary-layer Problems
in the Atmosphere and Ocean,” pp. 89–104 (1943).
SEC. 3.13] LOGARITHMIC DISTRIBUTIONS 217

resistance coefficient -y depends on z and zO:

K
~= (45)
2+20
in —
Zo
It follows from the preceding statements that the length z,, called the
roughness length, depends on the nature of the boundary only.
By differentiating Eq. (44) and substituting from llq. (43), one finds
that
7 = fm~u(z + 20) ~z.

From its definition the eddy viscosity is therefore

~, = K~U(Z + Z,), (46)

or, according to Eq. (43),

~9=K ~(Z+ZO).
J P

Except very close to the boundary z, << z, and thus the eddy viscosity
corresponding to the logarithmic velocity distribution is directly pro-
portional to distance from the boundary. Furthermore it is directly
proportional to the mean velocity and to the resistance coefficient. The
latter is, in turn, a function of the roughness length and of the distance
to the boundary from the point where the velocity is measured.
The preceding discussion of the turbulent boundary layer is applicable
when the boundary is hydrodynamically rough. The eddy stress is
transmitted to such a boundary (as was described in Sec. 3” 11) in part
directly by normal stresses against the sides of the protuberances. A
laminar sublayer exists, and some of the eddy stress is transmittedto the
boundary by true shearing stress. However, the size of the protuberances
is greater than the thickness of the Iaminar layer, so that the structure of
the boundary is not changed by the laminar layer. In contrast, a hydro-
dynamically smooth boundary is one with protuberances smaller than
the thickness of the laminar layer. The protuberances are submerged
in the laminar layer and the only tangential stress on the boundary is the
one transmitted by true shearing stress. Just as with a rough boundary,
the velocity distribution is logarithmic and the eddy viscosity is propor-
tional to distance from the boundary. For a smooth boundary, how-
ever, the resistance coefficient is not entirely independent of velocity,
the roughness length takes on another significance, and there are other
differences. The theoretical treatment depends on separate solutions
for the laminar and turbulent Iayers.1
I For further details see R. B. Montgomery, “Observations of Vertical Humidity
Distribution Above the Ocean Surface and Their Relation to Evaporation, ” Papers in
Phys. Oceanog. and J4etecmi, Mass. Inst. of Technol. and Woods Hole Oceanog. Imt.,
7, No. 4 (1940).
218 METEOROLOGY OF THE REFRACTION PROBLEM [SEC, 313

According to Rossby’s theory, the thickness of theatmospheric turbu-

lent boundary layer is proportional to the wind speed and depends on the
character of the surface.1 As a rough, round number, a thickness of
100 ft is indicated fora wind speed of 10 mph. A good approximation
to logarithmic wind distribution and linear eddy-viscosity distribution
cannot be expected, however, throughout the entire layer. These dis-
tributions and the vertically constant eddy stress are closely maintained
in the bottom part of the layer, presumably in the lower half if the
hydrostatic equilibrium is neutral. In the upper part, the eddy stress
is relatively less constant, so that the deviations from theoretical clistri-
butions are more pronounced. With stable equilibrium, these distribu-
tions are found in a surface layer having only a small fraction of the
thickness for neutral equilibrium. It is, of course, important not to
assume these simple distributions to extend higher than is permissible in
any case under consideration.
The vertical distribution of water vapor in the turbulent boundary
layer is much like that of wind speed. The upward transport of water
vapor was written [Eq. (39)] as

In the turbulent boundary layer, if the hydrostatic equilibrium is not

far from neutral, the eddy diffusivity and eddy viscosity may be assumed
numerically equal; therefore Eq. (46) may be used for eddy diffusivity
also. Furthermore, just as eddy stress is assumed constant in the layer,
so may the eddy transport of water vapor E be assumed constant and
equal to the rate of evaporation from the sea surface. In view of the
comparatively small thickness of the turbulent boundary layer compared
with the entire frictional layer throughout which water vapor from the
surface is distributed, this assumption of constant transport is a good
first approximation.
From Eqs. (39) and (46),

(47)

where ~ depends on the level chosen for measuring u [the product ~u,
furthermore, isindependent ofz, cj. Eq. (43)]. Integration fromz = bto
z = z gives
q=qb–zhlz+a,
PK’)W Zb+zil
(48)

showing that specific humidity is a linear function of the logarithm of

height within the turbulent boundary layer.
I Roesby and Montgomery, kw. cit.
SEC. 3.13] LOGARITHMIC DISTRIBUTIONS 219

Water evaporated from the surface diffuses through the laminar

sublayer before reaching the turbulent boundary layer. Equation (47)
cannot, therefore, be applied all the way down to the surface. 1 However,
the humidity gradient must clearly be proportional to the difference in
specific humidity q. – qb between the surface and any fixed level b. The
quantity r defined by

is therefore independent of q. — qb but, of course, depends on b and on

the distribution of eddy diffusivity. Because r is defined in terms of
the vertical humidity distribution, it is easily determined from meas-
urements. From Eqs. (47) and (49)

E = pK7rU(qo – qb). (50)

Because of its importance in this equation for evaporation, I’ is called

the evaporation coeflcien f,
The preceding discussion of water vapor applies equally well to the
distribution of temperature and the vertical transport of heat by conduc-
tion and eddy diffusion. Since the conductivity and diffusivity are some-
what different in magnitude in the laminar sublayer (see Sec. 3.11),
the value of r would, strictly, be slightly different for water vapor and
for heat; however, to a first approximation, this difference may be
neglected.
Observations at sufficiently low levels to study the turbulent bound-
ary layer over the ocean have been confined to various heights on ships,
which cause some disturbing effects, In addition to this limitation,
individual series of observations are very irregular, so that the logarith-
mic distribution shows clearly only when the conditions are averaged.
Humidity distributions analyzed by Montgomery’ yielded values of
the evaporation coefficient largely in the range from 0.04 to 0.10. An
analysis by Sverdrup3 of observations made by Black shows values within
the same range for wind speeds up to about 15 mph. For greater wind
speeds, ranging up to 30 mph, these observations give a value of about
0.15.

VERTICAL DISTRIBUTIONS IN NEUTRAL AND UNSTABLE EQUILIBRIUM

The structure of the air near the ground or water depends on a num-
ber of factors, such as wind speed, character of the surface, and past

] For a combined solution of the two layers see Montgomery, Zoc.cit.

1Ibid.
‘H. L1.Sverdrup, “The Humidity Gradient over the Sea Surface.” Jour. Meteorol.,
3, 1-8 (1946).
220 METEOROLOGY OF THE REFRACTION PROBLEM [SEC. 3.14

history of the air. A factor of special importance is the temperature

difference between thesurface andtheair ashort distance above. Types
of vertical structure occurring when the air temperature is less than or
the same as that of the surface are discussed in the following three sec-
tions. This condition is also called nega.tioe temperature excess, unstable
hydrostatic equilibrium, or heating below. Types of vertical
from
structure occurring when the airis warmer than the surface are discussed
in Sees. 3“17 to 3.21. The latter condition is also referred to as positiue
temperature excess, stable hydrostatic equilibrium, or cooling from
below.
3“14. Heating from Below.1—To see the typical effect of heating from
below, consider what may be expected to happen on a calm, clear morning
as a result of the ground’s being warmed by solar radiation. At daybreak
the ground is cold as the result of nocturnal radiation, and the air tempera-
ture increases with height UP to an assumed height of 1000 ft. The air
is initially in stable equilibrium and
resistant to turbulence or mixing.
When the ground surface becomes
warmer than the air a few feet above,
the structure becomes radically dif-
ferent. Unstable equilibrium is pro-
duced; air warmed in contact with
the ground rises in patches through
Temperature in ‘F the heavier air above it, and the
FIG. 3.8,—Successive temperature dis- heavier air sinks to be warmed in turn.
tributions over land because of heating
from below on a calm, clear morning. This atmospheric process is called
convection. The rising parcels tend to
be accelerated upward as long as the surrounding air is colder, but they
are decelerated as soon as they reach high enough to come into warmer
air. Thus there is a definite top to the convection. Within the central
part of the unstable layer the thermal turbulence is relatively intense,
because there the ascending and descending parcels have their greatest
speed. Close to the ground the turbulence is slight, because an ascending
parcel can attain little speed in a short distance. Consequently, the
central part of the unstable layer is well mixed, and the temperature lapse
rate is large at the ground. The average temperature distribution there
fore changes in the manner shown schematically in Fig. 3“8.
Heating from below in calm or light wind thus results in a type of
distribution characterized by three layers: (1) a surface layer with a
defiitely superadiabatic (greater than adiabatic) lapse rate, which
increases as the ground is approached; (2) a thick central layer in which
the lapse rate is very nearly adiabatic; and (3) an upper layer that ia
stable.
1By Richard A. Crzig and R. B. Montgomery.
SEC. 3.14] HEATING FROM BELOW 221

If the heating from below stops, the superadiabatic surface layer

disappears immediately, because its maintenance depends on the heating
process. The central layer changes to stable equilibrium but may remain
nearly homogeneous for some time before being destroyed by some other
process.
If there is wind, mechanical turbulence resulting from boundary
friction is present in addition to the thermal turbulence or convection.
The mechanical turbulence may
predominate to such an extent that
the central homogeneous layer does
not occur, especially if ground heat-
ing is reduced by a cloud cover.
A schematic representation of the
warming that takes place on a morn-
ing when mechanical turbulence pre-
dominates over thermal turbulence Temperature in ‘F

is given in Fig. 3.9. The initial Fm. 3,9.—Successive temperature dis-

tributions over land because of beating from
inversion is, of course, less intense below on a windy morning.
than on a calm, clear morning,
With respect to the three-layers that are the typical result of heating
from below, the central one is nearly homogeneous and is therefore
characterized by an approximately standard M-profile. In the stable
layer above it there is commonly a lapse of water-vapor concentration.
The stable layer is therefore usually superstandard, but occasionally
there may be a sufficiently intense inversion of vapor concentration to
make the layer substandard. The superadiabatic surface layer is super-
standard if the surface is water or wet ground, for the refractive modulus
of the air at the surface containing saturated vapor is always greater
than the potential refractive modulus of the colder air above, regardless
of the humidity of the colder air. If the surface is dry ground, there
is no gradient of vapor concentration; therefore the superadiabatic
layer is substandard. If the ground is damp, neither dry nor completely
wet, the superadiabatic surface layer may be either substandard or
superstandard.
A common situation that gives heating from below occurs over the
ocean when there is an offshore wind and the surface air on land is colder
than the water as the result of nocturnal cooling. The nearly homogeneous
layer grows higher as the air moves farther offshore in the same way that it
does on land as the morning progresses. An example is shown by the
sounding in Fig. 3.10. This sounding has the typical standard hom~
geneous layer with the superstandard stable layer above it and the super-
standard unstable layer below it. The last dces not appear in entirety in
the sounding, which starts at 20 ft, but is known to exist from the measure
ment of water temperature. Aa has already been explained, this is the
222 METEOROLOGY OF THE REFRACTION PROBLEM [SEC. 314

common structure resulting from heating from below.1 However, the

stable top layer may be substandard, and the unstable surface layer is
substandard over dry ground. Furthermore, the structure may be very
different if the wind is sufficiently strong.
Heating from below is very widespread, especially over land in day-
time and over tropical oceans. The essentially homogeneous layer is
frequently several thousand feet in thickness. At the top of the layer
the water vapor is often saturated in patches, giving cumulus or strato-
cumulus clouds. An example from tropical regions is shown in Fig. 3.11.
The water temperature was not measured at the point above which the

August 26, 1944 0932-0951 EST 0 First

asC~nt Surface wmd ENE 3B
6 miles SE of Eastern Point, Mass, ● Second ascel,t
1000- /’ 1000
,,’
/
c ~
~ ~
~ 500 - 500 ~
: ?

0
Water surface
o -t o
40 44 4s 52 56 60 310 320 330 340 350 360 370
Dew point T~ and temperature T m ‘F Potenhal modulus + and refractwe modulus M

FmJ. 3. 10.—Heating from below; a sounding in air that has heen cooled nocturnally over
land and has then passed over warmer water.

sounding was made, but the structure is clearly the result of the air’s
being warmed from below.
The surface superadiabatic layer is characteristically shaZlow.2 If it
is superstandard, the M-inversion is usually between 5 and 50 ft thick.
Thus it may have either no effect or a very large effect on propagation,
depending on the thickness of the M-inversion in relation to the wave
length and on the antenna height.
Certain terms may be used in describing how the properties of the
essentially homogeneous layer differ from those of the surface. The
potential temperature of the homogeneous layer less the temperature at
the surface is the temperature excess, necessarily negative for heating from
below. The humidity at the surface less the humidity in the homogene-
ous layer is the humidity de&it, always positive for heating from below
over water. The refractive modulus at the surface less the potential
refractive modulus in the homogeneous layer is the modulus &jia”t, or
itf-deficit, always positive for heating from below over water. These
LOther similar soundings are presented by R. A. Craig, Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sin”.,48,
7s3 (1947).
2 Meesnmementa in the M& Sea indicate that this layer may be only a few feet
thick (see WC. 4.17).
SEC. 315] APPLICATION OF LOGARITHMIC DISTRIBUTION 223

quantities are especially useful over water, because the temperature of

the water surface can often be determined, and it in turn determines the
humidity and M at the surface.
The depth of the M-inversion occurring over water depends primarily
on the M-deficit, on the temperature excess, and on the wind speed.
These relationships will be discussed in the next section.

May 6, 1945 1417.1437 Local time o Ascent Surface wmd E 4 B

Near Sarigan Is,, Marianas

r,

o 0
3 0
0

0
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 I 1 1 I
62 66 70 74 78 S2 350 360 370 380 390 400 410 420 430 440 450
Dew point ~, an~ Potential modulus @and refractwe modulus M
temperature Tin F
FIG. 3.11 .—Heating from below over tropical oceans,

3“15. Application of Logarithmic Distribution.~The logarithmic distri-

bution of temperature and water-vapor concentration near the surface,
when the air is in or near neutral equilibrium, can be used to determine
theoretically the shapes of M-profiles.z
Air in neutral equilibrium relative to the surface, with a tempera-
ture excess of exactly zero, rarely occurs in nature. For practical pur-
poses, however, the air may be considered to be in neutral equilibrium
when the temperature excess is small (absolute value less than 1°F for
the purposes of this chapter). In exact neutral equilibrium the tem-
perature lapse rate is adiabatic from the surface to the top of the layer
which is in neutral equilibrium, and the @-profile is similar to the humidity
distribution.
1By Richard A. Craig.
2 R. B. Montgomery and R. H. Burgoyne, “Modi6ed Index Dwtnbution C1ms to
the ocean Surface,” RL Report No. 651, Feb. 16, 1945.
224 METEOROLOGY OF THE REFRACTION PROBLEM [SEC. 3.15

The case of air over water or saturated ground is the most interesting
because of the simple boundary condition; that is, the humidity and
M-values at the surface are determined by the temperature of the surface.
Thk condition is also widespread, particularly over the open ocean.
Because the vapor cannot be saturated in the lower part of a homogene-
ous layer, this case is characterized bya lapse of humidity near the surface
and a shallow M-inversion.
It has been seen in Sec. 313 that under these conditions the specific
humidity is distributed logarithmically near the surface and can be
expressed by Eq. (49),
aq
= ‘r(qO–qb).
~lnz+za
%

It hasalso been shown (see Sec. 3“7) that

dM de dq
z– – –T’z+r’z+r”

where T1, T2, and TSwere given in Eq. (23). In this case dO/dz = O, so
that, if % is neglected in comparison with the values of z that are of
interest,
dM
—. — rz ~ + T& (51)
dz

The function Aq = (q, – qb) is the humidity deficit if b is sufficiently

high to be in the homogeneous layer.
A convenient variable is the dud height d (the height of the M-inver-
sion), at which dM/dz = O.
This value of d is given by

d=:r Aq. (52)

It has been seen that r may vary widely (Sec. 313). Observational
determinations of its value by Montgomery and Sverdrup vary between
0.04 and 0.18. It appears that an average value for neutral equilibrium
from these observationa is about 0.09. Reducing this to a height of
b = 50 ft gives I’ = 0.08. Accordingly,
d
—=16Xl&ft.
Aq

If the humidity deficit is expressed in terms of vapor pressure,

d
— = 10 ft/mb.
Ae

It is convenient to express d in terms of the modulus deficit AM. For

constant potential temperature, integration of Eq. (23) yields
AM = r, Aq.
SEC. 3. 15] APPLICATION OF LOGARITHMIC DISTRIBUTION 225

If this is substituted in Eq. (52), it follows that

d ~=2ft
(53)
AM=T8 “

It should be borne in mind that this value may conceivably vary

between 1 and 4 ft because of the variation of r with wind speed and
character of the surface. With strong winds (greater than 15 mph) it is
apt to be nearer the larger figure, according to Sverdrup. The ratios d/Aq
and d/Ae may vary similarly. It will also be observed that these ratios
are independent of the length of time that the air has been over the water.
o I 2.0
<3 2“0 ‘“2 1.52,0
2.0 1.2~,7 ,3
-1 s
I ~j, ;7 0.6-1.2 *W k
0.7 <1.8 @ ..1.8 15 0,? *,1.6
-2 Lo
1.1,~ ‘3 1? ,1s)
● ?2
I
0~ -3 ‘1: <:.2 <0.6 1.6 <0.7
e’ -=0.6
<%8
“z -4
g <0.9
xal -5
<:.6 21 0.3-0.8 <.0.6
~ -6 <0,6 ~5 ~.8..
<0,7
5
E -7
E 4-4-E!- . .
,.1.0 0.5:1.3

-8 ● s RL Measurement%

1.6 @ s NRI
...- Meaturement~
-----
-9
1 =Wsc qsas,urements
-1n I 1 I I I I I I I I I
.“

0 4 8 12 16 20 24 28 32
Surface wind in mph
FIG. 3. 12,—Some observed values of d/AM, in feet, for neutral and unstable equilibrium.
The point associated with each number is plotted so that its coordinates indicate the wind
speed and temperature excess appropriate to the observation.

When the air is in unstable equilibrium, convective mixing is present

in addition to purely mechanical turbulence. Qualitative y this increases
the amount of mixing at all levels. However, because the convection is
small near the boundary, the mixing is increased relatively more at some
distance from the boundary than near it. Hence, large gradients of
temperature, humidity, and M tend to be concentrated in an even more
shallow layer than is the case in neutral equilibrium. The duct height
is thus less in unstable equilibrium than in neutral equilibrium.
Under conditions of unstable equilibrium logarithmic distributions
do not occur in a sufficiently thick layer and the ratio d/AM may not be
strictly independent of AM. The ratio, nevertheless, is a convenient
variable in this case also. Some experimental determinations of its
value are shown in Fig. 312, where d/AM in feet is given by numbers
near points that are plotted as a function of temperature excess and
226 METEOROLOGY OF THE REFRACTION PROBLEM [SEC. 3.16

surface wind speed. Circled values were obtained during a measure-

ment program conducted in Antigua, 1 B. W. I. by the Naval Research
Laboratory. Points enclosed by squares are derived from measurements
made in the Southwest Pacific area by the Washington State College
group: and the remainder were obtained in Massachusetts Bay by the
Radiation Laboratory (see Sec. 4“2).
These values do not disprove the expectation, based on theoretical
considerations, that d/AM should have a value of about 2 ft for neutral
equilibrium. They show quite definitely that it is less than ,2 ft for
unstable equilibrium. The dependence of the ratio on the temperature
excess and wind speed is not entirely clear from the data available, but
there is a well-marked tendency for the ratio to decrease with increasing
instability.
The scatter of the points may be due in part to the fact that the ratio
for unstable equilibrium is not strictly independent of All. Moreover,
estimation of the duct height is difficult from a measured sounding; and
in addition, it may vary rapidly with time because of random motion of
the air (Sec. 3“26).
3“16. Rate of Modification of Unstable Air.3-A useful estimate can be
made of the rate at which the average humidity and refractive modulus
change in a case where air in neutral equilibrium moves over the water
without condensation within the layer.4 Because water vapor evaporated
from the sea surface is rapidly diffused through the entire homogeneous
layer, only the amount of evaporation and the thickness of the layer need be
known. The latter can be found from a sounding. The mass of water
evaporated from unit surface in unit time for air in neutral equilibrium
has been written in Eq. (50) as
E = pKTh(qO – q),

where QOand q are the specific humidities at the water surface and in the
air respectively.
The mass of water vapor in any air column of unit area and height z
is pzq. The air travels a distance dx in time dz/u, during which time the
mass of water vapor added to the column is pz dq. It follows from
Eq. (50) that
E $ = PZ dq = p.yr dx(q, – q). (54)

1 M. Katzin, R. W. Bauchman, and W. Bmnian, “Three-and nine-centimeter Prop-

agation in Low Ocean Ducts, ” Proc. IRE, 36, 891 (1947). This report also discusses
other empmical information on shallow surface M-inversions.
Z P. A. Anderson et al., “Results of Low-level Atmospheric Soundings in the SOUth-
west and Central Pacific Oceanic Areas, ” Washington State College Report No. 9,
NDRC Project No. PDRC-647, Contract No. OEMsr-728, Feb. 27, 1945.
3By Fdchard A. Craig.
~R. B. Montgomery and R. H. Burgoyne, “Modified Index Distribution Close to the
ocean Surface,” RL Report No. 651, Feb. 16, 1945.
SEC. 3 16] RATE OF MODIFICATION OF UNSTABLE AIR 227

Upon integration of Eq. (54), the specific humiditv after any trajec-
tory z is seen to be

q = ~o – (q13– qi)e– K?r~12 (55a)

where gi is the initial value of the specific humidity. The difference

between the specific humidity at the surface and the specific humidity
in the homogeneous column decreases exponentially with distance.
After insertion of the values K = 0.45, T = 0.05, and r = 0.08,
Eq. (55a) becomes
9 = qO– (qo – q,)e ‘o.10Z/z, (55b)
or
Aq = Aq~e’010’12,

where z is measured in units of 100 ft and z in miles.

Because AM is directly proportional to Aq in neutral equilibrium,
,Z

AM = AM,e– “c (56)

When air is being heated from below, these equations cannot be

expected to serve as more than rough 24
————
estimates. In the first place, the rate
of evaporation is even more doubtful
when the air is unstable than when
it is in neutral equilibrium. In the
Adiabatic
second place, the height of the homo- I Z3 ——.Y 5
Z, Iapse rate,
=
geneous column changes with time, ,*
as is shown schematically in Fig. 3.13, $’
its upper limit being that height at z~
which the air has initially the same
potential temperature as the water.
If the initial lapse rate is known, this
fact can be considered in the integra- 10
tion, but so many initial distributions Temperature _
of temperature are possible that no FIG. 3,13.—Heating from below by
water at temperature 7’,. Curves 2 and 3
general result can be given. In this represent conditions after the air has been
case, it is best to determine the modi- partially heated; Curve 4 represents the
final condition.
fication graphically by using the
following approximate rule that follows from Eq. (55 b): The temperature
deficit (or the humidity deficit) is reduced 10 per cent after the air has
traveled z miles, where z is the height of the homogeneous layer in hun-
dredsof feet. After each successive application of the rule, a new value
of z may be observed on the new temperature and humidity curves. As

AM = –r, AO + r2Aq,

the same rule applies to the M-deficit.

228 METEOROLOGY OF THE REFRACTION PROBLEM [SEC. 3.17

It is important to remember that because of the, doubt attached to

Eq. (50) in unstable conditions, this result should be relied upon for an
approximate answer only.
In a somewhat different approach to the problem, Burkel has pre-
pared graphs for determining the temperature over the ocean of an air
column that is being heated from below. This method has been applied
to several actual cases with trajectories of 350 to 1200 miles and temper-
ature deficits of 10” to 350F. The forecast temperatures were generally
within 4°F of the observed temperatures. The “10 per cent rule” for
temperature has been applied to several of these cases and appears to yield
approximately the same results.

VERTICAL DISTRIBUTIONS IN STABLE EQUILIBRIUM

BY RICHARD A. CRAIG

The theory for eddy diffusion has not been developed to the point where
it can be applied quantitatively when the air is in stable equilibrium.
Consequently, the discussion of vertical distributions in stable equilibrium
must be essentially qualitative or empirical. Some of the information
that makes possible such a discussion is available in standard meteoro-
logical texts, but a great part of it is based onlow-level soundings of the
atmosphere that were made during the war.
3“17. Cooling from Below.—An air column is said to be cooled from
below when the temperature of the air a short distance above the under-
lying land or water surfacers greater than that of the surface. Such air
is in stable equilibrium because its potential temperature increases with
height. Vertical motions aregreatly inhibited inair instable equilibrium,
as can be seen from the following simplified argument. Consider an air
parcel at anygiven level in the atmosphere, and let it rise to some higher
level. Cooling adiabatically, the parcel retains its original potential
temperature and finds itself among other parcels which have higher
potential temperatures and are correspondingly lighter. Hence it tends
to sink to its original level. Similarly if it descends tosome lower level,
it finds itself in cooler and heavier air and again tends to return to its
original position.
One essential difference between heating from below and cooling from
below becomes apparent. In the former case the modification of the air
may extend to great heights, limited only by the height at which the air
is potentially warmer than the modifying surface. In the case of cooling
from below, where convection is by definition impossible, the modification
can be effected only by mechanical turbulence and does not extend above

1C. J. Burke, “Transformation of Polar Continental Air to Polar Maritime Ak, ”

Jour. Meteurol., 2, 94 (1945).
SEC. 3.1i’1 COOLING FROM BELOW 229

the layer of frictional influence. Indeed, it is often confined to the lowest

few hundreds of feet.
A second consideration with respect to cooling from below is that large
temperature, humidity, and M-gradients can extend to relatively high
levels. The previous section shows that under conditions of neutral or
unstable equilibrium the mixing by eddy processes or convection increases
in the lower part of the atmosphere from a value of zero at the surface,
and large gradients of the meteorological elements such as superadiabatic
lapse rates of temperature are confined to approximately the lowest 50 ft
of the atmosphere. However, in stable equilibrium with cooling from
below, the mixing is decreased at all levels to values approximating those
near the surface, and large gradients comparable to ones existing in unstable
equilibrium may exist as high as a few hundred feet above the ground.
A third essential difference between the two cases is in the effect of the
time element on the depth of the surface M-inversion over water. It was
pointed out in Sec. 3.14 that this depth is primarily determined for heating
from below by the wind speed, the temperature excess, and the M-deficit.l
In the case of cooling from below a fourth variable must be added, namely,
the length of time that the air has been subjected to the modification pro-
cess. A discussion of the effect of this variable will be found in Sec. 319.
The M-deficit is particularly important, as it determines whether the
modification of the air by the underlying surface will produce a super-
standard, standard, or substandard surface layer. Over dry ground, it is
necessarily positive for cooling from below; thus a superstandard layer is
always formed. Over water or saturated ground, it may be positive,
zero, or negative. These three possibilities are illustrated in Figs. 314,
3.15, and 3.16, which show @ and M-profiles with superstandard, standard,
and substandard surface layers. All three soundings were made in air
1The termstemperatureexcess,humiditydeficit,and M-deficitin the case of heat-
ing from below were defined in terms of the difference between the surface values and
values in the homogeneous layer. They cannot be so rigidly defined for cooling from
below if there is no homogeneous layer as a reference point. They are, however, con-
venient terms to use. The reference point in stable air is usually taken above the
layer to which modification has extinded, sometimes immediately above and sometimes
at some standard level such as 1000 ft. If the air being cooled was initially homoge-
neous, potential values in this homogeneous layer are often used.
z No fog accompanies the substandard layer pictured in Fig. 3,16. It is frequently
stated that fog, called advection fog, forms whenever warm, moist air is cooled by
contact with the underlying water surface because its temperature falls to its dew
point. According to available data this is a misleading statement. This question has
been discussed by R. B. Montgomery and G. Emmons, .Jorw.Meteorot., 4, 206 (1947).
Examples of warm, moist air are shown in Figs. 3.15 and 3.16. The air close to the
water surface is losing not only heat but water vapor also. The water vapor is con-
densing on the ocean surface, a process exactly opposite to that in Fig. 3.14, where the
air is gaining watm vapor through evaporation. If advection fog were to be produced
by diffusion and mixing in warm, moist air, the examples in Figs. 3.15 and 3.16 would
appear to be ideal situations. Actually no fog occurs at these times.
230 METEOROWGY OF THE REFRACTION PROBLEM [SEC. 317

August 30,1944 1021-1040 EST 0 Firsf ascent Surface wind WNW3B

I 2 miles W of Race Point, Mass. . Second ascent I

~1-L Lwate . . . ..JJ

48525660646872
Dew ~int T~ and temperature T m “F

Fm. 3. 14.—Superstandard
‘
320 330” 340 350 360
Potential modulus + and refractive modulus h4
surface layer produced by cooling from below over water with
positive M-deficit.

— \ 0/ / 500;
0
66 70 74 78 340 W 350 360 370 380
Dew point Ts andtemperature
~ m“F Potential modulus + and refractive modulus M
Fm. 3. 15.—Standard surface layer produced by cooling from below over water with zero
M-deficit

September 2, 1944 1005.1034 EST o First ascent Surface wind W 3B

7 miles NN E of Race Point, Mass. ● Second ascent

1000
0
T~ T * M
x
.-c
= 500
2
,/
Water ‘! ,/
surface ,. ‘! Water surface
,/
o J ,tY
62 66 70 74 360 370 380 390 400 410
Dew point T, and temperature T In ‘F Potenttal modulus * and refracbve modulus M
Fm. 3. 16.—Substandard surface layer produced by cooling from below over water with
negative M-deficit.

In warm air, whether or not the humidity deficit is negative, the stability permits
high relative humidity to be produced throughout a layer of appreciable thickness
close to the cold water. The explanation of the formation of advection fog appears to
SEC. 3.17] COOLING FROM Zl&WW 231

that had been heated overland and had then traveled 25to 50 miles over
the colder waters of Massachusetts Bay.
Both temperature excess and wind speed affect the amount of mechan-
ical mixing that can occur. Light winds qnd a large temperature excess
lead to a small amount of mixing; strong winds and a small temperature
excess lead to a relatively large amount of mixing. In the former case, it
may be expected that the effect of the modification will be confined to a
very low layer of the atmosphere with a temperature inversion occurring
2500

2000
2000

1500
: 1500
c .-
=
.E .-
~ 1000 2
.- ~ 1000
2

50C 500 \
\
\
\
c 0 , I
46
48 50 52 54 56 58 A 46 48 50 52 54 56 58
Temperature in “F Temperature in ‘F
Fm. 3 17.—Cooling from below with light FIO. 3. lS,—Cooling from below with
winds and large temperature excess. strong winds and small temperature excess.

in this layer. In the latter case the mixing is comparatively large and the
height to which the air is affected is correspondingly greater, the ultimate
limit being the height of the layer of frictional influence. With this large
amount of mixing, conditions are more nearly like those which occur
during heating from below. There is usually a shallow surface temper-
ature inversion, a thick layer characterized by nearly homogeneous con-
ditions because of the mechanical mixing, and above this another stable
layer or temperature inversion. Such an elevated inversion is commonly
referred to as a turbulence inversion. For moderate amounts of mixing
there is ordinarily a temperature inversion at some intermediate height.
Significant gradients of humidity and refractive modulus are generally
found at the same heights as the large gradients of temperature. Figures
3.17 and 3“ 18 indicate schematically the extreme cases above. The

be that if a relatively small amount of further cooling by radiation, probably requiring

12 to 36 hr, will bring the air to the dcw point, then fog maybe produced under favorable
conditions.
It follows from the preceding reasoning, verified by many actual memmrementa,
that fog is neither a necessary nor a sufficient condition for the occurrence of a surface
substandard layer over water. Sce R. B, Montgomery, “Modified Index Distribution
Close to the Ocean Surface,” RL Report 651, Feb. 16, 1945.
232 METEOROLOGY OF THE REFRACTION PROBLEM [SEC. 3.17

relative importance of wind speed and temperature excess is not yet known,
but some observations with bearing on the subject will be presented in
Sec. 3.19.
There are two important cases in practice that involve cooling from
below. The first occurs near the coasts of continents when air is warmed
overland by a process of convection as a result of solar heating and is
subsequently blown over cooler coastal waters. The second occurs over
land at night because of the cooling of the land surface by nocturnal
radiation. These may be discussed separately, as there are some con-
siderations that are not common to the two problems.
Cooling from Below ove~ Water.-When a warm air column is blown
over cooler water, there are three important processes that always act to
change the initial vertical distributions of temperature, humidity, and
refractive modulus. The first irradiation from theaircolumn; the second
is a shearing effect caused by the change of wind velocity with height;
and the third is an eddy diffusive process transferring heat from the air to
the cooler water and transferring water vapor in the direction of decreas-
ing humidity.
Radiation acts to decrease the temperature of the air column. The
amount of radiation that occurs is variable, depending mainly on the
amount of water vapor in the air; however, the effect on the temperature
is of the order of magnitude of 0.2°F per hr. 1 The order of magnitude of
the changes because of contact with the cooler water is 20F per hr. It is
safe to neglect the effects of radiation when the interval of time involved
is reckoned in hours; when the time interval is a matter of driys, the effect
becomes appreciable.
Shear is a complicating factor that is different from the other two
processes in that it involves no loss or gain of heat by the air. It is
mentioned here because it has a very real effect on the types of vertical
distribution found over water. It will be discussed more fully in the
following section.
The third process, that involving eddy diffusion, is the most important.
There are two concepts that should be recalled in this connection. (1) The
air at the common boundary between the air column and the water must
assume the temperature of the water surface and must assume as well
the vapor pressure and refractive modulus that are determined by the
water temperature (Sec. 3.4). (2) The diffusive processes that are most
important in affecting the modification are the same for the vertical
transport of both heat and water vapor (Sec. 3.11). This leads to the
principle of similarity, which, as was pointed out in Sec. 3.8, tends to
produce a straight line when the values within the modified layer are
plotted on a characteristic diagram. In particular, if the air was initially
homogeneous, the straight line joins the point representing the unmodified
I B. Haurwitz,DynamicMeteorology,McGraw-Hill,New York, 1941, pp. 105-107.
SEC. 317] COOLING FROM BELOW 233

air and the point representing the water temperature. It is important to

remember that radiation, shearing processes, and changes in the water
temperature act to destroy this straight line; hence the rule must be used
with care. Figure 3.19 is a sounding made over water in air that had
been coolecl from below and illustrates theprinciplr of similarity. Figure

October18,1944 1405-1426 EST o First ascent Surface wind 2B

Lt((\Y
9 malesE of Duxbury, Mass. . Second ascent
10QO 71000’

e T~ T * M c
~ ~
& 500 500 ~
2 2

Water surface Water surface

o 0
38 42 46 50 54 58 62 66 70 300 310 320 330 340
Dew point T~ and temperature Tin “F Potent!al modulus * and refractwe modulus M
FIG. 31!3-Similarityin an overwater sounding.

Potential vapor pressure in mb

78.910111213141516 1718192021:
76

74

72

“: 70
.—

.—
FIG. 3.20. —Simi1arity in an overwater sounding; a characteristic diagram. The family of
curves represents * for a surface pressure of 1000 mb.

3.20 is the corresponding characteristic diagram. The indicated water

temperatures were measured 3 hrafter the sounding was made.
Even if radiation and shearing effects are neglected, the problem of
the progressive modification of warm air over cold water is very compli-
cated. It is convenient to consider first the simplest case, where the air
is initially homogeneous and where the temperature of the water over
234 METEOROLOGY OF THE REFRACTION PROBLEM [SEC. 3.18

which the air moves remains constant. This problem has been studied
rather extensively at the Radiation I~aboratory for overwater trajectories
of less than 35miles, andsome empirical data }villbe presented in See, 3.19.
Cooling from Belou over Land.—The cooling of air over land at night
results from the cooling of the earth’s surface caused by nocturnal radiation.
Nocturnal radiation is the difference between the radiation emitted by the
earth’s surface and the radiation absorbed from the atmosphere. It is
present during the day as well as the night, but the name “nocturnal” is
given because at night, when solar radiation is absent, it represents the
entire radiative transfer at the earth’s surface.
The transfer of heat from the air to the cooler surface is largely effected
by the same process of turbulence as in the overwater case.
physical
Radiation and shearing effects are also present. The problem is compli-
cated by the fact that the temperature of the ground does not fix the
surface values of humidity and M as does the temperature of a water
surface, If the modifying surface is saturated, a superstandard, standard,
or substandard Iaycr may result from the modification, as in the overwater
case. If the ground is damp, the layer may again be superstandard,
substandard, or standard, depending on the M-deficit. If the ground is
dry, so that there is no gradient of vapor pressure, a superstandard layer
always forms as a result of the temperature inversion.
A further discussion of the problems involved in nocturnal cooling
will be found in Sec. 3.21.
3.18. Shear in Stable Equilibrium.-The variation with height of the
horizontal component of the wind velocity, which will be referred to here
as shear, is a process that involves no transfer of heat or water vapor
from or to the atmosphere but which may affect the M-profile. It occurs
regularly in the atmosphere under all conditions of stability; the present
discussion is, however, limited to cases of stable equilibrium because only
then can the effects of shear be detected and assessed in the analysis of
low-level soundings.
One cause of shear is the variation of horizontal pressure gradient
with height. In the layer of frictional influence, however, this factor is
usually outweighed by the more regular effect of friction. The effect of
friction on the wind in this layer under conditions of neutral equilibrium
has been discussed in Sec. 3.12. It may be recalled here that the wind
ordinarily veers and increases with height between the surface and the
top of the layer of frictional influence. The effect of thermal stability is
not accurately known, but qualitatively it appears to increase the two
effects described above; it is likely also that shear tends to be concentrated
in any temperature inversions that may exist.
Shear is particularly important in the study of the modification of
warm air over cold water. If the wind speed and direction change with
height, the air at different levels in any air column over the water must
SEC. 318] SHEAR I.V STABLE llq[’ILIBRIUM 235

have varying overwater trajectories and land origins. Thus the initial
properties of the air may vary with height.
An interesting and regular effect on overwater M-profiles arises from
the differences in the time at which the air at various heights leaves the
land. Consider adaywhen theairis being connectively heated overland
in the manner described in Sec. 314. The potential temperature of the
air in the homogeneous layer over land increases steadily throughout the
morning, and usually the humidity decreases because of mixing with drier
air aloft as the mixed layer grows in height. At any distance offshore the
air at progressively higher levels will have left land later because of the
increase of wind speed with height and will be correspondingly warmer
and drier. This will increase the thermal stability of the air column, a
process that may be referred to as shearing stmtijcation. This process
forms a superstandard refracting layer. Although this is the usual case,
it is important to remember that the lower air may on occasion be drier
than the air above, a condition that could result in a standard or sub-
standard layer.
If, on the other hand, the air is cooling over land during the late
afternoon or evening, so that cooler air overruns warmer air offshore,
unstable equilibrium may be set up, resulting in convection and a homo-
geneous or nearly standard layer. The amount of shear in this case is
more difficult to predict because of the various types of cooling that may
occur over land.
The variables that govern the amount and type of shearing stratifi-
cation are complicated. The important ones include
1. Variation of wind velocity with height, which probably varies with
distance from the coast because of changes in stability.
2. Orientation of wind directions with respect to the coast line.
3. Variations in initial properties of the air at the various sources
because of variations in time or distance.
4, Distance from shore.
Shearing stratification, aside from its effect on the *- and M-profiles,
greatly increases the difficulties involved in studying the eddy-diffusion
processes that are effective in the cooling of warm air over cold water.
(1) It tends to increase the stability of the air and to lessen the mixing
that may occur. (2) It makes difficult an estimate of the original prop
erties of the modified air and, hence, of the extent of the change that the
air has undergone because of modification from below. Although shear is
always present to some extent, the analyst needs to estimate its effect in
any given case and, for quantitative results, to work with cases where that
effect is a minimum.
A method that may be used for detecting shearing stratification, aside
from a detailed consideration of the wind structure and variations of
temperature and humidity with time and space over land, involves the
236 METEOROLOGY OF THE REFRACTION PROBLEM [SEC. 318

use of the characteristic diagram. It was pointed out in Sees. 3“8 and 317
that for initially homogeneous air over colder water of uniform temper-
ature, in the absence of radiation and shear, eddy-diffusion processes lead
to a characteristic curve that is a straight line. Shear processes, except
for rare coincidences, lead to a characteristic curve that is not a straight
line. This criterion is helpful in analyzing a sounding made over water
when the air is known to have been initially homogeneous and radiation
is negligible.
Shear may be expected to be an especially important factor when the
temperature excess is large, causing greater stabilit y, or when the trajectory

November 1,1944 1314-1333 EST 0 First ascent Surface wind SE 2 B

6 miles SE of Eastern Point. Mass. . Second ascent
lrXil
Ij %
t

Dew point T~and temperature Tin ‘F Potenbal modulus + and refractive modulus M

Fm. 3.21.—Shear in stable equilibrium producing a stable distribution of temperature

above 100 ft.

is long so that a small variation in wind speed or direction has a marked

effect. Radiation Laboratory measurements at some distance from the
coastline bear out this expectation. 1 It was found in general that with
temperature excesses greater than about 14”F, shear became noticeable for
trajectories greater than about 5 miles. With trajectories greater than
50 miles shear was usually found to be important for any positive tempera-
ture excess.
Some examples of soundings influenced by shear near coast lines are
given in Figs. 3.21 and 3“22. known to have been
In both cases the air is
homogeneous before leaving land. Figure 3“21 is a case where the effect
of shear is observed mainly in the temperature curve, the initial potential
dew points of the air at various levels having been nearly identical. The
etTect of modification by the water extends to about 100 ft; the stability
above that level is the result of shearing stratification. In Fig. 3.22 the
effect of the water extends to about 150 ft, and the departure from homoge-
neous distributions above that level is the result of shear. In this case,

I GardnerErnmons,“Vertical Distributionof Temperatureand Humidity over the

Ocean betweenNantucketand New Jersey,” Papcrx in Phy.s. Oomnog. and Meleurol.,
Mass Iaat.of Technol.and Woods Hole Oceanog.Inst., 10, No. 3 (1947).
SEC. 319] INITIALLY HOMOGENEOUS WARM AIR 237

the combined effect on the temperature and dew-point distributions

produces a noticeably superstandard layer between 150 and 400 ft. An
example of the effect of shear after a considerably longer trajectory will
be shown in Fig. 3“39.
There are obviously times when shear is of importance in affecting
M-profiles over land, In particular, it can play a considerable role ~at
night when the air is being cooled from below if the land surface has vary-
ing characteristics leading to essentially different modifications from point
to point. However, these variations seldom approach the distinct change
in modifying surface that occurs at a coast line.

:m”~’o”:

~50~~
56606468727680
Dew point T~andtenwerawreT In“F
FIG. 3.22.—Shear in stable equilibrium
340 350 360 370 380 390 0
Potential modulus ~ and refractive modulus M
P~&ci a superstandard layer between 150 @’”
~:

, I
)
3019. Initially Homogeneous Warm Air over Cold Water.—In or Ai”:s ? ?4
to study empirically the rate and manner of modification of warm air ~ ~--
colder water as a result of eddy diffusion, it is convenient to consider simple
meteorological conditions. The simplest case for this study is the one
where initially homogeneous air blows over colder coastal waters of
uniform temperature, where the wind remains constant during the modifi-
cation, and where effects of radiation and shearing processes are small
compared with those of diffusion. The resulting changes in temperature,
humidity, and M-profiles are then caused solely by diffusive processes.
Furthermore, because of the fixed initial distributions, the effect of the
water is obvious and comparisons are possible among measurements made
on different days. This ideal case is often approximated near the coasts
of continents with an offshore wind on days when solar heating raises the
air temperature above that of the water.
Certain independent variables may be chosen for convenience to
describe the meteorological conditions that affect the modification. Two
of these are temperature excess and M-deficit, hereafter referred to as
AT and AM (or A*). They are defined here in terms of values at the
water surface and the potential values in the homogeneous layer that is
being modified. A third variable is the wind speed, which influences the
238 METEOROLOGY OF THE REFI?ACTIOX PROBLEM [SEC.319

amount of mechanical mixing. Itmaybe measured ata level of lOOOft,

corresponding to the lowest level commonly reported by pilot-balloon
stations, and is called lt’1~. The fourth important variable is the length
of trajectory, designated by z. Other independent variables that might
bechosen can reexpressed essentially interms of these four. Forexample,
humidity deficit is indicated by AT and AM, surface wind speed by W,m
and AT, and time over water by the product of z and WIWW.
There are many dependent variables that could be used to describe
the modification. Inthe results that will represented here, the following
have been studied:
1. The ratio of the actual change of parameters at any height to the
initial difference between air and water, a function of AT, W1~, X,
and height above the surface z. According to the principle of
similarity, which applies in this case, the per cent change is the
same for temperature, humidity, and z and M.
2. The height of the temperature inversion zra function of AT,
Wlm, and z.
3. Theheight towhich theairis affected bythemodification zfi-alsoa
function of AT, W,~, andx.
4. The duct height’ d—a function of AT, W,w, x, and AM.
In neutral equilibrium d is directly proportional to AM (Sec. 3 15), so
that the ratio d/AM may be studied. In stable equilibrium the ratio is
still convenient and will be used but is not strictly independent of AM.
Application oj Diffusion Theory.—It has been seen that diffusion theory
at the present time is inadequate to handle the problems arising when
the air is in stable equilibrium, the case under present discussion. The
dependence of the eddy diffusivity on height, wind speed, wind shear, and
stability is not known. Initially, when the air is homogeneous, the eddy
diffusivity presumably increases approximately linearly with height in
the turbulent boundary layer and then decreases with height throughout
the rest of the layer of frictional influence. After the air passes over the
colder water and stratifies in its lower layers, the turbulence decreases at
all levels. This occurs in the stable layer because of the thermal stability
and occurs more slowly above it because of the lack of supply of turbulent
energy from ground friction. Moreover, as the modification progresses
and the thermal structure of the air changes, the eddy diffusivity and wind
I For the study of eddy diffusion in the substandard case, there is a heightanalogous
to the duct height, namely, the one at which the M-gradient is twice the value for
homogeneousair. Consider two cases of initially homogeneousair, both with the
same independentvariablesexcept that the two values of AM are equal in magnitude
but oppositein sign. The eddy diffusivity will be identical in both, with the result
that at each level M will deviate from its value in homogeneous air by an amount equal
in magoitude but opposite in sign. At the level where the top of the M-inversion occurs
in the - of positive M-deficit, the gradientof M will be twice the homogeneous
gradientin the caseof a negativeMdeficit (substandardcase).
SEC.3 19] INITIALLY HOMOGENEOUS WARM AIR 239

shear change also. It is apparent that there is a complex relationship

among eddy diffusivity, wind shear, and thermal stability and that it is
totally inadequate to assume that the eddy diffusivity has the same ver-
tical distribution over land as it has during the entire trajectory over
water. It is equally inadequate to assume that the eddy diffusivity is at
any time a simple function of height such as a constant or a power lawl
throughout the modified layer.
However, one deduction from eddy-diffusion theory is important and
should be recalled: the identity of the eddy diffusivities for the vertical
transport of heat and water vapor (discussed in Sec. 3.11), resulting in
the principle of similarity in this case.
Observations for Trajectories Less Than 50 Miles.—The modification
problem for the ideal case could be solved if one could determine the per
cent change at any height above the surface and distance from shore for
any combination of AT and W,m. In principle this could be determined
from a large number of soundings made at varying distances from shore
for the same values of Al” and W,m. In practice, however, this is difficult
because of the large number of possible combinations of these parameters
and the difficulty of obtaining measurements under ideal conditions.
A limited number of such observations are, however, available from
the Radiation Laboratory propagation program.z From these measure-
ments it has been possible to obtain only a partial and approximate answer
to the problem. Figure 3.23, called a modification cross section, shows
the per cent change for one combination of AT and WW. The ordinate is
height above the surface z, and the abscissa is distance from shore z. The
plotted figures are the observed per cent change of temperature and vapor
pressure, the two changes (and the per cent change of M and *) being
I An extensive diffusion theory based on such an assumption has been developed
at the Telecommunications Research Establishment, Malvern, England, where con-
siderable work has been done attempting to simplify this highly complicated problem
to the point where formulas can be used to forecast propagation conditions. See, for
instance, “Elements of Radio Meteorological Forecasting, ” TRE Report No. T1621,
Feb. 14, 1944; “Application of Diffusion Theory to Radio Refraction Caused by Advec-
tion,” TRE Report No. T 1647, Apr. 6, 1944; “Outline of Radio Climatology in India
and Vicinity,” TRE Report No, T1727, Sept. 12, 1944. The electromagnetic p@se
of this method is dkcumed in Sec. 2,21.
2In the summer of 1944 low-level soundings were made in Massachusetts Bay,
generally within 50 miles of the coast (see Sec. 42). These soundings were made to a
height of 1000 ft by aircraft according to the technique described in Sec. 3.27. See
“Measurements of Temperature and Humidity in the Lowest 1000 Feet of the Atmos-
phere over Massachusetts Bay,” by Richard A. Craig, Papers in Phys. Occunog. and
Meteorol., Mass. Inst. of Technol. and Woods Hole Oceanog. Inst., 10, No. 1 Novem-
ber, 1946. A more detailed analysis of the eddy diffusive effects revealed by these
soundings has been published in Jour. Meteorol. 6, 123 (1949), under the title ‘ ‘\7ertical
Eddy Transfer of Heat and Water Vapor in Stable Air,” by R. A. Craig. This analysis,
completed tan late to be included here, gives additional empirical information about
the modification of air under tbe specified conditions.
240 METEOROLOGY OF THE REFRACTION PROBLEM [SEC. 319

theoretically identical according to the principle of similarity and nearly

identical in the soundings used here. Each vertical column represents
a “sounding” that consists of two measurements of temperature and
humidity at each level. Each plotted figure is then the average of four
values of percent change, one each for temperature and humidity accord-
ing to two different measurements. Isopleths are drawn approximately
for every 10 percent of change.
The soundings used in this cross section were, in general, made on
different days. The temperature excesses in the soundings used varied

ii! *++Z k
—

’00
-,
.13 534 23 31 24 3070
717”

0
04 8 12 16 20 24 28 32 36
Trajectory
in miles
F]o. 323.—Modification cross section for AT = 6.5 to 11.5”F, Wm = 21 to25mph.
Tbe numbers near the poirlts are the observed changes in vapor pressure in per cent. The
solid curves are the corresponding isopleths.

between 65o and 11.50F, the wind speed at 1000 ft varied between 21
and 25 mph
It is apparent from an inspection of Fig. 323 that the isopleths as
drawn differ somewhat from the observed values through which they are
drawn, the difference seldom exceeding 10 per cent. They are drawn,
as far as possible, to indicate a reasonable average distribution of per
cent change in accordance with the observations. The discrepancies
occur partly because of uncertainties in observation and scarcity of gen-
eral weather data. It is difficult, for example, to determine without an
extremely close network of weather stations, the trajectory, wind, and
temperature excess associated with a particular sounding, and some error
must be expected. Moreover, thesoundings, ashasbeen stated, represent
afinite spread inthevariables AT and J$’Kw,whlchvariations, particularly
those in temperature excess, would be expected to make them somewhat
less comparable.
However, there is no question but that Fig. 3.23 shows to a good
degree of approximation the type of modification that occurs under these
wind and temperature conditions and shows it more accurately than any
other available meteorological knowledge.
SEC.3.19] INITIALLY HOMOGENEOUS WARM AIR 241

It isdesirable to make clear the variation with distance of the other

dependent variables found fromthe sameseries of soundings. Figures 3.24
to 3 “26 show the changes with distance of the height to which modification
extends z~, the height of the temperature inversion z,, and the ratio d/AM.
These graphs follow, of course, from Fig. 3“23, which is the best method

c
400 [ 0 ,= 400 r
c

Trajectw in miles z Trajectory In miles

FIG. 324.-Variation of height FIG. 3.25.—Variation
of height
of modification with trajectory for of temperature inxersion with tra-
AT= 6,5° to 11.50F, 1$’m, = 21 to jectory for JT = 6.5° to 11,50F,
25 mph ~’lOoO= 21 to 2.5 mph.

of describing the modification, and they will prove useful later in this
section.
We next consider the effects of variations of wind speed and tempera-
ture excess. For an adequate study of these pa-
rameters, considerably more information would 6
o
be required than is now available. Afew cross
sections similar to those of Fig. 323 but for 6 0
different combinations of AT and Wlm have ~ 0
0
been given by Craig (1oc. cit.). Here we shall 54
use data from the Radiation Laboratory pro- ~ 0
gram to discuss the problem from a somelvhat 2 0
different point of view,
k
Figures 327 to 3.29 show the height of O. lo Z. so
modification, height of temperature inversion, Trajecto~ in miles
and ratio d/AM plotted on diagrams having AZ’
FIG. 3.26,—Variationof
as the abscissa and W,m as the ordinate. In d/AM with trajectory for
general, of course, these parameters are func- AT = 6,5”mph,
21t025 to 11.50F, ~,,,, =

tionsof the length of trajectory also, However,

reference to Figs. 3.24 to 3.26 show that at least in the case where
those graphs are applicable, z~, z,, and d/AM become more or less
independent of distance after about 15 miles of rapid increase. There
are observational reasons to believe that this is also true for other values
of AT and Wlm, except that the rapid increase may take place in a
shorter distance for larger AT and in a longer distance for smaller AT.
242 METEOROLOGY OF THE REFRACTION PROBLEM [SEC. 3-19

24
A=Traj~o~ 15_35mi[eS
1:0
22 - ● =TrajectoV=15 miles
20 - l~s 1?0
18 -
75W1513
1:0
k 16 -
c Ip
jj 14 1:0 1~5
al ●200
: 12 35Q00 1:5 ,50%2~ 3002m ● 200
2~0A 3~
$ 10 150 ~2M 3WAIOO:150
g 300 300
8
3k ;;. Am •&**A4~
:6 125 21302513
z 3:0 do03m#3f3
4300
4 b,@)A

2 1?0
o ,
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45
Wmd speed at 1000 ft in mph
Fm. 3.27.—Some observed values of the height of modification, in feet, for trajectories less
than 35 miles.

24
1$0 A Trajectory 15-35 mites
22
● Trajectory c15 miles
l~s
20 1:5
18
,m*J50 1:0

IN. 1{0 1~5

’150
●
300. ●150 1501m~3!!A225
250A 50-125
2ooeA300
.175

220
3$ “ A 280
2~0 A 125. A1~5.a280
100. 250 2MI 175 75
● 250
*;Q li ’125
4 513A

2 lb

I-1
o 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45
Wind speed at 1000 ft in mph
FIG. 3.28.—Some observed values of the height of the temperature inversion, in feet, for
trajectories less than 35 miles

Taking 15milesas an average value, the dots in Figs. 3.27to 3.29 rep-
resent trajectories of less than 15 miles. They should in general be less
than the other values, indicated by triangles, which are obtained for
trajectories of 15t035 miles.
The height of modification is seen to be less than 500 ft except for
strong winds and small temperature excess; it is lowest with large AT
SEC. 3.19] INITIALLY HOMOGENEOUS WARM AIR 243

and with light wind. The wind appears tohavea more important effect
on z“ when Al’is small than when it is large.
The temperature inversion with the greatest height is found for some
intermediate values of AT and WWW With less mixing the height of
modification and hence the temperature inversion are lower. With more
mixing, large gradients are confined near the surface, as the eddy diffusivity
vanishes at the boundary. In some cases there is also an upper turbulence
inversion (see Sec. 3”17 and Fig. 3”18), but the lower one is referred to here.

24
A= Trajectory 15-35 miles
22
1 1:0
● = Trajectory c 15 miles

lgo
4.1
●

~5,4
3,2

4
2
oo~ 25 30 35 40 4 ;
Wind speed at 1000 ft in mph
FIG. 3.29.—Some olmerved values of d, &}f, in feet,, for trajectories less tha,~ 35 miles.

The height of the temperature inversion is generally less than 400 ft

within 35 miles of the shore.
The graph of d/A.M is the most unreliable one. This is probably
because of the fact that the ratio is to some extent dependent on AM as
well as on length of trajectory. It was shown in Sec. 315 that the ratio
is about 2 ft for neutral equilibrium, and it is undoubtedly larger for a
positive temperature excess It seems to increase with increasing AT up
to about AT = 12”F. Its behavior beyond that point is not clear,
Because duct height is an important variable that the radio-met, eor-
ologist is often called upon to predict, further discussion seems necessary.
one important rule is that the duct height is usually less than the height
of the temperature inversion z,. This is important, for the latter is easier
to predict, because it depends on one less variable than does duct height,
According to the principle of similarity,

Mh — .11 Th– T
AJf=–.3T’
244 METEOROWGY OF THE REFRACTION PROBLEM [SEC. 3.19

where Mh and T~ are the unmodified values at a given height and M and
T are the modified values at the same height. The values AM and AT
are M-deficit and temperature excess. When this expression is differ-
entiated with respect to height and the substitutions dM*/dz = 4.0 per
100 ft and dTh/dz = – 0.540F per 100 ft, which apply to initially homoge
neous air, are made, it becomes

~=(’+w054 OFperlmft
At the duct height z = d, dM/dz = O. Then

dT
=4:–0.54 OF per 100 ft.
z ..~ .

For the substandard case (AM < O) the same equation holds if d is defined
as the height at which dM/dz = 8.0 per 100 ft, twice the M-gradient in
homogeneous air.
The comparative heights of the temperature inversion and duct follow
from this equation. For the case where AM/AT < 7.4 per oF, tempera-
ture increases with height at z = d; hence z, > d. Similarly for AM/AT =
7.4 per oF, z, = d; and for AM/AT >7.4 per oF, z, < d. -

I
A = Trajectory 15-35 miles
d=100 d=lso d=z~
. = Trajectory< 15 mites
d =50
300

~ 200
.E 100
=
;
5
.6
~ 100
= 100
30

4!
~ d.O :0 ;0

o~ o 1 2 3 4 5
Abf/A T in (°F~l
6 7 8 9 1(

FIQ. 3.30.—Variation of duct height with height of temperature inversion and with Ai+f/A~.
The crosses represent theoretical pointi (see text).
SEC. 3.19] INITIALLY HOMOGENEOUS WARM AIR 245

Consider a diagram with AM/AT as the abscissa and zi as the ordinate,

and let values of d be plotted as points on this chart. The isopleth d = O
is a vertical line through AM/AT = O, for here AM = O. Moreover, any
isopleth of d must cross the point where AM/AT = 7.4 per OF and zt has
the same value as the isopleth of d. Furthermore, all the isopleths must
approach the horizontal line z~ = O as AM/AT becomes large; for in the

%ptemkr 29, 1944 0923-0930 EST o Descent Surface wind WNW 4 B

5 miles SE of Eastern Point, Mass. . Ascent
1000 - 0 1000
0

/“
=
OT~ T M
~
~ 500 -
1 /’
? /’
1 /’

Water surface
b o
0 ‘~(
444s 52 56 60 320 330 340 350 360 370
Dew &int T~and temperature T m ‘F Potential modulus ~ and refractive modulus kf
FIG. 3.31.—Ideal caae with AT = 3.4”F, AM = 23, W,ooo= 28 mph, and z = S miles.

September 22, 1944 0907-0927 EST o Descent Surface wind W 4 B

19 miles NW of Race Point, Mass. . Ascent
lCIIO - ? 1000
()
T *O
e 3 e
~ c ~
& 500 I 500 g
.-
I
2 I ;
I
!
1. I Water surface
, /,.
P o
o
44 43 52 56 60 64 320 330 340 350 360
Dew point T. and temperature Tin ‘F Potential modulus ~ and refractive modulus M
FIO. 3.32.—Ideal case with AT = 5.60F, AM = 2S, F7,m = 25 mph, and x = 25 miles.

limit when AT = O, z, = O and d can have any value depending only on

AM. Figure 3.30 is such a diagram with values plotted from the same
soundings that were used to plot Figs. 3“27 to 3“29.
In Figs, 3.31 to 338 are presented a group of selected soundings that
correspond closely to the ideal conditions mentioned at the beginning of
this section. They are intended to illustrate the types of simple modifica-
tion that can occur with some combinations of the parameters AT, WWW,
z, and AM. The difference between the distributions in the surface layer
and the initial homogeneous distributions (indicated by the broken lines)
is presumably due to modification by the eddy-diffusive processes.
246 METEOROLOGY OF THE REFRACTION PROBLEM [SEC.3.19

July 19,1944 1440-1450 EST o First descent Surface vind WSW3B

:,
5miles Nof Race Point, Mass. . Second descent

,t,,;],,-
3U
2+
20
Al.

: k
02 66 70 74 320 3300340 350 360 370
Dew point ~, and temperature Tin ‘F Potent(al modulus ~ and refractive mcdulus M
Fm. 3.33.—Ideal caae with AT = 7.00F, AM = 44, W’Lm= 25 mph, and z = 28 miles.

July 1,1944 0900-1917 EST 0 Firstascent Surface wind N 2 B

6 miles SE of Eastern Point, Mass. ● Second ascent
\
/’ 100O
\
T’
c
.-c
= 500 -* .
2 c
D
1
Water surface
!J
60 64 68 72 310 3~0 330 340 350 360
Dew point T~ and temperature T m “F Potential modulus ~ and refractive modulus M
FIG. 3.34.—Ideal c=e with AT = 8.50F, AM = 40, W’mo = 15 mph, and z = 30 miles.

July19,1944 1420-1432 EST o First descent Surface wmd SW 3-48

20 miles NW of Race Point, Mass. ● Second descent

1000 0 1000

c ~
~ T. T + M c
& 500 500 ~
.-
? ?
;0 . . ‘\ ;0 .,’
,LL,,L),,,
1. :‘d, /. Water surface -
Water surface ‘! / .’
0 48 52 56 60 64 68 72 76 320 330 340 350 360 0
Dew point T~ and temperature T In “F Potential modulus ~ and refrachve modulus ~
Fm. 3.35.—Ideal case with AT = 8.8oF, AM = 44, W,,,, = 21 mph, and z = 21 miles.

The soundings are arranged in order of increasing temperature excess

in order that the general effect of this very important variable may be
apparent. However, the effect of other variables should not be over-
looked. Figures 3.36 and 3.37 differ essentially only in trajectory. In
Fig, 334 there is less modification than might be expected from a con-
SEC.3.19] INITIALLY HOMOGENEOUS WARM AIR 247

October 19,1944 1014-1032 EST o First ascent Surface wind W 4 B

10 miles E of Duxbury, Mass. ● Second ascent

lm 1000

T +
c E
.s c
g 500 - 500 ~
.=
z ?

1 Water surface
o’~
40444852566064 310 320 330 340 350 0
Dew point 7’Sand temperature T m “F Potential modulus * and refractive modulus M
FKQ.3.36.—Ideal case with AT = 10.8oF, AM = 31, Wmo = 35 mph. and z = 9 miles.

1000
F October 191944 1041-1103 EST
5 miles NW of Race Point, Mass
o First ascent
. Second ascent
Surface wind W 4 B

1000

/“

Pik_l!L
Tg T + M
x c
.s
500 ~
2
,
, .’
, ,,
Water surface . ‘), I ,/ Water surface
0 ti o
40 “ 44 48 52 56 60 64 310 320 330 340 350
Dew point T~and temperature T m “F Potential modulus ~ and refractive modulus ~
FIG.3.37.—Ideal case with AT = 11.00F, AM = 30, W,,,, = 35 mph, and z = 23 miles.

August 21,1944 1320-1340 EST o First ascent Surface wind SSW 3B

2 miles E of Duxbury, Mass. . Second ascent
1000-
Ta T #
c c
.E c s
~ 500 c.
?

o- *
58 6? 66 70 74 78— 340 350 36fJ 370 380 390
Dew point T. and temperature Tin “F Potential modulus 4 and refractive modulus M
Fm. 338.-Ideal case with AT = 15.3”F, AM = 12, W’,,,, = 40 mph, and z = 8 miles.

sideration of AT alone; this is presumably because of the rather light

wind. The effect of AM on the ~- and M-profiles has already been shown
in Figs. 3“14 to 3.16. These cases furnish, of course, only a few examples
of the many combinations of the various independent variables that
can exist,
 248 METEOROLOGYOF Tk?.REFRACTION PROBLEM [SEC. 319

The modMcation problem for trajectories longer than 50 miles has

been comparatively unstudied to date. Some airplane soundings were
made by the Radiation Laboratory south of Long Island in the summer of
1945 in air that had traveled 50 to 300 miles over cooler water. These
data have been analyzed by Emmons.1
First of all, it appears from these observations that the ideal case
that was outlined at the beginning of this section is unlikely for trajectories
greater than 100 miles. Even if the air is initially homogeneous, varia-

June 6, 1945 1653-1721 EST Sutiace wind 255°3 B

S of L l., New York
15 40502’ N 0 15W
72°00’ W
o First ascent
T T +0 ● Secondascent M

10QO--; . 10QO
\ . c
e
.0 0 ~
.5 .’! / ~
= ., ,’
,* /’ ,~
a) /’ al
0 $, /’
= 5oo- -“ 5W =
t t, ,/
.I . .!
“1 0°.“ \ ?’
. Water ‘,
. ~ ,,’
surface ‘, Water surface
: /’
: L)k( ~1 $ ~.
o o
34 38 42 46 50 54 58 62 310 320 330 340 350 360
Dew point l; and temperature T m “F Potential modulus ~ and refractive mcdulus M
Fm. 3,39.-Overwater sounding showing the effect of shear after a trajectory of about
100 mile8.

tions of water temperature and wind speed along the trajectory, radiation,
and shear must all be considered in addition to diffusion. Shear is particu-
larly important. Of 29 soundings made in this program, only 3 may have
been free of obvious shearing effects in the lowest 1000 ft; these had tra-
jectories of 70 to 90 miles with a small temperature excess and fresh
wind. The effect of shear in all cases was to produce shearing stratification
and accompanying erratic and unpredictable superstandard or substandard ‘
layers above the level of modification.
Figure 3 “39 is an example’ of the effect of shear for an overwater tra-
jectory of about 100 miles (for the air at 1000 ft). The overland distri-
butions were homogeneous during the time when any of the air in this
sounding began its travel over the water. The effect of modification by
the water probably extends to about 250 ft and certainly no higher than
400 ft. The stable temperature distribution above the level of water
modification is the result of shearing stratification as is the substandard
layer between 400 and 600 ft and the superstandard layer between 700
1Gardner Emmons, “Vertical Distribution of Temperature and Humidity over the
Ocean between Nantucket and New Jersey, ” Paper-s in Phys. OcearLog. and Meteorol.,
Mzsz. Inst. of Tech. and Woods Hole Oceanog. Inst., 10, No. 3, December 1947.
2Thm sounding is Fig. 14 in Emmons’ paper, and is adso discussed in the paper.
SEC. 3.19] INITIALLY HOMOGENEOUS WA R.V AIR 249

and 900 ft. If the level of water modification is only 250 ft, which is
likely, the structure of the M-inversion between 250 and 400 ft must also
be influenced by shear.
It is possible toindicate the order of magnitude of zn, z,, and dfound
in these long-trajectory soundings. The height of modification was be
tween 200 and 500 ft in all the soundings except three, where it was about

2000

1500

500

Water

0
52 56 60 64 68 8 10 12 320 340 360 380 400
Temperaturein°F Mixing ratio Refractive modulus M
(per mine)
FIG, 3.40,—Schematic representation of probat,le stages in modification of initially
homogenmms warm air over cold water.

1000 ft. The temperature inversions were usually between 200 and
1000 ft; the surface ducts below 500 ft. It must be remembered that
because of the complicating factors these values are not strictly compar-
able to those mentioned before in the study of the ideal case. It is to be

expected that in the absence of shear and shearing stratification, z~ would

have been somewhat higher and Z, somewhat lower than the values found.
Moreover, not all these soundings were made in air that was initially
homogeneous at all levels; the surface air in some cases, because of shear,
left land before the beginning of convective mixing.
Probable Stages in the Modification
of Initially Homogeneous Warm
Air over Cold Water.’—It is desirable to sum up this section by discussing
qualitatively, in the light of theoretical reasoning and these data, the
modification history of initially homogeneous warm air over cold water.
Consider for the moment the ideal case where shear, radiation, and vari>
tions in water temperature and wind may all be neglected. It is believed
that during modification this air will go through the stages indicated in
Fig. 3“40.
1See R. B. Montgomery and R. H. Burgoyne, “Modified Index Cloee to the Ooean
Surface,” RI. Report No. 651, Feb. 16, 1945.
250 METEOROLOGY OF THE REFRACTION PROBLEM [SEC.3.20

Initially homogeneous, as indicated by the lines A, theair isat first

affected so that rather large gradients of temperature and moisture exist
in the lowest few hundred feet, as shown by the curves B. Additional
turbulent mixing leads to a nearly homogeneous layer with large gradients
only near the surface and at the top of the layer, as indicated by the curves
C. This layer continues to grow until it reaches the height of frictional
influence as shown by the distributions D. In this final state, the potential
temperature of the homogeneous layer is equal to the water temperature,
whereas the humidity is somewhat less than the value at the water surface,
since the humidity value in the layer is limited by the saturation value
at the top of the layer.
The empirical information given in this section relates primarily to
Stage B. This stage is well developed shortly after the air leaves land
and persists for some distance which must vary with temperature excess
and wind speed. This distance according to available observations is
usually greater than 50 miles and often even greater than 300 miles. No
well-defined case of air in the state illustrated by C has been observed over
water. However, such a development has been observed over land
(turbulence inversions, Sec. 3.17). Another example in nature is the
common occurrence of a surface layer of homogeneous water in the ocean
overlying a sharp temperature gradient (thermocline), both produced by
wind stirring. Stage C is probably not usually well developed until the
overwater trajectory is a matter of hundreds of miles, but it must be
emphasized that this distance depends on the amount of mechanical
mixing that can occur and hence on the temperature excess and wind speed.
Shear complicates this picture by producing shearing stratification
when warm air overruns cold air or by producing convective mixing when
cold air overruns warm air. The final state D is, however, not affected
by shear, radiation, or other complicating factors, for at this time all the
air in the modified layer, whatever its source, has been mixed by turbulence.
3“20. Complex Overwater Modifications. -Certain factors affecting
overwater modification associated with stable equilibrium must be con-
sidered in addition to those entering into the ideal case discussed in the
previous section. Two of these, shear and radiation, have already been
mentioned, and their effects assessed. In this section the additional com-
plications of lack of initial homogeneity, variations in wind speed, and
variations in water temperature will be considered.
If the air is not initially homogeneous, two important facts follow.
(1) The air is more resistant to turbulent mixing because of the initial
stability. This factor tends to keep the level of modification lower than in
the case of initially homogeneous air. (2) The distribution over the water
depends, above the level of water modification, on the initial distribution.
This is, in general, not so simple as in the homogeneous case, where the
M-profile is a straight line with nearly standard slope. A forecast of the
SEC.3.20] COMPLEX O VJYRWA TER MODIFICATIONS 251

distribution requires either a sounding in the air before or after leaving

land or a complete solution of the overland problem. Figures 3“41 and 342
are soundings made in air that was not initially homogeneous. In both
cases the air, as determined approximately with the aid of the character-
istic diagram, has been modified by the water up to about 200 ft. The
distributions above that level depend on initial conditions that have
probably been complicated somewhat by shear.

August 14,1944 0856-0918 EST o First ascent Surface windWSW 36

I 5 miles SE of Eastern Point, Mass. . Second ascent I
1000 l! , 1000
I s, /’
! ‘, 0; /’
c T~\’,T 4! M ,,/’” c
.-c , ‘t ~
,, ,//’
g 500 - . 500 ~
. ,’
? ,/’
, ?
~ ‘ )9 . -
Water ~ 0 .j
surface 0, ., Water surface
t, /
o
66 70 74 78 82 360 370 380 390 400 410 420 0
Dew point Ts and temperature Tin ‘F Potential modulus * and refractive modulus Al
FIG. 3.41. —Cooli11g of initially stratified air o~.er water, Case 1.

August 15,1944 1445-1505 EST 0 Firstascent Surface wind SSW 4B

10 malesE of Duxbury, Mass. . Second ascent
1000 - 0 1000
c
+’
c ~
~ [ g
~ 500 - * I 500 &
.1
+’ %
,

0 k
687276808488 360 370~ 380 390 400 410 4~0
Dew point T~and temperature T m “F Potential modulus * and refractwe modulus M
FIG. 3.42.—Cooling of initially stratified air over water, Case 2.

Variation in wind speed along the trajectory is a subject about which

little is known. Its primary effect, of course, is to cause a variable amount
of mechanical mixing along the trajectory. This effect, superimposed on
the several other factors involved in cooling from below, must be small
and is very difficult to separate from the others.
Variations in water temperature during the trajectory may be of
several types with varying effects. Consider first the case where the air
is being heated from below. If the water temperature changes so that
the air is still in unstable equilibrium but with a larger or smaller temper-
ature excess, the temperature, humidity, and M-profiles can be expected to
252 METEOROWGYOF THE REFRACTIO.V PROBLEM [SEC. 3.20

readjust themselves quickly to meet the new conditions. Subsequent

soundings will show no obvious effect of the change in water temperature.
If, however, the air passes over water that is sufficiently cooler so that
the temperature excess becomes positive, cooling from below proceeds in
the same manner as it does in the case where initially homogeneous air
passes from warm land to cooler water.
Another possibility is that the air is originally over colder water and
therefore in stable equilibrium. It has been seen that in this case the
temperature and humidity of the air at the boundary are determined by
the water temperature and that the characteristic curve in the modified
layer is a straight line, or nearly so. If the air then passes over still
colder water, the air at the boundary assumes new temperature and
humidity values corresponding to the new water temperature. Diffusion
processes then act to modify the air above in accordance with these new
values and the new temperature excess, The readjustment process is
much slower in this case than in the case where the temperature excess is
negative and, although it changes in
value, still remains negative. Until
all the air in the modified layer has
been mechanically mixed with air at
the new surface values, the distribu-
tions of temperature and humidity are
not similar. The air in the lower part
of the modified layer is adjusted to
the new water temperature, but some
air above remains as it was when
mixed at the former water temperature.
Changes in the characteristic curve are
Potential vapor pressure shown schematically in Fig. 3“43.
Fm. 3.43.—The characteristic curve is Figure 344 is the characteristic dia-
originally X!l’I, When the water tern.
perature changes to ‘fI, the characteristic gram of a sounding where this effect
curve gradualiy changes to the straight
was actually observed. Starting from
line XTZ.
shore the trajectory for this sounding
passed over water with a temperature of 54°F measured shortly after sun-
rise the following morning (53o to 540F measured in the afternoon two
days before the sounding), Note that part of the characteristic curve
still points toward this temperature. The temperature measured at the
same time and place as the sounding is about 52”F, as shown by the
arrows in the figure.
Changes of this type in water temperature may be particularly im-
portant when the dew point of the air is close to the water temperature.
Figure 3.45 shows a sounding where the air is being cooled and moiskmed
from below. The water temperature then decreases until it is less than
the dew point of the air in the lowest 100 ft of the modified air so that the
 SEC.321] NOCT UR,VAL COOLING AND DIt7RN.4L CYCLES 253

air proceeds to lose some moisture by condensation on the water. What

must have been an M-inversion at 100 to 200 ft changes to the measured
distribution when the water temperature changes.
If air in stable equilibrium passes over warmer water, convection
immediately sets in. This convection cannot be effective much above
the height where the air as originally modified has a potential temperature
equal to the new water ternperatu re. If the new water temperature is

Potential vapor pressure m mb

56789101112131415 1617181920
66

& 64

‘: 62

$ 60
f rj*

: 56

% 54
5
a 52
50
FIG. 344.-Characteristic rurt.c of a measured sounding showing the hcnd caused by
changing water tempmaturc. The aw has passed over water of 54”F, is now. over water of

/
52”F. The family of curves represents m for a surface presbure of 1000 rub.

July6,1944 0907-0924 EST 0 First ascent Surface wind NNW 2 B

7 miles E of Duxbury, Mass. ● Second ascent

1000
\ 10 ! / /’ 1 1000
,/’

V -
c I-i T“ +[ M
/’
/’ c
.-c c
, /“
= 500 500:
0 0
~ ?
. .
/’
;.Q,
\’\ Water j .0 0 !, .
surface ~ .! ~,.’ Water surfa(ce
,
O( zk, ,,, , 10
5660646B 7276 340 350 360 370 3B0 390
Dew point ~$ and temperature Tin “F Potential modulus ~ and refractive mcdulus M
Fm. 3,45. —Meaaured overwater sounding. The bend in the dew-point and modulus
curves at 100 ft is the result of changing water temperature.

not much warmer than the old, this may be only a few feet above the
surface, but sometimes the change is sufficiently great that the effect is
noted in an airplane sounding at 20 or ,50 ft or higher. Figure 3.46 is an
example of such a sounding. In the layer affected by the new tempera-
ture, conditions are nearly homogeneous because of the convective stirring;
the original surface M-inversion has become elevated.
3-21. Nocturnal Coofing and Diurnal Cycles.—At night, in the absence
of solar radiation, the temperature of a land surface ordinarily decreases
254 METEOROLOGY OF THE REFRACTION PROBLEM [SEC.3.21

because of nocturnal radiation. The lower part of the atmosphere is

cooled in turn by contact with the cool surface as heat is transferred
downward by turbulence. The resulting thermal stratification and the
accompanying humidity and M-profiles are of considerable interest.
The problem of forecasting the M-profile under given conditions is
twofold. It is necessary to forecast (1) the rate at which the ground
surface will cool and (2) the manner in which conditions at the surface
will affect the air above. The first question is one that has been studied
empirically and theoretically by meteorologists; the second has generally

July 14,1944 0925-0943 EST o Ascent Surface wind NNE2B

6mlles SEof Eastern Point, Mass. ● Descent

mw point T~ and temperature Tin “F Potential modulus ~ and refractwe mcdulus Id

FIG. 3,46.-Overwater sounding in air that was cooled from below and then passed over
warmer water,

been discussed only qualitatively and is dependent upon recently developed

low-level sounding techniques.
The rate and amount of cooling of the earth’s surface at night is
dependent upon the value of the nocturnal radiation. This was defined
in Sec. 3.17 as the net outgoing long-wave radiation. 1 The earth radiates
approximately as a black body, but part of this radiation is absorbed and
reradiated by certain atmospheric gases, principally water vapor. Be-
cause water vapor absorbs only in certain spectral regions, much of the
radiation emitted by the earth escapes through the atmosphere. Cloud
surfaces, however, radiate approximately as black bodies; therefore
when clouds are present, the nocturnal radiation is reduced considerably.
The temperature of the earth’s surface depends not only on the nocturnal
radiation but also on the specific conductivity of the surface, which de
termines the amount of heat that is conducted to the surface from below.
Surfaces with a high conductivity do not cool so much (or heat so much
during the day) as surfaces with a low conductivity. This factor may
I The energy radiated by the earth or the atmosphere is contained mainly betwsen
wavelengths of 3 and 100P, with a maximum at about 10p; the sun’s radiation (after
psssing through the atmosphere) between 0.3P and 4M, with a maximum at 0.475P.
Hence the former is spoken of= ‘long-wave” (terrestrial) radiation, wheresw the latter
is often called “short-wave” (solar) radiation.
SEC.3.21] NOCTURX.4L fWOLI.VG AND DIURNAL CYCLES 255

vary considerably for different types of soil. For dry soil it has a value
of 3.3 X 10–4 cal per sec per cm per ‘C. For dry sand it is about three
times as large. Because water at O°C has a value of 1.2 X 104, moist
ground is a better conductor than dry ground.1
The dependence of the amount of cooling on factors such as amount of
water vapor in the air, amount and height of clouds, and type of surface
has been studied extensively. Summaries of results are presented by
Haurwitz and Byers.2
Even if the temperature of the surface is known as a function of time,
there remains the question as to how the air above is affected. This is
essentially the same type of modification problem as that of warm air
over cold water, but it is in many ways a more difficult one. (1) The
temperature of the modifying land surface varies greatly, both with time
as the radiative cooling proceeds during the night and with horizontal
distance if there is a variation in the type of surface. Accordingly the
air is subjected to a modification where the temperature excess varies
over wider ranges than are generally found in the overwater problem.
(2) The temperature of the land does not uniqi,ely determine the bound-
ary values of humidity and refractive modulus, except in the special case
where the ground is wet. If the ground is perfectly dry, however, there
is no humidity gradient and the M-profile near the surface varies according
to changes in the temperature distribution.
If it were not for these facts essentially the same independent variables
could be used to describe the nocturnal cooling of the air over flat terrain
as were employed in the overwater problem, namely, temperature excess,
M-deficit, wind speed at 1000 ft, and the length of time that cooling has
progressed.’ Because of the inherent variations and uncertainty in the
first two, it may be desirable, when careful analysis of overland modifica-
tion is undertaken, to substitute some other variables. For example,
some parameter that takes into consideration cloud cover, amount of
water vapor in the air, and specific conductivity of the soil could be used
in place of temperature excess inasmuch as the time of cooling is another
variable. Special consideration of whether the ground is dry, damp, or
wet would be necessary in finding a variable analogous to M-deficit.
Detailed soundings, as well as other types of meteorological data, -will
be necessary in any satisfactory study of nocturnal cooling. The ordinary
meteorological soundings made by radiosonde are inadequate for a careful
study because they do not report in fine detail the structure of the at-

1These values are from the Handbook of Chemistry and F’hyw”c.s,Chemical Rubber
Publishing Co., Cleveland, 1933, pp. 1192, 1193.
z B. Haurwitz, Dynamic Meteorology, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1941, pp. 106-110;
H. R. Byers,Gene-rat
Meteoi-otogy,
McGraw-Hill,New York, 1944,pp. 474-477.
3Over land the problem is complicated by trees, buildings, marshes, and other
irregularities in the surface.
256 METEOROLOGY OF THE REFRACTION PROBLEM [SEC. 3.21

mosphere in as shallow a layer aa the lowest 1000 ft. Special low-level

soundings, made by instmments described in Sees. 3.27 to 3“31, are suffi-
ciently accurate, and many such soundings have been made during the
war, but no thorough analysis of them has been carried out. Despite
the lack of analysis, some of these soundings will be presented here as
illustrations of certain basic considerations.1
Figures 347 and 3.48 contain soundings made at Leesburg, Fla.
Figure 3”47ashows conditionsin the lower atmosphere just before sunset

March 5,1945 1601-1629 EST OAscent Surfacewmd SSE4mph

900 Broken clouds at 30Q0 ft g@-J
(a)
c
.s
-500
=s
?
,
1
o- 0
5B 62 66 70 74 78 82 340 350 360 370 380

1March 5,1945 2308-2353 EST oAscent Suriace wmd calm

[~:i
58 62 66 70 74 78 82 3~; 350 360 0370 380
Dewpo,ntT~andtemperatureT m “F Potentialmodulus 4 and refractwe modulus }f
F1m 3,47, —Soundinga indicating effect of nocturnal cooling with clear aky. (a) Just before
sunset; (b) midnight.

on Mar. 5, 1945, and Fig. 3.47b shows the effect of nocturnal cooling on
the air up to midnight. Figure 3.48a and b shows similar measurements
made on the night of Feb. 19, 1945.
Comparison between these two pairs of soundings is of interest. In
both cases the air was nearly homogeneous when the cooling began. In
the first case weather conditions at the time of the later sounding included
clear skies and calm at the surface, whereas on the night of Feb. 19
the second sounding was made with an overcast at a height of 2000 ft
and a surface wind of 7 mph. In the first case a considerably greater
amount of cooling occurred than in the other case; presumably this was
to a great extent caused by the difference in cloud conditions. Note also
that with the smaller amount of cooling and the surface wind of 7 mph in
Fig. 3.48b the temperature lapse rate was nearly adiabatic, whereas with
1The particular soundinga shown in this section were made either at Duxbury,
Mass,, by the Radiation Laboratory (unpublished) or at Leesburg, Fla., by the AAF
Tactical Center, Orlando, Fla., under AAF Board Project No. 3767 BOOO.93,
SEC. 3.21] NOCTURNAL COOLING AND DIURNAL CYCLES 257

a larger amount of cooling and no wind there was a sharp inversion with a
nearly isothermal layer above.
It is also interesting to compare the humidity and M-profiles of these
figures. In Fig. 3.48 no gradient of moisture was in evidence on the
soundings, indicating that the ground was dry. Thk fact, along with
the adiabatic lapse rate of temperature, led to a homogeneous, or nearly
standard, M-profile. The profiles in Fig. 3 “47 are significant because they
illustrate a sequence that is common when air is over damp or wet ground

February 19, 1945 1556-1630 EST Surface wind NNE 6 mph

900

‘w L:burgr\ ‘=’:1073m”
0.
Ot
54
0.
58 62 66
AL
340
.
350 -560~o “%
0

8* Februafy 19,1945 2230-2303 EST

Leesburg, Florida (
e ) c
~ 500 -
= Ascent
.y Descent *j ,y
2

0 ~
54 58 62 66 340 350 360 370 380 .390
Dew point ~$ and temperature Tin “F Potential modulus 4 and refractive modulus M
lJIG. 3.48.—Soundings indi eating effect of nocturnal cooling with overc aat sky. (a) Mid-
afternoon; (6) late evening,

such that there is a positive humidity deficit. Before sunset, if the air is
heated from below, moisture evaporated from the ground is rapidly car-
ried aloft by convection. However, ‘after nocturnal cooling begins, the
air becomes thermally stratified and the moisture evaporated from the
ground tends to be confined to a low layer of the atmosphere. This leads
to a relatively large humidity gradient near the ground and an accom-
panying superstandard layer, either based at the surface or, as in this
case, elevated, Later during the night the ground may cool below the
dew point of the moistened air so that the moisture is condensed on the
ground and a decrease of moisture with height occurs in the lowest layer.
This was apparently beginning to occur when the sounding in Fig. 347b
was made, according to the observations made at 10 ft. This new humid-
ity distribution tends to cause a sllbstandard layer based at the ground,
but on occasion the temperature inversion may be strong enough to keep
the layer standard or superstandard.
258 METEOROLOGY OF THE REFRACTION PROBLEM [SEC.3.21

Figure 3 49a is a sounding made at Duxbury, Mass., on the night of

Nov. 2, 1944. It is intended to illustrate that appreciable substandard
layers may occur along with strong nocturnal temperature inversions
when the humidity gradient near the ground is positive. In Fig. 3.49b,
which shows a sounding made at Duxbury, Mass., on the night of Sept. 25,
1944, there is no gradient of dew point and the temperature inversion has
led to a superstandard layer that includes a slight M-inversion, Finally,
Fig. 3 “49c represents a sounding made at Duxbury on Sept. 27, 1944 under

November 2, 1944 0613-0647 EST o Ascent Surface wind calm

Duxbury, Mass. . Descent High broken clouds

C3M z
c3LJ3
September 25, 1944 0550-0619 EST o Ascent

Surface wind NW 3 mph Clear, heavy frost

36 40 44 48 310 320 33052 54 340 350 3600

Dew point T~, and Modulus Temperature Modulus
temperature Tin ‘F in ‘F
Fm. 349.-Examples of substandard, superstandard, md standard surf ace layers over
laud at night.

conditions of temperature excess and humidity deficit such that the M-

profile was standard in the lowest 400 ft.
These examples have been intended to show the type of data that
has been obtained and the kind of information that is now available
from such observations. A complete and careful study will have to be
made of a large number of similar low-level soundings before the problem
will be near a satisfactory solution.
The information contained in this section and in that part of Sec. 3“14
relating to heating from below over land may be used to form a picture
of a normal diurnal cycle over land in the M-profile. At midday, when
the air is being connectively mixed by contact with the warm surface, the
M-profile is homogeneous, or approximately standard. As sunset ap-
proaches, the ground must cool to some extent, as the sun’s rays become
more nearly horizontal, so that the temperature excess becomes positive
~EC. 3.21] NOCTURNAL COOLING AND DIURNAL CYCLES 259

and stratification begins at the surface. Whether or not thk can produce
any important changes in the M-profile before sunset is uncertain, but it
is obvious that any such changes must become progressively more pro-
nounced during the night as the radiative cooling of the surface proceeds.
It has been seen that a variety of M-profiles may occur during the night,
superstandard or substandard anomalies being possible either at the
surface or aloft. The important consideration in such a generalized
discussion as this is the fact that these effects usually occur at night. In
the morning, after sunrise, the ground is warmed by insolation and the
air is heated by convective processes, as described in Sec. 3“14. Figure 3“8
shows the mechanism by which anomalies at the surface are carried aloft,
usually decreasing in intensity, as this heating proceeds. The M-profile
is nearly standard in the connectively mixed layer, the height of which
gradually increases during the morning until the cycle is completed.
The sequence discussed here must, in its general features, be a very
common one, but it should be remembered that other factors, with no
dependence on time of day, may operate to minimize or mask it entirely.
Cloudiness and strong winds tend to decrease the amount of change; an
extensive snow surface may cause the irregular M-profiles to persist
during the day, particularly in high latitudes; and such large-scale meteoro-
logical phenomena as frontal passages and wind shifts may alter the
picture entirely.
This diurnal cycle over land must be present to some degree at all
seasons of the year. The transmission experiments described in Chap. 4
indicate that it is more pronounced in summer than in winter. The
reasons for this probably depend upon a great many factors, but a few
simple points are worth mentioning. (1) In summer the ground is usually
considerably drier than it is in winter. Because moist ground is a much
better conductor than dry ground (see page 255), the surface of the ground
may be expected to cool considerably more in summer than winter, inas-
much as less heat can be brought from below the surface to replace that
lost by radiation. Bruntl concludes that this factor causes more intensive
nocturnal temperature inversions in summer than in winter, despite the
longer nights that occur in winter. (2) The water-vapor content of the
air is generally considerably higher in summer than in winter; conse-
quently stronger gradients of humidity are likely to develop at night to
contribute to irregularities in the M-profile. Moreover, when the vapor
pressure of the air is higher, a smaller temperature gradient is required to
produce an M-inversion. This may be illustrated using the graphs in
Fig. 3.2; for the extremes shown there, the temperature gradient necessary
to produce an M-inversion (AM = – 4.X3 per 100 ft on the graphs) when
the gradient of vapor pressure is zero varies between 6.8°F per 100 ft
1D. Brunt, Physiud and Dynamical Meteorology, Cambridge, London, 2d cd.,
1939, p. 145.
260 METEOROWGY OF THE REFRACTION PROBLEM [SEC.322

(winter conditions) and 4.4°F per 100 ft (summer conditions). (3) It

can be said that in temperate latitudes, cloudiness and strong winds are
more apt to occur in winter than in summer and consequently reduce the
over-all effect of the diurnal cycle in winter.

OTEER ATMOSPHERIC PROCESSESAND THEIR EFFECT

ON M-FROFILES

Thus far, z and M-profiles have been discussed only in relation to

interaction between air masses and the earth’s surface and attendant
phenomena such as shear. Under this heading will be discussed the
effects of certain other common meteorological processes.
3“22. Subsidence and Subsidence Inversions. ~Thus far, only
small-scale vertical motions, such as those connected with eddy diffusion,
have been considered, but there are also some large-scale processes of
interest. One such type of vertical motion and shear of vertical motion
familiar to meteorologists is known as subsidence. Subsidence is a sinking
or lowering of large masses of air from high to low levels. The causes
of its occurrence are essentially dynamic, such as the frictional outflow of
air near the surface associated with high-pressure systems, the outflow of
air near the centers of pressure rise, and the divergence of air due to change
in latitude as an air mass moves from north to south. It is sufficient to
say here that it generally is associated with high-pressure systems.
Subsidence has an important effect on the temperature lapse rate in
the subsiding air. In a layer of air that subsides without loss of mass,
an originally stable lapse rate becomes more stable, a dry-adiabatic lapse
rate remains unchanged, and an originally unstable lapse rate becomes
more unstable. The first case is by far the most frequent one in the
atmosphere. Moreover, if, as is frequently the case, the subsiding layer
diverges or loses mass, it becomes even more stable.
There is obviously a lower limit to which the air can descend before it
spreads out horizontally. The ultimate limit is the surface of the earth,
but for practical purposes the top of the layer of frictional influence usually
serves as the base of subsidence. Below this, the air may be mixed by
convection or turbulence. The base of the subsidence is usually charac-
terized by a subsidence inversion. The original cause of the inversion may
be subsidence itself or differential radiation from haze and moisture layers
in the atmosphere. However, there are several factors that may intensify
it, such as further subsidence, a shear in vertical motion at the subsidence
surface such that the downward motion is greater above the inversion,
and radiation from haze and smoke that may rise from theearth’s surface
up to the base of the stable Iayer.z
I By Richard A. Craig.
t For a moredetaileddiscussionof thesefactors,the readeris referredto J. Namias,
S’ubsi&ncewithinthe Atmosphere, Harvard Meteorological Studies No, 2, 1934, pp, 10-13.
SEC. 3$22] SUBSIDENCE AND SUBSIDENCE INVERSIONS 261

In a subsidence inversion the. humidity frequently decreases rapidly

with height. The air above the inversion, having descended from higher
levels, is usually very dry. Furthermore, if the surface is moist and the
subsidence inversion is iow enough, water vapor may be carried up to
the base of the inversion by convection or turbulence, intensifying the
humidity contrast. Thus, the specific humidity usually decreases with
height through the inversion, and the relative humidity decreases even
more because of the additional factor of temperature increase in the
layer.
Because of the temperature increase, which is always present, and
because of the humidity decrease, which is frequently present, there is
practically always a superstandard M-gradient in a subsidence inversion.
There IS often an M-inversion, particularly over the oceans.
It has been mentioned that subsidence is usually associated with
high-pressure systems. These include the migratory highs over land, the
migratory highs over water, and the subtropical anticyclones over the
oceans; they are Iisted in order or increasing probabilityy that the
superst andard layer wil 1 contain an M-inversion. The semipermanent
high-pressure systems over the oceans are known to exhibit the most
marked subsidence in their eastward and equatorward portions.
As a general indication of the frequency, strength, height, and thickness
of M-inversions associated with subsidence, Tables 31 and 3.2 present
statistical data based on serological ascents.

TABLE 3 1.—RADIOSONDE ASCENTS AT S.IN DLEGO .tN~ ().AKL.AND

DURING
JULYAND~UGIJST 1943

Station ~San Diego t Oakland

_.— — . ..-1
NumLrer ofobscrv&tions, . 110 I ~lo

Fraction of all 8 P.M. PST observations which showed ao ~

M-inversion through a subsidence inversion. iI 55% 31%
I )
Fraction of all 8 .i.~. PST observations which showed an
M-inversion through a subsidence inversion. 53% !1 44yo
I
Fraction of all observations with an M-inversion through a
subsidence inversion. . . . . . .. 54% I 3770

Average elevation in ft of base of ail subsidence inversions

which showed M-inversions . . c. 1800

Average elevation in ft of top of all inversions which showed ~

M-inversions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. C, 2700

Average decrease of M through the M-inversion. i 12

——
262 METEOROLOGY OF THE REFRACTION PROBLEM [Sm. 3.22

TABLE32.-KITE ASCENTS
FROM METEOREXPEDITION IN
NORTHANDSOUTHATLANTIC OCEAN,1925 TO 1927
The North Atlanticsoundingsweremadebetween6° and 20°N latitude.
The SouthAtlanticsoundingsweremadebetween9“ and 30°S latitude.

North South
Atlantic .4tlantic

Number ofc=s studied . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . / 49 46

Fraction of all daytime observations which showed M-

mverfnone. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 57% 44%

Average elevations in ftof baee of M-inversions. 3000 4500

Average decrease of M throughsubsidenceinversions. 6 6

Averagethickneeeinftof M-inversions.,..,.... 375 400

Seazonduringwhichobeervationewereroade.., ,. I Winterand Fall and

spring wintir

Table31 contains an analysis of radiosonde data obtained at Oakland

and San Diego, Calif.,l in July and August 1943.
These stationsat this time of year areonthe eastern edge of one cell
of the Pacific anticyclone Table 3.2 contains a similar analysis of data
obtained by kite on the Meteor expedition.z A word of caution should
accompany the presentation of these tables. Because of the lag of the
thermometric and humidity elements, particularly the latter, regions of
rapid change in the atmosphere are often not accurately measured by
sounding equipment in common use. In the case of a subsidence inver-
sion, the thickness of the layer may be overestimated and the changes
in temperature and humidity are underestimated. Both factors make
the decrease of M through the inversion appear to be less than it actually
is. Accordingly, the figures giving percentage of times when an M-inver-
sion is present and average decrease of M through the inversion should
be considered as minimum values for the data analyzed.
Because subsidence inversions are more persistent than most meteoro-
logical phenomena, the forecasting problem is simplified Particularly
over the ocean in the subtropical highs, changes are gradual and daily
changes may often be extrapolated for predictions of future developments.
I A largeamount of observationalwork has been done in connectionwith elevated
M-inversionat San Diego by the Navy ElectronicsLaboratory. The program has
included meteorologicalsoundingsand observationsof associatedradio phenomena.
Thk work is discussed in Sec. 49, which includes a typical sounding made with the
wired sonde (See, 328).
‘Deutsche .4tlantische Expedition Meteo~, 1925-1927.
SEC.3 23] FRONTS AND FRONTAL INVERSION 263

3“23. Fronts and Frontal Inversion.’-An air mass is a large body of

air that has approximately uniform temperature and water-vapor con-
centration horizontally. The boundary between two such air masses is
called a jrontul surface, and the line of intersection between the frontal
surface and the earth’s surface is called a froti.2 The warmer air mass,
being lighter, rises above the colder one. The frontal surface is, in gen-
eral, not parallel to the surface of the earth because of forces other than
gravity, especially the deflecting force caused by the earth’s rotation.
The slope of the frontal surface is dependent upon the temperature
difference between the two air masses and the wind shear across the
frontal surface. Although a frontal surface is always nearly horizontal,
it tends to be more nearly horizontal for a small wind difference and a
large temperature difference. The slope is also directly proportional to
the sine of the geographical latitude at which the front is located. Frontal
surfaces that occur in the atmosphere have slopes lying between O and ~.
When the front moves so that the cold air replaces the warm air over
a portion of the earth’s surface, it is called a cofd jront. When the warm
air moves over regions previously covered by the cold air, the front is
said to be a warm front. Cold fronts are usually more nearly vertical
than warm fronts, the slope of the latter being generally between +a and
~ and of the former between & and ~.
Frontal analysis is an important aspect of weather forecasting. The
subject of fronts is dealt with much more fully in most standard meteoro-
logical texts than is necessary here.’
Fronts are important in a consideration of temperature, humidity, and
M-profiles. At the frontal surface, because the overriding air mass is the
warmer one, there is always a stable layer and there is often a temperature
inversion.4 The water-vapor concentration in this layer ordinarily, but
not always, increases with height because the warmer air mass is more
moist. No general statement can be made concerning the shape of the
M-profile; an M-inversion is probably rare because of the usual humidity
increase with height, but it is a definite possibility, as are standard or
substandard layers. This should be contrasted to subsidence inversions,
where superstandard layers occur almost wit bout exception. In the case
of any particular front it is necessary to obtain accurate meteorological
soundings to be sure of the M-profile, although a comparison of surface
values of humidity in the two air masses may often give some indication.
1By RichardA. Craig.
2The entirefrontalsurfaceis often referredto as a front.
~For example, S. Petterssen,lVea~herAnatysi,sand Forecaskng, McGraw-Hill,
New York, 1940.
4The frontal surface is not a sharp dividing line between the two air masses, but
rather a zone of finite width where temperature, humidity, and wind change abruptly.
“Abruptly” is used here in the meteorological sense; the layers are many wavelengths
thick for microwaves.
264 METEOROLOGY OF THE REFRACTION PROBLEM [SEC. 324

The height of the frontal surface above the earth varies widely. It can
be found approximately either from a radiosonde observation or from a
consideration of the position of the front and the slope of the frontal
surface.
A second and indirect consideration with respect to fronts is that
weather conditions may change radically at a given place after a frontal
passage. The accompanying change of air mass may cause large changes
in temperature, humidity, and cloudiness and in the M-pro61e. As an
example, consider a cold-front passage at a point over water. Prior to the
frontal passage, tlie air mass may be warm and moist with a deep sub-
standard layer based at the surface. The new air mass may be cool
enough to be heated from below with the attendant shallow duct. With
a warm frontal passage the sequence of events would be reversed. Thae
relatively abrupt changes in shape of the M-profile are caused by the
change in air mass only, not by the frontal surface itself. Care should
be taken to distinguish between these two factors.
Close to fronts, it is known that vertical motions are particularly
intense. Little is known about the effect of such vertical motions, but
they are mentioned here by way of caution against any assumption of
strictly horizontal advection in the vicinity of fronts.
Fronts may vary widely in such characteristics as temperature and
humidity contrast between the two air masses, slope, wind discontinuity,
and width of the transition layer. Consequently, it is dangerous and
misleading to make general statements about the effects of frents on
propagation. In some parts of the world and at some seasons of the year,
certain types of front may recur often enough to make general statements
appear applicable. However, it is always safer to consider first the effects
of fronts on the M-profiles and attempt generalities in terms of the
latter.
3“24. Sea-breeze Circulations. ~Many radars are sited along coast
lines, where the sea breeze is a frequent phenomenon, often causing striking
nonstandard propagation effects.
The sea breeze is a complex combination of horizontal and vertical
motions caused by distinct differences in temperature between land and
water. On clear, warm days the contrast is built up along the coast by
unequal heating of land and the adjoining water body. The warm air
over land rises, and there is a flow at the surface of denser oceanic air
toward land. Although a sea-breeze tendency can exist regardless of the
prevailing wind, the most marked effects occur when there is an offshore
wind above the surface onshore flow. For this case, the sea breeze is
that local circulation cell in which there is a rising mass of air over the land

] By Isadore Katz.
SEC, 324] SEA-BREEZE CIRCULATIONS 265

that is carried out to sea by the prevailing offshore wind, a subsiding

motion at some distance from shore, and a returning cool mass of air that
is again heated over land. Often the sea breeze is confined to within 10
miles of the coast line, but cases are reported in which it extends as much
as 100 miles from the coast.
It is difficult at present to describe the temperature, humidity, or
M-profiles in a general way because of the paucity of soundings in sea-
breezes.1 Most sea-breeze data are restricted to surface observations
and a few visual observations of conditions aloft. Those soundings which
do exist show considerable variation among themselves. Figure 3.50 is

JUIY7,1944 0845-0912 EST Sufiace wind At sounding point OB

7 miles E of Duxbury, Mass. { At Duxbury E 5 mph
1000- 0 Ascent 1000
● Descent I
T~\ ,
z I ~
~ ~
& 500 - , 500 ~
+’ 2
)
, Water surface
\ 0
0
58 62 66 70 74 78 340 350 360 370 380.
Dew point T3and temperature Tin “F Potential modulus ~ and refrachve modulus M.
FIG. 3.50,4 verwater sounding in a sea breeze,

a sounding in a sea-breeze in Massachusetts Bay about 8 miles from the

coast. Figure 351 is a sounding made over land in Kaikoura, New
Zealand, in the presence of a sea-breeze .2 Possibly the difference between
these two measurements illustrates the amount of variation in sea-breeze
characteristics in various parts of the world.
It is best to caution against assuming a unique type of propagation
associated with a sea-breeze. Each case must be treated separately, with
consideration being given to the properties of the original air mass and
the temperature of the water. It should also be stressed that the sea-
breeze circulation is clearly local in character, being confined for the most
part to a narrow coastal strip, and should not be confused with winds
coming from the sea with long overwater trajectories.

1 Some observations are presented in the form of vertical cross sections by R. A

Craig, et aL, “Sea-breeze Cross Sections from Psychometric Measurements, ” BuU.
Am. Meteorot. Sot., December 1945.
‘F. E. S. Alexander, “Temperature and Humidity Measurements Made with the
Wmhington State College Wired Sonde Equipment at Kaikoura, New Zealand, be-
tween September 23, 1944, and October 19, 1944, ” Radio Development Laboratory,
Wellington, New Zealand.
266 METEOROLOGY OF THE REFRACTION PROBLEM [SEC, 324

October 10,1944 Localtime 1941 Surface wind easterly to calm

Kaikoura, New Zealand
1500

.-c I
1
I
,
I
I
I
1
1
!
I
I ,
I o \
0I
32 36 40 44 48 52 56 60 64 68 72 76 80
Dew point T$ and temperature Tin ‘F
(a)

Potential modulus ~and

refractive modulus M
(b)
FIG. 351.-Overland sounding in a sea breeze.

HORIZONTAL AND LOCAL VARIATIONS

BY RICHARD A, CRAIG

Emphasis thus far has been placed on vertical gradients, as the present
theoretical basis for study of the effects of these gradients requires the
assumption of purely horizontal stratification. Moreover, variations with
time at a given place have been generally neglected, both in the theoretical
discussion andin the observational techniques. However, it is of impor-
tance to consider possible deviations from these ideal conditions.
SEC, 325] HORIZONTAL GRADIENTS 267

3“25. Horizontal Gradients.—It is apparent from the complexity of

atmospheric phenomena and the nonuniformity of the earth’s surface that
horizontal gradients of temperature, humidity, and refractive modulus
must occur frequently in the atmosphere. In the large-scale study of
meteorology, it is known that these are minimum within well-defined air
masses and maximum near frontal surfaces. In radio-meteorology this
is correspondingly true for the parts of the atmosphere higher than a few
hundreds of feet above the earth’s surface. Forthe surface layers, how-
ever, which assume more importance in the specialized study here con-
sidered than in ordinary meteorological work, significant gradients may
occur also within air masses because of the rapid reaction of these surface
layers to changesin the modifying surface. A precise definition of what
constitutes a significant variation of M-profile has not been attempted,
but it would necessarily involve the wavelength, the geometry of the
transmission path, and the heightsat which thechanges inthe M-profile
occur. Large changes in the M-profile can occur frequently and fairly
rapidly. These occur across frontal surfaces and also in surface layers in
theabsence affronts. Changes across frontal surfaces tend to be abrupt,
their amount depending on the air-mass contrast. Because a frontal
surface has a small but finite slope, the boundary layer between the two
air masses may vary in height by as much as 10,000 ft in 100 miles
and usually varies at least 1000 ft in 100 miles perpendicular to the
front. Moreover, the changes in temperature Wd humidity across a
front are generally accompanied by changes in temperature excess and
M-deficit.
The vertical distribution of temperature and humidity in an air column
follows to a great extent from the type of surface by which the air has been
recently modified. When a large body of air is modified by a nearly
uniform surface for a sufficiently long time, an air mass is formed. Of
importance here is the fact that in the surface layers variations resulting
from changes in the modifying surface may occur in the absence of such
prolonged and uniform modification.
In general, such variations occur most frequently at coast lines because
of the abrupt change in modifying surface. The horizontal gradients
maybe of several types. For example, intheideal case of warm air over
cold water (Sec. 3“19) a nearly standard M-profile over land may become
substandard or superstandard in the surface layer as soon as it crosses
the coast; and furthermore, the shape of the curve may vary considerably
during its trajectory. Moreover, because of irregularities in the coast
line and wind differences, other changes may occur. This was of impor-
tance in the experiment in Massachusetts Bay where significant horizontal
gradients were often found (Sec. 42).
Horizontal gradients may occur to a lesser extent over continents
away from the influence of coah.1 waters. Land surfaces may vary
268 METEOROLOGY OF THE REFRACTIO.V PROBLEM [SEC.3.26

considerably in humidity and in heating or cooling properties, and their

effect on air columns may produce significant variations (Sec. 3’21).
Probably the open ocean is the region where horizontal gradients are
the least important in the absence of fronts. If all the airover a region
has traveled hundreds of miles over water, such gradients are less likely
to exist. Even here, however, one must be very careful to allow for
variationsin water temperature, which can produce significant differences.
Obviously, no general rules can be given regarding horizontal gradients.
It is important that their existence be borne in mind in choosing any site
forexperimental purposes andin analyzing any data. In particular, if a
measured M-profile is to be correlated with radio transmission phenomena,
considerable thought should be given as to whether or not the meteoro-
logical data are representative of the entire transmission path.
3“26. Local Vtiations with Ttie.`-Previous discussions inthis chapter
relative to values of temperature, moisture concentration, and potential
or refractive modulus at, a point in the atmosphere have referred to average
and not to instantaneous values. Theoretical considerations refer to
averages; and furthermore, as will be described in the next section, the
observational material was gathered according to a technique that tended
timeasure average conditions over atime interval of minutes. Neverthe-
less, certain theoretical andobservational material leadsto the conclusion
that variations about these averages may be considerable, particularly
under conditions of instability.
In the case of unstable equilibrium , vertical motions result from
convection and mechanical turbulence. An air parcel displaced vertically
may travel an appreciable distance before being mixed with its surround-
ings; and if there are vertical gradients of potential temperature, specific
humidity, or potential modulus, such displaced air parcels cause variations
in the parameters in their new surroundings. In order to measure the
resultant fluctuations in M, one would need simultaneous and rapid
measurements of both temperature and humidity. These are difficult to
obtain, but it is possible to estimate the fluctuation in M from measure-
ments of temperature alone. Over dry ground, of course, there is no
gradient of specific humidity, and the fluctuations in M depend on tem-
perature variations alone. Over wet ground or water, if the temperature
excess and M-deficit are known, the estimate can be made on the basis
of the, principle of similarity, namely, that the ratio of temperature fluctu-
ations to temperature deficit is identical with the ratio of fluctuations in
M to M-deficit.
Some indication of the fluctuations encountered in unstable equilibrium
may be obtained from the work of Gerdel,z wbo measured temperature
I Part of the material in this section is baaed on an unpublished memorandum by
R. B. Montgomery (1945).
s R. W. Gerdel, ‘ ‘Tempwature-gradient Obzervationz,” Nat. Rewarch Curnm”l Am.
Uwphgs. Uniun Tram,, Part I, 1943, PP. 182-189.
SEC. 3.26] LOCAL VA RIA TIOiVS WITH TIME 269

with thermocouples over land at heights up to 24 ft. He found the stand-

ard deviation of temperature in unstable air to have a maximum value of
3°F at 4 ft, decreasing to 0,90F at 24 ft. Over dry ground, with no gradient
of vapor pressure, this would correspond to standard deviations of about
3 and 1 respectively in M. These represent deviations of less than 1 per
cent of the usual value of M near the surface of the earth.
Information concerning deviations over water is available from psy-
chrometer measurements made at the masthead of a ship by Woodcock.1
One series made on Feb. 24, 1945, over the Gulf Stream represents a
temperature excess of – 13.50F, a humidity deficit of 17.2 mb, and an

Potential vapor pressure in mb

678910111213141516 17181920212223242
72

70

“u 68
.E
~~ 66
~ 64

j 62

~ 60

~ 58
n.
56
54
FIG. 3.52.—Fluctuations in unstable air.

M-de6cit of 68. The first seven readings of this series, made at ~-min
intervals wit h a wind of 14 knots, are plotted on the characteristic diagram
in Fig. 3.52. Note that the points fall reasonably well along a straight
line through the observed water temperature of 70”F. The maximum
recorded deviation in M was 3, or about 4 to 5 per cent of the M-deficit.
Further information comes from some soundings made in Florida by
the Arm y Air Forces’ using an aerated wired sonde (Sec. 3.28). Meas-
urements were made over water in the lowest 50 ft of the atmosphere. The
instrument was exposed at each level for 2 to 3 rein, and the maximum
and minimum observed values of humidity were recorded. Because the
deviations were small, only average values of temperature were recorded;
this was unfortunate. Figure 3.53 is one such sounding made in a wind
of about 8 knots. The sea temperature was 75.2”F, and the temperature
excess, humidity deficit, and Mdeficit were, respectively, about – 60F,
16 mb, and 64. The deviations above 25 ft were 5 to 8 per cent of the
deficits, although fluctuations from the average of as much aa 17 per cent

] Alfred H. Woodcook, Woo& Hole Oceanographic Institution, during paesage

between the Weat Indies and an eastern United States port in February 1945.
ZAAF Board Proiect No. H4298.
270 METEOROLOGY OF THE REFRACTION PROBLEM [SEC. 326

of the deficit occurred nearer the surface. Note that with the irregular
fluctuations at all levels the shape of the M-profile, including the duct
height, must vary considerably in an irregular manner.
It seems reasonable, on the basis of the foregoing information, to
estimate the maximum possible deviation in M above 25 ft in unstable
air. The Florida sounding indicated a value of about 8 percent of the
M-deficit. Woodcock’s series showed a 4 to 5 per cent maximum devia-
tion, a figure that must be somewhat Iow because of laginthe response of
the sling psychrometer, which was exposed at ~-rein intervals. If Gerdel’s
value of 0.9°F for temperature is assumed to be more nearly correct for

October 16,1945 1332-1429 EST Surface wind N 6-8 mph

Eastern Lake, Fla.
oFirst descent ~
50 0,.0 0,. ● ,.0
4 ! I . Second descent 150

x Oq. ~ti” I ~
T~ r T? ;M
~ Is
~ •~o + e;. o
M EM
al ● ;e P a;a
I 01 a b. .0: .0 ?
0;.0 .;. O
‘+’” Water
./. .O :0. ./0.
0?,0. 0 surface391
“a 0 . :~ Water surface ~. .- 0
0 1,. 1 “~”o J-
50 54 58 62 66 70 74 330 340 350 360 370
Dewpint T~and temperature ~ in “F Potential modulus~ andrefractive modulus~
FIG.3.53.—Fluctuations in dew point and resulting fluctuations in M in unstable air.

this series, the deviation becomes nearly 7 per cent. Eight per cent ap-
peara as an acceptable maximum figure. According to these figures
deviations of M from the average value above 25 ft because of turbulence
and convection could scarcely exceed +5.
Another series of Woodcock’s measurements serves to throw light on
variations in air near neutral equilibrium. Made on Feb. 20, 1945, in
the Windward Passage, this series represents a temperature excess. of
— 0.5 °F, ahumidityde6citof 11.3 mb, andan M-de6cit of 51. If there
is no vertical gradient of potential temperature, deviations in temperature
cannot occur. This is the case for neutral equilibrium except near the
top of the mixed layer. However, over water there are always vertical
gradients of humidity and lf near the surface (Sec. 3.14) so that fluctua-
tions in these quantities can occur. In this case, mtium recorded
deviations were about 8 per cent of the deficits. The fluctuations ob-
served by Woodcock in the unstable case were less than those derived
from other data. Accordingly, it isreaaonable to expect that this figure
of 8 per cent for neutral equilibrium maybe exceeded at times. Thus it
ia possible that the variations may sometimes beas much as +8 inlll.
When the air is in stable equilibrium, vertical displacements can be
only temporary (Sec. 3“17). The fluctuations then are associated with
SEC. 328] WCAL VARIATIONS WITH TIME 271

wave motion in the stable fluid rather than with discrete turbulent eddies.
Considerable theoretical work has been done by dynamic meteorologists
concerning the physical characteristics of such wave motion; but unfor-
tunately, most of it is not directly applicable to the immediate problem.
Certain principles may, however, be stated. At temperature inversions
in the atmosphere, which often correspond to large vertical M-gradients,
wind shear may supply enough energy to set up wave motion in much the
same way that waves are formed at the surface of the ocean. Gravitation
acts as a stabilizing or restoring effect provided the wavelength of the
motion is sufficiently large. The critical wavelength, above which stable
wave motion can occur, increases with increasing wind shear and de-
creasing stability.’ Observations of billow clouds have indicated that the
wavelengths which “occur in nature are near these critical values .Z The
vertical velocities associated with such wave mot ions are negligible at a dis-
tance above and below the inversion greater than 37 per cent of the wave-
length. This may be assumed to be the same as the critical wavelength.
The inferences that may be drawn from this meteorological knowl-
edge are
1. Fluctuations must be less in stable equilibrium than in neutral or
unstable equilibrium, as vertical motions are inhibited.
2. Deviations must decrease with increasing stability and decreasing
wind shear in a stable layer, as critical wavelength decreases and
the effective range of vertical motion decreases.8
Gerdel’s measurements included some cases of stable equilibrium and
included no temperature deviations greater than 0.5°F over dry land.
This would indicate maximum fluctuations in M of about half the value
found for unstable equilibrium, about 4 per cent or 2 or 3 per cent in M.
This is admittedly a rough figure and must vary somewhat with stability
and wind shear.
There is room for much additional research, both theoretical and
observational, in the subject of local variations, particularly in stable
equilibrium. One important aspect of wave motion, in addition to vari-
ations at a point, is the attendant possibility that a duct may vary in
height horizontally. It has been suggested that this phenomenon niay
be of importance in causing the deep fades observed during the guided
propagation of microwaves.4
) A table of criticaf wavelengths in terms of wind shear and temperature difference
is given in B. Haurwitz, Dynamic itleteorolog~, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1941,
p. 287. Noti that these hold only if the height of the inversion above the ground is
greater than 40 per cent of the wavelength.
2Ibid., p. 28s.
8It should not be inferred that most stable radio transrniesion occurs under stable
atmospheric conditions; in Chap. 4 it will be shown that the reverse is usually true.
4W, M. Elsasser, “Comments on Duct Transmia40n and Fadii,” NDRC Propa-
gation Memorandum, December 1945 (unpublished).
272 METEOROLOGY OF THE REFRACTION PROBLEM [SEC.3.27

INSTRUMENTSTO MEASURE TEMPERATUREAND HUMIDITY

IN THE LOWER ATMOSPHERE
BY ISADOREKATZ

The study of microwave propagation places new emphasis on meteoro-

logical instrumentation.1 For the usual meteorological purposes tem-
perature and humidity are measured with instruments unsuited to the
fine detail necessary for low-level soundings. The development of several
new instruments and variations of some older types arose out of the needs
of this novel sounding problem. In the following sections some of these
devices, the sounding methods, and problems arising from their use
are discussed.2
3.27. Psychrograph.-The psychograph is a wet- and dry-bulb
recording electrical resistance thermometer.! It employs two thermistors
for measuring wet- and dry-bulb temperature. The resistance of each
thermistor is measured with the aid of a Wheatstone bridge and amplifier,
the output current of which operates a recorder. The thermistors are
mounted in a housing designed for the particular type of service desired.
The psychograph was designed originally for making aircraft soundings
and when used in this form is called an aeropsychrogmph. It has also been
modified for use as a ground-based sounding instrument described in the
following pages.
Thermistors used as temperature elements for the psychograph are
made of a ceramic material that has been fired at a high temperature, yielding
a glasslike, hard semiconductor.4 They are used in radiosondes for measuring
temperature. They are shaped into cylindrical rods of various diameters
and lengths. Those used in the psychograph are 0.06 in. in diameter and
1.9 in. long. Figure 3.54 shows a typical temperatur~resistance curves
1For a text on standard instruments, see W. E. K. Middleton, Meteorotogicd In-
.sh-urnenfs,University of Toronto Press, Toronto, Canada, 1941.
~Further details on the instruments described here and some others may be found
in W. M. Elsaseer, “Meteorological Equipment for Short Wave Propagation Studies,”
Wave Propagation Group Report No. WPG-3 Columbia University, August 1944.
i This instrument was develop-ed during the course of propagation research at the
Radiation Laboratory and was uced almost exclusively to obtain the RL data given
in preceding sections. It has also been used by several other groups. See-I. Katz,
“Instruments and Methods for Measuring Temperature and Humidity in the Lower
Atmosphere,” RL Report No. 487, Apr. 12, 1944; “An Airplane Psychograph,” Bull.
Am. Meteor. Sot., 28363 (1947).
i The thermistors described here were obtained from the Washington InstituW of
Technology, College Park, Md., and from the Julien P. Friez Co., Baltimore, Md.
There are several essentially similar types now available commercially. For a general
description of thermistors see J. A. Becker, C. B. Green, and G. L. Peareon, Tram.
AIEE, 66, 711 (1946); also Vol. 10 of the Radiation Laboratory Series.
5Compensating networks to correct the nonlinearity of the temperature-resistance
curve are described in P. A. Seay and W. E. GordOn, “Temperature RecOrding with
Thermistors,” Electrical Engineering Research Laboratory Report No. 16, June 1, 1948,
University of Texas, Austin, Tex,
SEC. 3%’] PISYCHROGRAPH 273

30

10
0 10 20 30
Temperature in “C
Fm. 3.54.-Temperature-resistance curve for a typical thermistor.

Fm. 3.55. —Aeropsychrograph thermistor rack.

When used in the aeropsychrograph the thermistors are mounted

on an open rectangular bakelite rack as shown in Fig. 355. This rack
provides a rigid support for the thermistors, which are very brittle. The
rack, thermistors, and leads are coated several times with polybutylmeth-
acryiate, an insulating plastic that renders them water-resistant and
eliminates surface leakage. No uncoated surfaces remain other than
those of the connector prongs.
274 METEOROLOGY OF THE REFRACTION PROBLEM [SEC.3%

One of the thermistors is tightly covered with a wick and acts as a wet-
bulb thermometer. Water is fed from both sides to assure adequate
wetting. Large reservoirs, part of the housing to be described in the
following paragraphs, provide the water supply for the wick.
The thermometer housing is shown in Fig. 356. It consists of an inner
aluminum cylinder, an outer radiation shield, and two reservoirs for
distilled water. The inner shield has two open conical ends that reduce
the airflow through the instrument. This reduction amounts to about
60 per cent in the construction shown. A reduction in ventilation speed

FIG. 3,56.—Thermometer housing of aeropsychrograph.

is desirable in aircraft instruments in order to have the wick remain com-

pletely wet at all times, This is not easily accomplished at the usual
aircraft speeds.
The outer radiation shield is a hexagonal cylinder made of aluminum.
There are attached to the shield the water reservoirs, the rear cone, the
connector for the leads to the bridge, a special extension that fits into
the supporting strut, and a door with a flexible steel control cable. The
two Plexiglas water tanks are fastened on the under side of the outer
shield. Each tank has a wick-protecting Plexiglas tube running to withh
~ in. of the wet-bulb resistor. These tubes act as shields for the wick to
prevent excess evaporation. The wick is long, covering the wet thermistor
and reaching into the two water tanks from the ends of the element. This,
in effect, provides two wicks to feed the wet bulb, each wick having to
wet only half the element.
The door mounted on the front of the housing provides protection
for the wick when the instrument is not in use. When the plane is in
flight but measurements are not being made, the door can be closed to
prevent evaporation of water from the wick. This preserves the water
supply and also prevents dust and hydroscopic particles from accumulat-
ing on the wick. The door is a thin brass disk that fits over the front
SW. 3.27] PSYCHOGRAPH 275

cone when closed and opens to a position parallel to the airflow. It is

opened and closed from inside the aircraft by means of the flexible steel
cable. A rear view of the housing is shown in Fig. 3“57. The rear cone
has been removed to show details of the inside. The thermistors are
mounted perpendicular to the air stream, for reasons discussed later in this
section.

FIG. 3.57. —.\eropsychrograph housing, rear view, with rear cone removed and rack in
operating position.

It is desirable to have the housing mounted in the free air stream,

well away from any turbulent flow close to the aircraft. Such a position
can be found at a point above and forward of the nose. Figure 3“58 is a
photograph of a mounting on a PBY aircraft in which a good approach
to free-air conditions was obtained.
A highly simplified circuit diagram of the pyschrograph is shown in
Fig. 359. The wet and dry thermistors are switched alternately (auto-
matically or manually, as desired) into one arm of a Wheatstone bridge.
276 METEOROLOGY OF THE REFRACTION PROBLEM [SEC.3.27

This bridge operates off balance; the unbalance voltage is applied to the
grids of a vacuum-tube voltmeter with high mutual conductance; and
the resulting flow of current from one triode plate to the other operates
the recording milliammeter M.’ The switch AS,selects the temperature
range to be covered by the instrument. A range of about 450F is generally
covered by the full scale of the recorder, and sufficient overlapping of the
temperature ranges is provided to ensure that both wet- and dry-bulb

FIG. 3.58.—Aeropsychrograph mounted on a PBY aircraft. (CourtasLIof ASDEVLANT.)

temperatures can be recorded without resetting &, even for large wet-bulb
depressions. Because the bridge is operated off balance, the power-supply
voltages and tube characteristics must be held to close tolerances. In
the present case simple voltage-regulation methods employing gaseous
voltage-regulator tubes sufficed to limit the errors to at most one-half of
1 per cent of full-scale deflection for f 12 per cent variation of line voltage.
To provide a quick check on correct amplifier performance the calibrating
resistors can be switched into the circuit at will.
Speed Correction.—When an object is placed in a moving air stream,
the air at the boundary is brought to rest. As a consequence, a velocity
gradient occurs near the surface and there is local heating, resulting in an
1The recordingmilliammeteris the O-1 ma Model AW Instrument of the Ester-
line-Angus Co.
SEC. 3%’1 PSYCHOGRAPH 277

increaae of the temperature of the boundary above that of the passing

air stream. Thus, when the resistor in the aeropsychrograph is exposed
to a moving air stream, there is a masking increase in temperature, which
varies with the speed of the aircraft. A correction must be applied to
the indicated temperature to obtain the true air temperature.
The correction may be estimated by assuming steady flow in an
incompressible fluid and no friction. Let u be the velocity along a stream-
line, s the distance along a streamline, and A the cross section of the tube
+21OV
regulated

200 k
Temperature
50k range switch

50k s 200 k
1
n 100 k%

1 1
,
FIG.3.59.—Simplified circuit diagram of the psychograph.

considered. Let p be the air density and p the pressure. Steady flow
implies that u, p, p, and A may vary with s but not with time. Because
steady flow is assumed,
puA = const.

The force from the pressure gradient on an infinitesimal volume A 6s in

the direction of flow is – (dp/o!.s)A 6s. The mass of that volume is pA 6s,
and its acceleration is du/dt. From Newton’s second law,

—— du
‘p A8s= pAtis%.
ds

But
du du dS
—— du
%= dsdt=u~;
278 METEOROWGY OF THE REFRACTION PROBLEM [SEC.3.27

hence
l<p+u<u=o
~ ds ds”

This can be written as

dp
;+ udu=O, (57)
//
which is a form of Bernoulli’s equation.
From the first law of thermodynamics,

dQ=cPdT–~, (58)

where Q is heat transferred and CPis the specific heat at constant pressure.
For an adiabatic process, dQ = O; hence Eq. (58) becomes

cd T=dJl
v
P

If this result is combined with Eq. (57), it follows that

T+AT o
cPd T=— U du,
/ T / .
.
or

(59a)

The increase in temperature is, then, proportional to the square of the

speed. If the speed u is given in miles per hour,

‘T= ‘“(+)oc=
18(~Y0F (59b)

Equation (57) holds for a full adiabatic compression. Temperature rise

may be caused by adiabatic compression or by friction, but the combined
effect may be treated as one.l The rise in temperature will usually be a
fraction of the full adiabatic compression, the exact amount depending
on the geometry of housing and thermistors. If this fraction is denoted by c~,
2
AT = 1.8 ~d ~
() oF, (60)

Table 3“3 gives values of AT in degrees Fahrenheit for various values of u

and Ed. When ,d is found for a particular thermometer, the table gives
the value to be subtracted from indicated temperature to obtain true
temperature.
1 This treatment follows closely that of A. F. Spilhaus, “Atmospheric Pressure, Tem-
perature and Humidity, the Corrections for AircraftSpeed,” .kugust,1943(unpublished).
SEC.327] PSYCHOGRAPH 279

TABLE3.3.-SPEED CORRECTION(AT IN “F) PORVARIOUS

VALUES
OF.s+ANDAIR SPEEDS IN MPH

True
air speed,
mph, u 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0

8A) 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.2
90 0.1 0.3 0.4 0.6 07 0.9 1.0 1.2 1.3 1.5
100 0.2 0,.4 0.5 0.7 0.9 1.1 1.3 1.4 1.6 1.8
110 0.2 0.4 0.7 0.9 1,1 1.3 1.5 1.7 2.0 2,2
120 0.3 0.5 0.8 1.0 1.3 1.6 1.8 2.1 2.3 2.6
130 0.4 0.6 0.9 1.2 1.5 1.8 2.1 2.4 2.7 3,0
140 0.4 0.7 1.1 1.4 1.8 2.1 2,5 2,8 3.2 3.5
150 0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6 2.0 2.4 2,8 3.2 3.6 4.0
160 0.5 0,9 1.4 1.8 2.3 2.8 3.2 3.7 4.1 4.6
170 0.5 1,0 1.6 2.1 2.6 3.1 3.6 4.2 4.7 5.2
180 0.6 1.2 1,7 2.3 2.9 3.5 4.1 4.7 5.2 5.8
190 0.6 1.3 1.9 2.6 3.2 3.9 4.5 5.2 5.8 6.5
200 0.7 1.4 22 2.9 3.6 43 5.0 5.8 6.5 7.2
210 0.8 1.6 2,4 3.2 4.0 4.8 5.6 6.3 7.1 7.9
220 0.9 1,7 2.6 3.5 4.4 5.2 6.1 7.0 7.8 8.7
230 1.0 1,9 2.9 3.8 4.8 5.7 6.7 7.6 8.6 9.5
240 1.0 2.1 3,1 4.1 5.2 6.2 7.3 8.3 9.3 10.4
250 1.1 2.2 3.4 4.5 5,6 6.8 7.9 9.0 10.1 11.2
260 1.2 2,4 3,6 4.9 6.1 73 8.5 9.7 10.9 12.2
270 1.3 2,6 3.9 5.3 6.6 79 9.2 10.5 11.8 13.1
280 1.4 2,8 4.2 5.6 7.1 8.5 9.9 11.3 12.7 14.1
290 1.5 3.0 4.5 6.1 7.6 9.1 10.6 12.1. 13.6 15.1
300 — 1.6 3.2 4.9 6.5 8.1 9.7 11.3 13.0 14.6 16.2

Because the air surrounding the wet bulb is saturated, it is assumed

that the wet-bulb speed correction will bear the same ratio to a dry-bulb
correction as the moist-adiabatic lapse rate of temperature bears to the
dry-adiabatic rate. If a speed correction is obtained experimentally on
the wet element with a dry wick, it will yield a value of CUusually different
from cd. Then 2
ATM = 7Cml.8 &O oF, (61)
()
where ~ is the ratio of the moist-adiabatic lapse rate to the dry-adiabatic
lapse rate. The equation for the moist-adiabatic lapse rate isl

~+m, e,Lm
dT g mpRT
(62)
dz ma es L2mo
c“l+—– —
m p RCPT=
1 B. Haurwitz, Dynamic Meteorology,NfcGraw-Hill, h’ew York, 1941, p. 55.
Equation (62) has been obtained from Haurwitz’ equation by use of the Clausius-
Clapeyronequationand tbe idealgas law. Haurwitr,]R is R/m in our notation.
280 METEOROLOGY OF THE REFRACTION PROBLEM [SEC 3.27

Thedry-adiabatic lapse rate, from Eq. (13), is

dT
——. g,
—
dz C, ‘

hence the ratio becomes

~ + ?n, e, Lm
mpRT (63)
y=
m, e, L2mn
l+—–—
m p RCVT2

Table 34 gives values of y for several temperatures at p = 1000 mb.

TABLE3.4.—CORRECTION
FACTOR
Y A8 A FUNCTION
OFTEMPERATURE

30 0.67
50 0.54
70 0.43
90 0.36

The factors fd and cmare determined experimentally for each instal-

lation. The wet-bulb resistor is flown with a dry wick. A flight is made
in a layer of the atmosphere free from strong convective currents or large
temperature inversions, preferably on a day with complete cloud cover
(except cumuliform). The pilot should select an easily navigable course
for about a 2-rein run. He then flies alternately back and forth over the
course at several speeds between minimum and maximum aircraft speeds,
keeping aspect constant. About six round trips are usually sufficient.
The resulting curve of indicated temperature vs. (u/100)’ should be a
straight line, the slope of which is a measure of e.
Because air temperature rarely remains constant, it is best to use
only two successive temperature-speed determinations for a single value
of c; then all six values of c should be averaged. After the correct values
of c are obtained for a thermometer, an accurate record of indicated air
speed during a sounding must be kept in order to make the proper tern-,
perature correction.
Response Time. —Time of response of a thermometer is usually stated
in terms of its lag coefficient,l X, which is the time required for that ther-
mometer to indicate (1 — I/e) AT, or 0.63 AT, when it is subjected to a
sudden change in temperature AT. Determination of A for a sounding
instrument is useful in determining optimum ascent rates.
One way of determining k for an aeropsychrograph thermistor in air is to
insert the thermistor into an air stream whose speed is known, heat the
thermistor by an alternating current (to, let us say, 10° higher than the air
stream), switch the thermistor into the circuit while at the same instant
1See W. E. K. Middleton, Meteorological Instruments, University of Toronto Prew,
Toronto, Canada, pp. 56-58.
SEC.3%2] PSYCHOGRAPH 281

turning off the heating current, and record the temperature decrease as a
function of time.
A typical lag coefficient-ventilation curve obtained in this man-
ner is shown in Fig. 3.60. Two ,0
curves are presented, the lower one
for a thermistor as it arrived from
the manufacturer, the upper one for 88 -
the same thermistor with three appli- ~
cations of polybut ylmethacrylate. $
It can be seen that both curves rise ~ 6 _
sharply as the speed falls below 10 ~
mph. This indicates that caution ~
is necessary when using unaerated ~ 4
thermometers of this type. ,
The curves were obtained for a
I ) 1
thermistor whose long axis was per- 2~
20 40 60 so
pendicular to the air stream. The ventilation
speedin mph
angle between the thermistor axis ]lG. 360.-LaE . coefficient as a function
and the direction of the air stream of am speed with the thermistor perpendicular
to the air stream. The thermistor has a
affects the response time materially; length of 1.9 in. and a diameter of 0.06 in,
the slowest response occurs when
the thermistor is parallel to the air stream. Figure 3.61 shows the rela-
tion between lag coefficient and the angle between the axis of the ther-
mistor and the direction of the air
stream for an air speed of 11 mph.
This relation was obtained for a
thermistor with two coats of plastic
and is somewhat larger than that
used in obtaining the data in Fig.
360. The curve clearly illustrates
the superiority of perpendicular
over parallel mountings.
Finding the lag coefficient of a
wet-bulb thermometer is difficult.
6 in degrees As one factor in the response time
FIG. 3.61 .—Lag coefficient as a function of a wet bulb is the rate of evapora-
of 6, the angle between the axis of the ther- tion of water from the wick, a rate
mistor and the direction of the air stream.
Ventilation speed is 11 mph. The thermistor that varies according to the moisture
haa a length of 2* in. and a diameter content of the air, any wet-bulb lag
of 0.065 in. and has two dip-coats of
PO]ybut yhnethacrylate. determinations require additional
information on speed and humidity.
Such determinations should not be made by the simple heating method
described above because the entire mass of thermistor, wick, and water
cannot be heated equally by supplying a current to the thermistor alone.
282 METEOROLOGY OF THE REFR.4CTI0.V PROBLEM [SEC. 327

No lag coefficients are available for the wet thermistors used in the
aeropsychrograph.
Sounding Lfethod.s.-The method of making an aircraft sounding usually
followed by the Radiation Laboratory consisted of descending to as low an
altitude as possible, 20 ft or less if over water, and then ascending in a
tight spiral at a rate of approxi-
Pointof suppd
mately 100 ft/min. The instrument
automatically switches from dry- to
wet-bulb temperature at intervals of
about 7 see, and at selected altitudes
the operator records the altimeter
indication.
Thesoundingshould be made to
a sufficiently high level to ensure
Blower measurement of pertinent tempera-
exhaust{ ture and humidity distributions.
This height is dependent on the
geometry and wavelength involved
Wet-bulb in the particular propagation prob-
resistor
lem and on the meteorology of the
region. A level of 1000 to 1500 ft
is often high enough, but, as will
Connector ——
be seen in the following chapter,
the sounding must sometimes be
extended to several thousand feet.
Repeat soundings should be made
through the layers showing marked
deviation from standard conditions.
Because wind velocities play such an
important role in tracing trajectories
and in helping to understand the
physical basis of the modification
of air, it is usually desirable to esti-
mate surface winds and to measure
Inner _
Shw winds at some higher level, using
drift methods or their equivalent.
Fm. 3.62.—Modification of the psychrograpb
housing for ground-base use. Other flight techniques have been
employed by various groups. Some-
times the aircraft is flown back and forth over a fixed course while the
altitude is varied in steps, or the aircraft may fly a straight course, descend-
ing at an essentially constant rate. Blimps, which have also been used
successfully, require special techniques that depend upon their operating
characteristics. In general, the sounding procedure must be worked out in
terms of so many different factors, involving the nature of the instruments
SEC.328] WIRED SONDE 283

employed, characteristics of the aircraft, the prevailing weather situation,

and other quantities, that no general rules can be given for the “best”
methods of making a sounding.
Figure 3.62 shows a modification of the psychograph housing for
ground-based soundings. The blower provides more than adequate ventila-
tion for the wet-bulb thermistor and assures that the thermistors come to
equilibrium quickly with the surrounding air. The unit shown is carried
aloft by captive balloons, and specially designed lightweight, mois-
ture-proof cables connect the housing to the remainder of the equipment.
In the present instance five wires are required in the cable: two to carry
the 60-cps 110-volt power for the blower and three for the electrical
connections to the thermistors.
Balloons used for lifting the housing and cable are the 400- or 700-g
Darexl radiosonde types. In light winds heights of 400 ft or more may be
reached with these balloons and the particular unit shown. In winds
exceeding 15 mph barrage balloons or kites have been employed. At
intermediate wind speeds two 400-g balloons provide satisfactory lift. The
principal limitation is, of course, the weight of housing and cable, which
must be kept at the lowest possible value.
The psychograph can be used to measure wet- and dry-bulb tempera-
ture to + 0.20F as long as the wet-bulb temperature is above freezing.’
(It is difficult to use as an ice-bulb thermometer below freezing without
elaborate means for proper wetting of the wick.) The lag is sufficiently
low to permit satisfactory operation at low rates of climb in aircraft and
at fairly low ventilation speeds. The instrument can readily be adapted
to either airborne or ground-based sounding techniques. It is capable of
high accuracy in the hands of skilled operators, but its complexity and
weight render it unsuitable for general field use in the form shown here.
3“28. Wired Sonde.—The wired sonde3 is a modification of the radio-
sonde in which the radio transmission circuit is replaced by metallic
conductors carrying only direct currents. It employs the temperature
and humidity elements of the radiosonde enclosed in a protective radiation
1 Dewey and Almy Chemical Co., Cambridge, Maw.
2 The accuracy of measurement (aside from the aerodynamic heating) can be incnxased
by expanding tbe temperature scales and improving the stability of the associated
electronic equipment, as the thermistor characteristics appear to be very stable.
JThe wired sonde was developed in 1943 at Washington State College by P. A.
Anderson, C. L. Barker, K. E. Fitzsimmons, and S. T. Stephenson, under NDRC
Project No. PDRC-047, Contract OEMsr-728. It has been widely used by Washington
State College and by several Army and Navy groups in various parts of the world.
See “The Captive Radiesonde and Wired Sonde Techniques for Detailed Low-level
Meteorological Sounding,” Washington State College, Report No. 3, Oct. 4, 1943;
“Notea on Operational Use of Low-level Meteorological Sounding Equipment, ” Wash-
ington State CoUege Report No. 7, June 15, 1944; “operating Instructions for the
WSC Imw-level Atmospheric Sounding Equipment,” Washington State College Report
No. 8, Jtdy 10, 1944.
284 METEOROLOGY OF THE REFRACTION PROBLEM [SEC.328

shield. A commutated direct voltage is applied simultaneously to the

temperature and humidity elements, the resistance of which is indicated
by the current through a microammeter. This instrument is usually
operated as a ground-based sounding tool for which appropriate balloons,
cables, and reels are necessary, but it has also been used for making air-
craft soundings. Unlike the radiosonde or the aeropsychrograph, the
wired sonde is, electrically, extremely simple. The temperature element
is the thermistor described in the preceding section. The humidity
element, an electrolytic hygrometer,l measures relative humidity directly
(after a correction for the effect of temperature) rather than wet-bulb
temperature. It consists of a plastic strip dipped in a solution of lithium
chloride in polyvinyl alcohol. Electrical contact is provided by sheet
metal strips that are molded over the edges of the plastic strips before the
coating is applied. The conductivity of the lithium chloride coating
increases with increasing relative humidity.
A circuit diagram of the wired
O-504a
Humidity sonde used by Washington State
Relatwe meter
humidity College is shown in Fig. 3.63. A
constant voltage is applied across
the relative humidity and tempera-
ture elements, whose resistances
essentially control the flow of
current through the microam-
Temperature meter
meters; the meter scales may be
O-50jia
calibrated directly in terms of tem-
Fm. 3.63.—Circuit diagram of wired sonde,
perature and humidity. Because
the electrolytic strip is easily polarized, the direction of the applied voltage
is automatically reversed every half second by the motor-driven reversing
switches. The 1000-pf condensers shunting the meters provide a sufE-
ciently long time constant to render the meter deflections insensitive to
the switching. The 10,000-ohm resistor in series with the elements
protects the electrolytic strip and the metem; it is short-circuited during
measurement.
A radiation shield used with the wired sonde is shown in Fig. 3“64. It
consists of a doublewalled aluminum cylinder, suspended vertically, inside
of which are mounted the two measuring elements. A cone, mounted
several inches above the vertical cylinder, shields the elements from radia-
tion from above. With this arrangement, aeration of the elements must be
accomplished by airflow through the radiation shield in a vertical direction.
This is adequate down to wind speeds or towing speeds of about 2 mph?
For soundings carried out in a dead calm there ia some uncertainty aa to
the degree of equilibrium between the elements and the surrounding air.
IF. W. Dunmore, Nat. Bw. Stondarda Jaw. Rea., 23.701 (1939).
i Private. communication from Dr. P. A. Anderson, Washington State College.
SEC. 323] WIRED SONDE 285

Rapid ascent or descent from one sounding altitude to the next or jerking
the cable is sometimes employed to reduce the uncertainty, although
perhaps the most satisfactory solution has been toprovide forced ventila-
tionisa manner equivalent to that shown in Fig. 3“62.1
The temperature and humidity elements are connected to the meter by
a light, waterproof cable, which is taken up on a reel. Development of a
satisfactory cable for this instrument (as for all ground-based instruments)
has been a major problem too involved to describe here.

FIG.3%4.– state (:elleoe.)

Figure 3.65 shows the latest version of the wired sonde ground unit,
including the reel and meter box.
Balloons to lift the housing and cable are similar to the 350g radio-
sonde type but are of neoprene and equipped with a reinforced neck to
support the extra tension needed for tethered balloon work. Under ideal
conditions altitudes as high aa 4000 ft have been reached with the un-
aerated wired sonde, using three balloona. Each balloon has a free lift of
3 lb when inflated with helium to a diameter of about 5 ft.
1L. J. Anderson, S. T. Stephenson, and A. P. D. St.okea, “Improvements in
U.S.N.R.S.L. Meteorological Equipment,” NRSL Report No. WP-21J San Diego,
July 1945, and L. J. Anderson, “Captiv&Balbon Equipment for Low-Level Meteor-
logical Soundings,” Bull. Am. Meteor. Sot., 2& 356 (1947).
286 METEOROLOGY OF THE REFRACTION PROBLEM [SEC.3.28

The wired sonde has the advantage of being very light (the unit shown
in Fig. 3.64 weighs 6.5 OZ, but provision of forced ventilation increases the
weight to several times this value), and it is free from complicated electrical
circuits. These features recommend it for field use by personnel with a
minimum of training other than meteorological. The principal limitation
of the accuracy of the instrument occurs in the electrolytic hygrometer,

Fm. 3.6.5,--Ground unit of wired sonde showing level-wind winch, cable reel, and
shock-mounted meter box. (Courtesy of Washington State Colleue.)

which has neither the stability nor the general reliability of the thermistor.
Its useful life ranges from 24 hr in the tropics to several weeks in dry,
temperate climates.1 In cases where high accuracy is not necessary it is
found that the individual temperature-relative humidity curves of in-
dividual elements in a given production lot are enough alike in shape that
it is sufficient to adjust an external resistor-compensating network to
indicate the correct relative humidity at one point. The technique of
manufacture of electrolytic hygrometers is still being modified, and further
improvements of the characteristics of the hygrometers for low-level
sounding purposes are to be expected.
1Privatecommunicationfrom Dr. P. A. Anderson, Washington Stda College.
$Ec. 3W] AIRCRAFT PSYCHROMETER 287

3“29. Aircraft Psychrometers.-Another instrument that can be used

for low-level soundings is the aircraft wet- and dry-bulb psychrometer, as
exemplified by the ML-313.1 It consists of a pair of matched thermom-
eters, mounted in a streamlined ventilator, for use in measuring wet- and
dry-bulb temperatures outside an airplane. Right-angle mercury-in-glass
thermometers are mounted on a portable support as shown in Fig. 3.66.
The thermometers are made with the 90° bend in order that they may be
read from inside the cabin, while the bulbs are inserted into the ventilator,

,- Washer
,,”,,,,to, ~ J2 ‘- ,pacer t”& Pw;wtef

“* T
n

Inner face Retainer

plate
- Ventilator

~.-._

Fuselage L
Paychmmeter _
shield \

Fm. 3.66.—ML313 thermometers and housing. (C’ourta.W of U.S. Amv SWUZ4 Corp.)

which has a current of outside air flowing through it, The cylindrical
shield is provided to prevent breaking the thermometers when not in use.
The ventilator is a polished, streamlined housing, which reduces the
flow of air and supports the thermometers. It is designed to be clamped
to the fuselage, through which a hole haa been cut; it should be placed in
a position from which observations can easily be made. A place as far
forward in the airplane as possible should be selected to avoid heating by
the motors or by the disturbed air behind the propellem. Dynamic
corrections, which are included in the operating instructions, have been
made for the ML-313.
Because of the large lag coefficient of the ML313, of the order of 45 sec
at normal aircraft speeds, it is necessary to fly at a constant level for 2 min
to obtain a reading. The ascent or descent therefore must be made in
steps. The wick is wetted before each reading; the aircraft fhea at con-
stant altitude; and the thermometers are watched for 2 min; if there are
I Developed by Arroy Service Forces, i%gnal Corps Ground Signal Agent y, Eatontown
S@ud Laboratory, Fort Momnouth, New Jerasy.
2s METEOROLOGY OF THE REFRACTION PROBLEM [SEC.329
. .. .—=.- .—-
no horizontal gradients present,
the mercury columns will have

411 become nearly stationary in this

time, The altimeter and temper-
atures are then read simultane-
ously, and the airplane thereafter
ascends (or descends) to its next
altitude, the same procedure being
repeated.
The major advantage of the
aircraft psychrometer, as of the
wired sonde, is its simplicity. The
thermometers are calibrated and
the dynamic correction is made
prior to their being put into use.
There are no electronic circuits;
there is no possibility of electrical
leakage; and Iittleor no servicing
is necessary, except for changing
the wick. A second advantage is
thatobservations canbemadeeven
though the wet-bulb temperature
is below freezing, as the wick
is wetted manually between
readings. An accuracy of about
~ 0.20F may be expected with this
instrument.
The disadvantages (for this
purpose) of the ML-313 are its
high lag coefficient and the fact
that it is nonrecording. Also, the
reduction of data for the wet-bulb
readings involves considerable
labor.
The aircraft psychrometer has
not been used to any great extent
as a sounding instrument for low-
level work but is included in this
discussion because of its potenti-
alities. For the most part, it
has been used as a standard instru-
ment for checking other aircraft
thermometers.
FIG. 3.67 An instrument similar in princi-
chrometer.
Ofke.) ple to the ML-313 is the Mark W
SEC. 3.30] RESISTANCE THERMOMETER AND HUMIDIOMETER 289

aircraft thermometer designed by the British Meteorological Office and

used in England. The entire unit is mounted outside the observer’s
window, through which direct readings of dry- and wet-bulb temperatures
are made. Figure 3.67 shows the thermometer mounting.
3“30. Resistance Thermometer and Humidiometer.-The Meteorolog-
ical Office of the British Air Ministry operated for some time an experi-
mental station at Rye, in southwest England, where high towers were
available on very flat terrain. 1 Measurements of atmospheric structure
as a function of height and time were made by operating recording instru-
ments distributed along the towers. Temperature and relative humidity
were recorded continuously at heights of 4, 50, 155, and 350 ft, and other
supplementary measurements were made at various times.
Temperature was measured by nickel resistance thermometers, each of
which formed one arm of a Wheatstone bridge operating off balance. A
recording microammeter indicated the degree of unbalance of the bridge
and, consequently, the temperature. Instead of measuring the absolute
value of temperature at each height directly, it was found more convenient
to measure temperature at one reference height and the difference between
temperature at reference height and the other heights. The temperature
differences were obtained by operating the thermometers at two different
levels as adjacent bridge arms, thus making a differential bridge. Each
thermometer element was cmcased in a projecting cylindrical cover that
was housed, along with a humidity instrument, in a conventional meteoro-
logical instrument shelter. Because of the high thermal capacity and
lack of forced ventilation, the thermometer lag coefficient with low wind
speeds was several minutes; consequently, only relatively long-period
temperature changes could be measured.
Relative humidity was measured by an instrument known as the
Gregory hwnidiorneter, which is similar in principle to the electrolytic
hygrometer of the wired sonde. Instead of a thin film of hydroscopic
material deposited on a strip, the humidiometer employs a piece of cloth
impregnated with a hydroscopic salt and stretched tightly around a cylin-
drical framework of metal rods that are wired alternately in parallel. The
electrical resistance measured between the two sets of rods is a direct
measure of relative humidity (after application of a temperature correct-
ion). The resistance of a sample experimental clement at 150C was
113,500 ohms at 30 per cent relative humidity and 68 ohms at 95 per cent,
and the most rapid change of resistance occurred at low humidities. In
this installation, an alternating voltage was applied to the element (to
avoid polarization effects), and the resulting current was rectified and
applied to a recording microammeter similar to those employed for tem-
perature measurement. The lag of the humidiometer is considerably
I “Meteorological Investigations at, Rye, Part 1: Instrumental 1,a~out for Recordir~g
Gradients of Temperature and Reltit ive Humidity,” Instruments 13ranch, Meteorology
Oflice, Ak Ministry, May, 1944.
290 METEOROLOGY OF THE REFRACTION PROBLEM [SEC.3.31

smaller than that of the thermometers at high temperatures, but it varies

with both temperature and humidity in a manner not yet ascertained.
A considerable quantity of data has been obtained and analyzed at
the Rye station, although it is, at the present time, neither sufficiently
complete nor available in sufficient detail to allow discussion of the
results.1
An advantage of the tower method of measurements is the fact that
continuous recording, sometimes unattended, is possible. Also, measure-
ments may be made simultaneously at the various levels. An inherent
difficulty in the tower method is the limitation imposed by the height of
the tower; frequently changes important to propagation occur above the
top of even the highest tower and cannot, therefore, be measured in this
way. Also, when data are obtained at fixed levels, there is the possibility
that important information bet ween those heights is omitted.
3.31. Thermocouples.-Because of their extensive use in scientific
work for accurate temperature measurements, thermocouples would appear
to be a logical choice for low-level soundings, but relatively few research
groups used them during the war. This is probably attributable in part
to the fact that strong emphasis was laid on aircraft soundings, which
placed mechanical limitations on the equipment, thus barring such sen-
sitive instruments as the necessary galvanometers. For ground-based
soundings, however, this limitation is absent, and it is reasonable to suppose
that in the future, thermocouples may be employed to a considerably
greater extent than in the early developments reported here.
Two groups in England have reported using thermocouples as wet-
and dry-bulb thermometers. One type was designed specifically for use
with a tethered balloon, and an early model operated at heights up to
about 200 ft~ but no report is available on the use of a modified
version.3
A large amount of meteorological data for propagation purposes has
been gathered over the Irish Sea by specially designed thermocouples
arranged to measure air temperature and wet-bulb depression.4 These
thermocouples were made of copper and constantan, giving an emf of
about 22 pv/°F, and had a very small mass, hence a relatively low lag

1During the war, the Meteorological Office issued a number of reports, including
tables of values of temperature and humidity for limited periods, and several analyses
of particularly interesting situations, such as marked radiation inversions These re-
ports had limited circulation under numbers issued by the Joint Meteorological Radio
Propagation Sub-committee. Examples are JhlRP Reports, Nos. 5, 6, 7, 18, 20, 23,
and 31.
z S. M. Doble, “Balloon Psychrometer for the Nfeasuremcnt of Relative Humidity of
the Atmosphere at Various Heights, ” Imperial Chemical Industries, Ltd., Apr. 1, 1943.
3Addendum by S. M. Doble and S. Ingl&ld, Sept. 25, 1943.
i These instruments were designed and built by the British Naval Meteorological
Service.
SEC. 3.32] GENERAL PROBLEMS 291

coefficient of about 1 min at a ventilation speed of 10 knots (normally

provided by motion of the ship). The cold junction was placed in a
Dewar flask containing a mixture of melting paraldehyde, the temperature
of which is constant at 500F. Air temperature was indicated by a gal-
vanometers driven by the difference in thermal emf between the cold junc-
tion and the junction in free air, and wet-bulb depression was obtained
by the difference in emf between the latter junction and a similar one
covered by a wick and fed from a small reservoir by capillary action.
Two junctions were placed in series to increase sensitivity for both dry- and
wet-bulb measurements. The external junctions were enclosed in appro-
priate radiation shields mounted at several heights on a ship, covering a
height range from about 4 to 50 ft.
A sounding was made by reading temperature and wet-bulb depression
at one level, then switching to the next level and repeating the procedure.
Sea temperature was also measured by another thermocouple which was
switched in when desired. Readings up to 200 ft were obtained with a
supplementary thermocouple psychrometer raised by a barrage balloon
from the stern of the ship.
This method of obtaining low-level soundings is simpler than most
other methods. The instrument measures basic properties of the air;
untrained observers may be employed; no source of power is required; no
complex electronic circuits are used; and the sounding may be made quite
rapidly or as slowly as desired.
This psychrometer, however, in the form described is nonrecording,
and measurements below wet-bulb freezing temperatures are impossible.
The method suffers also from those disadvantages usually associated with
making measurements on board ship. It is difficult to find instrument
exposures that are not subject to radiation or convection from the ship,
and the roll and pitch of the ship make heights above the water
uncertain.
3.32. General Problems Associated with Low-level Soundings.-In
the preceding five sections there were discussed five of the methods most
widely used in attempts to solve the complex problem of obtaining accurate
and meaningful soundings in the lower atmosphere. Each instrument
and method of use has certain advantages but is also limited in some
manner. With an aircraft psychrometer, for instance, soundings can be
made quickly over a large area, whereas with balloon-borne equipment
soundings are usually limited to a very small area and each sounding
requires considerable time to cover an appreciable height range. On the
other hand, instruments carried by tethered balloons or towers may be
used under conditions of visibility, weather, and terrain in which airplane
flights are impossible, and they experience no complications from high-speed
airflow over the thermometer. Some instruments are subject to difficulty
from induced static charges in an air stream, however. As the science of
292 METEOROLOGY OF THE REFRACTION PROBLEM [SEC.3.33

low-level soundings stands at present, no one soundigg instrument fulfills

all the requirements of propagation research.
It is apparent that further research is necessary on meteorological
instruments suitable for use in propagation work. On the basis of ex-
perience acquired thus far, we list tentatively some of the features that a
sounding instrument of the future should possess. It should
1. Have a lag coefficient less than 5 sec.
2. Record all data.
3. Be usable in the field by untrained observers.
4. Have an accuracy in temperature of fO.l°F and in humidity of
+0.1 mb of vapor pressure.
5. Be readily used either as an aircraft ora balloon-borne instrument.
6. Measure a range of temperature from –60° to 120°Fand a range
of vapor pressures from near O to 55 mb.
It is possible that none of the methods described above permits refine-
ment to the point where these specifications can be met, and new methods
of approach should be considered. A newly developed dew-point ther-
mometer has recently come into use which may help solve some of the
difficulties attached to measuring humidity, especially below freezing.
Some success has been achieved to date with temperature-speed
corrections on aircraft using the methods described in Sec. 327. This
should be regarded more as a first step toward a solution, however. Further
thought and experiment are needed on speed corrections before the problem
can be considered solved.
Fully as important as the instrument are the methods of using it and
of analyzing the data obtained with it in the light of the characteristics of
the instrument and of local meteorological conditions and their relation
to the synoptic situation. It should be evident from this and the follow-
ing chapters that any attempts to conduct meaningful meteorological
measurements and analysis for propagation purposes without participation
of highly skilled meteorologists are indeed pointless.

METEOROLOGICAL CONSTANTS

By R, B. MONTGOMERY

3“33 Useful Meteorological Constants:

Absolute temperature of the ice point: 273, 16”K.
1 atmosphere = 1013.25 mb.
Density of dry air at O°C and 1 atmosphere: 1.293 X 10-3 g cm-3.
Universal gas constant: R = 8.314 X 107 erg “C–l mole–l.
Mean molecular weight of dry air: md = 28.982.

1 D. N. Brissman, A Method for the Continuous Measurement of Dew Point Temper-

atures, Univ. of Chicago, April 1945.
SEC. 3.33] USEFUL METEOROWGICAL CONSTANTS 293

Molecular weight of water: m, = 18.016.

mO/ma = 0.622.
Isopiestic specific heat of dry air: cra = 1.004 X 107 erg g–’ “C-l.
Latent heat of vaporization of water: at O“C, L, = 2500 X 107 erg g-l;
at any other temperature T, in “C, L = L~l — 0.00094 Z’].
Kinematic viscosity of air at OOCand 1000 mb: v = 0.1346 cmz see–l.
Thermometric conductivity of air at O“C and 1000 mb: v, = 0.189
cm~ see–l.
Diffusivity of water vapor in air at O“C and 1000 mb: ~a = 0.226
cmz see–L
 CHAPTER 4

EXPERIMENTAL STUDIES OF REF~CTION

BY PEARL J. RUBENSTEIN,DONALD E. KERR, AND
WILLIAM T. FISHBACK

This chapter summarizes the principal experiments that have been

performed to investigate the effects of atmospheric refraction on micro-
wave transmission. Many of these experiments (particularly the earlier
ones) were highly varied in nature and were not performed or analyzed
by methods now in general use. They often revealed transmission prop-
erties that now appear to fit into a broad general pattern, although at the
time this unity was not apparent. Consequently we do not follow a
chronological approach, but instead we have arranged the material in a
way that seems most appropriate in the light of present information. The
point of view adopted here is that the modified-index distribution is the
property of the transmission medium that is of maj or interest and usefulness.
The marked dependence of the transmission phenomena on meteoro-
logical conditions makes it imperative that radio and meteorological
observations be made simultaneously and that the weather regime of the
experimental location be considered. Because the radio results must be
interpreted in terms of meteorological conditions, statistical studies of
even large amounts of radio data have little general significance and will
be treated only briefly in this chapter. Our main concern will be the
qualitative aspects of transmission as influenced by tropospheric refraction.

ONE-WAY TRANSMISSION OVER WATER

Because of the relative simplicity of the surface boundary, the problem

of propagation over water has received the major emphasis during the
war years. After a period of preliminary trials an experimental procedure
was evolved which was then followed in most essentials by all the groups
concerned.
As an aid to understanding the plan of operation, let us consider the
requirements for an ideal propagation experiment. These may be enum-
erated as follows:
1. The circuit or path should have simple geometrical properties, so
that it may be handled theoretically. In this case, for example, it
should be completely over water, with no long stretches of land
before the terminals or large islands obstructing the line of sight.
In so far as possible, a location should be chosen where the meteoro-
294
 ONE-WA Y TRANSMISSION OVER WATER 295

logical conditions are uniform at least a large part of the time; a

unique interpretation of the results is otherwise difficult. To
facilitate the comparison of experiment and theory, the location
should be sufficiently beyond the horizon that under standard con-
ditions the field may be adequately represented by the first mode’
alone. Calculations would otherwise not be feasible with super-
standard conditions.
2. A continuous record of reception is desirable, on which absolute
field-strength measurements can be made over the entire observed
range. A wide range is generally best obtained by means of re-
ceivers with logarithmic response.
3. At least three frequencies should be transmitted simultaneously to
provide a clear check with theory.
4. Several terminal heights and if possible several ‘path lengths should
be used simultaneously to obtain height-gain relationships and
range attenuation. Both horizontal and vertical field-strength
sections by airborne receivers are highly desirable.
5. Meteorological data must be collected along with the radio data,
The type of data required varies with the general climatological
features of the region, but detailed soundings over some height
interval are generally necessary. Because no way has so far been
found of making continuous records of the necessary meteorological
quantities, one must be able to interpolate in space and time be-
tween scattered measurements. Generally the fulfillment of this
requirement necessitates a rather extensive network of meteoro-
logical measurements and, especially, expert analysis.

TRANSMISSION OVER MASSACHUSETTS BAY

BY PE.ARI,
J. RUBENSTEIN

A reasonably satisfactory approximation of these ideals was obtained

in transmission tests made in Massachusetts Bay at intervals over a
3-year period.z The tests were intended mainly as a study of the refraction
effects that result when air flowing from a large land mass is modified by a
relatively short trajectory over water. The longest transmission path,
from Race Point on Cape Cod to Eastern Point in Gloucester, Mass. (see
Fig. 4.1), was 41 miles long and nearly parallel to the coast line, about
15 miles from shore.

1See Sec. 2,7 “The Fundamental Theorem, ” The first mode is defined as that
with the smallest attenuation.
z The detailed descriptions to follow apply to the work done in 1944, For a de-
scription of the work of 1942 and 1943 see P. J. Rubcnstcin, I. Katz, L. J, Neelands,
and R. M. Mitchell, (‘Microwave Transmission over Water and Land under Various
Meteorological Conditions,” RL Report No. 547, July 13, 1944.
 EXPERIMENTAL STUDIES OF REFRACTION [SEC. 4.1

0
%G!i......l
BlueHill
yu { MASSA tiH USf.t”l Y S
-..
BAY
.

O South
Weymouth

o Race Point
Duxbury
North Truro

U Radio and radar sites

O Meteorological stations
,:jh
dAPE coD
o 10 20
Statuemiles IA

Chatham

d
Fm. 4. 1.—Massachusetts Ilay region. The squares represent radio and radar sites, and the
circles represent meteorological stations.

4.1. Radio Measurements Program.—Transmitting antennas were

placed 100 ft above mean sea level on a tower close to the water’s edge;
on a tower at the receiving station, well below the horizon, duplicate in-
stallations were made at heights of 28 and 136 ft. Three wavelengths—
3, 9, and 256 cm—were used simultaneously. Only the high receiving
location was operated rit 256 cm. A 1.25-cm circuit was also operated,
with a receiver at the 28-ft level only, but for too short a time to provide
conclusive results.
SEC.4.21 METEOROLOGICAL MEASUREMENTS AND ANAL YSI.V 297

At 2.5 m ample signal was obtained with a c-w transmitter and Yagi
antenna arrays. At the shorter wavelengths, however, pulsed magnetrons
and high-gain paraboloidal antennas were necessary. The powers and
antenna gains were so chosen that under standard refractive conditions
the received signal would with one exception be at or above the detection
level of the receiver on each of the circuits. At 1.25 cm the minimum
detectable signal was 20 db above standard level so that only super-
standard conditions could be studied.
Carefully monitored radar sets operating at 3 and 9 cm were set up
beside the radio transmitting station. Hourly records were kept of signal
strengths on selected coastal targets and of the maximum ranges obtained,
and PPI photographs were taken frequently. The radar program and
its results will be discussed in Sec. 4“18.
Anadditional one-way circuit at 10cmwas operated from Deer Island
in Boston Harbor to Eastern Point. The terminals, 125 and 30 ft above
mean sea level, were 22 miles apart, making the path nearly optical.
Calculations could therefore be made for this path only under standard
conditions; it was nevertheless useful as a check on the longer path and
in the study of local meteorological effects.
Horizontal polarization was used for the most, part, but no difference
was observed when a change to vertical polarization was made.
4.2. Meteorological Measurements and Analysis.-It has been indi-
cated previously that meteorological information adequate for microwave
propagation research is not available through the normal weather chan-
nels. Weather stations are ordinarily spaced too sparsely and lack the
equipment needed for detailed soundings of the lower atmosphere. Their
data can therefore be used only to supplement special measurements.
For optimum results an especially planned program of accurate low-level
soundings is necessary, in addition to closely spaced surface data. As it
is impossible to make measurements continuously both in space and in
time, a large percentage of time inevitably remains when the vertical
structure of the atmosphere in the desired locations is not precisely known.
Although much progress has been made toward the understanding of the
meteorological processes concerned, the departures of actual conditions
from the idealized postulates of the theory prevent the setting up of any
tixed methods of interpolation and extrapolation of the data. Only a
combination of careful measurements and detailed analysis by competent
meteorologists can provide dependable results in any specific case at present.
In the meteorological program carried out in the Massachusetts Bay
region along with the radio transmission tests described in Sec. 4.1, low-level
soundings measuring temperature and humidity were made in aircraft
and with tethered balloons. Two aircraft, a Curtiss-Wright (small
single-engine monoplane) and an AT-11 (Army twin-engine trainer),
equipped with aeropsychrographs (see Sec. 3.27) sounded in tight spirals
usually from a low point of about 20 ft to about 1000 ft above the water
298 EXPERIMENTAL STUDIES OF REFRACTION [SEC.4.2

surface. These soundings were made only in the daytime, usually from
0900to 1100 and 1300to 1500 hours, Eastern Standard Time.1 Balloons
or kites bearing modified versions of the aeropsychrograph (see See, 3“27)
were flown at land stations at Duxbury and Race Point and from a 50-ft
motor sailer. These soundings were carried to heights of about 300 ft,
depending upon winds and visibility, and were usually made at 4-hr
intervals at the land stations. The boat was also equipped to make
detailed soundings in the lowest 50 ft from a side arm swung from
the windward side of the boat; the psychograph was raised to the top
of the mast along the hypotenuse of the triangle formed by the side
arm and the mast. Alt oget her, nearly 1000 soundings were made during
the course of the investigation.
Water temperatures were measured from the boat as it plied a course
across the Bay. Whenever possible the boat was located so as to give
water temperatures near the base of the aircraft soundings.
Hourly surface observations of temperature, humidity, wind speed and
direction, and sky conditions were obtained from special stations at
Duxbury and Race Point, as well as from the regular weather channels.
Most of the stations used are shown on the map of Fig. 4.1, In addition
use was made of the observations obtained at Portland, Maine, Bedford
and Nantucket, Mass., and Providencej Quonset Point, and Point Judith,
R.I. The purpose of the special stations was to sample the air just before
it left the land at Duxbury and immediately after it passed over the Bay
at Race Point; this sampling was possible only with westerly winds.
Winds aloft were obtained from pilot balloon observations at Bedford,
Boston, South Weymouth, Point Judith, Nantucket, and North Truro at
0430, 1030, 1630, and 2230 Eastern Standard Time. For the most part
only the winds up to 2000 ft were considered in tracing the air motion;
almost invariably the major emphasis was placed on the 1000-ft wind.
Radiosondes released twice daily from Boston and Portland and oc-
casional airplane ascents with aerometeorographs at Quonset provided all
the upper-air data available from regular channels. As the radiosonde
ascents originated over land, they were used only to determine the structure
of the unmodified air.
Synoptic charts for use in the analysis were obtained from the district
forecast center at the Weather Bureau Station at the East Boston Airport.
The data were analyzed by meteorologists prior to any correlations
with radio data, and the results presented to the radio analysts in the form
of “synthetic soundings” for the mid-point of the path at 0430, 1030, 1630,
and 2230 Eastern Standard Time, daily These synthetic soundings
represented, to the best of the meteorologists’ judgment, the vertical
distributions of temperature, humidity, and refractive modulus at the
I AU times in connectionwith this work will be given in Ee&.emStandardTime-
~singthe 24-hrsystem.
SEC,42] METEOROLOGICAL MEASUREMENTS AND ANALYSIS 299

given time and place. The presence of marked horizontal gradients and
the time and nature of any significant change that might have occurred
in the interval between synthetic soundings were also noted.
How the meteorological data were coordinated to yield the synthetic
distributions will now be outlined briefly. Although the analysis was
carried out according to a general uniform pattern, the details of individual
cases varied so greatly that no specific rules can be established. Rather,
each case must be considered individually to determine the necessary
modifications of the general procedure.
Consideration oj the i$’ynoptic Situation.—Before the localized weather
was studied, the synoptic maps for the day were surveyed to determine the
general situation as well as to learn about fronts in the vicinity of the
paths, cloud conditions and precipitation, the type of air mass, and
significant wind shifts during the day.
Winds. —Winds were next scrutinized in detail to determine the points
on land where the air over the circuits had originated and to estimate the
amount of mechanical mixing that might be expected. Winds at the
surface and at 1000 ft were studied for variations in time and space, and
representative 1000-ft winds were estimated for the mid-point of the path
at the times of the desired synthetic soundings.
Trajectories.—Trajectories based on the 1000-ft winds were constructed
for all soundings, whether measured or synthetic. They were extra-
polated from the sounding location back to the land origin, and the distance
and time over water estimated as well as the point of land origin. The
surface conditions at this point could then be found by interpolation of
the hourly weather observations.
Determination of Initial Vertical Distributions and Estimate of Water
Temperatures.-Before the modification of the air in its trajectory over
water can be investigated, both the initial vertical distributions of tem-
perature and humidity and the water temperature must be known. The
initial vertical distributions over land were deduced with the help of the
radiosondes at Boston and Portland, the airplane observations at Quonset,
and overland soundings at Duxbury. With conditions of surface heating
a simple homogeneous distribution exists during the daytime; surface
observations then give approximate values of the parameters in the con-
nectively mixed layer. At night, on the other hand, the lack of both
adequate measured soundings over land and a thorough understanding of
the low-level meteorology of nocturnal radiation preveuts any but a very
crude estimate of the vertical distribution.
The modification of this initial distribution in its passage over the
water depends strongly on the water temperature. Some measurements
of water temperature were available from the boat and from the Graves
Light and the Boston Lightship in Boston Harbor. Such measurements
1Approximatebecauseof possiblegrdlents in the lowest50 ft.
300 EXPERIMENTAL STUDIES OF REFRACTIO.V [SEC, 42

however, were often unreliable, especially on calm sunny days when the
water surface was strongly heated; furthermore the temperatures usually
varied with both time and position.
The observations therefore had to be supplemented with values ob-
tained from the characteristic diagram (see Sec. 3“8) by extrapolation of
the characteristic curves of the measured soundings to the saturation curve
for salt water.
Construction of Synthetic Soundings. -Whenever a measured sounding
was found to be representative of conditions near the path mid-point at
the required time, it was used as the synthetic sounding for that time. In
all other cases the synthetic soundings had to be constructed from the
initial vertical distribution over land, the temperature excess, and M-deficit.
From these parameters it was immediately clear whether the resulting
distribution would be superstandard or substandard near the surface and,
in the former case, whether a shallow or deep surface M-inversion would
result. The height of the duct or substandard layer could then be
determined approximately.
In the case of heating from below (see Sec. 3“14) the amount of heating
and moistening that the air would undergo was estimated on the basis of
the 10 per cent rule (see Sec. 3“16). The height and strength of the
superstandard layer which ahnost invariably occurred at the top of the
connectively stirred layer followed from a knowledge of the initial
distribution, after application of the 10 per cent rule.
With cooling from below, the duct height was determined roughly
from empirical data.1 The detailed effects of variable water temperatures,
shearing stratification, and initial heterogeneity had to be taken into account
on the basis of the analyst’s experience in the study of measured soundings.
Quulik-dive Discussion.-In addition to the synthetic soundings, which
described conditions at the path mid-point four times daily, the mete-
orologists provided discussions of the estimated accuracy of the synthetic
soundings, the uniformity of conditions over the circuit at any time, and
the time and nature of any significant change that occurred in the interval
between synthetic soundings. These qualitative discussions were fully as
important in the radio analysis as the synthetic soundings themselves.
Of interest here are some special situations that occurred frequently.
With SSW winds, for example, the air near Race Point would have come
over the relatively warm water south of Long Island and across Cape Cod
Bay. On many occasions this air had picked up so much moisture from
the warm water that it produced a substandard layer close to the surface
near Race Point. Near Easterm Point, on the other hand, the air would
have come directly from the land and might thus give rise to a super-
standard surface layer.
1A d/AM chart similar to Fig. 329, constmctcd in a preliminary analysis, was used
duringthe main analysis. SeeR. B. Montgomeryand R. H. Burgoyne,“Mcdified in-
dex DistributionCloseto theOceanSurface,”RL Report No. 651,Fig. 8, Feb. 16, 1945.
SEC. 4.3] GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF TRANSMISSION 301

A second common situation was that of air temperature differing only

slightly from the average water temperature. In that case it was possible
to have a positive temperature excess over part of the bay and a negative
temperature excess over the remainder, with the result that the surface
layer might vary from substandard to weak superstandard along the
radio circuit.
-30- - 10QO

-40-

-50-

(a)
-60
-20 *
j
1?-3r3 -
$ /’ -500

z -40-
(b) z
.s
i -0 =
: 0. .:
‘0 z

~ -1o-
=
~ -20-
(c)
Standard at -43 db
iif
+20
1000
+10

-lo 500

-20

-30 u
1 2 3 320 330 340 350
Time in hours Refractive modulus M
FIG. 4.2.—Signal types and associated M-profiles for microwaves. (a) Substandard.
(b) standard; (c) partial trapping; (d) strong trapping. The arrows indicate standard signal
level.

Finally, with NE winds the air over the entire path might be heated
from below after a long trajectory over water; shallow surface ducts might
then occur uniformly over the entire region, with only minor variations in
duct height and M-deficit caused by changes in water temperatures.
4“3. General Characteristics of Transmission.-The study of the
continuous records of radio reception obtained simultaneously at several
wavelengths and several terminals can be carried out in many ways.
Among these are, at one extreme, the statistical analysis of the entire period
as a whole and, at the other, instantaneous comparisons of radio and mete-
302 EXPERIMENTAL STUDIES OF REFRACTION [SEC.4.3

orological data. Some of the general characteristics of the transmission

found by inspection of theradio records together with the meteorological
data and analysis are described here. The results obtained by the other
methods will be discussed in later sections.
An interesting feature of the microwave records obtained on both the
41-and 22-mile paths is their natural division into four separate types, as
shown in Fig. 4.2. Each of them is associated with one or more distinctive
M-profiles, shown in the same figure beside the appropriate radio record
sample.
1. When the M-profile is substandard at thesurface, thesignal is below
standard in average level and is characterized by rapid fading known
as “scintillation.” Occasionally slower variations are superposed
onthese rapid fades, This isthe substandard type.
2. With standard or nearly standard’ M-profiles, the average signal
level is standard to within about +5 db. Scintillation is almost
always present, commonly of amplitude 5 to 10 db but on rare
occasions as great as 20 db. This is the standard type.
3. With shallow surface M-inversions, or ducts, the signal level is above
standard and increases with increasing duct height. It never rises
above the free-space value. Only minor short-period variations
occur, and the signal is remarkable for its steadiness. This will be
called the partial-trapping type.
4. With deep surface M-inversions or with overhanging elevated
M-inversions the signal is near the free-space value on the average
and is unsteady, with “roller” fading of amplitudes as large as 40 db
and periods ranging from a few minutes to an hour. The amplitude
of the fading increases and its period decreases with increasing in-
tensity of the duct. The fading is characterized by broad flat
maxima and sharp deep minima. This will be called the sh-ong-
trapping type.
These microwave signal types are clear-cut and well separated from each
other; transitions between types take place rather rapidly. At 2.5 m, on
the other hand, a classification into types can be made only with consider-
able difficult y, and some question remains as to its validity. A tentative
form of these types is shown in Fig. 4“3. Here two different signal types
may occur, apparently with a single M-profile. The situation will doubt-
less be clarified when more and better experimental data are available. In
comparing Figs. 4“2 and 4.3, the difference in the ordinate scales should
be considered. In many cases what appears to be a highly variable signal
record at 2.5 m would ;eem steady if replotted on the compressed scale of

I Within the accuracy of the experiment the standard and homogeneous distnbutionz
(see Sec. 3.9) may be used interchangeably. The question of what constitutes an
appreciable departure from standard will be discussed in Sec. 4.4. It is a function of
wavelength.
SEC. 431 GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF TRANSMISSION 303

-2 10CQ

)
-3

500
-4

-5

-10= .
- moo

-20-

-500

-30-
*

-404 (d)
1 , I -o
‘1 — 1 hour 1 hour 4 320 330 340 350
Time Refractive modulus. 6f
FIG. 43.-Signal types and associated M-profiles for A = 2,5 m. (a) Substandard;
(b) standard;(c) surface ducts; (d) elevated ducts. The arrows indicate standard signal level,

the microwave records. This difference in scale serves to emphasize the

extreme variability of signal that occurs at microwavelengths.
The following four cases have been considered in some detail:
1. When a substandard Iayer existsat the surface, the average signal
level at 2.5 m is below the standard value; variations in received
power occur of about 5 to 10 db with periods of 5 to 15 min. Fairly
intense substandard layers are required to affect the transmission.
304 EXPERIMENTAL STUDIES OF REFRACTION [SEC.43

2. When the M-profile isstandard ordeparts from standard only at the

surface and below about 200 ft, the signal is near the standard level;
it may be either steady or unsteady, with variations usually 10 db
or less.
3. With surface ducts more than 200 ft deep the signal is 5 to 15 db
above the standard value and usually fairly steady or with slow
roller fading. The same is true with overhanging elevated
M-inversions.
4. With elevated supersta.ndard layers 500 to 2000 ft high that are not
overhanging, the signal level is above standard, approaching but
not reaching the free-space value. (This limitation of the upper
value reached is probably caused by the particular meteorological
situation.) Steady signal or roller fading occurs about equal] y often
at such times. Fading periods of 10 min to 1 hr have been observed.
Visual inspection of the signal records, besides establishing signal types
and their association with distinct modified-index distributions, shows
the dependence of transmission results on wavelength and position, the
so-called space and frequency diversity. The data obtained in the
Massachusetts Bay tests permit comparisons on a given path of wave
lengths from 2.5 m to 3 cm, with additional fragmentary information at
1.25 cm. As for space variations, we can study the effect on three circuits
at 9 and 10 cm; at 3 cm data are available on two circuits at a fixed range.
We can thus obtain some information on height-gain effects at two wave-
lengths. The comparison of 9- and 10-cm results on the 22- and 41-mile
paths does not, however, provide information on range attenuation because
of the meteorological differences between the two paths (see Sec. 4.5).
The most striking feature of the transmission is the remarkable sim-
ilarity, under nearly all conditions, of certain features on all microwave
circuits. On most occasions all these circuits show the same signal types.
Figure 44 illustrates the similarity of reception on various circuits. The
averagel signal level is plotted hourly (solid line) for each of the circuits;
the vertical lines indicate the extreme values of the signal during the hour.
Not only changes in average level but also those in signal type (indicated
by the range of variation) are seen to occur together. The magnitudes of
these changes, however, increase with decreasing wavelength and with
decreasing terminal height for constant range.
The rather sudden changes from one type to another are practically
simultaneous on all paths. In Fig. 4“5 this simultaneity is further illus-
trated; samples of records obtained at the same time on three dtierent

1The averages were obtained by visual estimation from the original recording
meter trace; and as the response of the receivers is nearly logarithmic,they are essen-
tially geometrical means of intensity. The visual estimation proceae was found to
give results differing negligibly from those ob~ined by a mom elabOrate point-by-point
averagir,g method.
SEC. 4.3] GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF TRANSMISSION 305

+20
41-mile path, upper 9 cm I

+20 t

I 1 1 I
,

+20
22-mile path, 10 cm I
o .
+
-20 -

.40 ~
12 00 12 w 12
Clock time in hours
FIQ. 4.4,—Average signal strength and
extremes, pIotted hourly, Arrows indicate
standard signal level.

paths are shown for a period of tran-

sition from substandard to super-
standard conditions.
Time
In the following discussion it will FrQ. 4,5.—Comparison of eignal rec-
be convenient to treat separately the ords on three microwave circuits during
transition from substandard to super-
different signal types into which the standard conditions. (a) Upper 9-cm
circuit, 41-mile
., path; (b) upper 3-cm cir-
results have been divided, as wave-
cuit, 41-mile path; (c) 10-cm circuit,
length and positional dependency vary 22-mile path. Thearrows indicate stand-
from one type to another. ard signal level.

With substandard surface layers, scintillating signal occurs on all

microwave circuits. The variations are rapid (periods about 30 see) and
irregular, with amplitudes of at least 15 db. The records are too com-
306 EXPERIMENTAL STUDIES OF REFRACTION [SEC. 4.3

pressed to show details (see, for example, Fig. 4.2a), but no apparent relation
wasnoted among thevariations onthe different circuits. Itwas not possible
tocompare fading ranges or periods of scintillation under these conditions.
During periods of substandard surface layers the depressions, from
standard, of the average signal levels on the upper 9- and 3-cm circuits
are roughly equal. A comparison of the upper and lower 9-cm signals
during the same periods shows that the lower the terminal the greater
the decrease below standard. The behavior of the lower 3-cm circuit at
such times is peculiar (see Sec. 4.5).
Essentially all cases of substandard signal level at 2.5 m correspond to
substandard reception on the microwave links, but the reverse is not
true. The depth or intensity of the substandard layer required to pro-
duce appreciable effects at 2.5 m is clearly greater than that for micro-
waves, but no quantitative values are as yet available because of the
extreme nonuniformity of the meteorological conditions common at such
times (see Sec. 4“2). Irregular variability, with periods 5 to 15 min and
amplitudes of 5 to 10 db, is characteristic at 2.5 m when the level is sub-
standard. This variabilityy appears to persist at times when the substand-
ard layer is not strong enough to affect the average level appreciably.
As is clear from the meteorological discussion in Chap. 3, a standard
M-profile occurs only rarely over water. In transitions from sub- to
superstandard conditions, however, there is frequently a short interval of
standard conditions. The transition of signal strengths through the
standard level is found to occur very nearly simultaneously on all micro-
wave circuits. The 2.5-m signal strengths, on the other hand, generally
become standard before the microwaves and usually become superstandard
only after a very deep surface duct has built up. Similarly, the signal
levels at 9 cm remain standard on some occasions, while the 3-cm levels
rise under the influence of very shallow ducts. The infrequency of these
occasions reflects the rarity of such shallow ducts in the region.
As the duct height increases from O to about 50 ft, the 9-cm levels at
first remain standard while the 3-cm levels rise; the scintillation amplitudes
decrease. With values of duct height between 20 and 50 ft the signal on
both 9- and 3-cm circuits is above the standard level and very steady;
the 3-cm level is nearer the free-space value than that at 9 cm. The
absolute signal level increases with terminal height, but the lower terminals
may experience a greater increase above the standard. A further increase
in duct height causes a change in the 3-cm record from the steady par-
tial-trapping type to the roller fading typical of strong trapping of Fig.
4.2d, while the average signal level remains near the free-space value. The
9-cm signal continues to be steady and to increase until the duct height
reaches 60 or 70 ft.
With deep ducts and the consequent strong trapping, both frequency
and space diversity appear to decrease. All microwave circuits have
SEC. 4.4] COMPARISON WITH THEORY 307

signals of average level close to the free-space value. At a given wave-

length, the period and amplitude of the variations observed at any time on
the upper and lower circuits are nearly equal. The fading is far from
synchronous, however, as shown in Fig. 4.6. Usually the shorter the
wavelength the shorter the fading period; the amplitude of the fading
tends to increase with decreasing wavelength. The disappearance of a
height-gain effect under these con-
ditions, so clearly shown in the I 1
present data, must not be inter- 0
preted as a general result; if one
terminal were well above the duct, -10
the situation might be completely
different. -20
4“4. Comparison with Theory. Standardat-36 db (a) ]
—The problem of propagation in
an inhomogeneous medium has
been discussed from the theoretical
standpoint in Chap. 2. For con-
venience the pertinent results of
the solution are summarized here.
The discussion is limited to the
bilinear-index model.
The bilinear model (see Fig.
2.28) is described by two para-
meters: d the duct height (g in
natural unitsl), and S3,the ratio of
the slopes of the lower and upper 0
segments. The upper segment is
-10
assumed to have the standard
slope, which in natural units is -20
unity.
-30
Characteristic values of the
first mode of the equation (cPy/df2)
1 2 3
+ ~Y = 0, with appropriate bound- Timein hours
ary conditions, have been found FIG. 46+-Comparison of microwave signal
as a function of g for a series of fading on three circuits, in the presence of deep
ducts. (a) 9 cm, upper; (b) 9 cm, lower; (c)
values of s less than +1, that is, 3 cm, upper.
for superstandard M-profiles. The
measured or synthetic M-profile, superstandard at the surface and standard
above, is approximated by a bilinear curve, and field strengths are then
calculated. Numerical work is in general feasible only for terminal sep-
arations sufficiently great that at most a few terms of the series expansion
are required.
] SeeSec. 2.6 for the definitionof naturalunits.
308 EXPERIMENTAL STUDIES OF REFRACTION [SEC.~.h

An arbitrary criterion must be established for fitting observed M-pro-

files with a bilinear model, for it is not generally possible to draw a bilinear
curve that appears to fit the true curve. The criterion adopted in the
present work is the equality, for the true and the bilinear profiles, of the
phase integrals (see Sec. 28) taken from the surface to the minimum of
the curve. Thus,

(1)

a relation that serves to determine the value of s.

For the shallow M-inversions that exist with heating from below, the
true M-profile is logarithmic (Sec. 314). In this case the value s = – 1
has been found to give an acceptable fit. On the other hand, a visual
approximation can be made for the deeper ducts associated with tempera-
ture inversions. In the Massachusetts Bay region values of s between
– 1.0 and – 1.5 have usually been found suitable.
Let us suppose that s = – 1, and let g increase from zero. From
Figs. 2.30 to 232 we see that two major effects occur: The attenuation of
the first mode (imaginary part of the characteristic value) decreases from
2.02 when g is zero to 0.1 when g is 2.7; at the same time the height-gain
function decreases in absolute magnitude. These two effects tend to
counteract each other, so that at any specified range a value of g may be
determined below which no appreciable increases in field strength will
occur. For the moderate range (4o miles) of interest in the Massachusetts
Bay observations, this value of g is close to 1. Duct heights of less than
one natural unit cause negligible effects at such distances. Similarly, for
g between 1 and 2 the first mode alone is sufficient to represent the field.
Field strength in this interval is a monotonic function of duct height,
increasing from the standard to near the free-space value. Such ducts
will be termed “shallow.” When g is greater than 2, contributions of
two or more modes must be summed vectorially, and the ducts are
termed “deep.”
Although it is strictly true that whether a duct is shallow or deep
depends on wavelength, it will be convenient in the following discussion
to adopt a terminology appropriate for microwaves (9 and 3 cm). We
can, thus, somewhat loosely call surface ducts of height less than 50 ft
“shallow” and those more than 50 ft “deep.’” No ducts were observed
that would be termed deep at 2.5 m. On the other hand, at 1.25 cm the
value g = 2 corresponds to a duct height of only about 15 ft, so that for
practical purposes any observed duct will be deep at this wavelength.
1This dividing line between shallow and deep ducts was chosen partly as a com-
promise between 9- and 3-cm values and partly to represent the meteorological conditions
of instability and stability (Sees. 3,14 and 3,17) for which a 50-ft dividing line is a rough
approximation,
SEC.44] COMPARISON WITH THEORY 309

When g is greater than 2, the numerical work increases so rapidly that

general calculations become prohibitive. If both terminals are within the
duct, it is frequently permissible to neglect all modes that are not strongly
“locked,” and in that case the calculations can be carried out by the
Gamow procedure (see Sec. 2.17). From results of special cases carried
through in this fashion some general conclusions may be drawn.
A total of 18 cases was treated in which three or more modes were
necessary. The resultant field strengths varied between 14 db above and
7 db below the free-space field. In the following discussion the free-space
field will be taken as the reference level. If the parameters g and s are
changed by small amounts,l the amplitudes of the individual modes change
only slightly but the phases vary so greatly as in some cases to produce
extreme variations in the resultant.
Because the meteorological parameters are so variable and the adopted
values of g and s are inexact as a result of both the meteorological uncer-
tainties and the approximation of the bilinear model, the field-strength
calculations for strong trapping may be subject to much greater inac-
curacies than those for partial trapping. In place of specific values for
each case, therefore, an arbitrary value of O db has been adopted as the
nominal field strength for all cases of surface M-inversions with g greater
than 2.
Theoretical values of field strength on a given transmission circuit may
now be determined for any case of surface M-inversions, and the validity
of the theory may be tested quantitatively. An examination of the
synthetic soundings (see Sec. 4“2) and qualitative discussions for each
day of the transmission period permitted the selection of those times
when, with surface M-inversions, the theoretical assumption of horizontal
stratification was most closely realized. The synthetic M-profiles for
these times are then fitted with’ the appropriate bilinear index models;
field strengths are calculated and compared with the observed hourly
average values of signal strength.
To facilitate the test of the theory, for each of the 41-mile circuits
across Massachusetts Bay graphs were prepared of field strength as a
function of duct height for various values of the parameter .s. Two such
graphs are shown in Fig. 447 with s = – 1. In accordance with the con-
vention described above, for all cases of g greater than 2 the theoretical
value was taken as O db, although it was understood that variations of at
least ~ 10 db were to be expected.
Figure 4.8 shows the comparison of theoretical and observed variations
of signal strength with duct height for the lower of the two 9-cm circuits.
Although the scatter is appreciable, the general theoretical trend is obeyed.
1 A variation in g alone produces only a rotation of the vector diagram of the sum
of modes and thus leaves the resultant unchanged unless there is a change in the number
of modes trapped.
310 EXPERIMENTAL STUDIES OF REFRACTION [SEC. 4.4

An error in the duct height of as little as 10 ft would in many cases suffice

to account for the deviations. Not only are the probable errors of the
synthetic values large, but the variations in duct height along the path

o- 0-

A=9cm A=2.5m
g
--10 - -lo -
e:
,~-
&~-20 - -20 -
~~
.
–g --30 - -30 -
5

-400 z; 1 I 1 1 1
‘-40
40 60 80 100 0 100 200 300 400 500
Duct height in ft Duct height in tt
(a) (b)
FIG. 47.—Calculated variation of received power as a function of duct height, based on
a bilinear index model with the slope of the bottOm segment the negative of standard.
(a) x=9 cm; (b) h= 2.5m.

caused by changing water temperatures must frequently exceed 10 ft.

Additional scatter should result from the approximation of the true
M-profile by a bilinear distribution.
+10
. .
< .
. ● . . .
~
-. 0 ●
I ● .
[ /-- . ● .. ”.:
. .
●

150 200 250 300

Duct height in ft
FIG. 48.—Field strength as a function of duct height on lower 9-cm cirrult. Dots represent
measurements, and the solid curve is calculated for a bilinear model with s = –1

Figure 49 is a similar graph of theoretical and observed field strengths

for the 2.5-m transmission. Again the theoretical trend is followed
roughly, though in this case the scatter is large. The lack of field strengths
SEC.4.4] COMPARISON WITH THEORY 311

as high as the free-space value results from the meteorological character-

istics of the circuit; surface M-inversions deeper than 300 ft occur only
infrequently, and none was measured more than 400 ft deep.

-10 -

-20 -

-30 -
-
●
●
, I
-40 ‘
o 100 200 300 400 500
Duct height in ft
Fm. 4+-Field strength as a function of duct height at 2.5 m for surface M-inversions.
The dots represent measurements, and the solid curve is calculated for a bilinear model with
s = —1. The arrow indicates standard signal level.

As an additional test of the theory Figs. 4“10 and 4“11 were prepared.
In Fig. 4.10 the observed field strengths on the two 9-cm circuits are com-
pared. The solid line represents the theoretical variation of field strengths

/’
9
●
● *W

%88” ●’:
<● * ●* ●

‘*
%ee

I 1 1 J
““ .?- .- -20 -lo 0 +10
Signa~~trength in db
above free-space level lower 9-cm cmcuit
FIG, 4,10. —Ohscrved relation of field strengths on upper and Iowci !)-cm circuits [dots)
romparcd with tile theoretical relation (curve).

on the two circuits calculated for a series of values of g, with s = —1.

The observed values (dots) fall closely along the line. A similar agreement
is obtained at 3 cm.
In Fig, 4.11 the 9- and 3-cm observations on the higher of the two cir-
cuits are compared. Again the curve shows the calculated variation, and
312 EXPERIMENTAL STUDIES OF REFRACTION [SEC. 4.4

the dots represent the observations. Here also, the calculations are based
onabilinear index model withs = –1. In this case the observations fall
systematically below the theoretical curve. Ifs is increased algebraically
from the value –1, the sharp “corner” on the calculated curve is some-
what rounded but the curve remains a poor approximation to the observa-
tions. A rounded curve is obtained also with a power-law model (Sec.
2.21), but here the maximum field strength is found to be 15 to 20 db below
the free-space value, in disagreement with observations.1 Better results

+10r

Signal strength in db
above free-space level lower 9-cm circuit

Fm. 411 —Observed relation of field strengths at 3 and 9 cm (dots) compared with the
theoretical. relation (curve).

would probably be obtained with the linear-exponential model (Sec. 2.21),

which more closely approximates the true M-profile.
A~y surface M-inversion more than 15 ft deep is effectively a deep duct
for a wavelength of 1.25 cm, so that no shallow-duct effects should be ap-
parent at this wavelength. We should therefore expect to find signal of
average level near the free-space value whenever either shallow or deep
ducts exist for 3 or 9 cm As only field strengths stronger than 20 db above
the standard value could be detected, the 1.25-cm signal should have been
detected only with superrefraction. Furthermore, from an extrapolation
of the frequency effect observed in fading of the strong-trapping type, we
expect to find violent fluctuations with periods of 2 min or less. This
picture is modified by the presence of appreciable atmospheric absorption
at this wavelength. The water-vapor absorption band with center at
about 1.33 cm is strong enough to cause an attenuation in 41 miles of
1.4 db for each gram per cubic meter of water-vapor in the air, or roughly

1Recent information from England indirates that this disagreement may nol be
general. See B. J. Starnecki, .Ioar. ZEE, 93, 111 A, 106 (1946).
SEC. 44] COMPARISON WITH THEORY 313

1.2db/mb vapor pressure (see Chap. 8). During the period of the trans-
mission tests at 1.25 cm, vapor pressures of 5 to 15 mb were measured in
the first 100 ft above the water surface, which would produce total at-
tenuations of 6 to 18 db. Actually the average signal level practically
never reached a value stronger than 20 db below the free-space value. Thus,
it appears that the water-vapor attenuation is probably not sufficient to
explain the entire discrepancy between the observations and the values
calculated with surface ducts. This discrepancy is not surprising in view
of the difficulty of making accurate absolute measurements on 1.25 cm at
the time these experiments were performed.
The 1.25-cm signal was detected on most occasions when the values on
the other microwave circuits were superstandard, but the data are not con-
clusive on this point because operating difficulties at this wavelength
prevented continuous information. Except for the observation that
strong rapid fluctuations were nearly always present, signal character
could not be studied with the equipment available at 1.25 cm.
In the preceding discussion only average values of field strength have
been considered. A completely satisfactory theory must, however, account
not only for large-scale variations in the field strength and the dependence
of these changes on wavelength and circuit geometry but also for the
character of the received signal, especially as regards short-period varia-
tions, or fading.
Let us consider what signal types are expected in terms of the variation:
of the modified-index distributions in time and space. Suppose there
is a surface duct such that g = 1.5 at 9 cm. For such a shallow duct
only the first transmission mode is important. Srrfall changes in the
value of g cause small variations in the amplitude of this mode and
therefore in the resulting field strength. Small changes in the parameter
s have a similarly small effect. One may conclude then that relatively
steady signal should be obtained as long as the given meteorological
situation continues.
For the same meteorological conditions, g for 3 cm would be 3. In
this case consideration of the first mode alone is no longer sufficient.
Instead, contributions of several modes must be summed vectorially.
Small changes in the parameters s and g may now result in large variations
of the resultant field, as has already been described. Thus unsteady
signal may be expected, with periods that depend on both the nature of
the atmospheric variability and the sensitivity of the electric field to such
atmospheric variations. There is no reason to expect synchronous fading
at two wavelengtha or on two paths.
Some insight into the kind of fluctuations in field strength that may
result from interference among many modes can be obtained from a
statistical analysis based on the theory of random processes (see Sec. 6“19).
It is assumed that the condition responsible for the interference effect
314 EXPERIMENTAL STUDIES OF REFRACTION [SEC.44

(in our cases the existence of a uniform surface duct over the path) is
stationary in time.
Forastationary process it can be shown (see Sec. 619) that giveniV
vectors of arbitrary amplitudes and random phases, the probability W
that the resultant power Pisintherange F’to P + dPis given by

W(P) dP = +0 e- “’1” dP, (2)

where PO is the mean power. This expression is valid ancl independent of

N when N is greater than about 10. For smaller values of N the proba-

Recewed power in milliwatts Received power m mtlhwatts

●
(a) (b)
Fm 4.12 .—First probability y distribution of power received during periods of strong trapping
and histograms of observation, (a)k=9cm; (b)x=3 cm.

bility depends on the distribution in time of the amplitudes of the indi-

vidual terms. For a Gaussian distribution of the amplitudes, however,
Eq. (2) holds even when N is 2.
The results of an analysis of fading data obtained at both 3 and 9 cm
on the 41-mile path are shown in Fig. 4“12 where the histograms represent
the observations and the smooth curves the relation of Eq. (2). The
anal ysis is open to question in two respects. (1) The phases of the various
modes are not strictly independent, as each is as function of the wave-
length, the modified-index distribution, and the path geometry. For
practical purposes, however, the probability distribution of the resultant
powers should be closely similar to that for purely random quantities,
because a very large change in the phase of any one mode relative to
the others results from a very small change in the M-profile. (2) More
important, a truly stationary situation probably never exists when air
flows out from a large land mass over the sea.
Because the individual amplitudes are assumed to be independent of
each other, points must be chosen that are separated by a time interval
at least not smaller than the periodicity of the variations observed. The
results will be significant only if the number of values is large. Thus the
i$Ec. 4.5] TRANSMISSION UNDER COMPLEX CONDITIONS 315

total period of the study must be long compared with the time interval
selected. This imposes a serious limitation on the applicability of the
method to our data, because stationary conditions seldom persisted for
time intervals sufficient] y long compared with the fading periods.
Despite these difficulties, the histograms of Fig. 4“12 are in fair agree-
ment with the theoretical curves.
Thus the hypothesis is favored that fading results from the interfer-
ence of many modes, whose contributions change rapidly because of minor
changes in the modified-index distributions. The observed excess of high
values might result either from a non-Gaussian distribution of individual
amplitudes, if N is less than about 10, or from departures from stationary
conditions.
4.5. Transmission under Complex Conditions.—With a few minor
exceptions our discussion to this point has been limited to the consideration
of simple and idealized cases of surface M-inversions that are theoretically
tractable and for which the theory appears to be qualitatively correct.
This section will treat somewhat more fully the observational information
pertaining to transmission with elevated M-inversions, substandard
layers, nonuniform meteorological conditions, and some further details
concerning the effects of surface M-anomalies not covered in previous
sections.
No exact solution of the wave equation has yet been obtained for the
case of an elevated anomaly of modified refractive index. The attempted
approximate solutions expressed in terms of reflection from an elevated
layer’ are not considered satisfactory (see Sec. 4 “9). Furthermore, the
idealized model of the refractive-index distribution used in these solutions,
although it may be useful under certain meteorological conditions, has little
resemblance to the distributions that actually occur in the Massachusetts
Bay region. Thus, we shall record only empirical observations and leave
to the future their integration into a conclusive theory.
The observations of superstandard signal reception at 2.5 m shown in
Fig. 4-9, which are limited to cases of surface M-inversions, account for
only 40 per cent of the total cases of strong signal at this wavelength. The
theoretical curve of Fig. 4“7b indicates that with surface M-inversions
duct heights 300 ft or greater are necessary to produce appreciable increases
above standard in 2.5-m field strength whereas meteorological conditions
in Massachusetts Bay are such that surface ducts 100 to 200 ft deep occur
commonly, but greater depths are very rare.
A qualitative correlation between strong signal at 2.5 m and the
presence of elevated ducts was found that served to account for nearly
all remaining hours of superstandard reception at this wavelength. Similar
1SeeJ. B. Smyth, ‘‘Transrniesionof PlaneWaves througha SingleStratumSeparat-
ing Two Media,” NRSL Reports Nas. WP-9 and 13, Parts I and II, Dec. 22, 1943,
and June 23, 1944.
316 EXPERIMENTAL STUDIES OF REFRACTION [SEC.4.5

observations made in the vicinity of San Diegol showed a definite rela-

tionship between the value of the field strength and the height of the
base of the inversion. No such height-strength relationship is apparent
in the Massachusetts Bay data.
The approximate constancy of thickness and strength of the M-inver-
sions in the San Diego region, which makes possible the description of
the M-profiles there by a single parameter, that is, the height of the base
of the inversion, results from the special meteorological conditions of that
locality and is doubtless essential to the simple relation found experi-
mentally between field strength and the M-profile.
No such simplicity of form of M-profiles is found in Massachusetts
Bay. The elevated ducts that occur there originate mainly in the modifi-
cation of initially inhomogeneous air, a phenomenon occurring most
commonly when a nocturnal radiational inversion exists over land. As
has been mentioned (see Sees. 3“21 and 4 L?), the meteorological analysis
of such cases is not yet well understood, and the results are therefore less
reliable than in other instances. Thus it was frequently impossible for
the meteorologists to specify more than the mere existence of an elevated
duct, and it was only rarely that it was possible even to estimate the
height of its base, the depth, or the strength because the initial distribu-
tions of temperature and moisture were not known.
The failure to secure measurements on elevated ducts is again inti-
mately related to their frequent origin in radiational inversions over land.
The elevated ducts usually occurred along the radio paths during the night
and early morning and had generally been dissipated before the morning
airplane soundings could be made.
Except in the case of elevated layers that are overhanging and thus
produce surface ducts, no evidence was found that such layers have an
appreciable effect on transmission of the shorter wavelengths considered
here (but see Sec. 418).
Some additional discussion of transmission through substandard surface
layers should also be included here, but solutions for the substandard case
are not yet available. z
We have seen in the bilinear index model that for surface M-inversions
the slope of the inverted portion may be treated as a constant, the only
variable being the duct height. For substandard surface layers we may,
analogously, neglect variations in slope of the lower segment and plot
average field strength on a given circuit as a function of the depth of the

1 See Sec. 4.9; also, L. J. Anderson,F. P. Dane, J. P. Day, et al., “Atmospheric

Refraction-A PreliminaryQuantitativeInvestigation,” NRSL Report No. WP-I 7,
Dec. 28, 1944.
.’z%ce the above material waa written a report by T. Pearceyand M. Tornlin has
come to our attention. See “The Effect of a Subrefracting Layer on the Propagation
Of MO Waves,” RRDE Memorandum No. S3, Feb. 12, 1945.
SEC. 45] TRANSMISSION UNDER COMPLEX CONDITIONS 317

substandard layer. The results are shown in Fig. 4“13a and b for the upper
3- and 9-cm circuits respectively. Only cases with approximate meteoro-
logical uniformity have been included. The points cannot be said to
define the variation of field strength with substandard layer depth, but
they suggest a decrease in field with increasing layer depth. Values of d
smaller than 100 ft do not occur because shallow substandard layers
cannot form; substandard layers exist only under stable meteorological
conditions (see Sec. 3“20).

A=9 cm
[
o

●
✎
.
-10
✎☛
● ☛
●
✎
-20 ●
✎ ✎
✎
I
I
✎
. .
✛
● ●

L-
●
~ -30 -30
● ●
~

i%
‘-L _An — “n
—.“ -
o 100 200 300 -“”o— 100 200 300
(a) (b)
Depth of substandard layer In ft
FIG. 4.13 – -Signal strength as a function of depth of asurface substandard-layer. (a) 9 cm;
(b) 3 cm.

A peculiar anomaly has been observed in the performance on the lower

3-cm circuit under substandard conditions. The signal level on this
circuit never dropped below the minimum detectable level, although the
standard value was only a few decibels above the detection limit. When-
ever the signal on the other microwave links became low and scintillating
with peak values near or below standard level, scintillation also began on
the lower 3-cm circuit; but even the minimum signal level reached was
often not below standard. The average value was usually considerably
above standard. On these occasions the absolute power levels on ihe
upper and lower 3-cm circuits are roughly equal. The 9-cm data on the
same circuit agree with those on the two upper circuits rather than with
these anomalous results.’
1 Editor’s note added in prooj. At the time these results were obtained they caussd
us coueiderable concern, for it was clear that other proceascs were occurring that were
not included in the theory then available. On the basis of these results and those
obtained by NRL in Antigua (Sec. 4.20), C. L. Pekeris and others suggested that the
unexpected signal might arise from scattering by atmospheric imegularities not prs-
vioasly considered. At the datx of writing this note (1948) it appesrs, on the basis of
318 EXPERIMENTAL STUDIES OF REFRACTION [SEC.4.5

The 41-mile path across Massachusetts Bay was chosen, at least in part,
with a view of obtaining uniformity of meteorological conditions in the
region. Such uniformity would exist with westerly winds, provided the air
was well mixed upon leaving the shore and was modified only by its pass-
age over the water. Under most circumstances, the departures from this
uniformity caused by the variation in water temperatures are not serious.
Fairly uniform conditions were actually found on many occasions, but
the deviation of the wind direction from west, the variation of water
temperatures, and the heterogeneity of the air before passage over water,
especially at night, all contributed to the development of strong non-
uniformityy. In addition, on a few occasions a stationary front straddled
the transmission path.
Despite the complexity of the resulting situations and the consequent
impossibility of coping with the problem theoretically, observations under
these conditions have disclosed some interesting features that may have
general significance. These observations cover combinations of shallow
and deep surface ducts along the path and of substandard and super-
standard surface layers (usually deep ducts). The surface layer of the
M-profile may, for example, be substandard at one end of the circuit and
superstandard at the other or substandard at both ends and superstandard
near the mid-point.
The outstanding feature is the close similarity in all circumstances of
the results on the four 41-mile microwave circuits. The strong wavelength
dependence of the attenuation constants of the individual transmission
modes and the accompanying sensitivityy to change in wavelength of the
height-gain functions might lead one to expect that the over-all field
distributions in cases of nonuniformity should also show a wavelength
effect. No such effect was observed.
With conditions of variable surface duct height along the path, the
values of d changing over an appreciable range, the resultant signal gen-
erally exhibited the irregular variability characteristic of deep ducts. No
general behavior was found in the average signal level at such times,
however; the values varied from very high (at or slightly above the
freespace value) to – 15 or – 20 db.
With surface layers varying from substandard to superstandard along
the path, results ranged from clearly substandard in both level and char-
acter to the strong-trapping type, often with average level somewhat
depressed from the fre~space value. As has been stated, in each case

growing evidence that cannot be reportedhere,that such scatteringmay indeedbe an

important factor in causing tr-mission beyond the horizon and between low terminal
heights. See H. G. Booker and W. E. Gordon, Proc. I. R. E., 38, 401 (1950); and a
series of reports by N. G. Parke entitled “Microwaves in an Irregular Atmosphere”
issued by the Air Force Cambridge Research Laboratories, Cambridge, Mass., begin-
ning Sept. 30, 1949.
SEC. 46] SOME STA TISTICA I, RESULTS 319

the balance between the extremes of modified-index distributions ap-

parently affected both 3- and 9-cm circuits similarly. The nonrepro-
ducibility of such conditions prevented the determination of the extent to
which superstandard and substandard surface layers counteract each
other. On several occasions substandard layers over the circuit were
displaced through the passage of a cold (dry) front parallel to the trans-
mission path, so that in the course of a few hours (the time of passage of
the front over both terminals) the M-profiles at the surface were succes-
sively everywhere substandard, partially superstandard and partially sub-
standard, and finally completely superstandard. Results obtained on
these occasions indicate that the presence of a surface duct over only a
small fraction of the path may suffice to produce transmission indistin-
guishable from that with uniform ducts. Figure 4.5 illustrates such a
situation, Meteorological data show that it took 2 hr for the front to pass
from the northern to the southern end of the path. Yet the striking
change in transmission shown in the figure occurred within + hr of the
frontal passage over the northern terminals.
We have seen that the results on the two paths (Deer Island to Eastern
Point and Race Point to Eastern Point) were almost always similar. Any
exceptions resulted mainly from meteorological nonuniformity. It is
obvious, for example, that reception on the two paths might differ radically
if there were a superstandard surface layer throughout the northern part
of Massachusetts Bay but an intense substandard surface layer over the
southern part. Equally striking differences have been explained by the
fact that the average water temperature close to the shore is lower than
that out in the bay. When the air and water temperatures were nearly
equal, a 2“ or 30 water-temperature variation with position could cause a
change from unstable to stable meteorological conditions (see Sees. 3.14
and 3“17). Similarly, even when surface conditions were substandard
throughout the bay, the substandard layer close to the shore was fre-
quently more intense than that farther away. Thus, the occurrence of
substandard signal was more pronounced on the 22-mile path than on the
longer path. Finally, some cases of dissimilarity between the two paths
occurred when with westerly winds the air leaving the coast was not homo-
geneous. In that case, the original anomaly in the modified-inde~ dis-
tribution may in some cases have been only slightly changed in the first
few miles of the air passage over the ocean but almost completely altered
by the time it reached the 41-mile path.
4“6. Some Statistical Results.—A statistical analysis of the reception
has been made for the entire 4-month period (1944) of the transmission
test from Race Point to Eastern Point. It must be emphasized that the
results of this analysis give merely a convenient condensed description of
the conditions on the specific circuit during the specific period. They
should not be generalized to another circuit or another time period unless
320 EXPERIMENTAL STUDIES OF REFRACTION [SEC, 46

themeteorological situations of thetwoare closely similar (and, of course,

only if the circuits are simiiar from a radio point of view).
The test period, covering the months July through October, provided a
varied sample of weather conditions. The analysis was carried out by
weeks (168 hourly values in each) and finally summed for the total period
ofmorethan 25000 perating hours. Figure 4.14 shows the results obtained
on the 9-cm upper link for two extreme weeks and also the over-all aver-
ages. Theordinate isthe fraction of time during whirhthe average level
1.0 1.0 1.0

%Z
%>
~:
.%al
m.?
am
E m 0.5 - 0.5 - 0.5
.= c
~g

,5 ~
LJg
~%

1 1 1 1 ii 1
o
+10 O -10-20 -30-40-50~
(a) (b) (c)
Signal strength in db above free-space level
FIG. 414.—Statistical analysis of reception on the upper 9-cm circuit. (a) Average
over entire period; (b) week of extremely poor transmission; (c) week of extremely good
transmission.

was weaker than the given value; the abscissa is the signal level itself,
referred to the free-space level, The standard level, –36 db for this
circuit, is indicated by an arrow. The graph shows that the field strength
on this circuit was above standard more than 80 per cent of the total
transmission time. Similar numerical results were obtained on the other
microwave circuits, as would be expected in view of their parallel behavior.
Even at 2.5 m the level was above standard 75 per cent of the time, whereas
at 1.25 cm the signal was detected (and therefore at least 20 db ?bove
standard) 79 per cent of the total operating time.’ The comparison of
times above standard implies a weaker wavelength dependence of trans-
mission than actually exists. The difference is demonstrated by the fol-
lowing figures: At 2.5 m, the average level was 10 db or more above the
standard 18 per cent of the time; at 9 cm (upper circuit), 65 per cent of the
time; at 1.25 cm, at least 79 per cent of the time.
Some seasonal variation was found, although the effect is somewhat
masked by the large day-to-day changes typical of New England. For
1This is not a good statisticalsample,however,hecaueeof the irregularperiods of
the cirouit’s operation.
SEC.4.6] SOME STATISTICAL RESULTS 321

example, the incidence of substandard signal tended to drop with the

change from summer to fall. Similarly, the incidence at 9 and 3 cm of
partial trapping as compared with strong trapping increased as the weather
became colder. These tendencies can easily be explained in terms of the
average value of the difference between the water and air temperatures at
different seasons and the resulting M-deficits. Because the water tem-
perature in Massachusetts Bay drops very slowly at the end of the summer
while the average air temperature decreases rapidly, the average value of
AT changes from positive to negative. With negative AT (see Sec. 3.15)
the air is heated from below; neither deep surface ducts nor substandard
surface layers form, but shallow ducts are almost always present. It is

-16r -16r

_300~i300,
18 24
(a) Timeof day in hours
(b)
FIG.4.15.—Average signal level as a function of the time of day, showing diurnal variation.
(a) 9 cm; (b) 2.5 m.

only because of the large deviations from the average conditions in this
region that the seasonal effect is not more striking. If the tests had been
continued into the winter, we should expect to have found a complete dis-
appearance of substandard reception and only infrequent periods of strong
trapping, all of short duration. This expectation was, in fact, borne out
in some winter tests on the 22-mile path from Deer Island to Eastern Point
(1942-1943), when on only 3 days out of a total of 54 a fairly deep duct
could be said to exist. signal was observed.
No substandard Indeedj the
signal was almost always very steady and not, far from standard, the major
variation noticed being the change in standard level produced by the tidal
variations in terminal height.
A diurnal effect was noted by British observers in the transmission
across the Irish Sea (see Sec. 4.7). (.lur records sllo\v no such effect upon
visual inspection, A statistical study of the average field recorded at a
given time of day in the total period reslllts, however, in the curves shown
in Fig. 4. 15a and b for 9 cm and 2.5 m rcspcctivcly, both of which indicate
the existence of a diurnal variation. At 9 cm the spread in the average
val[les is 8 db, the peak Ot,t,llrritlgnear 1700”ho~lrs and the minimum near
0800 hollrs Eastern Standartl ‘~ime. lkxfilwc at !) CrTIvariations in average
322 EXPERIMENTAL STUDIES OF REFRACTION [SEC.4.7

signal level of 30t060db within anhour are not uncommon (see Fig. 44),
it is not surprising that this small diurnal variation is not noticeable. At
2.5mthe total spread of theaverages is found to be6db, with apeakat
0100 and a minimum at 1100. The curve is less symmetrical than that
at 9 cm, and the difference in times of the maxima and minima at the two
wavelengths is further evidence that the causes of the strong signal are
different. Because at 2.5 m changes in average level of more than 15 db
in a short interval are rather rare, the diurnal variation found at this
wavelength is relatively more significant than that at 9 cm.

TRANSMISSION EXPERIMENTS IN THE BRITISH ISLES

BY DONALDE. KERR

4.7. The Irish Sea Experiment .—One of the most extensive experi-
mental overwater transmission investigations was carried out in England
under the auspices of the Ultra Short Wave Propagation Panel of the
Ministry of Supply in cooperation with several other government agencies.
The major objectives and the plan of investigation were similar in many

TABLE41.-STATION ANDPATHDESIGX.\TIONS
II
Path used
Station Location Height, ft —
3 cm 9 cm
I

A South Wales 540 AC

~
AC
B South Wales 90 AD
c North Wales 825 AE* / .4E*
D North Wales 95 BD ~ BE
E Scotland 375 BF* I BF*
F Scot land
* These paths w-ereoperated for only part of the test period

respects to those of the work described in the preceding sections and were
part of a broader program of propagation research in England.l
This experiment employed one-way transmission over the Irish Sea
on several wavelengths, but only the results obtained on 3 and 9 cm have
been reported in sufficient detail to discuss here. There were two trans-
mission paths with two transmitting stations in South Wales, two receiving
stations in North Wales, and two receiving stations in Scotland. The
locations, heights, and letter designations of the stations are given in
Table 4“1, and their locations are shown in Fig. 416. The transmission
tests began in the summer of 1943 on a partial basis and operated nearly
1Descriptionsof the variousaspectsof this programare distributedthroughouta
largenumberof Britishreports. .4 sumrmry of the principalfeaturesof the program
appee,rs m a paper prcsclllvtl Ijy F,. (:, S. hfegaw at the third conference on propagation,
SEC.47] THE IRISH SEA EXPERIMENT 323

continuously (with the exceptions noted) from the latter part of 1943
until the war came to an end.
The path length from South W’ales (Al?) to North Wales (CD) was 57
statute miles, and that to Scotland (lIF) was 200 statute miles. The
path AC was optical, but all others were nonoptical.
Meteorological .oundings were made by ships and aircraft on or near
the transmission paths, employing instruments and techniques somewhat
different from those used by workers in the United States (see Sec. 3.31).
The soundings were either made
‘rem the ships by wet and dry SCOTLAND

M
thermocouples in radiation shields F
at fixed heights or carried by a
captive balloon. Aircraft sound- Isle of
ings were made by wet and dry Man
G’
thermocouples with flight tech-
(
niques of several kinds. Vertical ,j $>*QO$

P
spirals at fixed locations were
%Opc)*+ o,
sometimes employed, but more %8
often “shuttle” flights at a series
Morfa Beach
of fixed levels and simultaneous Mt. Snowdon
horizontal flights of t,hreeor four
C, D
aircraft spaced vertically by c ar digan
several hundred feet (see Sec. .5a!/ WALES
3.32), Each of these techniques
may givea different kind of infor- A,B
mation, depending upon the degree
of atmospheric homogeneity, and
the data require careful analysis
with this fact in mind. 9
There were several pronounced 0 20 40 60
qualitative features of the trans- Statue miles
mission over the 57-mile circuit, FIG. 4, 16.—Map of Irish Sea region show, -
some of them similar to those ing location of British one-way and radar trans-
mission experiments.
of other paths, Massachusetts
Bay in pa~ticular. These features were
1. The maximum signal level maintained for any appreciable time on
the nonoptical paths was of the order of the free-space value, but
the maximum for short periods was higher by 10 to 15 db.
2. The range of variation of signal level on the nonoptical paths was
very large and increased with excess of path length over horizon

Nov. 16-18, 1944, at Washington, D.C, See Radio Wave Propagation, Academic Press,
New york, 1949; aISO JO W-. IEE, 93, III A, 79 (1946), Meteorological FactO~sin Radio-
Wcoe Propagation, The Physical Society, London, 1946, and J. S. ilfcPetrie, B. Starnecki,
H. Jarkowski, and L. Sicinski, Proc. IRE, 37, 243 (1949).
324 EXPERIMENTAL STUDIES OF REFRACTION [SEC. 47

distance. It wasalso greater for3cmthanfor9cm by about the

difference between free-space and standard signal levels for the two
wavelengths. The signal on the optical path A C was much steadier
than on the other paths.
3. The maj nr changes in signal level on the two wavelengths and on
the three nonoptical circuits AD, BC, and BD usually occurred
simultaneously, although the fine details, that is, fading and scintil-
lation, did not.
4. Very high average signal level was accompanied by deep fading;
intermediate levels had somewhat less deep fades. There were also
periods (12 to 48 hr) when the signal varied steadily and slowly,
and fading was not normally experienced.
5. In general, both the rapidity and depth of fading were greater for
the shorter wavelength.
6. Pronounced diurnal variations of signal strength occurred on the
nonoptical circuits when the signal level was low or moderate, with
an increase of average signal level in the late afternoon or early
evening and a decrease in the very early morning.1
7. Periods of low signal strength were found to coincide, in some cases,
with poor visibility from light fog at the terminals, and with passage
of fronts across Cardigan Bay.z Low signal strength did not ordi-
narily coincide with reduction of visibility from fine-weather haze,
however.
8. In general, periods of high signal strength tended to coincide with
anticyclonic periods.
9. A seasonal trend was also found, with high signal level for a greater
fraction of the time in summer than in spring or winter.3
On the 200-mile circuits the standard signal levels were far below the
free-space levels—about 305 db for path AE on 10 cm and 520 db for path
BF on 3 cm—but when the signals on any of these circuits were detect-
able, they tended to rise somewhat abruptly to the vicinity of the free-space
level. The general character of the signal behavior was strikingly similar

I Similar diurnal variations were observed in Massachusetts Bay (see Fig. 4.15a),
but in general they were so much outweighed by short-period variations ss to require a
statistical analysis to establish their presence.
ZFrom the results in Massachusetts Bay one would suspect that fog and poor
visibility might often be symptoms of meteorological conditions giving substandard
refraction, although, as pointed out in Sec. 317, the presence of fog is neither a neces-
sary nor sufficient condition for this to occur. Frontal passages over Massachusetts
Bay produced no unique signal trend, but in each case the reaction of the water surface
upon the new air brought in by the front produced a change in the M-profile sufficient
to explain the behavior of the signal.
$ In Massachusetts Bay, measurements were not made over a sufficient time to
establish this point definitely, but from Sec. 4.6 it will be seen that such a Sewonal
trend is not unlikely.
SEC. 4.7] THE IRISH SEA EXPERIMENT 325

on the two paths and on the two wavelengths, but at times there were
noticeable differences in details. In general, the signals were measurable
for a greater fraction of the time on 9 cm at the high site E than on 3 cm
at the low site F, and at a given site were stronger at 9 than at 3 cm. As
the minimum detectable signal was roughly 30 db below the freespace
level for all the receivers, this meant that the signals tended to be some-
what nearer the free-space level on 9 cm at E than on 3 cm at F. During
periods of very strong superrefraction, however, this situation was re-
versed. It was also found that, in general, signals were detected on the
200-mile paths only when the 3-cm signals on the 57-mile BD circuit
. .

T,

(a)
Refractive
(b)
modulusM
FIG. 4 17.—Mean values and observed variations of M along the EC Irish Sea path.
0600, Mar. 15, 1945; (b) at 1200, Mar. 16, 1945; (c) at 1S00, Mar. 16, 1945.
330
L /
●/
,’*’

350
(c)
“,$”
/*b$

370

(a) at

were stronger than about 12 db below the free-space level. Successful

reception was obtained during warm weather, but 9- and 3-cm signals
were never detected on the long paths during the winter.
Analysis of the transmission records for the 57-mile path was made
at the National Physical Laboratory.1 Correlations were first sought be-
tween the M-profiles in the lowest 50 to 100 ft obtained from the ship
soundings and the signal behavior on the transmission path. Such corre-
lations were either lacking or were poorly defined, however, and attention
was shifted from low-level soundings to gross phenomena such as fronts
1For further details, see R. L. Smith-Rose and A. C. Stickland, “Centimetre Wave
Propagation over Ssa. A Study of Signal Strength Records taken in Cardigan Bay,
Wales, between February tmd September 1944,” RRB/Cl 14, Feb. 28, 1945; “Centi-
metrc Wave Propagation over Sea. Correlation of Radio Field Strength Transmitted
Acrme Cardigan Bay, Walee, with Gradient of Refractive Index Obtained from Aircraft
Observations,” I, RRB/C121, May 10, 1945, and H, RRB/C127, Oct. 1, 1945; also a
paper in Meteorological Factors in Radio-Wave Propagation, The Physical Society,
London, 1946; and a similar paper by E. C. S. Megaw in Radio-Wave Propagation,
Academic Press, New York 1949; and R. L. Smith-Rose, Jour. IEE, 93, III A, 98
!1946).
326 EXPERIMENTAL STUDIES OF REFRACTION [SEC. 4.7

or fogs, and to aircraft soundings up to heights of several hundred feet.

The profile used in each case was obtained by fitting a straight line through
the measured points; the resulting slope was then used in calculation of
the signal expected at the receivers, which was compared with the observed
value.1 A sample set of linear profiles is shown in Fig. 4“17, where the
dots represent the mean values of M obtained in a single horizontal flight
along the 57-mile path and the lines represent the range of variation
encountered during the flight.
+6
c Theoretical curve
; t5
~ +4 “ . “. ,.. .O.
“. .
~ +3 . . . .5 .... ,.. ..
. . “. #
g +2 . . :.
.
~ +1
.s!
~o
M-1 B
*-2~
-50 -40 -30 -20 -lo 0 +10 = =50 -40 -30 -20 -10 0 +10
Field strength in db above free-space level Field strength in db above free-space level
Fm. 418.<orrelation of observed field FIG. 4 19.correlation of observed field
strengths with those predicted using M- strengths with those predicted using M-gra-
gradients of the lowest 500 ft on the 9-cm dients of the lowest 500 ft on the 9-cm BD
BC Irish Sea path. Irish Sea path.

A comparison of predicted and observed field strengths for the BC

circuit on 9 cm is shown in Fig. 4“18, in which the gradient has been chosen
as an average for the lowest 500 ft. Figures 4 ~19 and 4“20 show similar
results for the BD circuit on 9 and 3 cm. z This procedure for calculation
of field strength gives results that agree reasonably well with experiment
on the BC circuit, which has one high terminal, but the disagreement is
pronounced for the BD circuit, for which both terminals are low. This
disagreement is hardiy surprising in view of the extreme oversimplication
resulting from ignoring the irregularities of the M-profile.3
The fact that the signals on the BD circuit were so much stronger than
calculated, together with the preponderance of evidence from other re-
1For detailaof how the fittingmay be done in particularcases,see E. C. S. hfegaw
and F. L Westwater, “Radio-meteorological Relationships,” AC 8336/U.S.W. 141,
Ministry of Supply; also E c. S. Megaw, .Jour. IEE, 93, III A, 79 (1946).
2Similar graphe resulting from using the average gradient over the lowest 250 ft
gave an appreciably gr’eakr scatter of points for both BC and BD circuits.
~ It is interesting to note that if measurements at only a few heights had been obtained
in the Massachusetts Bay sountlngs instead of a large number giving considerable
detail, it would also have been possible tO represent limited sections of these soundings
by single straight bnes of various slopes, This, however, would have seriously mis-
repreaentcd the true nature of the profiles, a predominant characteristic of which was
that deviation from standard slope usually occurred in well-defined layers, outside of
which the slope quickly returned to a value very near standard (see also Sec. 49). But
zsc also the footnote on p. 312
SEC. 47] THE IRISH SEA EXPERIMENT 327

gions, suggests that these high signals must have resulted from M-inver-
sions that were not apparent from the soundings.1 It is interesting to
note that the aircraft soundings of the vertical spiral type made for the
KXS trials (Sec. 4.17) in a region not far from that under discussion showed
strong surface inversions similar to those shown in Chap, 3. The be-
havior of the circuits with low terminals is, as would be expected, a more
critical test than with Klgh terminals, and on the basis of available evidence
it appears that the use of a linear M-profile with variable slope does not
meet this test satisfactorily.
+6
It is not clear, at present, whether
: +5
the apparent differences between the $ +4 .“O J
.:. . .. ..
Irish Sea and the Massachusetts Bay ;+3” .. . . . . . . “
data result from greatly different ~+2 : ““ “ . . :“.:”
meteorological situations in the two : +1
locations or whether the differences *9 ~
s Theoretical curve ~
in methods of carrying out the m-l D
experiments and analyzing the result-
*-21 I I
-50 -40 -30 -20 -lo 0 +10
ing data have resulted in unwitting Field strength in db above free-space level
emphasis of some aspects of the I;IG. 4 20.—{ ’orrclation of observed field
problem and neglect of others. It strengths with those predicted using M-
gradients of the lowest 500 ft on the 3-cm El)
is difficult to see how the issue can Irish Sea path.
be clarified on a sound basis without
the equivalent for the Irish Sea data of the detailed analysis described in
Sees. 4“2 and 4.4.
It should be pointed out that at the present time there are some
differences of interpretation and method of application of the technique
of representing the whole M-profile by a single straight line approximating
a section of the M-profile having appreciable curvature.2 This technique
is usually easier to apply numerically than the wave-equation methods
discussed previously; but in the opinion of the author it tends to obscure
the true importance of M-profile curvature and is unsatisfactory as a
theoretical basis for interpretation of experimental data with which we are ~
familiar. It is hoped that future investigations will find a way of integrat-

I It should be noted that signal strengths up to 6 db above the free-apace level can
be explained by a linear M-profile, assuming (Init!f reflection cwficient of the ocean
surface, but in general the measured M-profiles were not sufficiently steep to predict
such high values. Stronger fields could be obtained by using a negative slope, which
is equivalent to assuming a concave earth surface, but the physical interpretation of
the resulting multiple ray paths and caustics requires investigation (see Sec. 25). The
equivalent earth radius calculated by these methods is different for each wavelength
and set of terminal heights, although it refers to the same atmospheric structure.
z In recent private communication Megaw has pointed out that our intmpretation
of his use of the limar-grad ic,nt technique goes somewhat beyond his original intentions.
Further discussion of this matter nwy be found by consulting B. J. Starnecki, .Jour. IEE.
93, III A, 106 (1946).
328 EXPERIMENTAL STUDIES OF REFRACTION [SEC, 49

ing the two methods of approach into a procedure that retains the desirable
features of both.
4.8. South Wales to Mt. Snowdon.—An optical overwater transmission
path was operated from June to October 1944, between transmitters 120 ft
above sea level in Aberporth, South Wales, and receivers at 3600 f t on
Mt. Snowdon, about 70 miles away (see Fig. 4“16). Transmission was
carried out on 9 and 10 cm simultaneously.
For about 80 per cent of the time the transmission on both wavelengths
was characterized by a regular fading pattern, which, when plotted as a
function of time, consisted of a succession of broad, flat maxima and deep,
sharp minima, with maximum signal equal to approximately twice the
free-space field. This is the kind of pattern which would be expected
from interference of two signals nearly equal in amplitude but differing in
phase; it was interpreted to be the result of interference between the
direct ray and the specularly reflected ray from the surface of the bay.’
The proposed explanation is that under these conditions the M-profile
was essentially linear but varied slightly in slope, changing the path-length
difference and consequently the phase difference between direct and re-
flected rays. For standard refraction this phase difference was about
4.57ron 10 cm and 5mon 9 cm, whereas for “flat-earth” conditions (vertical
M-profile) these phase differences were about 12rr and 13rr respectively.
Thus a steepening of the M-profile from the standard slope would tend to
cause the two wavelengths to fade antisynchronously, as they were
observed to do experimentally.
During the remaining 20 per cent of the time the regular interference
pattern was replaced by a different form of fading. The field strength
in peaks of the fading cycle was 10 to 12 db above the free-space field; the
peaks were sharp and the minima were broad. This is the type of signal
to be expected from superposition of a large number of components with
random phase relationships, as might be expected on an optical path over
which the index distribution varies with time, changing the amplitude
and phase relationships between the several important transmission modes.,
As no meteorological soundings were made over this path, further
investigation into the actual mechanism is not promising.

TRANSMISSION ALONG THE CALIFORNIA COAST

BY DONALD E. KERR

4.9. San Diego to San Pedro.’—Another highly interesting experiment

is that carried out by the U.S. Navy Radio and Sound Laboratory (now
U.S. Navy Electronics Laboratory), San Diego, Calif. It is of particular

1 F. Hoyle, “Fading in a Line of Sight Experiment in England, ” in Rmiio-Waoe

Propagation, Academic I%ss, Ncw Yorl{, 1949.
2L. J. Anderson et al., “Atmospheric Refraction—A Preliminary Quantitative
Investigation,” NRSL Report No. WP-17, December, 1944.
SEC. 49] SAN DIEGO TO .YAN PEDRO 329

importance because of the striking difference between the meteorological

situation (and consequently the M-profile) along this part of the California
coast and the conditions in the situations so ftir described. A strong
elevated M-inversion persists over great distances for months at a time,
and there seem to be few departures from standard at very low levels
except for a low evaporation cluct.1 No attempt will be made here to
discuss the meteorological origin of these elevated inversions, for there
seems to be some difference of opinion in the matter: the experimental
facts concerning the .U-profile and radio signal behavior are sufficiently
definite to merit discussi~n.2

Pacijic Ocean San Pedro

I =.- California

Santa

a
San Nicholas

\
o 10 20 30 40 50
Statute miles

FIG. 4.21.—Southern California coast and location of the NEL (NRSL) pmpwgatiou
experiments.

One-way transmission was carried out from June 1944 to July 1945
between a transmitting terminal 100 ft above sea level at San Pedro and
a receiving terminal 100 ft high at Point Loma, San Diego, a distance of
92 statute miles. The path is shown in Fig. 421. Wavelengths of 6 m,
3 m, and 55 cm were employed, and the combination of path geometry
and equipment was such that standard signal level was well below minimum
detectable signal on all three circuits. Meteorological soundings were
made by captive balloons and aircraft carrying modified versions of the
wired sonde.3

1S. T. Stephenson, “Some Measurements of Humidity, Temperature and Refractive

Index Gradients Immediately Above the Ocean,” NRSL Report No. WP-22, September
1945.
2 See Sec. 4.22 for further data from the same location, obtained with one airborne
terminal.
s L. J. Anderson, “Wired Sonde Equipment for High-altitude Soundings,” NRSL
Report No. WP-16, Nov. 17, 1944; also L. J. Anderson, S. T. Stephenson, and A. P. D.
Stokes, “Improvements in U.S. NRSL hleteorological Sounding Equipment, ” NRSL
Report No. WP-21, July 3, 1945.
330 EXPERIMENTAL STUDIES OF REFRACTION [Slxl 4!)

The meteorological situation in this location changes slowly in both

time and space in comparison with that in Massachusetts Bay or the
Irish Sea; hence relatively fewer soundings and less detailed meteorological
analysis are necessary for study of the transmission phenomcma. The
relevant facts available to date are as follows:
1. For several months (June through October 1944), an elevated
temperature inversion persisted. The air below the inversion was

t 4 1

0 10 20 30 0 5 10 3rlJ 350 400 450

Temperature in°C Mixing ratio per mine Refractive modulus M

Fm. 422.—A sounding 45 miles northwest of San Diego, Calif., on Sept. 29, 1944, showing a
typical high M-inversion.

\
\
\
\
\
\
o ~ \ \ /
10 20 30 40 5 10 15 300 350 400 450
Temperature in°C Mixing ratio per mine Refractive modulus M

FIG. 4.23.—A sounding 38 miles northwest of San Diego, Calif., on Sept. 7, 1944, showing a
typical low M-inversion.

moist and well mixed; that above it was warmer and much drier.
The rapid change in index of refraction in a thin stratum between
these contrasting types of air caused a marked M-inversion, as
illustrated in Figs. 4 “22 and 4.23. The change in index n was
about 50 to 60 X 104 on the average. The principal variation in
this structure was that of height of the inversion, which varied from
near the surface to around 4000 ft. There was a general tendency
SEC, ~~] SAX DIE(X) TO ,~AN PED1{{I 331

toward a diurnal variation, with a maximum height in the morning

at 0800 and a minimum at 1600 hours. Aircraft measurements on
a path out to sea showed that surfaces of constant index were
sometimes warped in shape, as shown in Fig, 4.24.
2. The thickness of the inversion layer and the strength of the inversion
also varied considerably, but the parameter most easily correlated

1 I t 1 1 t I 1 I
o’
o 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
Range in miles

[ t 1 1 I 1 I 1 d

o 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
Point Loma Range in miles San Pedro

(b)
FIQ, 424.-Atmospheric cross section on the San DiegcA3an Pedro transmission path show-
ing (a) lines of constant (n-1) x I@ and (b~ lines of constant potential temperature.

with the radio transmission was the height of the base of the inver-
sion, as shown in Fig. 4.25. The 55-cm signal fell below the min-
imum detectable level as the inversion height increased above about
3000 ft, but the 6- and 3-m signals were affected to a much smaller
extent. All signals fell below minimum detectable level when
frontal action destroyed the inversion, however, indicating that the
332 EXPERIMENTAL STUDIES OF REFRACTION [SEC. 49

layer was responsible for the abnormally strong signal far below
the horizon.
3. When the M-inversion was high and did not “overhang,” that is,
when the minimum value of ,If in the inversion was greater than
that at the transmitter, the average signal level on all these fre-
quencies was above the standard level and the signal was unsteady.
Figure 426 shows a section of signal record for this case. The
signal on ,55 cm ~ras barely detectable at such times but was
apparentl.v somewhat above standard.
.
J= 4000. Base of temperature lnverslon
~ . .
,. .. . ..-r”:
.. . . . .. . . ..- . ...”.”.
~ 2000- .. :..+”..“:’. . .. .. . .. . .
. . .......:..
... .... :“
. .. .. .
? #

,%i&e-------;-z---L
,= ~
A=3m
Cz -----------------

~~
0 -~g6k -------------------------------------------------
:; -20
-40
-60 b~
1 ~ 10 15 20 30
25 5
September 1944 October
FIG. 4.25.—Correlatlon of the height of the base of the temperature inversion with signal
levels and fad)ng rangeson the Sm Diegc-San Pedro transmission path.

When the Jf-inversion was low, the average signal on all three
4.
circuits increased markedly, as shown in Fig. 4.27, the highest
frequency rising by the greatest amount; the signal became much
steadier on the two lower frequencies,
5. Under all circumstances the signal levels on the two lower fre
quencies remained below the free-space value, but on the highest
frequent y it exceeded this value by 10 db or more,
These facts have not yet been explained on a rigorous theoretical basis;
presumably such an explanation would require, as a starting point, evalua-
tion of the integral in Eq. (2.172) for M-profiles with elevated irregularities.
The ray theory cannot supply information on field strength below the
horizon for this case any more than it can for a standard M-profile. The
oversimple criterion for existence or nonexistence of “trapping” depend-
ing upon whether or not the M-inversion overhangs the transmitter is
also completely inadequate. Instead, the concept of “trapping” requires
precise de6nition; this can probably best be done by adoption of a con-
vention regarding the amount of decrease in the attenuation of the trans-
mission modes given by the factor exp (L.4~X) of Eq. 2.486a. This
factor is independent of height and expresses the effect of M-profile and
SEC. 49] SAN DIEGO TO SAN PEDRO 333

wavelength, which the ray theory cannot do. Furthermore, the implica-
tion is, when the simple concept of trapping based on ray tracing is applied,
that the signal strength within the layer does not increase noticeably
until rays begin to be turned downward. This is not true, of course, since
Ieaking-modes affect the signal strength inornear the nonstandard Layer,

-lo
-20

-30 X=3m I k. 6m
-20
A= 55cm
-40
I
-30
-50 /

-40

~ -~ L I
Time in hours Time in hours Time in hours
(a) (b) (c)
Fm. 4.26.—Typical signal record on the San Dieg&San Pedro path when the M-inversion
was high.

~ o r
*
s -lo -
; o -lo
~
-$ -20 -

%
g -30 -
:-10 -20 -
-o
.E
-40 -
&
k -20
&
w X=3m -30 - A. 6m
=
# -30 -50 - <
Time in hours Time in hours Time in hours
(a) (b) (c)
Fm. 4.27. —Typiczl signal record on the San Diego-San Pedro path when the M-inversion
was low.

and the increase in signal strength as the layer moves up from the surface
is gradual rather than abrupt; the rate of increase is influenced by the
magnitude of the irregularity, its height in natural und.s,l and heights of
transmitter and receiver expressed similarly.
1The italics are ussd to emphssize the wavelength-layer height dependence, which
is responsible for” the fact that a change in layer height from, say, 100 to 200 ft cm
pruduce a very large change in the degree of trapping of wavelengths in the centimeter
region but relatively little in the meter region (sse Ssss. 4.4 and 219).
334 EXPERIMENTAL STUDIES OF REFRACTION [SEC.49

When the elevated layer in this case dropped to near the surface, it
was strong enough to trap the 55-cm signal strongly, while the 3-m signal
was probably in the region of incipient trapping, and the 6-m signal was
affected relatively little.
The wave equation has been applied to obtain exact expressions for
the transmission and reflection coefficients of plane layers of finite thick-
ness in which the index of refraction varies with positional The a~
mosphere in vertical section is divided into three plane strata, the first
with constant index of refraction, the second with the index changing
continuously in a way permitting analysis with simple functions, and the
third with constant index which may differ from that in the first region.
Themodified-index concept is discarded. A plane wave in the first med-
ium is considered to be incident on the layer at a small grazing angle; and
if this angle is sufficiently small, a substantial fraction of the incident
energy will be reflected back into the first medium. The amount of
reflection depends upon the grazing angle, the ratio of thickness of the
transition layer to the wavelength, and the form of variation of index
through the layer.
The results of this analysis have been used to explain the characteristics
of the signal at the receiversat San Pedro far below thehorizon.2 Qualita-
tive agreement is claimed between the predicted and observed variation of
field strength as the height of the layer varies, although there is no check
on absolute field strengths.
The application of this solution for the plane layer to the actual physical
situation cannot be considered entirely satisfactory, as several factors are
ignored and no simple way of evaluating their importance has yet ap-
peared. It is not clear that the assumptions of a plane source wave and
plane reflecting layer are reasonably valid for a spherical system. The
boundary conditions are ignored at the surface of the earth but are ful-
filled at the reflecting layer and at infinity. For a qualitative explanation
of why extra energy can be propagated below the horizon this method of
approaches useful, but it should not be relied upon to explain the physical
facts in detail. The formulation interms ofasenes of transmission modes
obtained from the fundamental theorem of Eq. (2”172) affords a math-
matically difficult but nevertheless more trustworthy procedure.3 A

I J. B. Smyth, “Transmission of Plane Waves through a Single Stratum Separating

Two Media,” Part I, NRSL Report No. WP-9, Dec. 22, 1943; Part II, NRSL Report
No. WP-13, June 23, 1944.
f L. J. Anderson el al., “Atmospheric Refraction, a Preliminary Quantitative In-
vestigation,” NRSL Report No. WP-17, Dec. 28, 1944; L. G. Trolese, “One-way
Transmission Experiments over the Sea between Los Angeles and San Diego,” in Radw
Wave Propagation, AcademicPress,New York, 1949.
s T. Pearcey has suggested that evaluation of this integral or its equivalent might
lead to a form of solution similar to that described above for the layer; but rintil this
is done, there is no direct way of testing the validity of the plane-wave-plane-layer
SEC. 4. 10] FLA THEAD LAKE 335

considerable number of modes may be important, each leaking out of the

elevated duct at a rate depending on the characteristics of the inversion
and each being excited more or less efficiently, depending upon the position
of the transmitter with respect to the height-gain curve of the mode.

TR.4NSMISS1ON OVER AN INLAND LAKE

BY DONALD
E. KERR

4“10. Flathead Lake .—Some of the first overwater transmission meas-

urements to be correlated in detail with low-level soundings were made
from Sept. 9-19, 1943, over Flathead Lake, Montana, by Washington
State College.’ The lake extends in a north–south direction, is 25 miles
long and 6 to 14 miles wide. It is located in arid country about 2900 ft
above sea level. A radio transmission circuit on 10 cm was set up from
-a transmitting terminal 15 ft above lake level to receiving terminals
approximately 20 miles distant across the length of the lake, at heights of
16, 57, and 180 ft. The 180-ft location was used for 3 days; the 57-ft
terminal for the remainder of the period; and the 16-ft terminal for the
entire period. The 16- and 180-ft combination of terminal heights gave a
just-optical path, while the lower terminals were slightly below the horizon.
Low-level soundings were made up to heights of about 300 ft at intervals
of 2 to 4 hr. The prevailing surface winds were southwest, and the
soundings were made within 3 miles of the eastern shore, thus giving an
overwater trajectory of several miles to the sounding point.
The experiment revealed the following facts:
1. The M-profiles ranged from near standard to strong surface ducts.
The near-standard profiles tended to occur between 0200 and 1200
hours when conditions were calm; the ducts occurred in the after-
noon and evening not only under calm conditions but with surface
wind speeds up to 12 or 15 mph. Considerable lack of uniformity
was apparent under nonstandard conditions.
2. When the M-profile was approximately standard, the signal varia-
tions at the two receivers at 16 and 57 or 180 ft were in general
similar, and the average level was not far from the standard level.
3. When M-inversions occurred, the average signal level at ‘both
receivers rose to near the free-space value, reaching a maximum of
about 10 db above free space, with the signal changing to the
“strong-trapping” type with scintillations of varying amplitude
superposed on rollers up to 50 db in amplitude.

method. There is some difference of opinion in thk matter, and the statements given
here represent the views held by the authors of thk volume.
I P. A. Anderson, K. E. F]tzsimmons, and S. T. Stephenson, “The Propagation of
10 cm Waves over an Inland Lake. Correlation with Meteorological Soundings, ”
NDRC Report No. 14-212, Washington State College, Nov. 12, 1943.
336 EXPERIMENTAL STUDIES OF REFRACTION [SEC. 411

4. When the average signal wasnear free-space level, the fadesat the
two receivers occurred independently, at times fading out of phase.
Short, deep fades occurred more frequently at the higher terminal,
dropping to30dbor more below free-space level. The total range
of signal variation was 50 to 55 db.
These results appear to be qualitatively in agreement with those
obtained on other comparable overwater circuits, although detailed com-
parisons cannot be madd. There is no disagreement with the general
conclusions given in Sec. 43 concerning the correlation between M-profile
near the surface and signal behavior; the soundings support the plausi-
bil ity of the expectation of that time that the dry, warm air from the
land should be modified by cooling (or heating) and evaporation from the
lake surface by processes similar to those occurring over the ocean. Pre-
sumably there should at times have been an evaporation duct, but the
data published thus far do not permit detailed analysis. These meas-
urements were particularly interesting because they aided in the early
development of the understanding of overwater transmission. All other
experiments at that time had been done over the ocean.’

ONE-WAY TRANSMISSION OVER LAND

BY DONALD E. KERR AND PEARL .J. RUBENSTEIN

In contrast to the situation in most of the overwater transmission

experiments described in the preceding pages, meteorological soundings
and related analysis have played a very small part in most of the overland
experiments made thus far. Therefore no basis for satisfactory quan-
titative of the observed phenomena is available; instead, the
explanation
observed facts must at present be considered largely empirical. Con-
sequently, the overland experiments will not be described individually in
detail, but rather the general features that appear to be common to all
will be enumerated, and the distinguishing features of each discussed.
4“11. Early Experiments.-Since about 1931 various aspects of ultra-
high-frequency propagation over land have been under investigation, the
effects of tropospheric refraction being one of the principal features to
receive attention. Much of this work haa been carried out by tie Bell
Telephone Laboratories over the gently rolling terrain of New Jersey.’

I For example, see P. J. Rubenstein, I. Katz, L. J. Neelands, and R. M. Mitchell,

“Microwave Transmission over Water and Land under Various Meteorological Con-
ditions, ” RL Report No. 547, July 13, 1944.
z J. C. Schelleng, C. R. Burrows, and E. B. Femell, “Ultra-short-wave Propagation, ”
F’roc. IRE, 21, 427 (1933); C. R. Burrows, A. Decino, and L. E. Hunt, “Ultra-short-wave
Propagation over Land, “ ibid., 33, 1507 (1935); and “Stability of Two-meter Waves, ”
ibid., 26, 516 (1938); C. R. Englund, A. B. Crawford, and W. W. Mumford, “Ultra-
shortiwave Transmission over a 39-mile Optical Path,” ibid., 26, 360 (1940).
sm. 4 11] EARLY EXPERIMENTS 337

Over a period of 10 years tests were made at wavelengths from about 17 m

to 30 cm on circuits varying in length from a few hundred feet to 60 miles.
The first tests were designed to give information on the optical reflecting
and diffracting properties of the terrain; the observation of fading led to
further investigation and to the conclusion that tropospheric refraction
is responsible for the fading. A series of measurements made throughout
the year 1936 on a wavelength of 2 m over a 37-mile nonoptical path
showed the presence of a diurnal effect, with fading and high average
signal level at night as contrasted to steady signal near midday. This
diurnal effect was more pronounced in summer than in winter.
Attempts were made to correlate transmission characteristics with
atmospheric stratification in a later 2-year study in which wavelengths of
2 and 4 m were transmitted simultaneously on a 39-miIe optical path.
Recordings of temperature, relative humidity, and pressure at one trans-
mission terminal, in combination with upper-air data from U.S. Weather
Bureau aircraft soundings, revealed diurnal changes in refractive index
at the surface and indicated the possible existence of appreciable variations
in index gradient. The airplane meteorographs used for the soundings
had too great a lag coefficient and were not sufficiently accurate to permit
making soundings of the type now considered necessary.
As the experiments progressed, certain qualitative features of the
transmission became noticeable. In most of the later tests these features
reappeared with some modifications, usually becoming more pronounced
as the wavelength was decreased. These features were
1. The occurrence of a diurnal cycle, usually including two distinct
signal types. For several hours near the middle of the day the
signal was relatively steady, but at night (on calm, clear nights
particularly) it became disturbed, with marked fading; at the same
time the average signal level increased.
2. Much more pronounced diurnal effect in summer than in winter.
Practically all of the very deep fades occurred during the summer,
3. Almost entire disappearance of fading in rainy, stormy, or windy
weather.
4. Marked similarity between major variations in signal on the 2-
and 4-m wavelengths, with difference in fine details of fading on the
two wavelengths. Deep fades did not occur simultaneously.
5. Little difference between the behavior of vertically and horizontally
polarized radiation.
6. Increase of range of variation of signal strength and amount of
scintillation or fading as one terminal was decreased in altitude
and shifted slightly so as to be screened by a range of hills.
7. Range of variation of field strength from about 13 db above freespace
field to about 20 db below for the 2-m signal on the optical path
and slightly less for the 4-m signal. The average midday levels
338 EXPERIMENTAL STUDIES OF REFRACTION [SEC.411

showed a slow seasonal drift of 4 or 5 db about the free-space level,

being above in summer and below in fall and winter.1
The plot of signal as a function of time in Fig. 4“28 illustrates the
diurnal and seasonal effects and the similarity in gross aspects of the
signals on the two wavelengths.
4

0
4

-Z
E
.G ~
z
2
;0
u
ii Midnight July 1937
%3
% A=4m
‘2

o
3
A=2m
2
k ~
1 ~

‘t 20 ~ 21 22 23 24 25 26 27
Midnight February 1938
FIG. 42S.—Diurnal and seasonal effects observed on wavelengths of 2 ar,d 4 m on early BTL
transmission path.

Unpublished data for wavelengths of 2 m and 30 cm taken on this

same optical path in autumn weather show that the diurnal effect noted
in Item 1 occurred again, except that the 2-m average signal occasionally
dropped to a low level during nocturnal fading. On the other hand, such
a decrease in average signal level was usual rather than exceptional on
30 cm during fading periods. The fading range on 30 cm was appreciably

1Seasonal drift of midday levels has not been nOticed by thOse few observers in a
position to make such observations, except for RCA Laboratories on the paths described
in the next section.
sm. 4’11] EARLY EXPERIMENTS 339

greater than on 2 m, and small scintillations sometimes occurred super-

posed on the steady midday 30-cm signal.
The observed signal variability was interpreted as being caused by one
of the two following mechanisms.’ (1) Changes in the refractive-index
gradient would produce shifts in the interference pattern of the direct and
reflected rays. Calculations of this effect were carried out by introducing
a variable effective earth radks (see Sec. 2.4). (2) In the presence of an
elevated reflecting layer, or “air-mass boundary,” a third ray refleded
from this boundary might contribute to the interference.
From 1934 to 1937 transmission tests in the wavelength region from
5 to 8 m were carried out by Ross A. Hull,z with the aid of other radio
amateurs, the U.S. Weather Bureau, and Harvard University. The
death of Mr. Hull prevented completion of the work, but the preliminary
reportd and a recent summa~ indicate that the tests yielded considerable
valuable information of a qualitative nature. Hull appears to have
appreciated early in the course of the work the importance of both at-
mospheric water-vapor content and temperature inversions but lacked
the means of expressing their effects quantitatively. He studied particu-
larly the characteristics of transmission between Boston, Mass., and
Hartford, Corm., a 100-mile nonoptical path with intervening ridges 1000
ft high. Over this path the 5-m signals showed several of the same
characteristics that now appear to be common to overland transmission
at the shorter wavelengths. The signal at times approached free-space
level; strong diurnal and seasonal variations were apparent, with strong
signals prevalent at night and in the summer; a definite relationship was
noticed between types of signal fading and the atmosphere c structure. It
was noticed in particular that strong signal with deep fades tended to occur
just before the onset of precipitation resulting from overrunning tropical
air. Aircraft soundings revealed gross departures from atmospheric
homogeneity, such as pronounced nocturnal surface inversions or elevated
inversions associated with overrunning tropical air, and provided the
basis for correlations with signal strength variations. These correlations
could not be made in detail, but it appears that very large effects were
obtained from both types of inversions.
Despite the lack of completeness and the qualitative nature of the
results, Hu1l’s work was remarkable, and it is indeed unfortunate that it
could not be continued. Some of the questions raised by his results are
beyond the scope of most of the other work described in this book and
serve to emphasize that a satisfactory over-all understanding of refractive

1C. R. Englund, A. B. Crawford, and W. W, Mum ford, Bell System Tech. Jour.,
18, 489 (1938) and Proc. IRE, 28, 360 (1940).
z Then editor of QST, the official publication of the American Radio Relay League
s R. A. Hull, QST, 19, 3 (1935), and 21, 16 (1937).
a A. W. Friend, Proc. IRE, 33, 358 (1945).
340 EXPERI14ENTAL STUDIES OF REFRACTION [SEC. 4.12

effects certainly cannot reobtained until thegap has been bridged between
wavelengths of several meters and a few centimeters and a satisfactory
means obtained for estimating the effects of both surface and elevated
M-inversions.
4“12. Summary of General Characteristics.-In this section we shall
discuss the characteristics that appear to be common to the overland trans-
mission tests carried out from 1942 to 1945. These tests have in-
cluded wavelengths from 3 cm to about 7 m and terrain ranging from
extremely flat desert to mountains. The principal physical features of
the transmission paths are shown in Table 4.2. The terminal heights
indicated are above mean sea level instead of above surrounding terrain
(with the exceptions noted), for it is usually impossible to determine a
meaningful terminal height above rough terrain. Probably the best
simple w-ay of describing the transmission path geometry is by means of a
profile prepared from topographic maps, but it is not feasible to include
the profile of each path here.
Some transmission characteristics of the various circuits appear to
recur consistently in all cases given here; others are contradictory or
cannot be compared. Space limitations prevent discussion of results for
each circuit individually, but the following list presents those character-
istics which appear to be broadly representative of the experiments
listed in the table. All of these characteristics did not appear on every
circuit; usually on any circuit only a fraction of those listed were prev-
alent (or were reported). The specific disagreements with this list and
additional features that cannot be compared directly are discussed in the
next section.
The broad features common to all the circuits are the following:
1. On optical and near-optical circuits the signal was steady at a level
near the standard level in the early afternoon (see Fig. 4“29a). On
the fully optical circuits this midday signal level for the microwave
circuits was close to the free-space level (an indication of poor
specular reflection from rough ground at the shorter wavelengths).
2, Pronounced fading, accompanied by deviation of the average signal
level from the daytime value, occurred on clear-, calm nights. On
optical paths the averagelevel varied between —12 and + 5 db,l and
a variety of fading types was observed (see Fig. 4“29b, c, and d).
On nonoptical circuits, on the other hand, the average level invariably
increased, sometimes reaching the free-space value and occasion-
ally higher, but the fading range varied greatly from one circuit to
another.
3. The time of day at which transitions from steady signal to variable
or the reverse occurred was subject to large variations, but the only
time when transmission was almost certain to be steady was in the
1The reference level is always the free-space level unless stated otherwise.
 TABLE42.+vEn.A.. TRANFLWLIm,ON
CIIICUITEI

Path :,:$: Or anization

Terminal locationn le&f;, A, cm IIeight.qof Nature of te,,a,n Degree of ob~truction Period of
ter”,i”als, ftt operation an.$
~;~:rnce
0 log F
13.5 10 5250 2400 Optical 3 weeks, winter
52 10 525o 263o Optical 8 weeks, winter,
apri”g, summer
92 10 525o 2550 One terrni”fd 300 ft 5 day,, munmer
Vicinity of Mt. 111 10 . 5250 3450 ozkm~r:ti: Wsc: 1, 2
Spokane, Wash. above tan ent ray
111 10 5250 3650 One tenninaf 300 ft
above tangent my
112 10 52X) 39543 Obstructed by rnountaln

Wembley, Haeefmere, Urbanat oneend; woodec March 1943- GEC (En and)
Engfand 38 9 .–30 725 170 and hiffy at the other. Jufy 1946 ASE, NPf :3, 4
AcroeaThameaVdfev.
New York City-, 665 – 21 260 Gently rolling farm Imd March lP43-
Htmppauge,N.Y. 42,5 63 –4 13CQ 29s and urban territory Optical March 1944 RCA: 5
11 –2 Z@
663 – 35 154 Gently mffingfarm land March 1943-
‘?%%X?KY. 70 63 – 32 13C0 145 and urban territory March 1944 RCA: 5
11 -W3to 87
–60
New York City, 3 Wooded, industrial rmd flay clearance of 60 ta JufY 1943-
Neshmic, N.J. 41 6.5 o Wo 600 urban, part]y across 100 ft at hill near March 19461 BTL: 6
10 and near water midpoint
Great Blue Hill, 45 10 -–2 65o 2000 Wooded and urban, billy R.3y }0 SbOVehorimntaf; Sept. 29- RL: 7
Mt. Wachumtt, Mass. 600 ft clearance Oct. 16, 1943
Gillf$nd, DateIan, 47 9 –60 53 35 Flatdesert with general Nonoptimf Dec. 13-20, NEL
rise of 4(XIft 1944 (NRSL) :8
Blue Ridge Lwko”t, 170 6 . 5660 430r3 Acmm San Joaquin Optical Sevemf weeks, OCsigo: 9
Mt. Hamilton, Calif, valley summer 1945
Blue Ridge Lookout, 106 6 . 8000 5800 Mountainous Opticaf Ocsigo: 9
Mt. Frazier,Calif.
342 EXPERIMENTAL STUDIES OF REFRACTION [SEC. 4.12

early afternoon for a very few hours (except for Item 4). The
periods of transition between fading and steady signal were usually
relatively short—sometimes 30 min but generally somewhat longer.
In the afternoon the transition was likely to occur some hours before
sunset, but in the morning it usually occurred long after sunrise.1
+10 - +10

o - 0

z
&
: -10 - -10
a
:
P
-20 - (a)
I I
-20
%

~—l hr--
Fm. 4.29.—Typical signal records in overland transmiwion on an optical or near-optical
path. The abscissa is time: (a) early afternoon; (hc,d) clear nights. (Blue Hill to Mt.
Wachusett circuit. )

4. In cloudy, stormy weather, microwave transmission, both day and

night, was standard and steady, as mentioned in Item 1.2
1The measurements on the Arizona desert ehowed a considerably greater degree Of
regularity than any others reported (see Fig. 433). On this circuit the fading tended
to be famly slow, as indicated m F]g. 4.29b. For a more recent report see J. P. Day
and L. G. Troless, I%oc. IRE, 38, 165 (1950).
‘In the 5- to &m band, however,Hull’s data show casesof strongsignalassociated
with the onset of precipitation. This phenomenonhas also been reported on 9 cm.
See E. C. S. Megaw,Jour. IEE, 93, 111.4, 79 (1946).
SEC. 4.13] ADDITIONAL 0B8ERVA TIONS 343

5. The diurnal change in average signal level and in fading range from
day to night was more marked in summer than in winter.
6. The fading range generally increased when one of the terminals was
lowered or shifted behind an obstacle.
7. Greatest variability in signal level was observed on the shortest
wavelengths.
8. The strongest signal observed was about +15 db, but in most cases
it was between O and +10 db. The depth of fading varied greatly
with the wavelength and the geometry of the circuit but was fre-
quently as large as 40 db.
9. Horizontally and vertically polarized radiation showed similar
behavior.
Meteorological soundings were available for only the Mt. Spokane and
Arizona circuits.’ Detailed correlation of the radio transmission with
meteorological parameters cannot, therefore, be made.
Two general conclusions can be drawn from these investigations.
1. Steady transmission occurs when the air along the transmission
path is well mixed, as on sunny afternoons or in stormy, windy
weather.z The Af-profile is then nearly standard, except that under
strong insolation the temperature gradient very near the ground may
be superadiabatic, causing a slightly substandard M-gradient. (It
should be recalled that homogeneous air, as defined in Chap. 3, with
an adiabatic lapse rate also gives a slightly substandard M-gradient.)
2. Signal fading occurs in the presence of irregularities in the M-profile.
On nonoptical circuits a marked change in average signal level
invariably accompanies these irregularities, but for optical circuits
such a general rule does not appear to be justified. The irregularities
in the M-profile may occur either at the. surface (frequently as a
result of radiation cooling) or at some altitude that cannot be speci-
fied on the basis of existing information. (This point is discussed
further in Sec. 413. See also Sec. 3“21.) The humidity gradient
can, of course, be very important, as well as the temperature gra-
dient. In particular, a positive vapor-pressure gradient through
the inversion can cause a substandard M-1ayer, as shown in
Fig. 3.49.
4“13. Additional Observations.-Because of the wide range of physical
characteristics and of the periods of operation that mark the circuits
described in Table 4.2, intercomparison of the data is often difficult or
meaningless. This diversity of conditions, moreover, gives rise to some

~See the folIowing section for a description of the soundhge.

2The accuracy of this statement appears to depend upon the degree of obstruction
of the transmission path. It is apparently correct for optiral and near-optical paths,
but is not necessarily cor~ct for highly nonoptical paths for which the standard diffrac-
tion loss is very large. ~%v the following sections for further discussion.
 344 EXPERIMENTAL STUDIES OF REFRACTION [SEC. 4.13

apparently unrelated or even inconsistent observations. These points

which appear to be reasonably well defined are discussed below.
A qualitative picture of the range of variation experienced on typical
overland circuits can be obtained from Table 4.3, which shows the standard,
the maximum, and the minimum field strengths observed on the two RCA
circuits over Long Island on three wavelengths. The maximum signal

TABLE4,3.—SIGNAL
LEVE,LS
ONRCA CIRCUITS
OVERLONGISLAND

Receiving Field strengths, db above free-space value

Wavelength,cm terminal
location Standard II
L aximum .Minimum

665* Hauppauge – 21 — 13 – 29
63 Hauppaugs —4 + 10.5 <—30
11 Hauppauge –2 + 12 <—25
665* Riverhead – 35 >—18 <—50
M, Rkerhead –31t0—35 + 10.5 <—44
11 Riverhead –50to —60 +13 I .

* The SS5cm circuit was in operation only from 1400t.a22oO

houm; consequently its value is limited.

level for the shorter wavelengths was 10 to 15 db above the free-space

values, but the level on the 6.6-m circuit never exceeded – 13 db. The
shorter wavelengths had the greater fading range, but the difference in
this range between 63 and 11 cm was small. (A similar situation was
found on the New York–Neshanic optical path, where the fading ranges
on 3, 5.5, and 9 cm were only slightly different.) Table 4.3 also shows
the relative conditions on optical and nonoptical paths. (The Hauppauge
paths are optical, and the Riverhead paths nonoptical.) The fading
range increases as the degree of obstruction of the circuit increases.
On the Long Island circuits the average 1l-cm signal level was higher
in summer than in winter, both by day and night, as illustrated in Figs.
4“30 and 4-31.
Both the diurnal and seasonal effects are illustrated in Fig. 4“32,
which shows the average diurnal variation of the fading range on the
6.5-cm New York–Neshanic circuit in February and August.
On the New York-Neshanic circuit the fading was reported generally
to be synchronous at two 6.5-cm terminals spaced 25 ft apart vertically,
as well as on 3, 6.5, and 10 cm at a single location. This is in contra-
diction to the results of O-cm tests in California, where vertical separation
of two receiving antennas operating separate receivers by the calculated
mtium-to-minirnum spacing in the interference pattern resulted in
complementary fading; that is, the signal was strong in one receiver when
weak in the other. The difference probably arises from the fact that the
reflected wave on the New York-Neshanic circuit was very weak, as it
SEC. 413] ADDITIONAL OBSERVATIONS 345

originated primarily from a narrow ridge screening the region that might
otherwise have provided stronger reflection, whereas on the California
circuit both direct- and reflected-ray paths were unobstructed and the
land reflection was much stronger than usual. The synchronism of the
three wavelengths on the BTL circuits is somewhat surprising, as it is
100r 1001-

20 July 1943 20 July 1943

1: : Average 1: Average

6 6
4 4

2 2
January 1944 January 1944
$ _y
O.i \ 0.:
0.6 \ 0.6
\
0.4 - 1 0.4 -
I
0.2 - I
02 -
I
(a) I (b)
0.1 1 0: ~
1 I
-40 -20 0 +20 -20 0
Field strength in db above fr~space level
FIG. 430.-6easonal effect on 1l-cm New York-Riverhead path, w indicated by percent-
age of time during which the signal wae above the absciasa on the average, during July and
during January. (a) When all times were considered; (b) when only darkness hours were
considered.

~[fifii~

Feb. Apr. Jun. Aug. Ott Dec. Feb. Feb. Apr. Jun. Aug. Oct. Dec. Feb.
1943 1944 1943 1944
(a) (b)
FIG. 4.31.-Se&&ml effect on the RCA 1l-em New York-Rlverhead path, rMindicated
by (a) number of days and (b) number of hours during which the eignal wea more than 6 db
above the free-epaee level eaeh month.

~cult to visualize a refraction mechanism capable of producing marked

fading but insensitive to wavelength.
In further tests of space diversity a comparison waa made between
the 41-mile New York–Neshanic circuit and the two Xl-mile optical links
obtained by the use of an additional terminal at the mid-point. The
346 EXPERIMENTAL STUDZESOF REFRACTION [SEC. 4.13

depth of fading onthe long path was greater than that on either of the
short ones, and no synchronism was observed.
On several of the circuits, smoke and haze layers were observed to
occur simultaneously with fluctuating signal. Such layers generally mark
a region of atmospheric stability and, consequently, a tendency toward
an M-inversion. The gradual destruction of a nocturnal inversion after
sunrise can be followed visually as the bottom of the haze layer moves
upward and is eventually dissi-
pated. It has been frequently
noticed that the final stages of
this process, perhaps the last
% o~
; O 2 4 6 81012141618202224 hour, are marked by extremely
Eastern standard time large and rapid signal fluctua-
3
$ (a)
tions, terminating abruptly in the
$ +3
& steady midday signal when the
~+z
z layer disappears. These layers
n+l
m also permit visual observation of
%0
,E_l the well-known “gravitational
5 waves,” which were suggested by
:-2
2 Helmholtz and have been inves-
~_3
~ _4 tigated theoretically at some
length.’ It is frequently sug-
3-5
gested that these atmospheric
-6
waves may be connected with
’70 24 681012141618202224 signal fading,z but no experiments
Eastern standard time have yet been performed to inves-
(b)
tigate the matter.
Fro. 4.32.—Maxinmm and minimum signel The only overland transmis-
levels during l-hr intervals averaged over the
month of (a) February 1944 and (b) August sion circuit on which consistent
1943. These figures show the diurnal and sea- effects of fog have been reported
aomd effects observed on the BTL 6.5-cm New
York-Neahunic path. is that in England, between
Wembley and Haselmere. In
general, the increase of average signal on an initially clear night was
arrested by the development of low cloud or fog. In the case of fog
formation the signal level then usually dropped below the standard level,
strong fading continuing. Although no soundings are available for thk
circuit, a reasonable qualitative explanation is that radiational cooling

I H. Lamb, HpdrodWamim, Cambridgs,London, 6th cd., 1932, p. 363; B. Haurwitz,

Dyaamiz Meteorology, McGraw-Hill,New York, 1941.
~For inztame, W. M. Elaaseer,“Coromentaon Duct Transmissionand Fa.dhg,”
Dec. 5, 1944 (unpublished); J. B. Srnyth and L. G. Troless, “AtmosphericWavm-
Fluctuationsin High Frsquency Radio Waves,” NRSL Report No. WP-18, Feb. 1,
1945; R. A. Craig, “GravitationalWavea Associatedwith TemperatureInversions)”
in Radio-Wava Propagation, AcademicPress,New York, 1949.
SEC.413] ADDITIONAL OBSERVATIONS 347

early in the evening produces a surface temperature invemion with a

possible consequent steepening of the base of the M-profile and increase
of signal strength. At some stage of this process the surface temperature
drops below the dew point, and the resulting positive humidity gradient
tends to counteract the effect of the temperature inversion, producing
a substandard layer if the humidity gradient is sufficiently steep, with a
consequent decrease in average signal level. (See Sec. 3.21 for a more
detailed discussion of the possible meteorological processes involved.)
The data from the Wembley-Haselmere circuit have also been examined
forthe effects of fronts. Astatistical summary wasmade of40cases’ for
the period July through September 1944. Twelve warm-type fronts were
found to cause a low signal, and one a rise and fall of 9 db in signal level.
Of the remainder,
Twenty-seven cold fronts or occlusions gave following results: four a low signal
with no rise within five or six hours (but one of which had still warm air at the
surface). Twenty-three gave either a rise in signal during pass~e or a rise within
fioe or six hours after passage, including some very marked rises, associated with,
in ten cases, a low signal during passage.
From a forecasting point of view during that period the following rules emerge:
1. Passage of warm fronts is invariably associated with a low signal, or if the
signal is high immediately before, passage will cause it to lower.
2. Passage of cold fronts and five or six hours afterwards. It can safely be
said that sometime during that period a rise in signal can be expected in about
nine caees out of ten, but from purely synoptic considerations it is unsafe to
say whether actually during passage over the path or a few hours later.
3. High wind conditiom (winds of Beaufort F6 or above) normally give a low
signal, but there was one exception to this on 24th September, the wind being
N.W.F. 8 (fresh gale).
4. Atiicycfonti eoaditicms give rise to a variable signal with a marked diurnal
trend (but there are a few exceptions). Good signal strength is most likely
during the afternoon with a gradual fade during the early hours of the morning.
The effect would seemto be most marked with light or moderate off-shorewinds.
Because the meteorological information obtained by soundings coin-
cident with overland transmission is limited, detailed correlations are
impossible. Several investigators attempted to use conventional radio-
sonde data and aircraft soundings made by aerometeorographs, which,
for reasons discussed in Chap. 3, are usually unsatisfactory; nevertheless,
the Washington State College group operating near Mt. Spokane found
correlations between atmospheric stratification, as reveald by the radio-
sonde ascenta from the Spokane station of the Weather Bureau, and
variations in transmission stability. During the later phases of the
investigation the radiosonde data were supplemented by low-level sound-
I This informationwss obtained in private communkation, through the kindness
f R. L. Smith-Rose and others of the l’ropmpheric Wave PropagationCo-ttee
L-d.
348 EXPERIMENTAL STUDIES OF REFRACTION [SEC. 4.13

ings made with early models of the wired sonde. The correlations,
although few in number, appeared to indicate consistently that marked
fading occurred on all but the 13.5-mile path when the soundings revealed
either surface or elevated layers in which the gradient of index of refraction
deviated markedly from the standard value.’ The elevated layers were
usually found at heights comparable to the terminal heights and were not
noticed to exhibit any diurnal variation, but the surface layers were caused
by nocturnal inversions, as discussed in Chap. 3. Despite the very irreg-
ular terrain, the effect of the surface inversion appeared to persist over
distances of at least 100 miles.
Transmission on the 13.5-mile path was extremely steady, showing
only very slow variations of about ~ db. This is not surprising in view
of the short path length and the large inclination of the line of sight to
the horizontal.z
These early experiments by the Washington State College were the
first to combine successfully microwave transmission measurements over
land with intensive meteorological soundings, \vhich were made first by
radiosonde ascents and later by the wired sonde apparatus then under
development. Most of the prevailing transmission characteristics
described in Sec. 4“12 were found at this time to some degree.
The most detailed program of meteorological measurements was carried
out in connection with the transmission tests over the Arizona desert.
The meteorological soundings were made with a modified wired sonde
(see Sec. 328) at both terminals and near the path mid-point at frequent
intervals throughout most of each night of the test. They showed that
strong temperature and M-inversions formed at the surface at night, in-
creasing in altitude through the night, which produced marked irregularities
in the M-profile at heights of several hundred feet.
The radio signal, which was not detected during the daytime on this
path, began to rise around sunset. It remained strong throughout the
night, reaching a maximum value of about 12 db below the free-space
level. The signal again dropped below the detection limit (60 db below
free-space level) 2 to 3 hr after sunrise, when the temperature and M-inver-
sions were destroyed by solar heating. This marked diurnal cycle was
repeated consistently throughout the course of the tests. Figure 4“33
1At the time this work was reported the quantity M was not in use, but the data
publiihed in terms of n indicati that strong M-inversions must have occurred in these
layers.
z Even such short paths are not necessarily free from atmcapheric effects, however.
Unpublished information from Bell Telephone Laboratories on W, 2&, and 30-cm
tranzmkaion on a 10.5-mile optical path in the summer and fall of 1940 shows that
strong fading may occur. In general the fading on 20 cm was slightly more noticeable
than on 30 cm, but the fadhg on 10 cm was very much more noticeable than on 30 cm.
The maximum fading range was 20 db on 30 cm and 30 db on 10 cm.
 ‘. ..-.
SEC. 413] ADDITIONAL OBSERVATIONS
1 I 1 1 [ 1 1 1 1 1 1
-“”
”-----
...........----------
-0
,+T ..
---- -. :............___
.>-----
---- ------- ------
- or —-_ .-. ----,
. “-. . .... ... .... ---- -- -j\ ,-’
.
!,
= . . . . .
---- -,.V
- ----
1
,
m “
.-E
.%
z
c :
c? wa
- MC
, , , , 1 1 1 , , I I I
ocotDe No
13A~l~3edS-WJJ aAOqe JJ JO SPaJPUnq U! @@H
qp u! q@IJIS leu~!s
350 EXPERIMENTAL STUDIES OF REFRACTION [SEC. 4.14

shows the variation of signal and the accompanying soundings throughout

a night with a strong inversion.
Attempts to correlate the measured signal strengths with such param-
eters as the decrease in M between the transmitter height and top of
the duct were unsuccessful.’ Additional difficulties were possibly intro-
duced by the duration of the soundings (20 to 30 rein) as well as departures
from the assumed horizontal stratification over the sloping terrain of
the circuit.
An interesting and unexplained feature of the desert experiment is that
the type of signal fading was noticeably different from that commonly
observed on other nonoptical circuits. In the presence of ducts the fading
was much slower than that commonly found. It lacked the usual broad
maxima and deep, sharp minima, and the fading range was not large. 2
4“14. Discussion.—Perhaps the most strikkig similarity among all of
the observations for paths that are not too long is the diurnal change in
signal behavior, in which the signal changes from a relatively steady type
at midday to a type characterized by pronounced fading at night. As
shown in Sec. 3“21, the M-profile varies, in general, from approximately

JAttempts to correlate signal strengths and such M-profile parameters on the

overwater circuits m Massachusetts Bay were also negative. only wh~n the complete
wave solution was used was reasonable agreement obtained between predicted and
measured field strengths.
2 Editor’s note added irl lmof. Since the foregoing material was written, further tests
have been made bytbe 1’.S. Navy ~leetrOnics Laboratory at the same 10cation, usinga
number of wavelengths between 12 m and 1.25 cm. (Personal communication from
J. B. Smyth.) Thedata show aremarkable difference between optical or nearly-optical
circuits having small standard diffraction loss and those having large loss. By way of
illustration, the first type would be represented by a wavelength of 30 cm and a trans-
mitter height of 58 m, whereas the second would employ a wavelength of 3 cm and a
transmitter height of 1 m. Under midday conditions. when the measured M-profile
was essentially standard, except for a substandard foot because of in~nse soil heating,
the two types of circuits showed a startling difference in performance. The signal on
the lower-loss circuit was steady at about the standard level, and variation of the height
of tbe receiving terminal shovwd a normal height-gain function. For the other type of
circuit, however, the signal showed strong scintillation, continually fading rapidly both
above and below the average level. Most surprising, the average level ww marry
decibels abooe the level for standard refraction, and the height-gain effect was absent,
thesignal strength being essentially independent of height. [See J. P. Dayand L. G.
Trolese) Proc. IRE, 38, 165 (1950).]
This scintillating midday signal, farabove standard level, appears to be common on
long paths with very low terminal heights. Recordings of signals in the frequency-
modulation and somewhat higher frequency bands bave now been made for considerable
periods over path lengths of over 100 miles by the Federal Cornrnunications Commission,
the Central Radio Propagation Laboratory of the Bureau of Standards, and other
groups. (See K. A. Norton' schapter in Aduances in Elwtronics, Vol. lAcadernic Press,
New York, 1949, ) Presumably this phenomenon is similar to that found over water in
Massachusetts Bay (Sec. 4.5) and at Antigua (Sec. 420), and is p~ibly to bs explfined,
in part at lesat, by scatkring from atmospheric irregularities.
SEC. 4.14] DISCUSSION 351

standard around midday under the influence of solar heating to either sub-
standard or superstandard near the surface at night as a result of radiation
cooling. The irregularities in M-profile undoubtedly vary in height and
shape along a transmission path over rough terrain during different parts
of the diurnal cycle; hence the observed phenomena represent a combina-
tion of “surface trapping” and “reflection from layers” (the quotation
marks are used to emphasize that these terms are crudely descrip-
tive in nature rather than significant from a mathematical point of
view).
In addition to the fading, the variation of the average signal level
upon which the fading is superposed is of some interest. It is usually
observed that on nonoptical circuits the average signal level rises when
fading occurs,l as it does in the overwater case, but on optical circuits it
may either rise or fall for considerable periods. At the longer wavelengths
the reflection from the ground may be sufficiently strong to introduce a
lobe structure that can be distorted by refraction, thus causing some
fading, but this explanation is untenable for the shorter wavelengths,
where the preference for free-space signal under standard refraction con-
ditions on several wavelengths and direct measurements of reflection
coefficient indicate that ground reflection must be essentially absent.
All the experiments that were operated in a way to disclose seasonal
variations show essential agreement in the conclusion that the diurnal
signal variations are considerably more pronounced in summer than in
winter. This is presumably attributable, in part at least, to the high
water-vapor content of the air in the summer, which enhances the effective-
ness of temperature gradients in producing strong index gradients; at the
same time it increases the probability of occurrence of strong humidity
gradients, which also affect the index gradients markedly, as pointed out
in Sec. 3.21. In addition to the exaggeration of the diurnal fading, an
increase in average signal level in the summer was found on the RCA
circuits on Long Island, possibly another manifestation of the enhance-
ment of the effects of temperature gradients.
In all overland experiments in which comparisons have been made
between vertical and horizontal polarization, no appreciable differences
have been observed in transmission stability. This result is not surprising,
as those measurements in which reflection from the earth might be expected
to play a part (optical circuits on wavelengths of several meters) are
usually made at such small grazing angles that the reflection coefficient
should not be substantially different for the two polarizations. The
theoretical treatment of Chap. 2 predicts no dependence on polarization
in the diffraction region, as the second-order terms that were discarded in
1This statement is not always true, as may be seen from the transmission data
from England, which indicate that substandard layers occur at times, decreasing the
average signal level.
352 EXPERIMENTAL STUDIES OF REFRACTION [SEC.4.14

formulation of the theory contained the only vehicle for expressing

polarization dependence.
The tendency toward decreased stability of transmission as the degree
of obstruction of a transmission path is increased is fairly well established.
The variation of signal under nonstandard refraction conditions occurs
between an upper limit, roughly 10 to 15 db above free-space level, and a
lower limit that is often not measurable but is well below the standard
signal level.
If the nocturnal cooling first affects the refractive index gradient at
the surface (and presumably this would usually be the case on clear nights),
surface ducts may form. How their shapes, stability, and rate of growth
are affected by hilly slopes and varying types of surface are open questions,
as is also the mechanism by which they affect transmission stability.
A general explanation of overland transmission in any but the crudest
of theoretical terms is, for several reasons, impossible at present. The
boundary conditions for most land surfaces have not been formulated
satisfactorily for either the meteorological or the electromagnetic phase
of the propagation problem, The usual streams, vegetating, bare earth,
buildings, and other irregularities constitute sources (or sinks) of heat and
moisture, and calculation of the exchange of these quantities with the
atmosphere and the resulting modification of the atmosphere has not been
reduced to a practical procedure. As can be seen from the discussion in
Chap. 3, even for the vastly simpler case of a smooth sea at constant
temperature this problem is amenable only to a crude estimation. The
roughness of most land surfaces and lack of knowledge of their conductivity
and permittivity preclude application of a reflection coefficient in the
customary way (see Sec. 5.1), and no satisfactory procedure has been
evolved as a substitute.1 Finally, the concept of modified index, which has
performed valuable service in the analysis of overwater propagation, loses
its precise meaning over land. It will be recalled that in the definition of
modified index, purely horizontal stratification is assumed; that is, surfaces
of constant index of refraction form spherical shells concentric with the
earth. This condition is not fulfilled over water as well as one would wish
and is even less satisfactorily met over rough land with varying surface
properties. The overland problem thus lacks a single unifying parameter
comparable to modified index. If the land is very flat and uniform in
character, such as that in the Arizona desert, this difficulty may perhaps
be somewhat less important.
Further progress in understanding the stability of overland transmission
requires emphasis on two main points: (1) an extensive program of detailed
I Under trapping conditions the guided waves strike the earth at extremely small
angles with the horizontal, with the result that even a rather rough surface may give
appreciable specular reflection.
SEC.414] DISCUSSION 353

meteorological sounding and analysis under conditions of varying degrees

of complexity, designed to obtain basic information on the mechanism of
duct formation, and (2) theoretical andexperimental study of theelectro-
magnetic features of the problem, including the effects of irregular ground.
The simpler corresponding problem for overwater transmission has yielded
definitive results only in proportion to the application of such methods.’

RADAR TRANSMISSION

It is clear from both theory and experimental data given thus far that
nonstandard refraction can produce startling departures from the coverage
diagrams discussed in Sees. 213 to 2“16. Because radar can explore large
volumes in space in a very short time, by comparison with the limited
information obtainable with fixed transmission terminals, it might appear
at first glance that radar wouId be the more useful tool in the investigation
of refraction. It will become clear from the ne~t five sections and from
Chaps. 5 and 6, however, that this is a much too naive assumption. It is
possible to use radar to considerable advantage in studying refraction, but
quantitative information comparable to that obtained from one-way
transmission is, except under special circumstances, essentially impossible
to obtain; on the other hand, some useful information of a qualitative
nature can be fairly easily obtained, particularly in conjunction with
one-way transmission measurements and a program of meteorological
investigation.
To appreciate the reasons for the foregoing statements, let us recall
the radar equation [Eq. (2.28)],

P, G’h’ UF4
— —.
~ = (47r)3 R’

In this equation the target is considered to be concentrated at a point, and

its radar cross section is given by u. The term F is also a point function.
The value of u for a real target of finite extent depends upon the distri-
bution of the incident field, that is, upon F, and upon the geometrical
features of the target. Near the earth’s surface the field incident on an
extended target, even for standard refraction, is likely to vary appreciably
with position; and if the shape of the target is complicated, it becomes
impossible to specify a single value of u independent of range, radar height,
etc. In addition, atmospheric refraction causes the incident field distri-

1Editor’s note addedin proof. In view of the new results on the high midday fields on
long paths, it appears that a still greater degree of complexity may prevail than has been
visualized earlier, and that the M-profile may be only an intermediate step in the study
of atmospheric refraction. The practical consequences of the later results may be very
important for such applications as television. aircraft, traffic control, and other services
in which cochannel interference is a serious problem.
354 EXPERIMENTAL STUDIES OF REFRACTION [SEC.4.15

bution to vary with time, resulting in large fluctuations of echo strength.

Consequently, radar measurements on random surface targets are by
nature rough and require adoption of some kind of arbitrary procedure
to make possible comparisons between observations. As it is difficult to
estimate “average” signal strengths on most radars with any accuracy, it
is usually more useful to measure the peak value of the echo occurring in
some chosen time interval, this interval depending upon conditions. In
view of the arbitrary method of measurement and the wide variation of
refraction effects, then, it is not possible to define a single meaningful value
of u for surface targets such as buildings, cliffs, or ships under conditions
of nonstandard refraction.1
Calculation of u for extended targets for nonstandard conditions is in
general not feasible, because in addition to the complications introduced
by the geometry of the target, the incident field distribution consists of the
summation of field from several transmission modes. From Sees. 2“17 to
2.23 it can be seen that this is not a promising prospect.
Lacking the means of describing radar transmission by simple param-
eters comparable to those of one-way transmission, we are left with only
the ratio of P,/P, as a phenomenological statement of echo from the target;
and as this is devoid of functional relationships, there is no possibility of
exploring the detailed nature of the transmission. Even without the
detail, there is much to be learned from rough observations, as shown in
the following sections.z
4“15. New England Coast S—As part of the program of overwater
transmission described in Sec. 4“1, experimental 3- and 9-cm radars4 were
set up beside the transmitting terminal tower at Race Point (see Fig. 4“1)
with antennas about 50 ft above mean sea level. In addition to random
shipping in Massachusetts Bay, coastal targets along the New England
coast were available to these radars, the targets being hills, towers, build-
ings, and a few islands. Local obstructions obscured most near-by land
targets, so that except for occasional ships no echoes could be expected
between 2 and 20 miles.
The observational program had two parts. A general picture of
transmission conditions was obtained from PPI photographs taken hourly;
the range and azimuth of the most distant detectable echo were also
I The other factors affecting a in the absence of refraction make determination of a
difficult but somewhat less ambiguous (see Chap. 6).
2It is not difficult to visualize an experiment in which the difficulties enumerated
above are greatly minimized, If, for instance, measurements were made of echoes
from a series of corner reflectors of known cross section, located at various ranges in
such a way as to be free from interference from other targets, the results could possibly
be interpreted as well as those obtained from one-way transmission measurements.
3 By Pearl J. Rubenstein.
~These spcriai {;ywrinwntal radars are described in Sec. 6.20.
SEC. 4,15] NEW ENGLAND COAST 355

recorded hourly.’ The echo strengths of four selected overwater targets

at ranges of 22, 41, 62, and 73 miles were measured hourly. Onfy the
first of these was visible under standard conditions. These targets were
chosen for their isolation and the relative steadiness of their echoes.z
Absolute measurements of the target echo strengths were made by match-
ing to the echo the pulse on the A-scope from a pulsed signal generator
connected to the receiver through a directional coupler. The peak echo
value reached in an interval ranging from 30 sec to several minutes was
recorded, the time interval being at the observer’s discretion.
Because no simple targets were available, standard values of maximum
range and of the signal strengths of the selected targets were determined
empirically from a preliminary series of measurements,
The patterns of radar echoes observed on the PPI fell into several
categories, each associated with a distinctive M-profile; these patterns,
shown in Fig. 4.34, are analogous to the signal types observed in one-way
transmission.
In Fig. 4.34a the PPI is practically devoid of echoes because of the
absence of permanent targets between 2 and 20 miles. This is the pattern
observed when M-profiles were substandard at the surface and the micro-
wave signal level in one-way transmission was below the standard level.
During such periods small ships were occasionally tracked to 10 or 12
miles. Both 3- and 9-cm radars showed symptoms of substandard
conditions at the same time.
The standard pattern, established empirically, is shown in Fig. 4.34b.
A few scattered echoes are seen at ranges near 20 miles. They appear
as arcs because of the 6° width of the 9-cm antenna pattern; the cor-
responding echoes at 3 cm (beamwidth 2°) are essentially dots. The
standard patterns at 9 and 3 cm, are very similar.
Only a slight improvement over the standard condition is represented
in the pattern of Fig. 4 .34c, which occurred with shallow surface ducts.
Maximum ranges on surface targets were extended 10 to 30 per cent;
some additional targets appear within the standard maximum range; and
the echo signal strengths increase over their standard values. The effects
were more pronounced at 3 than at 9 cm.
With deep surface ducts the pattern changes radically, as shown in
Fig. 4.34d (note the change in range scale). Mapping of the coast line
becomes fairly complete, and the echo strengths are high. The echoes

I Separate recording was necessary because delayed sweeps provided to obtain data
at ranges greater than about 140 miles were available on] y with the A-scopes and not
with the PPI’s.
z They were in no sense point targets, but the complexity of their echoes was con-
siderably less than for the rest of the coast line, and their physical separation from
other prominent targets reduced the identification problem.
356 EXPERIMENTAL STUDIES OF REFRACTION [SEC.4.15

are characterized by more severe fluctuations than those normally

observed.
Under these conditions maximum detection ranges at 9 cm were
generally greater than those observed simultaneously at 3 cm, as shown
in Fig. 435. This observation, however, cannot be generally valid in
view of the complexity of the transmission. Not only do the transmitted

750

-Ll-
300

,tandard.
310 320 330
Refractive modulus M
340
500:

250 ~

o
~
,=

A
750

500:
.-
~
,?
250 ~

o
’300 310 320 330 340
Refractive modulus Al

(b) Standard.
Fm. 4.34.—PPI patterns and associated M-profiles.

powers and minimum detectable levels of the two radars differ slightly,
but the difference in beamwidths is also important in this connection
because of the extended nature of the targets. The major factor that
cannot be compared in the two cases is, of course, the variation with
height and range of the factor F which covers the departures from free-space
propagation. At the longest ranges water-vapor and oxygen absorption
will, in addition, be noticeable at 3 cm.
SEC.4.15] NEW ENGLAND COAST 357

An interesting feature of these patterns is the strict limitation of the

targets to the coastal zone, although numerous hills and tall buildings a
few miles inland form potential targets. This illustrates the delimitation
to the water area. of these surface ducts formed by cooling of the air from
below. The field is apparently attenuated rapidly after it leaves the duct.
Despite the complexity of the available targets and their nonuniform

Refractive modulus M
lo-mile range mark8.
(C) Shallow ducts.

360 310 320 330 340

Refractivemodulus M

(d) Deep ducts.

FI~. 4.34.—PPI patterns and associated M-profiles.-(Continue@

distribution in range, the maximum detection range varies smoothly with

increasing duct strength. This is illustrated in Fig. 4.36, in which max-
imum range is plotted as a function of duct height as obtained from
synthetic soundings (see Sec. 4 “2.) for cases of surface ~-inversions. The
maximum range observed during the tests was 280 miles, a value de-
termined by the limitations of the available indicator sweeps rather than
propagation conditions. The echoes were received from the coasts of
358 EXPERIMENTAL STUDIES OF REFRACTION [SEC.4.15

Nova Scotia. The indicated duct heights were determined only for the
Massachusetts Bay region, and there is no way of knowing the atmospheric
structure at large distances.
Although Fig. 4.36 might be considered a rough means of predicting
maximum range on coastal targets if the duct height is known, it should

.
..
“.

. .
s 100
● .. .
.
.. . ..
.
.-E t .. . ..

9-cm maximum detection range in miles

FIG. 4 35.—Comparison of 3- and 9-cm maximum radar ranges observed under conditions
of surface ducts.

2W
. .
.

. .
.
.
. .
. .
~~
o 50 100 150 2C0 250
DuctheightinR
FIG, 436-Maximum observed rnde.r ranges, at 9 cm, ae a function of height of surface duct.

be borne in mind that such an empirical calibration is valid only for the
specific radar, in its specific site. Under less favorable conditions, such
as a less uniform distribution of pmsi ble targets, even an extended series
of observations may not provide a suitable coverage calibration. (Duct
height alone is not, of course, sufficient to specify field distributions, and
it is surprising that there is as much regularity as is shown in the figure.)
Two additional patterns of radar echoes were occasionally observed.
The first, shown in Fig. 4.37, resembles that obtained with deep ducts
SEC. 4.15] NEW ENGLAND COAST 359

(Fig. 4.34d), but the complete mapping of the coast line is interrupted by
extensive blank regions. The apparent analogy of this phenomenon of
“skip effect” with that produced at longer wavelengths by “reflection”
from the ionosphere leads one to seeka possible explanation in terms of
strongly refracting elevated layers, probably overhanging.1 What little
meteorological data are available support this hypothesis, but the evidence
is far from conclusive. The M-profile of Fig. 4.37 is therefore included
tentatively. An alternative suggestion is that elevated M-inversions
having appreciable slope may produce the skip effect.

- 500 ~
.s
~
~

320 330 340 350

Refractive modulus M
(b)
skip effect and (b) accompanying M-profile.
20 miles apart.

The pattern of Fig. 4“38czdiffers from alltheothers in that echoes are

obtained from inland targets rather than those along the coast. An
obvious interpretation is that this pattern results when ducts exist over
land but not over water. From the meteorological discussion of Chap.
3 we find that ducts over land occur mainly at night, whereas con-
ditions over water are almost always nonstandard. Thus we should
expect overland echoes to be obtained mainly during the night and gen-
erally in combination with those from coastal targets. These expectations
were completely fulfilled. The pattern of Fig. 4“38a was rare; in most
cases the echoes over land occurred together with those from coastal
regions, as shown in Fig. 4.38b and frequently were associated with skip
effect on coastal targets. Because ducts over the water frequently
become complex during the night, with the development of elevated
M-inversions as the nocturnal radiational inversions travel from land out
over the water, these observations form a consistent pattern.
! See Sec. 4.9, on the expsrimenta near Sao Diego.
 360 EXPERIMENTAL 8TU.DIE,~ OF REFRA f7TION [SEC.4.1,5

In Sec. 4.5 the absence of any appreciable effect of elevated ducts on

microwave one-way transmission was not,ed, The remarks of the
preceding paragraphs are in apparent contradiction to this point. No
convincing explanation of this paradox has been found, but a few sug-
gestions may be made. During periods of strong superrefraction the
radar patterns are extremely variable; hence although a skip effect may
persist for a period of some hours, the specific region skipped is not con-

(a) Echoes from inland targets ordy. (b) Echoes from both inland and coastal targets.
Wavelength 9 cm. Wavdength 3 cm.

FrG. 438.-PPI patterns showing echoes from land targets: X)-mile range marks.

stant. At a fixed point, then, such a condition might result in a general

depression of the average signal level together with irregular variability
of signal. Several such periods were observed in one-way microwave
transmission, when with strong-trapping type signal the average level
was 15 to 20 db below the free-space value for several hours at a time.
Only a few of these periods have been accounted for by the presence of
known nonuniform meteorological conditions over the path. Existing
data do not permit the establishment of a conclusive correlation between
these unexplained periods of low-level strong-trapping type signal and
radar skip effects, but they do not refute such a correlation.
More quantitative data on radar transmission were furnished by the
comparison of echo strengths of radar targets with the one-way field
strengths. The target used for this comparison was that at a range of
41 miles, close to the receiving terminal of the one-way circuit, a choice
that eliminates any possible ambiguity from variation of refractive con-
ditions in azimuth. If the radar cross section of the target were inde-
pendent of the incident field distribution, the ratio of target echo intensity
SEC.4.16] CALIFORNIA C’OALST 361

to one-way signal intensity at a constant range should be simply pro-

portional to F2. The experimental variation is shown by the points in
Fig. 439; the square-law line is included for comparison. It should be
noted that the target did not become visible until the one-way signal
strength had risen about 10 db above the standard value, an illustration
of the requirement of strong fields for radar.
Measured signal strengths on the remaining selected targets were
closely related to those of the 41-mile target chosen for comparison with

above free-space level

FIG. 4.39.—Comparison of radar and one-way signal strengths on 3 cm. Radar detection
level is baseline. Arrow denotes one-way standard signal level on 3 cm.

the one-way results. In so far as could be determined, the variations

increased with increasing target range from the radar and with decreasing
wavelength. These large echo fluctuations serve to emphasize the fallacy
of using echoes from natural targets as a measure of radar set performance.
4.16. California Coast.’—Early in 1942, at the United States Navy
Radio and Sound Laboratory (now United States Navy Electronics
Laboratory) on Point Loma, near San Diego, Calif., observations were
begun of the effects on radar operation of the elevated M-inversion
described in Sec. 4.9.2
The initial investigations were made with radar operating on 43 cm
sited 425 ft above sea level in a location permitting an unobstructed view
along the California coast line and out to sea. Figure 4.21 shows the
location of the radar and the surrounding features of principal interest.
The islands and prominent features of the coast line provided natural
targets convenient for qualitative radar investigations which first demon-
LBy Donald E. Kerr.
zL. J. Andereon,J. B. Smyth, F. R. Abbott, and R. R.eveUe,“Radar Wave Prop&
gation,” NRSL Report No. WP-2, Nov. 30, 1942; L. J. Andersonand J. B. Smyth,
“Atmospheric Refraction-A Qualitative Investigation,” NRSL Report No WP-5,
May 7, 1943; L. J. Andersonand L. G. Troleae,“Measurement of Radar Wave Refrac-
tion and Associated Meteorological Condltiona, ” NRSL Report No, WP-7, Dec. 10,1943.
362 EXPERIMENTAL STUDIES OF REFRACTION [SEC. 416

strated the remarkable effects of the elevated M-inversions in this region

in causing radar echoes from below the horizon. A detailed study of
echoes from the islands and coastal regions indicated on the map made
over several months during the winter of 1942 showed variations in echo
strengths at times greater than 20 db in a few minutes, but neither ampli-
tude nor rate of fading was comparable to those ordinarily encountered on
shorter wavelengths under nonstandard refraction conditions. Echoes
from adjacent localities were observed to fluctuate independently over
short time intervals.
Natural targets, consisting of cliffs, buildings, and the like, have the
disadvantage that echoes from them cannot be calculated, and they are
often inconveniently distributed in space. To obviate this difficulty a
series of targets was set up at the locations indicated in Fig. 4“21 by the
numbers 1, 2, 3, and 4, at heights of 85, 550, 1300, and 1700 ft, respective y,
above sea level.1 For a period of a month in the fall of 1943 the strength of
the echoes from these targets was observed on a radar operating on 1.5 m
at the 430-ft Point Loma site. For standard refraction target No. 4 was
at the maximum of the lowest lobe and No. 1 was just below the horizon;
targets 2, 3, and 4 produced an echo well above noise. The predominant
M-pro61e was characterized by a strong elevated irregularity of variable
characteristics. The sounding techniques then available were not capable
of revealing the detail shown in Sec. 4“9, and it was possible to conclude
only that elevated superstandard layers occurred frequently and produced
the greatest effect on the radar echoes when below 2000 ft. The details
of the layer found later are described in Sec. 4“9.
The relative echo amplitudes varied from about 30 db above noise to
values below the minimum detectable level. For about one-third of the
time target No. 1 produced a strong echo, the other echoes being usually,
but not always, detectable. This occurred when the soundings indicated
strong M-gradients in the layer. There were a few occasions when the
layer was very weak or was above 2000 ft and targets 2, 3, and 4 were
visible, but during most of the time the combination of “risibilities” was
highly erratic; not infrequently only targets 2 and 3; 1, 2, and 4; or 1, 2,
and 3; and so on, were visible. On some occasions all four targets were
invisible for several hours at a time.z Early interpretation of these effects
was that radar f‘blind zones” from these layers could be serious; but in
the light of later findings on the lack of homogeneity of the index distri-
I These targets were made of tightly strung wires, spaced so C1OWIY as to give
essentiallya plane reflector,and were oriented accurately to face the radar. The
geometricalarea of each was 1600 ftz. In siting the targetsan effort was made to
chooselocationsthat would permit the echo from the target to overpowerthat from
the surroundingterrainand at the same time b free of local diffractioneffects. No
check is available on the degree to which these undesirable effects were avoided.
~The performance of the radar *t w= reportedto be under careful check during
the course of the tests.
SEC. 4.17] WELSH COAST 363

bution in space and other observations on diversity reception and on the

rapid and independent fading of echoes from adjacent targets, it seems
that positive statements about blind zones are somewhat difficult to
make.
4.17. Welsh Coast. ~During the summer of 1944 a series of Inter-
service radar trials was carried out on the north coast of Wales. This
section concerns those results which bear on atmospheric refraction. z
Experimental radars on wavelengths of 1.25, 3.2, and 10 cm were
located on Morfa Beach at heights above sea level ranging between 20
and30ft (see Fig. 4.16). Measurements were made of echo strength at
times of nonstandard propagation on ships and on such random fixed
targets as the coast of Ireland, the Isle of Man, buoys, and lighthouses.
Soundings were made simultaneously by aircraft andships along tlie line
indicated in Fig. 4“16, employing instruments similar to those described
in Sees. 3“29 and 3“31. Considerably more detail is reported in these
aircraft soundings than isgiven inthose forthemeasurements in the Irish
Sea (see Sec. 4“7); these soundings are strikingly similar to those illustrated
in Chap. 3, as contrasted to those reported for the Irish Sea transmission
path and described in Sec. 47.
The effects of nonstandard M-profiles on 3- and 10-cm transmission
were to extend markedly the detection ranges on ships and to cause
echoes to appear from the Isle of Man and Irish coast, far below the
horizon.’ A prominent feature of these echoes was that they consisted
of alarge group of signals, each usually fading independently of the others
at a fairly rapid rate; hence no single echo could be used alone as a measure
of the intensity of superrefraction. In the present instance it was neces-
saryto deal with a “composite” signal strength, taking into account both
the number and strength of echoes received on bearings a few degrees
apart. Occasionally theechoes were steady enough to make direct com-
parisons, however, and at these times the echo strengths from the Isleof

lBy Donald E. Kerr.

tJ. R. Atkinson,“GenerzJS
ummaryCovering the Work of the InterserviceTrials,
Llandudno,1944,’’ TREReport No. T1770, May 1945; W. A. Hayes, J. Ingham, and
F. L. Westwater,“KXSLlandudnoI nterserviceTrialsSummer 1944. Correlationof
Radar and MeteorologicalConditionsduring Periodsof Very Weak Superrefraction,”
TRE Report No. T1865, Aug. 27, 1945; W. A. Hayes, J. Ingham, and R. W. James,
“KXS InterServiceTrials Summer 1944. Investigation of Anomalous Propagation
(Correlation of Meteorological Conditions and Radar Signals),” TRE Report No. T1S03,
Mar. 29, 1945.
aThe 1.25-cm radar w= rarely able to detect long-range surface echoes, even
when they came from only slightly Ixyond horizon range, and at no time did it detect
the Isle of Man. This fact was attributed to absorption by water vapor, which for a
1.25-cm echo from the Isle of Man would be somewhere between Xl and 30 db (see
Chap. 8). This, in addition to the fact that the over-all set performances on A = 1.25
cm wsa about 35 db lower than that on 10 cm, represents a serious handicap, even for
very strong superrefraction.
364 EXPERIMENTAL STUDIES OF REFRACTION [SEC.4.17

Man on the two wavelengths differed by about the difference in over-all

set performance.
The meteorological soundings revealed three principal deviations from
standard M-profiles: elevated ducts 200 or 300 ft thick with bases at
roughly 500 ft, surface ducts 100 to 200 ft thick, and a semipermanent duct
in the lowest 50 ft. The thick surface ducts were ascribed to modification
by advection (see Sec. 3.17), Figure 4.40 shows a sounding illustrating
this situation. The low evaporation duct results from a strong humidity

2000

1500

e
~
=M 1000
z

500

0
50
J-ALL
60 70 800
AJL-----
5 10 320 340 360 3s0 4W
Temperature irIOF Specific humidity Refractive mcdulus lf
P3r mine
Fm. 4.40.—Sounding in the Irish Sea showing a deep surface duct ascribed to modification
by advection. The arrows indicate values at the water surface.

deficit that outweighs a superadiabetic temperature gradient resulting

from heating from below, as discussed in Sees. 3.14 to 316. Figure 4.41
shows a combination of an evaporation duct and an elevated duct. The
meteorological origins of the elevated ducts were not determined in in-
dividual cases, but the data available suggest that they were caused in a
number of different ways. Occasionally they occurred at very low alti-
tudes, overhanging the surface.
Aircraft soundings made at a number of different locations indicated
that in a homogeneous air mass a single sounding was broadly represent-
ative of conditions over a wide area, although details of the proliles varied
with location. Very near the surface, however, ship soundings showed
such marked fluctuations in temperature and humidity that considerable
difficulty was experienced in the interpretation of the soundings, partic-
ularly when compared with simultaneous aircraft soundings at the same
location; the principal emphasis was placed on the latter in correlation with
the radar data. Despite the fluctuations shown by the ship soundings,
one striking feature appeared. Under conditions of heating from below,
practically the entire temperature, humidity, and M-deficits occurred
SEC. 4.17] WELSH COAST 365

between the sea surface and a height of about 5 ft.’ Between 5 and 50 ft

.
the temperature and humidity profiles varied relatively little with height
and the top of the duct was poorly defined.
A study was made of 50 days’ records of radar performance, variations
of signal level on the one-way transmission circuit described in Sec. 4.7,
and measured M-profiles. The degree of superrefraction, as judged by
strength of echoes from fixed targets and by maximum ranges on ships,
could be correlated qualitatively with the irregularities of the M-proiiles,

2000

,\k
\
\
1500 \
\ .
e \
.s \ ./
~1~ \

L
x \
\
\
500
\\
Adiabat /’”
Standard i
slope /
/
o k +\ /
+
50 so 70 0510 320 340 360 380 400
Temperature
in ‘F Spwific humidi~ Refractive modulus h.f
per mine
Fm. 441.—Sounding in the Irish Sea showing a combination of an evaporation duct rind an
elevated duct, The arrows indicate values at the water eurface.

but the variability of the latter very near the surface and the frequent
occurrence of combinations of surface and elevated ducts precluded
quantitative conclusions.
The strongest superrefraction occurred with combinations of surface
and elevated ducts, often of rather irregular form. Figure 4.42 shows a
soundingz made at a time of very strong superrefraction. At about the
time this sounding was made, echoes were obtained from Scotland, Ireland,
and the Isle of Man on the 3- and 10-cm sets on Morfa Beach, and a near-by
1.5-m radar received echoes from Ireland—a rare phenomenon. Con-
siderable superrefraction was also present in situations illustrated by
Fig. 4.40. There were periods of apparent inconsistency, when the tem-
perature excess was positive and the humidity deficit was zero or slightly
positive, apparently accompanied by appreciable local fluctuations. At

1The process of eddy diffusion cannot opsrate efficientlyvery near the surface,
and large gradientsare necessaryto accomplish the transfer of heat and moisture
required by the temperature and humidity deficits (ace Sec. 311 to 313 and 326).
2 Thk eounding was made in Cardigan Bay, but others made northwest of Morfa
Beach showed roughly similar ahapen.
366 EXPERIMENTAL STUDIES OF REFRACTION [SEC. 417

\.
these times the M-deficit tended to change sign, resulting in a surface
layer whose slope fluctuated between superstandard and substandard.
Periods of noticeably weaker superrefraction occurred when the elevated
ducts were weak or fai~lyhigh, as”shown in Fig. 4.43, and least effect was
observed when soundings and analysis of the synoptic situation indicated
only a shallow evaporation duct at the surface and standard slope of the
IW-profile above. These conditions of weak superrefraction were particu-
Iarly interesting because of the marked dependence of performance on

2000
/

L
//
1500 //
\,Adi~~t ~/Standard
.-L slope
\ /
\
\
\
Mu

o
54
‘+
60
‘“70
Temperature in°F
80
,/

320
4’
/

340
‘“, ,+
360 3S0
Refratilve modulus M
400
Specific humidity
per mine
FIG. 442.—Sounding in the Irish Sea showing an M-profile associated with the strongest
superrefraction. The arrows indicate values at the water surface.

wavelength; the 3-cm performance on shipping and the nearer natural

targets wasnoticeably better than on 10cm (cf. Sec. 4.15), and decreasing
the set height from about 30 to 20 ft further increased this advantage
for 3 cm.
In addition to these explorations of surface coverage variations,
coverage up to a height of about 300 ft was investigated at short ranges
(15,000 to 25,000 yd) by measurement of echoes from balloon-borne
corner reflectors and from an autogyro. Well-defined lobes resulting
from reflection from the water were found even on 1.25 cm. At times
of weakest ducts the positions and shapes of the lobes near the maxima
on 10 cm agreed with simple calculations from plane-earth theory, but
the finer lobe structure on the shorter wavelengths made a close check
impossible. At times of strong superrefraction, however, noticeable
changes in lobe shape and position were evident. The lowest 10-cm lobe
showed a tendency to split in two, with a somewhat weakened top section,
a slight gap in the middle, and a low “finger” very near the surface. The
changes in lobe structure were not so clearly defined on 3 and 1.25 cm,
but there appeared to be a general lowering of the lowest two or three
SEC.4 18] THE ENGLISH CHANNEL REGION 367

lobes and irregular distortion of their shapes, rendering them individually

unidentifiable .’
The radar behavior and measured M-profiles were also compared with
transmission data from the Irish Sea experiment described in Sec. 47.
Good general agreement was found between periods of high signal strength
on the BZ) circuit, long radar ranges, and ikf-profiles with strong surface
ducts alone or combined with elevated ducts. Detailed comparisons
have not been made, but there is no evidence in the data thus far published

2000 -*
\
\
15w -

=
.E
~
.- 1000
2
.
5fM -

0 1 ( !
50 60 70 8005 10 15 330 350 370 390
Temperature in°F Specific humidity Refractive modulus M
per mdle
FIG. 443.-Sounding in the Irish Sea showing a weak elevated duct. The arrows indicate
values at the water surface.

to suggest that there should be essential disagreements between these re-

sults and those described in Sees. 4“1 to 4.6 and 4“15 for Massachusetts Bay,
4.18. The English Channel Region.’—Because of the early use of radal
along the south coast of England, propagation vagaries in and near the
region of the English Channel were probably the first to be explored to
an appreciable extent by radar means. Some of the first observations
were made in 1941 with an early 10-cm radar on the south coast of England
near the Isle of Wlght.3 Echoes from the coast and from inland targets
in France were observed at ranges up to 170 miles, and study of shurt-
period variations revealed the now familiar independent fading of echoes
from targets fairly close together.
Following installation of a microwave radar chain along the south and
southeast coasts of England, procedures were initiated for systematic
1See also the article by J. A. RamSay in Meteorological Foctors in Rudio-Waoe
Propagation, The Physical Society, London (1946).
z By Donald E. Kerr.
3A. E, Kempton, “Anomalous Echoes Observed with 10 cm C.D, Set,” ADRDE
Report No. 119, (%t,. 8, 1941. (Probably the first such observations were made at
Christchurch in 1940 using a wavelength of 50 cm.)
 36s EXPERIMENTAL STUDIES OF REFRACTION [SEC.~lg

study of the effects of refraction by observation of echoes from near-by

objects such as buoys, from surface vessels, and from landscape targets
across the Channel in France, Holland, and Belgium. During the early
experiments’ made by a high-power set (300 kw, 10-ft paraboloid) at a
height of 780 ft it became clear that temperature inversions at low altitudes
were important in producing superrefraction, and attempts were made to
forecast periods of nonstandard propagation, using the occurrence of
temperature inversions as a basis for the predictions. Although this
procedure ignored the difference in dew point of the air and the water
temperature, it proved to have some value in tactical applications of
coast-watching radar.
A statistical study was made of the echoes obtained on a number of
10-cm and 1.5-m radar sets along the south and southeast English coasts
from landscape targets across the Channel.z Over very short time
intervals individual installations were likely to experience different re-
fraction effects in a manner indicating a considerable degree of meteoro-
logical nonuniformityy. Over periods of hours, however, the general
features were usually rather similar. The echoes were divided into rough
classifications according to “normal” (presumably occurring with standard
refraction) or “anomalous.”3
An average of the performances during periods showing nonstandard
conditions on four of the 10-cm and on the four 1.5-m stations for the
period May to August 1944 revealed the diurnal vari ation4 shown in
Fig. 444. The tendency toward greater superrefraction on the shorter
wavelength is evident, suggesting predominantly surface-type ducts as the
cause. In addition to the diurnal variation, there was a strong seasonal
variation. Superrefraction was frequent and intense in warm weather
but very much reduced during the winter months, as would be expected
in view of the variations in air- and water-temperature contrasts. (one
interest ing exception occurred when strong su perrefraction was observed
for several hours at the climax of a winter gale. ) Substandard perform-
ance was also observed over a wide area on a number of occasions, at

JC~AnomaIoUs l~ropagation Of 10 cm RD F Waves over the Sea, ” AOllG llepOrt

No. 87, Feb., 1942; Supplement, ,July 26, 1943.
2D. Lack, “Anomalous Propagation at English Coastal ltadar Stations, Oct. ]944
to kfar. 1945, ” .401tG Report No. 286, Ott. 1, 1945, and AORG Iteport No, 258, May 30,
1945, of the same title.
3 As radar heights from 170 to 780 ft and a wide range of target heights and horizon
distances were involved, such a division necessarily involved a certain amount of
arbitrary choice, but changes brought about by supcrrefraction were usually sut%ciently
large to make the procedure not too difficult.
4The 10-cm set at Ventnor at a hcigbt of 780 ft persistently experienced an opposite
diurnaI variation, with a peak Ix.twcsm (MOOan(l 0800 hours. No explanati rm has been
rrtfrm’cl Also there \VeI,Qoccasions, us(mlly ill the early morning, when th(, 1..5-m set
showed supcrmf raction but the 10-rm set did not,.
SEC. 419] OTHER REGIONS 369

times when it would be expected from the temperature and humidity

contrasts between air and water.
One of the tasks of microwave radar in the Channel was to estimate
the size of a surface vessel from the strength of the echo and the way in
which it varied with range. This required foreach radar height, set per-
formance, and ship type preparation of theoretical curves of echo strength
vs. range (see Sec. 6.5) and calibration procedures to ensure the required
degree of accuracy. Theprincipal effect ofsuperrefraction was to distort
the signal strength-vs.-range curve, beginning as the target was very near
the horizon, extending the bottom
0.6 -
of the curve out to several times
the normal maximum detection
range. (’llis behavior is ilhls- ~ os -
trated for a point target in Fig. 5
1.5.) A series of tests was made ~ ~ 0,4-
with a 3-cm set at a height of ~ ~
50 ft and a 3-cm set at 780 ft, in ~ ~ o ~
which the theoretical curves were ~~P’ ~
investigated in detail.1 Under ~
standard conditions the high set 0,2-
tracked an “average” ship to 80,000 J
yd and the low set to 35,000 0.1 18 24
0 6 12
ydj but strong superrefraction in- Lccal t!me, hour of day

creased both of these figures con- Fm. 444.—Fraction of time long-range

echoes occurred on four 10-cm and four 1..5-m
siderabl y; moreover, the low set ~~da~atationaon the Channel cO~t.
produced three times as many
plots beyond 80,000 yd as did the high set. During periods of weaker
superrefraction (in September, whereas the more striking effects occurred
in August) the low set often plotted ships at 40,000 to 59,000 yd, whereas
the high set experienced no extension of ranges. It was also noticed that
under synoptic conditions conducive to strong overwater temperature
inversions, strong superrefraction was accompanied by deep fading of the
echoes, although with conditions conducive to atmospheric instability over
the water the weaker superrefraction produced noticeably steadier echoes.
Unfortunately no soundings are available, but these results strongly
suggest that the advantage of the low set over the high set is explained
by the proximity of the low set to surface ducts, which became weaker
and took on the characteristics of the “evaporation duct” type with the
onset of fall weather (see Sec. 4.6).
4“19. Other Regions2-A list of the many occasions when nonstandard
refraction is reported to have produced a marked effect on radar per-
I G. C. Varley, “Anomalous Propagation with High and Low Sited 3-cm Ship-
wat~,hing Radar Sets,” AORG Report No, 250, Mar. 20, 1945.
2lIV Donald E. Kerr.
370 EXPERIMENTAL STUDIES OF REFRACTION [SEC.4.19

formance would be very long indeed and would reveal that such effects
have occurred at some time in substantially every region where radar
has been used. Theexamples given intheprevious sections were chosen
because they were based for the most part on large numbers of observations
made according to reasonably consistent procedures and in regions where
the meteorological situation had been subjected to some degree of scrutiny.
Unfortunately these conditions were not fu1611edin most of the remaining
large number of cases, but some of them are interesting, although prac-
tically no quantitative data are available that would permit an analysis
like that of the foregoing sections.
Detection ranges of several hundred miles have been obtained in the
Mediterranean Sea on wavelengths from 1.5 m to 10 cm by shipborne
and coast-watching radar at low heights. Tracking surface vessels out
to 200mi1es is not uncommon; and landscape targets near the coast have
been detected at ranges up to 500 miles. Comparable ranges have also
been reported in the Atlantic Ocean off the northwest coast of Africa.
The western coast of Australia and the vicinity of New Zealand are
the source of many reports that superrefraction on both meter and centi-
meter wavelengths causes large extensions of surface-detection ranges and
serious gaps in the coverage diagram, with consequent loss of reliability
in aircraft detection. Theavailable information issoincornplet ethatno
assessment of the real magnitude of the difficulty is possible, however.
The limited meteorological information available suggests that this region
should furnish widely varied types of nonstandard propagation, for
large-scale meteorological processes involving strong contrasts between
continental air and the ocean are present, and intense local circulation
giving the effect of a sea breeze is a predominant feature along the coasts.’
The greatest effects from superrefraction have been found in the summer,
and the least in late fall and early winter.z
In the Strait of Hormuz, between the Gulf of Chnan and the Persian
Gulf, a 10-cm radar sited at a height of about 170 ft has observed interest-
ing seasonal variations in superrefraction3 (see Fig. 4.45). From May to
October 1943, strong superrefraction was encountered almost continuously
onlook~ngup into the Persian Gulf, andshipping was customarily tracked
far beyond the horizon. Looking into the Gulf of Oman, however, a
seasonal trend was observed. During May and June the performance
was essentially similar to that in the Persian Gulf, but during July “skip”
1See Fig. 3,51 for an example of a solmcfing undw sea-breeze conditions. See
also, H. G, Booker, “A Qualitative outline of the Radio climatology of Australia, ”
TRE Report No. T1820, Apr. 19, 1945. See also the articleby F. E. S. .+lexarrder in
Meteorological
Factors in Radio-Wa,~ePropagation, The I)hysical Socl(,ty, London (19*6).
2 For instance, see “Abnormal Radar Propagation iIl the South Pacific, ” RN AZAF
Report No. 119, May 4, 1944; F. J. Kerr, Austrd. JOW. Sci. Res., A, 1, 443 (1948).
! A’aval Officer in Charge, “Anomalous Propagation in the Persian Gulf,” Hormuz,
A. ~. 5975 USW.
SEC.4.19] OTHER REGIONS 371

effects became marked; inside the horizon coverage was undisturbed, but
beyond the horizon was a “skip zone “ in which shipping could not be
detected, and then beyond the skip zone it was again possible to track
shipping to fairly large ranges. The inner boundary of the skip zone
moved out so far in August that detection was essentially limited to
horizon range. In September the reverse trend occurred, and by the end
of October conditions had returned to essentially the same as those ob-
served in May and were again comparable to those in the Persian Gulf.
An explanation has been offered for these phenomena, based on the
general climatology of the region.1. During the spring, summer, and fall
months the wind across the Persian Gulf comes predominantly from the
northwest and is dry and warmer than the water; consequently ducts of
some magnitude are formed. Presumably this condition also prevails over
the Gulf of Oman in the spring and fa112but is quite different in the sum-
mer when the southwest monsoon from the Arabian sea thrusts a surface
layer of cool moist air into the Gulf of Oman up to the vicinity of Hormuz
and gradually forces the surface duct aloft, producing the skip effect and
approach toward standard refraction in August as the duct moves aloft
or is destroyed. The monsoon then recedes, and by OctobeP the warm
dry air from the northwest again predominates.
Perhaps the most phenomenal ranges yet reported are those from
1.5-m radar sited 255 ft above the sea at Bombay, India.4 Figure 4.45
shows the coastal regions from which echoes were received under conditions
of very strong superrefraction. (Somewhat similar performance was
noted on a radar set at Karachi, although the data are not so complete. j
At any one time echoes were usually obtained from only a limited region
of the Arabian coast, but at one time or another echoes were obtained
from most of the Arabian and Persian coasts bordering on the ArabIan
Sea and Gulf of Oman, at distances up to about 1700 miles. These echoes
sometimes persisted for hours and at the height of the hot season even
for days, aside from the usual fading. Ships were not infrequently plotted
at ranges from 100 to 300 miles and occasionally up to 700 miles. During
the period for which detailed records are available (February to May
1944), superrefraction increased very rapid] y from February to April,
when the peak appears to have been reached. Installations on the east
coast of India also observed echoes from the coast of Burma and the
I H. G. Booker, “Radio Climatology of the Persian Gulf and Gulf of Oman with
Radar Confirmation,” TRE Report No, T1642, Mar. 15, 1944.
2 In the winter months the air in both regions is somewhat cooler than the water,
and presumably weak superrefraction results.
3 In the light of the discussion in Chap. 3 it seems unlikely that the mechanism in
either gulf is as simple as this explanation suggests, but more detailed explanations
do not appear possible without soundings.
9 H. G. Booker, “Outline of Radio climatology in India and Vicinity)” TRE Report
No. T1727, Sept. 12, 1944.
 372 EXPERIMENTAL STUDIES OF REFRACTION [sm. 419

Andaman Islands, up to 700 miles across the Bay of Bengal, but incomplete
records preclude comparisons. Superrefraction of this order farther south
apparently did not occur, since no such effects were observed by 1.5-m
radars at Cochin and Ceylon. The small amount of 10-cm radar infor-
mation available indicates no extreme ranges of this nature, although a
10-cm radar near the 1.5-m radar at Bombay often plotted ships at 100
to 200 miles.1

IRAQ TIBET
I

Islands #

Berbera
Islands 0

Fm. 4.45.—India and vicinity, showing long-range fixed echoes observed by 1.5-m radar at
Bombay during February and March 1944.

The mechanisms responsible for the phenomenal 1.5-m superrefraction

can hardly even be surmised, in view of the lack of sufficient knowledge of
the atmospheric structure in the vicinity of India.z The very long ranges
obtained on the long wavelength suggest elevated M-inversions acting as
efficiently reflecting layers, but this alone does not furnish a very useful
clue, as several meteorological processes may cause such inversions. One
meteorological effect does seem clear, however: the southwest monsoon
causes cool, damp air to invade the region in the summer, when extremely
long ranges are not observed, presumably because the monsoon destroys
whatever stratification is present.
Strong superrefraction also occurs over land in India and has been
noticed particularly by 1.5-m radars near Calcutta, on the alluvial plain
10ver thesevery greatrangesthe 10-cm radarsuffers an additional handicap from
atmospheric absorption, which, for radar ranges of about 1000 miles, might be as
much as 40 db (see Chap. 8).
~The explanation suggested in Booker, op. ~“t., postulates very thick ducts, whose
hapes are governed by a power law of height. It is bssed on a theory of diffusion
;hown in Sec. 319 to be inapplicable to a large height range.
SEC. 4.19] OTHER REGIONS 373

at the mouth of the Ganges River, 1 where radar ground clutter from
ranges up to 200 miles has been’observed at night. Some effect was also
noted on 7-m radar installations.
An interesting example of the effects of an elevated duct was observed
on a 10-cm early-warning radar located at a height of 1540 ft on Saipan
Island in the Marianas group in the western Pacific.z A series of sound-
ings, a representative sample of which was shown in Fig. 3.11, revealed
the presence of a weak elevated duct that persisted over distances of
man y miles. The characteristics of the duct varied with local weather
conditions; in particular, the height of the duct coincided very closely
with the base of the prevailing cumulus clouds. It was observed that
when this duct occurred at or very near the height of the radar, echoes
from islands within the horizon3 increased greatly in strength and strong
echoes appeared from below the horizon at ranges up to 250 miles (the
greatest range permitted by the pulse recurrence frequency and indicator
system), but usually only from those islands with peaks about 1500 ft or
more high. This suggests the existence of a fairly well-defined elevated
region of high field strength, resulting from some degree of trapping in
the duct, causing strong illumination of island peaks.
From the examples given so far in this chapter it can be seen that
nonstandard propagation can produce remarkable and, at times, perhaps
uqeful effects in both radar and point-to-point applications of very short
waves. The question of possible harmful effects arising from sufficient
distortion of the coverage diagram to reduce field strength excessively in
important regions is still unanswered. It is discussed further in the
following section.4

SPACE VARIATIONS IN FIELD STRENGTH

BY WILLIAM T. FISHBACK

The transmission measurements previously discussed have been con-

cerned primarily with time variations, whereas space variations were
confined to measurements at different fixed heights or ranges. It has
been recognized for some time that measurements of space variations
over a wide range of heights and distances are desirable for a thorough
check on theory; indeed, the Bell Telephone Laboratories were studying

i Booker, op. d.
aD. E. Kerr and .J. P. Nash, “Investigation of Performance of AN/CPS-lA (MEW)
on Saipan,” Operational Research Section, G-3, Headquarters U.S. Army Forces,
Middle Pacific, APO 958, July 1.5, 1945.
s ‘JHorizon~’ is the tokl horizon range resulting from the height of the radar and
the height of the highest point on the island.
4See also E. C. S. Megaw, Jour. IEE, 99, III A, 79 (1946).
374 EXPERIMENTAL STUDIES OF REFRACTION [SEC.420

space variations tithairborne receivers asearlyasl932,1 Unfortunately,

experimental difficulties are extreme in this type of measurement, and
fewdata have been obtained. Weshallbeconcemed here with observa-
tions made in the diffraction region under nonstandard refraction con-
ditions. Measurements intheintetierence re~ontiths tandardrefraction
arediscussed in Sees. 5“5 and 5.9.
4,20. Shallow Surface M-inversions. -Antigua, B. W. I.—The most
comprehensive measurements of space variations of field strength were
made by the Naval Research Laboratory at Antigua, British West Indies,
in the spring of 1945.Z The path
chosen was over water in a north-
easterly direction from the island.
Measurements of field strength as a
function of distance were made at 3
and 9 cm, with transmitters at 16
and 46 ft and with receivers at vari-
ous heights in the lowest hundred ft.
,fj~,o ,80SX0 The receivers were placed on a tower
at the water’s edge, aud the trans-
mitters installed in a small U.S. Navy
Refractive modulus M
patrol vessel which traveled on a
FIG. 4 46.—M-profile measured off radial course either toward or away
Antigua, B. W. I., on Mar. 20, 1945, showing from the shore installation. lMeteor-
a typuml evaporation duct.
ological soundings using the wired
sonde (Sec. 3.28) were made aboard ship and at the water?s edge.
Antigua is in the region of the northeast trade winds and has no land
northeast of it for many miles. The air on the transmission path had
therefore had a long o~’er~vatrr trajrwtt)ry, unmodified hy any land mass.
All soundings revealed the shallow evaporation clllct expected under these
conditions (see Sees. 3.14 to :3”16). On the average, duct heights were
about 40 ft but tended to be lower with low winds and higher with high
winds, As the if-deficit is a function of the air-mass properties and
water temperature, which varied only slightly, it shows no dependence on
wind speed. Figure 446 shows a typical .M-profile measured at the edge
of the water. Measured suun(lings showed no striking nonuniformity
along the path, nor did they vary much from hour to hour; consequently,
in spite of the fact that a boat run took as long as 30 hr, time variations
should not be an important factor in the data obtained. The very rapid

I J. C. Schelleng, C. R. Burrows, and E. B. Ferrell, “Ultra-short-wave Propagation,”

Proc. IRE, 21, 427 (1933); C. R. 13nglund, A. B. (.’rawford, and W, W. Mumford,
“Further Results of a Study of Ultra-short-wave Transmission Phenomena,” Bell
System ‘1’ech. Jour, 14, 369 (1935).
z hI. Katzin, R. W. Bmichman, and }T’. Binnian, I%oc. IRE, 36, 8!91 (1947); C. L.
Pekeris, Proc. IRE, 36, 453 (1947).
SEC.420] SHALLOW SURFACE M-INVERSIONS 375

fluctuations typical of unstable air were pronounced, however (see Sec.

326). The trade-wind inversion existed at Antigua throughout the period
of observations but occurred at heights between 5000 and 10,000 ft and
presumably did not affect the measurements.
Considerable data were obtained on the signal levels associated with
shallow ducts, but it was not possible to study signal types during this
experiment. The roll and pitch of the ship was sufficient to preclude
perfect alignment of the antennas, with the result that considerable non-
atmospheric variation was obtained in the record. The envelope of
maximum field strength recorded was used in the analysis. Figure 4.47
shows the results obtained for 9 cm on Mar. 2 and 3, 1945, with the 16-
and 46-ft transmitters. (The ordinate 20 log,o (FR,/R) is the field strength
in decibels above that at 1 m from the transmitting antenna. ) Although
the attenuation rates and height-gain effects varied noticeably from run
to run, the data shown are typical.
In general, for 9 cm it was found that the field was always above the
standard level, that the highest terminal heights of those available gave
the strongest signal, and that lowering a terminal gave a progressively
weaker signal. This finding suggests that only one leaky mode was re-
sponsible for the observed field. This height-gain effect was present only
out to ranges of 65 to 90 miles. At greater ranges the field was essentially
independent of height and the observed rate of attenuation was very
small. The attenuation rate at ranges of less than 65 to 90 miles was on
the average about 1 db/mile, although it varied slightly with the terminal
combination used.
Figure 4.48 shows a similar set of data for 3 cm taken from Feb. 27 to
Mar, 1, 1945. At this shorter wavelength all height combinations gave
superstandard field strengths; furthermore, the highest signal strength
was obtained with the lowest possible combination of terminal heights,
which for some runs was as low as 6 and 8 ft. The height-gain effect in
this case was different from that obtained on 9 cm. It showed maxima
at about 6 and 60 ft and a minimum at about 30 ft. The interpretation
of the minimum in the height-gain curve is not entirely clear, as the
measurements were made at a range so near the horizon range for the high
terminals, but it is likely that several modes were present and happened
to combine in this particular way. The difference between maxima and
the minimum was 8 db or less. There was no division of the diffraction
region into two sections with different attenuation rates as on 9 cm. The
observed attenuations were about 0.4 db/mile for the lower height com-
bhations and from 0.4 to 0.8 db/mile for the higher height combinations.
In general the observations seem compatible with current theoretical
predictions of the effects of shallow ducts. A correlation worth noting is
that obtained with wind speeds. As indicated earlier, somewhat higher
ducts were formed with higher than average wind speeds. The radio
 [SEC. 4.20
376 EXPERIMENTAL STUDIES OF REFRACTION

-90 .

-100 -

-110 -
24 ft
14 ft
-120 -

-130 -

-140 -

-15 0.

,
-16 OL
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180
Rangem miles
(a)
-90 .

-100 .

-110 -

g 24 ft
w. 14 ft
-120 -
s
-0.
g
~ -130 .

-140 -

-150 .

-16 0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180
Range in miles
(b)
FIG.447.—Field strength obeerved as a function of distance for a k = 9 cm by NRL off
(a) With transmitter at 16 ft; (b) with
Antigua, B. W. I., fOr indica~d receiver heighte.
transmitter at 46 ft.
SEC.4%3] SHALLOW SURFACE M-INVERSIONS

-90 -

-100 -

-110 -

% -120 -
s
-z
&? -130 -
0
N
-140 -

-150 -

-160 I 1
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180
Range in miles
(a)
-90 “

-100

-110 -

3 -Izo .
s
-~
E -130 .
0
w

-140

-150

-160 — , , a
o 20 40 60 81) 100 120 140 160 180
Range in miles
(b)
FIG. 4.4$3—Field strength observedaea function of dietanceforh= 3 cm by NRL off
Antigua, B. W. I., for indicated receiver heights. (a) With transmitter at 16 ft; (b) with
transmitter at 46 ft
378 EXPERIMEIVT.4L STUDIES OF REFRACTION [SEC.421

data confirm this observation in that lower attenuation rates prevail

when the wind speeds and consequently the ducts are higher. Propagation
on 9 cm seems to be accomplished by means of a single leaky mode, in view
of the height-gain observed effects. The height-gain effect on 3 cm
indicates that the first mode is either completely or almost completely
trapped and that other modes may be of some importance.
A reconciliation of the attenuation rates with existing theory is not so
simple, however. The range attenuation at great ranges for 9 cm is lower
than would be expected on the hasis of the bilinear M-profile, and enough
information is not at present available for the linear-exponential profile
to make a satisfactory anal ysis.1 Finally, the observed attenuation on
3 cm might be expected to be somewhat smaller, in view of the indication
of complete or nearly complete trapping given by the height-gain effects.
Measurements off the northwest Gulf Coast of Florida by the U.S. Army
Signal Corps also show results in essential agreement with the observations
made at Antigua.’ Transmission on 6.6 cm was carried out over ranges
of 19, 32, and 50 miles at heights in the lowest 50 ft. With a shallow
duct 30 to 35 ft deep the observed attenuation was about 0.67 db/mile
(standard attenuation would be 2.5 db/mile, a value between the 9- and
3-cm attenuation rates observed at Antigua). The 50-ft terminals gave
the highest signal, but there was little change until the terminals were
placed lower than 20 ft, and in this case the signal level decreased. One
might expect from the Antigua results that such an intermediate wave-
length would be on the verge of complete trapping and would have an
essential y constant height-gain curve, with range attenuation appreciably
less than standard. The Florida observations bear out this prediction.
4.21. Deep Surface M-inversions. New England Coast.— On June 8
to 10, 1943, the Radiation Laboratory made a series of measurements on a
path along the New England coast between Rockport, Mass., and Portland,
Maine. A 10-cm transmitter using vertical polarization was placed 25 ft
above sea level at Rockport, and a receiver carried in an airplane was
used to explore the field distribution.3 During this time strong M-inver-
sions were found offshore with duct heights of about 200 ft on the trans-
mission path. Figure 4.49 shows a sample M-profile illustrating the type
of profiles occurring during this period.
Figure 4-50 shows a vertical section of the field-strength pattern made
on June 9, 60 miles from the transmitter. To obtain this section, the

I For later analysis, see C. L. Pekeris, foe. cit.

2J. A. Engstrom, J. R. Gerhardt, and G. D. RamsPeck, “Comparative Tests of
Radio Relay Equipment, Phsse II, Low-level Overwater Propagation, Northwestern
Florida, August-&tober, 1945,” SCEL Development Detachment, Ft. .Monmouth,
N. J,. December 1945.
s% Sec. 5.5 for a more complete description of the experimental proceduxe followed
in these teats.
SEC. 4.21] DEEP SURFACE M-INVERSIONS 379

plane descended rapidly from 800 to 25 f t and then climbed back to 800 ft;
the horizontal travel during the descent and ascent was 7 miles, The
measured vertical sounding agrees roughly with field-strength calculations
based on a bilinear M-profile and ~m
with observations on the Race Point-
to-Eastern Point path. Within the
duct the field strength was within 12 600 -
db of the free-space value.’ Several
modes were completely trapped and c 600
were responsible for the high field ~
within the duct. The field above the ~
: 400
duct was superstandard and was pre-
sumably caused by the first partially
trapped mode, which had less range 200 -
attenuation than that of the first
standard mode. o 1 1
Figures 4.51 and 4.52 show hori- 310 320 330 340 350
Refractive modulus M
zontal sections made at heights of 20
FIG, 4.49.—Typical M-profile on the
and 500 ft, N3SPeCtiVE!lYj on the same Ilockport-portland path, June 9, 1943.
day over the same path. Although ,ing Thisduring~hi~
M-Lrofileillustrates
~eriod the type occur-
the measurements show a very strik-
ing height advantage in faver of 20 ft, the flight at 500 ft does not iu
general indicate substandard fields at this height. On this occasion a
detectable signal was found out to a range of at least 60 miles; in the

FIG. 4.50.—Verticrd field-strength sounding 60 miles from a lo-cm transmitter at a height

of 25 ft, June 9, 1943, off the New England cosst. The dashed line indicates the expected
field strength for standard refraction,

1The free-space level for these observations cannot be determined accurately from
the equipment characteristics. The value chosen is in agreement with the measured
value in the interference region and is 6 db lower than that calculated for the probable
values of the equipment characteristics.
380 EXPERIMENTAL STUDIES OF REFRACTION [SEC. 4.21

standard case signals should not have been detected at ranges greater
than 42 miles. The field strength just inside the total horizon range
was profoundly affected in the 500-ft flight. The first maximum was
observed at 7 miles instead of at 19 miles for standard refractive con-
ditions. Two lobes were lost or displaced in the region between 7 and
19 miles. Although a moderate field strength was observed in this region,

+j
~-;-----—____
#L? —--__
—_~ —_
—_
——
—
_
::5
: #

1..
2 0 5 10 15 20 25
z Range In miles
g -80
---_ —_—- ——____— _—__ -- —______________
-100
-110
30 35 40 45 50 55
Range in miles
FIG.4.51.—Fieldstrength at a height of 20 ft over the ocean from a 10-cm transmitter at a
height of 25 ft on the Rockport-Portland path, June 9, 1943. The dxhed line indicates the
free-space field.

it would have been higher, on the average, under standard conditions.

Jkrithin 7 miles the field strength at the maxima obeyed the inverse-first-
power law very well.
The observed field strengths on the 20-ft flight were superstandard at
all ranges. Although the field measured on the 500-ft flight beyond the

’50r
-70 -
—_ —_ ———__—_ —_ —_________________
-90
&
& -110 r 1
0 5- 10 15 20 25 30
2
Range m m!les
3
g
-90 ––-––– .-–-– ________________ __ ——-_—-_ —_________
-110
35 40 45 50 55 60
Range in males

FIG. 4.52.—Field strength at a height of 500 ft over the ocean from ~ l~cm transmitter
at a height of 25 ft on the Rockport-Portland path, June 9, 1943. The deshed line indicates
the free-space field.

horizon was caused by leaking high-order modes, the 20-ft flight shows
high tield strengths caused by strongly trapped, strongly excited low-order
modes. For this combination of terminal heights and standard refraction
the first maximum should occur at 1,1 miles.
It is difficult to say just how successful this experiment was in separat-
ing time and space variations. Experience on the Race Poin&t~Eastim
SEC.421] DEEP SURFACE M-INVERSIONS 381

Point path indicates that there is considerable short-time variation present

under this type of meteorological condition, and there is no doubt that
considerable time variation was also present in these measurements. This
should be especially true for the observations within the duct. It would
probably have been impossible to reproduce exactly the lowest 300 ft of
the vertical sounding on a repeat flight, although high field strengths
would have been observed. The effects of short-time variations, as well
as those of nonuniformity, were also rather pronounced in the 20-ft flight.
The resulting erratic variations in the field strength below the horizon
make it impossible to determine a rate of attenuation. In spite of their
limitations, the data further confirm the prediction that with a deep
surface duct ranges within the duct are greatly extended and that even
above the duct extended ranges and superstandard fields prevail.
Vertical soundings at short ranges were made at times when a deep
surface duct was prevalent off the Welsh coast (see Sec. 4.17) and near
Sydney, Australia.’ The forrnerobservation syndicated that in the l-to
lo-cm wavelength range, the presence of a duct tended to shift the bottom
lobes toward the surface and to break up the lowest lobe into two parts,
the lower of which remained very close to the surface and presumably
represented trapping by the duct. The Australian observations consisted
of vertical field-strength sections up to 10,OOOft at a range of 25 miles
using a wavelength of 1.5 m. lVhen a deep surface duct was presumably
present,’ the lowest two lobes appeared to be shifted downward in height
from 10 to 20 per cent. Higher lobes were unaffected.
One of the most important practical questions arising from the existence
of nonstandard refraction is whether or not it can produce serious gaps in
the standard coverage diagram. When this question was first considered,
it was treated by ray-tracing methods before the limitations of ray tracing
described in Sec. 2.5 were generally known and before the wave solution
was available. The existence of discrete values of critical angle of pene-
tration of a superrefracting layer indicated that serious loss of coverage
might occur at sufficiently low elevation angles. In the light of later
developments it is clear that this simple ray concept is totally inadequate
and that the field should be considered as the superposition of several
transmission modes.s Unfortunately the numerical labor involved in
I ‘( Inve~tigation of propagation Characteristics of A. W. Stations,” ORG (Australia)
Report No. 17, Mar, 9, 1943.
2 Temperature measurements alone were available to correlate with the radio data.
The situation referred to corresponds to observations of strong temperature inversions.
The experiment was carried out prior to the development of satisfactory sounding
equipment.
s It should be remembered, however, that the region in which refraction can produce
noticeable effects occurs at very small elevation angles; consequently only those parts
of the coverage diagram in the bottom of the interference region and in the intermediate
and diffraction regions are of interest.
382 EXPERIMENTAL STUDIES OF REFRACTION [SEC.422

applying the wave solution in this region is so great that it has not been
explored. As the theory has not yet been applied numerically, the only
information available consists of the experiments described in the preced-
ing sections, which must certainly be considered fragmentary evidence.
Both the British and Australian observations were made at very short
ranges, and it is impossible to extrapolate the results to greater ranges
with assurance. Although the measurements show displacement of the
lowest lobes and the building up of an extra lobe near the surface, they do
not reveal any conspicuous gaps in the interference pattern. The vertical
section made off New England (Fig. 4.50) is at the other extreme from
these short-range sections, having been made at so great a range that the
entire section is below the horizon. Certainly leaky modes are important
in this case; for strongly superstandard fields prevail to at least four or
five times the duct height, and no “blind zone” is evident. On the other
hand the 500-ft horizontal section (Fig. 452) shows lower than standard
fields through the first two lobes. Extensive measurements remain to be
made for gaining adequate knowledge of field-strength distributions in the
presence of a deep duct, but in view of this (small) amount of information
it does not seem probable that serious gaps occur in this situation. The-
oretical coverage diagrams in the diffraction region for certain deep duct
conditions are shown in Sec. 2.21.
4.22. Elevated M-inversions. California Coast.—In conjunction with
their investigation of propagation affected by an elevated M-inversion,
the Navy Electronics Laboratory at San Diego made vertical soundings of
field strength along the path indicated in Fig. 42.’ The soundings were
made over water at heights up to 5000 ft and at ranges up to 143 miles.
The land terminals were 100 ft above the surface, and wavelengths of
4,8 and 1.8 m, and 57 and 9 cm were used. Meteorological soundings,
made immediately before or after each radio sounding, sho\ved the
elevated M-inversion characteristic of this region, but in every case the
M-profile was decidedly nonuniform along the path.
When the subsidence inversion was low enough to cause a surface
duct, the performance on the various wavelengt~s was similar to that
predicted from a bilinear index model. The vertical sections are illus-
trated in Fig. 4.53, which shows the field strength observed on the four
wavelengths at 37, 69, 110, and 143 miles; the measured M-profiles are
also indicated at the appropriate range along the path. The 4.8-m
radiation was partially trapped; the signal level was independent of height
above about 500 ft and was slightly below the free-space value. The
signal level decreased below 500 ft. The high field strength above 500 ft
persisted well below the horizon, out to at least 143 miles, indicating that
1L. J. Anderson et al., “Atmospheric Refraction, A Preliminary Quantitative
Investigation,” NRSL Report No. WP-17, Dec. 28, 1944.
 SEC. 4.22] ELEVATED M-INVERSIONS 383

5000
~4000
I /“ / /

;2(‘z
~=’’’;y, 300 350 400450 300 350 400450
Refractive modulus M
300 350 400 450

5000rl
I

1
~ 4000

!i
37 miles I 69 miles 143
.= 3000 I miles
=
.: 2000
I A=4.8m
‘1OCOI

o k I_L..&i
+10 o-1o -30 +10 o-1o -30 +10 o-io -30 +10 o-1o -30
5000 , I
~ 4000 I

z
:

% 2000

100Q
3000

5000
L
:100-10
~

,
-30
L
+10 Q-lo
I
A=l.8m

-30 +10 o-1o -30

L
+10 0-10

I +,
–30

Lk
~ 4000

; 3000
‘ A=57cm
% 2000 ‘

= 1000 I
o k L
+100-10 -30 +100-10 -30 +10 o-1o -30 +10 0-10 -30
5000 , I b.

kL
= 4000 I ~~
~ 3000 A=9cm
~ 1;
1’
.+ 2000

r 1000
k,,
0 L
+10 o-1o -30 +10 o-1o -30 +10 o–lo –30 +10 o-1o –30
Field strength in db above free-space level
FIG. 453.—Vertical field-strength soundings and assoc, atc.d M-profiles measured off San
Diego, Calif., by NELon Oct. 2, 1944. llle ranges at wl,]cb the soundings were made are
indicated on the M-profiles and on the top field-strength wctions.
384 EXPERIMENTAL STUDIES OF REFRACTION ~EC. 422

300 350 400450 300350 400450 3@3 350 400 450

Refractive moduluskf
5000 ,
142

,11
4000 37 miles I 73 miles ~ 87miles miles
3000 I

2000 I
A=4.8m
1000 ~
Iil 1- ~
n
:10 0-lo -30 +10 o-1o –30 +10 o–lo -30 +10 o-1o –30

5000 I
4000 I

3000 I

2000 I

1000 [
ok
+100-10 -30 +10 o–lo -30 +100–10 -30 +10 o-1o -30
5000 , o
I
4000 I 1;
3000
2000
1000 I
nk L
+io 0-10 -30 +100-10 -30 +10 o-1o -30 +10 o-1o -30

5000 ,
1:

Tjt
4000 1;
II
3000 A=9cm
I
2000

1000 - 1;
1 I

k L &
+0100-10-30 +100 -ICI -30 +100 -10 –30 +100-10-30
Field strength in db above free-space level
Fm. 454.-Vertical Iicld-strength soundings and associated M-profiles measured off San
Diego, Calif., by NEI. on Sept. 29, 1944. The ranmw at \vhich the soundings were made are
indicated on the M-profiles and on the ticld-strcngttl sections.
SEC.4%?] ELEVATED M-INVERSIONS 385

the attenuation factor was small. It is uncertain whether or not the

1.8-m radiation was completely trapped. On the average the signal level
was near the free-space level, but there was a tendency toward fading
and variable signal below the horizon, particularly in the first 1000 ft.
Complete trapping apparently occurred on 57 and 9 cm. The signal was
in general near the free-space level on the average but was characterized
by fading that could not be reproduced on repeat soundings. The highest
signal levels were found close to the surface at great distances.
F@re 4.54 shows the field strengths observed when the duct was
aloft, between 2000 and 3000 ft. In this case the lowest frequency in
general gave the greatest field strength below the horizon. The 4.8-m
signal level remained 10 to 20 db below free-space level on the average,
even well below the horizon, and was characterized by fading. The other
circuits showed the signal level decreasing with decreasing height and
often falling below minimum detectable level well above the surface at
sufficient distance beyond the horizon. The signal was superstandard on
the shorter wavelengths, however. On 57 cm, the signal was still detect-
able at 142 miles below 3000 ft, and the lowest lobe of the interference
pattern was depressed below the horizon at 9 cm.
The data presented in Figs. 4.53 and 454 are consistent with the
observations on the San Pedro–San Diego one-way path (see Sec. 4.9). In
the case of a duct aloft, the lowest frequencies were affected most, and
unsteady signal was present on all frequencies below the horizon. Sim-
ilarly, the one-way data corroborate the observation of trapping on
wavelengths up to about 3 m and steady signal on longer wavelengths
when a surface duct is present. 1

ANGLE MEASUREMENTS ON SHORT OPTICAL PATHS

BY PEARL J. RUBENSTEIN AND DONALD E. KERR

The experiments described thus far have dealt with the field strength
at a specified position or series of positions and have considered only the
amplitude and phase of the elementary waves that combine to give the
total field. Additional information on the effects of refraction may be
obtained by study of the apparent direction of arrival of these waves at
a fixed receiving point. The angle of arrival is of interest because it may
aid in interpretation of refractive effects in the region where wave theory
is hopelessly complicated and ray theory is inadequate. It also has a
bearing on possible refraction errors in radar height measurements.’
1For an analysis of some later experiments see C. L. Pekeris, J. Applied Phys., 18,
838 (1947).
z The work described here deals with angle of arrival in the vertical plane; for studies
of horizontal angle of arrival see A. W. Straiton and J. R. Gerhardt, Proc. IRE, 36,
916 (1948).
386 EXPERIMENTAL STUDIES OF REFRACTION [SEC.4.2.3

4“23. Measurements of Angle of Arrival.-Perhaps the most serious

technical problem involved in measuring the very small angular differ-
ences involved in this problem is that of building an antenna with the
necessary resolving power. The first successful solution was obtained in
1944 by Bell Telephone Laboratories.l A series of measurements was
made on wavelengths of 3.25 and 1.25 cm, with receiving antennas giving
fan beams that were very narrow in the plane in which the angle of arrival
was measured. The 3.25-cm antennas employed modified “pillbox”
parabolic reflectors and had half-power beamwidths of 0.36° and 15° in
the planes perpendicular to and parallel to the large and small dimensions,
respectively. For the 3.25-cm measurements two of these antennas were
mounted at right angles to each other, one being used to measure the
elevation angle of arrival and the other the azimuthal angle. The antenna
for 1.25 cm was of the “metal-lens” type,’ having principal beamwidths
of 0.12° and 1.2°. The transmitted wave on both wavelengths was polar-
ized at an angle of 45° and was radiated from antennas having beamwidths
of 4° and 2.7° on 3.25 and 1.25 cm, respectively.
The angle of arrival of incoming waves was measured by rocking each
antenna through an arc of f 0.75° and recording the signal output of an
associated receiver as the antenna beam scanned the incoming wave pat-
tern. The angle of arrival was determined from the position of the re-
sulting signal peak on the record. The length of a complete scanning
cycle was 20 sec. Differences in angle of arrival of about 0.02° could be
measured on 3.25 cm, but absolute accuracy in angular position was
limited to about 0.05°. On 1.25 cm the corresponding accuracies were
slightly better.
The 3-cm antennas were mounted on a rotating platform 350 ft above
sea level at Beer’s Hill, N. J., and could be directed toward transmitters
in New York City, 24 miles distant, and in Deal, N. J., 12.6 miles distant.
The New York circuit was principally over water, with the point of re-
flection in Raritan Bay. For standard refraction the reflected ray cleared
the top of Staten Island by less than the radius of the first Fresnel zone,
a fact that was probably at least partly responsible for the small amplitude
of the reflected wave. The direct ray from transmitter to receiver was }vell
a~vayfrom obstructions, however. The Deal circuit was free from obstruc-
tions, over gently rolling land having an effective reflection coefficient on
3 cm of about 0.18 (see Sec. 59).
Signal was also received on 3.25 cm by a paraboloidal reference an-
tenna with a beamwidth of 4°, allowing a comparison of the combined

1 A detailed description of the equipment and the two series of measurements

summarized here may be found in Proc. IRE, 34 (1946): W. M. Sharpless, “Measure-
ment of the Angle of Arrival of Microwaves,” p. 837, and .4. B. Crawford and W. hL
Sharpless, ‘(Further Observations of the Angle of Arrival of Microwaves, ” p. 845.
Z~V. E. Kock, “hfetal-lens Antennas,” Proc. lRE, 34, 828 (1946).
SEC. 4.22] MEASUREMENTS OF ANGLE OF ARRIVAL 387

waves received over a large angular range with those received by the
narrow-beam antennas in a much smaller range.
The 1.25 cm equipment was operated only over the 12.6-mile path
from Beer’s Hill to Deal. The receiving antenna was used to scan in
either the vertical or horizontal plane, as it could be rotated through an
ande of 90°.
‘The first series of measurements (Sharpless, Zoc. cd.) was made with
the 3.25-cm equipment over both the 24- and 12.6-mile paths, primarily
in the daytime in the summer and fall of 1944, The second series, in the
summer and fall of 1945, was made with both the 3.25- and the 1.25-cm
equipment but over only the 12.6-mile path. The periods of observation
in the second case ranged from ~ to 8 hr in length on most of the days and
on 20 clear, calm nights when it appeared that nonstandard propagation
was likely to occur.
No meteorological soundings were available in 1944, but during the
1945 measurement period 220 soundings were made at Holmdel, N. J.,
near Beer’s Hill. In addition, other meteorological data were obtained
on a 400-ft tower at Oakhurst, N. J., near Holmdel.l
The principal results were as follows:
1. Under conditions of standard refraction (indicated by steadiness
of signal from the reference antenna), the measured azimuth and
elevation angles were steady and coincided with their predicted
values.z On both the New York and Deal circuits the ground-
reflected waves were weak in comparison with the direct waves.
and their elevation angles were so near those of the direct waves
that they could be only partially resolved.
2. When measurable fluctuations in elevation angle of arrival occurred,
they were usually much more persistent and much larger than
those in azimuth. No correlation was found between deviations
in the horizontal and vertical planes.
3. Deviations from true azimuth occurred much less frequently than
deviations from true elevation, and the magnitude of the devia-
tions was much smaller. The greatest azimuth deviation observed
was 0.10 in the 1944 tests. In the 1945 tests on the short path
the largest deviation observed was 0.03°.
4. Under conditions of nonstandard refraction the direct and reflected
waves appeared to be affected differently, but there was no apparent
correlation between the observed variations in their angles of
LThe meteorological results and their relation to the measured angles of arrival
are given in detail in W. E. Gordon and A. T. Waterman, Jr., “Angle-of-arrival Aspects
of Radio-meteorology,” Electrical Engineering Laboratory Report No. 1, University of
Texas, Austin, Tex,, Mar. 23, 1946.
2On the New York circuit the difference between the true elevation angle (for no
refraction) and that for standard refraction was 0.04°, which was less than the probable
accuracy of measurement for 3.25 cm, and it is therefore neglected.
388 EXPERIMENTAL STUDIES OF REFRACTION [SEC.423

arrival. On the New York circuit the reflected wave at times

increased in strength to a value approximating that of the direct
wave, and its angle of arrival decreased below its standard value.
On one occasion this decrease was as much as 0.17°. At such
times the phase between direct and reflected waves appeared to
vary slowly from in phase to out of phase; on one such occasion
the signal from the broad-beam reference antenna varied by as
much as 20 db, but the output of the sharp-beam antenna varied
less than 4 db when that antenna was pointed directly toward
the incoming direct wave.
5. In a second type of nonstandard behavior, observed on both New
York and Deal circuits, the angular elevation of the direct wave
usually increased markedly above its standard vaIue but some-
times decreased to a value slightly below standard. On two nights
in 1945 the signal on the broad-beam antennas and the apparent
angle of arrival given by the sharp antennas fluctuated violently,
and the scanning record showed that the received signal resulted
from several components arriving simultaneously at different ele-
vation angles. The largest upward deviation, observed on the
second of these nights, was 0.75° on 1.25 cm, and on several other
occasions in 1944 deviations of half as much were observed on the
New York path. On the first of the unusual nights there appeared
to be two components of incoming signal; one had the amplitude
and direction of the normal daytime signal, but the other fluctuated
in strength by about 20 db, and its angle of arrival varied from
0.21° to 0.46” above the normal COIUDOIIent. Soundings at Holmdel
revealed an elevated M-inversion near the line of sight. On the
second night, “two, three, and, at times, four separate trans-
mission paths were observed. All of these varied in angle of
arrival and all had large, rapid variations in signal level; the
normal or daytime path sometimes was missing. ” Soundings
showed evidence of two elevated inversions near the line of
sight.
6. E~cept for the two nights of multipath transmission, the variation
of vertical angle of arrival in 1945 was from —0.04” to +0.1 1°,
occurring mostly during the nighttime hours. A rough correlation
was found on both wavelengths between angle of arrival and slope
of (presumably relevant) sections of the M-profiles occurring at
or about the time of the observations.1
7. There was good agreement between angles of arrival measured
simultaneously on 1.25 and 3.25 cm, within the range –0.04°
to +0.12°.
I See Crawford and Sharpless, op. cit., Fig. 2. The theoretical basis for this pro-
cedure is considered in the next section.
SEC.4.231 MEASUREMENTS OF ANGLE OF ARRIVAL 389

8 “Fading ranges observed with the broad-beam antenna were

usually less than 6 db, except on the nights of multiple-path
transmission. Scintillation fading (rapid fluctuations of from ~
to l; db about a steady average signal level) was usually present
during the daytime and on windy nights, and was more severe
at 1.25 cm than at 3.25 cm. Observations made at 1.25 cm
showed that the scintillation fading was generally less on the large
narrow-beam scanning antenna (held in a fixed position for this
test) than on the small broad-beam antenna; this observation is
analogous, perhaps, to the optical one in which star scintillation
is less when viewed through a large telescope than when seen by
the unaided eye.”
9. On the New York path, for which there was an appreciable re-
flected wave, when the reflected wave was strongly deviated but the
direct wave was not affected, the very narrow antenna pattern
result ed in a material improvement in stability of the received
signal, as the antenna could be fixed in position to receive the rela-
tively steady direct wave and discriminate against the fluctuating
reflected wave. On the other hand, when the direct wave expe-
rienced upward angular deviations, these deviations were so large
that no single antenna position would allow reception free from
marked signal fading. This behavior suggests that there is an
upper limit to antenna directivity for one-way systems employing
fixed antennas and also that a slight upward tilt of a sharpbeam
antenna may be desirable to improve signal stability.
10. Changing the polarization of the transmitted wave failed to
reveal a measurable dependence of the fading on polarization, and
rotating the reference receiving antenna polarization until it was
at right angles to the transmitted polarization resulted in a de-
crease in signal of more than 20 db even during periods of marked
refraction, indicating that the wave suffers negligible depolariza-
tion in the refraction process.
These experiments suggest a new and powerful approach to the study
of atmospheric refraction, and it is to be hoped that they will eventually
yield information that will aid in filling the large gaps in existing knowledge
of refraction effects.
A different method of attacking the angle-of-arrival prob.em is now on
trial by the University of Texas.l The site for their experiments was the

i E. W. Hamlin,W. E. Gordon,and A. H. LaGrone,“X-band Ph= Front Measure-

ments in Arizona during April 1946, ” Electrical Engineering Research Laboratory
Report No. 6, University of Texas, Austin, Te~., Feb. 1, 1947. This report was received
just before the foregoing material waz sent to press, and only a brief summary of the
work is possible here. See also E. W. Hamlin and W. E. Gordon, Proc. I. R. E., 36,
1218 (1948), and E. W. Hamlin and A. H. LaGrone, Jour. Applied P&s., 21, 188 (1950).
390 EXPERIMENTAL STUDIES OF REFRACTION” [SEC. 4’8

Gila Bend terminal of the NELtranamiesion experiment listed in Table

4,2 of Sec. 4.12. This site offered numerous advantages, such as good
physical facilities for making the desired measurements, meteorological
conditions favorable to formation of strong surface-temperature gradients,
and sufficiently flat terrain that ground reflection could be studied without
undue effort.
Instead of using a single antenna with a very narrow beam, this second
method employs two small 3-cm antennas spaced many wavelengths (10 ft)
apart on a nearly vertical axis; the signals from the two antennas are
combined in appropriate phasing networks and receiving and indicating
systems. The aritennas are oriented in the same direction, perpendicular
to this axis, which can then be tilted in a plane perpendicular to the earth
to place the antenna mouths in an equiphase plane. If the incident wave
is strictly a plane wave, in this position a line perpendicular to the axis
and in the direction of orientation of the antennas yields the direction of
the normal to the incident wavefront and hence tilt of the wavefront or
the angle of arrival. In practice this axis remains fixed in position, and
variations in phase difference between the two antennas is interpreted in
terms of variations of the angle of arrival. The two antennas are moved
together in the vertical direction on a tower.
This method assumes that the incident wavefront is indeed plane; if it
is not, the angle of arrival of the wave loses its meaning. If the phase
front is more complicated, as, for instance, in the case of a direct and an
earth-reflected wave, this two-antenna method measures the phase differ-
ence between two points separated by the antenna spacing in the total
wavefront resulting from superposition of the two waves; this phase dif-
ference may be very different from that of either the direct or reflected
wave alone,’ Certain auxiliary measurements are necessary to yield the
angle of arrival of the direct (or other) rays. If, moreover, refraction
(or other processes) causes multiple-path transmission to occur, the two
antenna method may yield results that are very difficult to interpret. On
the other hand, with appropriate elaboration the method may serve as.
the foundation for the investigation of both amplitude and phase over an
extended section of a complicated wavefront, from which the response of
any desired antenna or antenna system may be predicted, in principle at
least. The experiments described in the report cited were undertaken
primarily to investigate the rapidity of variation of the phase front. They
have not yet progressed to the point of obtaining direct information on
angle of arrival, except by interim methods mentioned later.
The results available at present, although preliminary, are interesting
and suggestive. Briefly, they are as follows:
I A derivation of the field for this case (including phase) is given in Sec. 65 in
connection with scattering from a vertical plane sheet. See also E. W. Haralin and
A. W. Straiton, Proc. IRE, 36, 1538 (1948).
SEC.424] THEORETICAL DI,qCUSSION 391

1. In the interference region at points not too close to the interference

minima, the phase difference between the two antennas 10 ft apart
vertically varied less than 15° on fair days with a period of several
minutes. On fair nights a rapid oscillation of about 5° was super-
posed on a drift of as much as 5° per min. During rain and near
sunrise large and rapid variations occurred, and the data were
often not reproducible because of the rapid fluctuations.
2. When the M-profile was essentially linear, the measured phase
difference in the interference region agreed satisfactorily with that
computed by ray theory.
3. When ducts occurred with depths of 100 ft or less and with
M-gradients of – 3 to – 5 per hundred ft, fairly good agreement was
obtained bettveen the measured angle of arrival and that computed
by tracing rays into the diffraction region. Estimations of the
angle of arrival of the direct ray were made for four nights on which
weak surface ducts occurred, using an approximate scheme for
absolute phase calibration. The angles of arrival calculated in this
way were between – 0.08° to +0.08° relative to the direct ray for
standard refraction. 1
4. The apparent reflection coefficient of the earth showed a marked
diurnal variation between limits of 0.85 in the afternoon and 0.2 in
the early morning. This variation showed a definite correlation
with measured low-altitude M-gradients. It was attributed to a
combination of the effects of extreme refraction (both super and
subrefraction) in a very thin layer of air at the surface and a Fresnel
pattern of reflection peculiar to the path profile.
4“24. Theoretical Discussion.—As existing wave theory for the field
in the interference region requires summation of an inordinately large
number of terms, the alternative is to employ ray theory, with appropriate
regard for the limitations discussed in Sec 2 “5. Unfortunately these
limitations are encountered in all but the simplest phases of the present
problem because of the occurrence of foci and caustics, but it is nevertheless
instructive to examine the ray-tracing equations.
In Sec. 2“3, Snell’s law expressed in spherical coordinates was shown
to be
(a + z)rs cos /3 = const., (3a)

where n is the index of refraction at the height z, and a, 2, and Q are as

shown in Fig. 4.55. If the expression above is divided by a, one obtains

N COS~ = N, COS& (3b)

where N is modified index and the subscript denotes values at a tixed

I For details the original report should be consulted. Thk procedure probably
violates some of the restrictions on ray tracing, but the matter has not been investi-
gated fully
 392 EXPERIMENTAL STUDIES OF REFRACTION [SEC. 4.24

reference point, which for convenience may be one transmission terminal.

This expression can be rewritten as
/,~2 –
— COS2
b’]
d(r) (3C)
tan~ = —-- ‘ — dz
Cos p) dr’

one possible form for calculation of ray paths through an atmosphere in

which N is an arbitrary function of z.
In Sec. 24 it was shown that a positive value
of effective earth’s radius a, can be used if iV2
varies linearly with z; specifically, in terms of the
present problem, if
N 2 =1+2( 2– 2,)
(--)
v
11 (1,

Eq. (3) becomes

2(Z – z,)
sinz (3, + —a— (4)
dz J e
‘an~=&= —”- Cosp, ‘
which can be integrated directly to give
FIG. 4.55.—Path of a
ray at an angle 6 with the
horizontal.

As the angles of interest here are very small, the usual small-angle
approximations give, for Eq, (.5),

(6a)

or

2—2,
@,=__.*. (6b)
r e

This value of P, can be inserted into Eq. (4), which becomes

p= ‘:+; ,
=81+;. e
(7)

If z, is the height of one terminal, /3~is the angle of arrival (or departure)
of a ray from the other terminal at a height z and a distance r away,
where @ was the angle of departure (or arrival).
Equations (4) through (7) constitute no more than a restatement of
the ray-tracing equations for the assumed variation of N, which is equiv-
alent to a linear N- or i14-profile. The relation between the equivalent
SEC. 4.241 THEORETICAL DISCUSSION 393

earth radius a. and the slope of the M-profile is

(8)

where dN/dZ is independent of z (and of r, as horizontal stratification is

assumed in any discussion involving N). These restrictions on dN/dz
must be fulfilled if rays traced by Eqs. (4) through (7) are to give a com-
plete description of the field in the interference region. If they are not
fulfilled, rays may still be traced, but the resulting distortion of wavefronts
and lack of strict coincidence of ray paths with the direction of energy
flow pose theoretical problems in interpretation of the ray patterns that
are as yet unsolved, Physical intuition suggests that if the M-profile is
essentially linear over a layer roughly coinciding with the transmission
terminals but with a slope differing from that outside the layer, Eq. (6)
should give an estimate of apparent angle of arrival of rays traveling in
the layer. In this calculation a, should be obtained from Eq. (8), using
the M-gradient in the layer. This argument is undoubtedly correct in
principle if the wavelength is sufficiently short that geometrical optics
is valid, but no general quantitative tests are available to determine
its accuracy in specific cases. (This point has also been discussed in
Sec. 47.)
It has been emphasized that after rays pass through caustics, cusps,
or foci, the ray paths and direction of energy flow in general do not coin-
cide. In regions traversed only by rays that have not yet encountered
these singularities in the ray pattern, however, the pattern is a reliable
measure of field distribution, even with negative slope of the M-profile, if
reflections from the earth’s surface are negligible. In this case the angle
of arrival may be calculated from Eq. (6). If the value of ae obtained
from Eq. (8) is constant throughout the height range covered by the ray,
Eq. (6) maybe used directly; otherwise step-by-step integration of Eq. (3)
is necessary.
The angular deviations to be expected maybe illustrated by considering
a bilinear M-profile in which the slope of the bottom section varies from
superstandard to substandard and the upper section has a positive slope.
The critical height at which the slope changes will be z., and the values of
effective earth’s radius [from Eq. (8)] for the lower and upper sections will
be a, and a,, respectively. Assuming that the receiver at which angle of
arrival is to be determined is at a height zl, less than z,, rays may be traced
from the receiver into the refracting region.
In the region below z,, the path of a ray departing at an angle S1 is,
from Eq. (6),

(9)
394 EXPERIMENTAL STUDIES OF REFRACTION LSEC. 424

When it reaches the height z,, it has traveled a horizontal distance T-I,
which can beobtainedfrom Eq. (9),

(lo)

Upon reaching z, the slope of the ray is, from Eq. (6),

(11)

This value of B serves as the angle of departure /3, for the ray as it pro-
gresses above z,, where the path of the ray is given by

z-zc=~ +(7– -7-,)

()8,+:. (12)

If T1from Eq. (10) is inserted into Eq. (12), one finds, after some algebraic
manipulation, that

,=*[;+P1+(% ,) J,,+2(ZC;.lJY
—;(3–
():–1 2,+:21. (13)

An alternative form is useful for the case in which the lower segment of the
M-profile has negative slope and al is negative. In this case trapping may
occur at angles below a critical angle P, given by

and Eq. (13) becomes

‘=~[i+’’+(:-’)d”=~
(”()+z,’)+z, (,,)

Equations (13) and (14) are written in terms of the actual angle of
arrival (or departure) A, which differs from @{, the angle of arrival of a
ray traveling between the same terminals with no refraction. The path
of the latter ray is given by

(15)

The refraction error 6 = i31 – 6( is most easily obtained by equating

Eqs. (13) and (15) and solving for P{, which is then expressed in terms of
the actual angle of arrival, terminal height, and properties of the M-profile.
Figure 4“56 shows the angular error 6 caused by several types of
M-profiles.
SEC. 4.24] THEORETICAL DISCUSSION 395

Two special cases are of interest. If a, = a,, it is easily shown that

&=&:–l.
() (16)

For standard refraction this gives a value for 3 of 1.81 X 10–3 degrees
per mile. Thesecond special case is that for which

~;>> 2(2.–21)
1
a,

+ 0.4 lm

g+o.3 “B = loon
.E
~
m +0.2 ,g m
.E Standard -
- +0.1 c refraction ‘6rlo
z
.= ~~~
.s o WA c
j 1234
& -0.1 ~ True elevation ~
angle in degrees D
& ~B
g -0.2
-30 -20 -lo 0 +10 +20
-0.31 Refractiw modulus M- Jfl
Fm. 4.56.—.4ngular error as a function of true elevation angle (for no refraction) for
various M-profiles. The range is 15 miles, and M, is value of M at the receiver, which is at
zero height

corresponding to the nearly horizontal sections of the curves of Fig. 456.

Then 3 becomes

‘=aH1+(%)(wll” (17)

The relations developed above apply only to untrapped rays penetrat-

ing regions above the critical heights of the simplified M-profiles of Fig.
4.56. It is probable that in practical situations the refraction conditions
are more complicated than those pictured above and that observed in-
creases in angle of arrival may arise from either untrapped rays or strongly
trapped rays from surface or elevated layers. Trapped rays, with their
attendant ccmplex ray patterns, are a possible cause of the multiple-ray
paths that have been observed occasionally. Further analysis of the
angle of arrival problem without considerable extension of existing the-
oretical methods and without more detailed meteorological information
does not appear hopeful, however.
 CHAPTER 5

REFLECTIONS FROM THE EARTH’S SURFACE

BY DONALDE. KERR, WILLIAM T. FISHBACK,AND HERBERTGOLDSTEIN

The effects of reflection of waves from the earth’s surface were discussed
qualitatively in Sec. 2.2. In Sec. 2.11 formulas were given for the re-
flection coefficient and divergence factor in terms of the earth’s electro-
magnetic properties and of the transmission-path geometry, In this
chapter these quantities and their effect on the coverage diagram will be
discussed further. Surface roughness will be shown to cause marked
departures from the results predicted theoretically for a smooth surface;
the extent of this departure is related to the size of the surface-roughness
elements relative to wavelength and to the grazing angle. Reflections
from the surface will be shown to limit accuracy of radar height measure-
ments at angles of elevation so small that the antenna illuminates the
surface strongly and sp~cular reflection from the surface is large.

THEORY OF SPECULAR REFLECTION

BY DONALD E. KERR

5“1. Fresnel’s Equations for a Smooth Plane Surface.—Equations

(2366) and (2.367) for the reflection coefficient r can be rewritten as

(1)

and

These expressions are well enough known not to require derivation here;
they may be found in any standard work on electromagnetic theory.’
I For inztance, see J. A. Stratton, Electromagnetic Thea-g, McGraw-Hill,New York,
1941,Sees. 9.4 and 9.9. Stratton’s p is equivalentto the p used here, but he definez
reflection coefficient as Pz,
396
SEC. 51] FRESNEL’S EQUA TIONS FOR A SMOOTH PLANE SURFACE 397

This section will consider the dependence of r upon the electromagnetic

properties of the earth, grazing angle ~z, and polarization.1
For horizontal polarization r, is the ratio of reflected to incident
electric field or the ratio of the vertical components of the magnetic field,
but the ratio of reflected to incident horizontal components of the magnetic
field is – rh. Similarly, for vertical polarization r, is the ratio of reflected
to incident magnetic field, or the ratio of the vertical components of the
electric field; but the ratio of the horizontal components of electric field is
– r.. As long as *Z is small, the field is practically vertical and r, may
be considered the ratio of electric fields, but for large ~Z the horizontal and
vertical components of field must be considered separately in relation to r..
The way in which the electromagnetic properties of the earth affect
r are revealed through the propagation factor k? = uz~c – iu~. For
the present purpose k: for the air at the surface differs negligibly from
the value for free space, d~oto) and p for both the air and the earth is
essential] y p ~. Then

(3)

This quantity is c, called the complex dielectric constant, and e/eOis the
usual dielectric constant of the earth, denoted by el. In mks units
S2= u/uso becomes 60h when k is expressed in meters and u in mhos
per meter. Th~

(4)

where Q = el/E2,the ratio of displacement current to conduction current.

(The factor Q is analogous to the “Q” of a parallel combination of a lossless
capacitor and a loading resistor. ) It is a useful index of the degree to
which a transmission medium tends to behave as a high-quality dielectric:
The higher Q the lower the loss of energy by heating. The reciprocal of
Q is also the tangent of the argument of Eq. (4) and is frequently used in
describing the properties of transmission media.
For wavelengths greater than roughly 20 cm the properties of sea
water are essentially independent of wavelength. Both q and u vary
noticeably with temperature, el decreasing and u increasing as temperature
increases. The value of E, for 20”C is commonly taken to be 80, but u is
subject to considerable additional variation because of local variations in
salinity. The value 4.3 mhos/m will be used here. Below about 20 cm,
E1decreases with decreasing wavelength, and u incresses roughly as shown
in Table 5.1.
1The terminology of polarization is not precise but is adhered t.a because of usage
in radio engineering. “Horizontal” and ‘ ‘vertical” polarization as used here mean
that the electric vector is perpendicular to or lies in the plane of incidence.
398 REFLECTIONS FROM THE EARTH’S SURFACE [SEC. 5.1

For land surfaces both EI and u are in general much lower than for
water. For dry soil E, may fall as low as 2 but is more likely to lie in
the range from 3 or 4 to 20. The conductivity of land may vary from
roughly 10–5to 10–Zmhos/m, the smaller values tending to occur simultane-
ously with low values of EI for dry, rocky, or sandy soil, whereas the higher
values of both u and El occur with rich soils. This wide range of con-
ductivity and dielectric constant results in a considerable variation in
EC,which in turn produces a marked effect on the reflection coefficient,
particularly for vertical polarization.
The values shown in Table 51 are intended to serve only as a guide
rather than as an accurate set of earth parameters. They represent a com-
posite of values obtained from widely varying sources and reflect both the
variability to be found in nature and the incomplete state of knowledge in
the short-wavelength region.

TABLE5.1.—APPROXIMATE
ELECTROMAGNETIC
PROPERTIES
OFSOILAND WATER”

a
Medium A el Q
mhoim
—
Sea water, . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 m–20 cm 4.3 80 774 o 10
52 1.5
20 °–250C, , .,,,,,,.,,...,,. 10 cm 6.5 69 39 18
28”C. , .,, ,,, ,,, . . ...,...,, 3.2 cm 16 65 30,7 2.1
Distilled water, 23°C. . .. 3.2cm 12 67 23 29
Fresh-water lakes. . . . . . ., ., . . lm 10-3
-10-2 80 0.06 1330
0.60 133
Very dry sandy loam 9 cm 0.03 2 1.62 1 23
Very wet sandy loam. ., ... 9 cm 0.6 24 32.4 0 74
Very dry ground . . . . . . . . . . . . . lm 10-4 4 0 006 670
Moist ground . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . lm 10-2 30 06 50
Arizona soil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32cm 0 10 3.2 0.19 17
Austin, Tex., soil, very dry. 32cm 00074 2.8 0.014 200

* L, H, Ford and R. Oliver, “.4n ExperimentalInvestigationof the Reflectionsnd Ab80rptio” of R.adia.

tion of 9-cm Wavelength,” DSIR, RRB/C 107, Oct. 27, 1944, and Proc. Phus, .%., 66, 265 (1946); C. R.
Burrows, “Radio Propagation over Plane Earth-Field Strength Curve s,” BeU S@em Tech. Jar,, 16,
January 1937; F. E. Terman, Radio Enaineeri%rHandbmk. McGraw-Hill. New York. 1943:.—. Tables—.of
Diekdru Mdertib, Lzborntmy for Insulation Research, Massachusetts Institute of Technolo~, Vol. 1,
February 1944; Vol. 2, June 1945; A. W. Straitonand C. W. Tolbert, “‘Menmmementof Dielectric Prowrties
of Soils and Water at 3.2-zm Wavelength,” Electrical EngineeringReaearoh Laboratory, Report No. 4,
Universityof Texas, July 10, 1947, The last report waa rezeived b Iatt to quote in detaiL The 3.2-cm
values in the table am takemfrom this rsport.

It can be seen that except for very dry ground,

Ie,l>>l. (5)
Introducing this approximation into Eqs. (1) and (2) yields

V; sin #2 – 1
r, = p~–~d. ~ (6)
VZ sin *2 + 1
SEC.511 FRESNEL’S EQUATIONS FOR A SMOOTH PLANE SURFACE 399

and

(7)

As pointed out in Sec. 26, the radicals in Eqs. (1) and (2) must have nega-
tive imaginary parts; that is, the principal root must be taken in calculating
~ from Eq. (4).
The behavior of the reflection coefficient near grazing incidence can be
ascertained by inspection of Eqs. (1) and (2) or (6) and (7). At grazing
incidence, $2 = O and
r,=r. =–l,

independent of the properties of the surface, that is, of EC,as long as CC

remains finite. It is instructive, however, to investigate the behavior of I’
when e, is allowed to approach infinity. It is clear from Eq. (7) that as e,
increases without fimit, rh approaches – 1 for all values of ~,. For vertical
polarization the situation is not so simple, however. If we assume that
Q is real (the earth is a perfect dielectric, thus EZis zero), itwill be seen from
Eq. (6) that p, = O when sin & = l/fi. (This is just the complement
of Brewster’s polarizing angle. ) When +2 is less than this critical value,
O, = rr, but at the critical angle it decreases abruptly to zero, where it re-
mains for all larger values of y$2. When E, is complex, however, p, can
decrease only to a minimum value greater than zero, reaching the minimum
at an angle smaller than sin–l (1/@. At the same time .&is no longer dis-
continuous at this angle, but it decreases rapidly from somewhat less than r
to a small value and decreases slowly thereafter. As CCbecomes very large,
the critical angle approaches zero, the minimum value of p, approaches
unity, and l’, ~ + 1 for all values of *2. This is the basis of the familiar
statement that for a perfect conductor 17, = +1. In the presence of finite
conductivity this condition can be approached only at grazing angles well
above the critical angle, and it will be seen that in the wavelength region
considered here it cannot be considered as a practical possibility. Usually
only small values of ~z are of interest for very short waves, for in general
beamwidths are so narrow that the surface is not strongly illuminated at
large angles of depression; but more important, the effects of surface
roughness, discussed in later sections, are frequently severe enough to
reduce markedly the effectiveness of the specular reflection at high angles
discussed so far.
The reflection coefficient at normal incidence can be obtained directly
from either Eqs. (1) and (2) or (6) and (7). It is

_rh= &-l
r, =
fi+l”
It should be noted that at normal incidence a “vertically polarized” field
becomes horizontally polarized; and, because the ratio of the horizontally
400 REFLECTIONS FROM THE EARTH’S SURFACE [SEC.5.1

polarized electric field components is – r,, the difference between the two
polarizations disappears, as it obviously must, and the ratio of reflected
to incident field for both cases is

The variation of r with *2 can be visualized easily with the aid of

Figs. 5.1 and 5“2, which portray the numerator and denominator of

FIG. bl.-klchavior of the components of r, in the complex plane.

Fro. b.2.—Ilehaviorof theconlpu,lents

of 1’, in thecomplexplane.

Eqs. (6) and (7) in the complex plane, ~ These quantities, constructed from
the appropriate combinations of e, and sin $,, vary \vith~, in such a ~vaythat
the tips of their vectors follow the dotted lines. It is obvious that p“ is unity
1The value of q used here was chosen to make the diagrams readahk= rather than to
muform to the approximations leading tu EUS. (6) und (7). This C1O(,Snot limit the
I]sefulneaa of the in fornmtion ol)t:linablc fi-onl the figures,
SEC. 5.1] FRESNEL’S EQUA TIONS FOR A SMOOTH PLANE SURFACE 401

for ~Z = O and that it passes through a minimum and rises to the value
given by Eq. (8) at normal incidence. The phase lag 1#10, because of the
sign in the definition in Eq. (1), is given by the argument of the denomina-
tor minus that of the numerator. It can be seen to start at + r for #2 = O,
to vary most rapidly near the minimum of PO,and to fall to the value given
by Eq. (8) for normal incidence. The simpler diagram of Fig. 5.2 shows the
corresponding information for horizontal polarization. The qualitative
trend of these quantities is shown in Fig. 5.3,
The details of the variation of
p and #1 for ~j up to 10° and for ~ ____ —_ ——— —— ——
wavelength from 3 m to 3 cm are
shown in Figs. 5.4 to 5.6. The
values of SI and a used for these
figures were taken from Table 5.1, p
except for 3 cm, for which the
information in the table was not
available. (The phase for hori- 0 $2 ~
zontal polarization is not given, as (a) 2

its total increase over 180° is less

than 40.) In these curves the pre-
dominant features are the lack of ~ ———J———–——–
sensitivity of r~ to the grazing
angle in contrast to the marked
sensitivity of r,.
In Fig. 5.4 the arrows indicate
~.
the critical values of grazing angle
‘ L
sin–’ (1 W) to be expected in o
the absence of conductivity. In 42
$
(b)
Fig. 55 the dotted lines indicate
FIG. 53.-Variation of P and @ with grazing
the behavior of ~, under the same angle +1.
assumptions. The contrast be-
tween the dotted and solid curves and the displacement upward and
to the left of the minimum in p, show the trend in the behavior of
the water, which is predominantly a dielectric at 3 cm and an indifferent
conductor at 3 m.
The discussion thus far has been confined to the properties of r as
defined by Eqs. (1) and (2), which apply to a plane wave reflected from a
plane surface, whereas the physical situation to which the equations are to
be applied involves a spherical wave reflected from a spherical surface.
It turns out that the spherical shape of the reflecting surface can be taken
into account by the divergence factor, given by Eq (2.365) and discussed
further in the next section. But the spherical nature of the wavefront
begins to dominate the reflection phenomenon as the point of reflection
approaches the horizon, that is, as the grazing angle 42 approaches zero.
402 REFLECTIONS FROM THE EARTH’S SURFACE [SEC. 5.1

This matter has been discussed by van der Pol and Bremmer,’ who derive
a value for the true spherical reflection coefficient for the limiting case of
grazing incidence.z It will be recalled from Sec. 2.11, however, that the
Lo

0.9

0.8
A=3m
Qa0.7 / ~
/
z
a 1.5m
~ / /
~ 0.6 / Im

j Olj \ \
S! 60cm
%
\ /
: 0.4 \
.*
g 50cm
= 0.3 / /
/
10cm
0.2 \
— 3 cm
—
0.1
(%e text)

o 1 1 1
0 1 23456 7 8 9 10
Grazing angleindegrees
FIG.5.4.—Magnitude of the reflection coefficient p. w a function of grazing .gngle for ~
smooth sea and vertical polarization, Ptiameters on curve refer to wavelength. See text
for meaning of arrows.

field integral of Eq. (2.346) has been evaluated by an asymptotic expansion

that excludes values of ~j near zero, and the simple formula
F = II +pDe-’-l

is no longer valid very near the tangent ray. Without a complete explora-
tion of the intermediate region there is no apparent justification for at tempt -
ing refinement of the expression for r alone.
L l%i~. .kfag., 27, No. 182, 261, (1939),
z Their formula may also be derived from Eq. (2.355) by setting A = O and using
the properties of the g functions given in Eqs. (2313 and 2314).
 SEC. 51] FRESNEL’S EQUATIONS FOR A fJMOOTH PLANE S URFACE 403

\ \ \ I\ \ \ I 1 I \ 1

I
I

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Grazing angle in degrees
Fm. 5.5.—Phase of the reflection coefficient +. as a function of grazing angle for a smooth
sea and vertical polarization.

1.00
‘a’
~.
c A=3m
; 0.99
~
v
.! 0.98
*
~
% 0.97
~
.3-
~ 0.96 N
z

0.95
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Grazing angle in degrees
Fm. 5.6.—Magnitude of the reflection coefficient p, as a function of grazing angle for a smooth
sea and horizontal polari~ation.
404 REFLECTIONS FROM THE EARTH’S SURFACE [L%EC.52

6“2. Geometrical Interpretation of the Divergence Factor.-The diver-

gence factor D has been mentioned earlier as the quantity that in the inter-
ference region represents the spherical shape of the earth in weakening the
energy reflected from the surface. This meaning of D is not evident from
the derivation of the field-strength formulas in Chap, 2, however. It is
profitable to derive the formula for D from purely geometrical considera-
tions and to show what degree of approximation is required to reduce it to
the commonly used form given in Chap. 2. The demonstration given here
was suggested by that of van der Po1 and Bremmer, who derived the same
result as part of an elaborate analysis
of diffraction of waves by a conduct-
ing sphere, 1
Figure 5.7 shows the cross section
of the earth, with an isotropic source
at a height zI. It is desired to com-
pare the density of the rays in a small
cone reflected from the sphere near
the principal point of reflection with
the density that the rays of the same
cone would have if they were reflected
from a plane reflector at the same
point, The field strength is propor-
tional to the square root of the ray
FIG. b.7.~eometry for the divergence
density. More specifically, we shall
factor D. (.4.fter van der Pot.) .
compare the cross section of the cone
after reflection from a sphere with that after reflection by a plane. L) is
the square root of the ratio of the latter to the former cross section.
The cross section of the bundle of rays leaving the source is
R* sin 71d71 d~, where o is measured perpendicular to the plane of the paper
and R is slant range. After reflection from a plane its cross section would
be (RI + R,)’ sin ., d,, do, as the rays appear to have traveled a distance
R, + R’ from the image of the source below the plane tangent at the point
of reflection. After reflection from the sphere the cross section is A, of
Fig. 57. It is also equal to A, cos 7,, where AZ = (a”+ Z2)2 sin 8 de do.
The divergence factor is then given by

In order to obtain de, we require several relations that can be obtained from
inspection of Fig, 5.7:
1 Van der Pol and 13rernmer, “Further Note on the Propagation of Radio Waves
over a Finitely Conducting Spherical Earth, ” Phil. Msg., 27, Ser. 7, No. 182, March
1939.
SEC. 5.2] INTERPRETATION OF THE DIVERGENCE FACTOR 405

asin7z = (a + 21)sin71 = (a + 22)sin T3; (9)

Rlsinrl = asin Ol, Rt sin rs = a sin 62; (lo)

RI = (a + zl) cosn – acos7Z; (11)

&=(a+zJcos79–am72; (12)

R? = az + (a + Zl)z – 2a(a + z1) cos O1; (13)

R; = az + (a + ZZ)2 – 2a(a + ZZ)cos OZ. (14)

By manipulation of Eqs. (9) to (12) it is easy to show that 0 can be expressed

in terms of a, Zl, z2,and T,. As T, is the only variable quantity, we can then
write
do = : drl.

Then
sin v
~= R,+R, de, (15)
a+z2 sin e cos r~ —
J ar,

where W/c3rl must now be evaluated. Differentiation of Eqs. (13) and

(14) with respect to n and use of Eq. (10) yields

from which

From Eqs. (9) to (12) one can obtain

dR,
— = R, tan 72,
arl

aR2
— = R? cot, r, tan T2 tan 73.
aT1

Combination of the last three equations yields

ae _ (a + z,)R1 cos n + (a + z1)R2 cos 71J

all – a(a + 22) cOs 72 COs 73
406 REFLECTIONS FROM THE EARTH’S SURFACE [SEC.53

which with the aid of Eqs. (15) and (9) gives van der Po] and Bremmer’s
expression for D:
a(Rl + Rz) Wsin 72cos 72
D= . (16)
<[(a + zz)R, cos n + (a + z1)R2 cos ~,] (a + zl)(a + zJ sin o
Equation (16) is unwieldy and unnecessarily refined for most practical
computation purposes. It may be simplified to have the form of Eq.
(2365), which is commonly used. The angle r, is the complement of the
grazing angle ~Z, which is always very small in the region in which D hsa
an appreciable effect. Hence we write sin 72 = cos & = 1 and cos 72 =
sin fiz. If we also substitute (a + z,) cos 7, and (a + ~) cos ~, from
Eqs. ( 1) and (12) and rearrange terms, Eq. (16) can be written

1
~=
(l+%+:
)asin’[,+
RI + Rz
2R,R2
a(R1 + R2) sin +2 “
] (1,)

We re$ ;rict terminal heights to values very small by comparison with the
earth’s radius, thus pem-itting zl/a and zz~a to be discarded. Also ranges
are so small that a sin 0 = aO = RI + Rz. The coefficient of the quantity
in brackets is then approximately unity. To a very satisfactory approxi-
mation R] and Rz, the slant ranges from the terminals to the point of reflec-
tion, may be replaced by the corresponding ground ranges T1and 72. The
final expression for D then becomes
1
D=
2r,r2 ‘ (18)
1+
J a(rl + rz) sin *Z

The geometrical interpretation of D given previously is thus justified,

and the degree of approximation involved in the final expression is made
clear without regard to the earth-flattening procedure of Chap. 2. The
approximations of small angles, low terminal heights, and short ranges (in
terms of earth radius) are consistent with those already imposed by the.
simplified expressions for path-length difference AR given in Chap. 2.1
The value of earth’s radius given here is, of course, meant to be the
effective earth’s radius a,, obtained as described in Chap. 2.
Further insight into the physical importance of D can be obtained from
the examples of the next section.
5.3. Effects of Reflections on Field Strength-In Sees. 2“13 and 2.14
methods were given to permit calculation of field strength in the interfer-
ence and diffraction regions. The purpose of this section is to present a
few further details of the way in which the earth’s surface affects the cov-

1Since the foregoingmaterial waa written a much more elaborateand complete

divergence formula for surfaces of arbitrary (smooth) shapes has appeared. See H. J.
Klblet and C. B. Barker, J. Applied Phys., 19, 63 (1948).
SEC. 53] EFFECTS OF REFLECTIONS ON FIELD STRENGTH 407

era.ge diagram, on the assumption that the surface is smooth and homo-
geneous.
As mentioned earlier, there are three common methods of presenting
field-strength information. These are (1) plots of signal strength vs.
range for fixed terminal heights; (2) plots of signal strength vs. height of
one terminal, for fixed range and height of second terminal, (3) a map of

+ 10
I
o 1 AAnn
-lo -
L~_2f3
z I
I
~ -30 - I
. .
-40 -
Total horizon range —--
-50 -
I
1 I 1 ! I 1 1 , I , , t
-60
34 6 8 10 20 40 60 80 1 )0
Range in miles
(a) Horizontal polarizahon
tlo~ I I

o
mnnn I

-10-
~&-20 - I

z
0-30 -
N

-40 -
Total horizon range—
-50 -
I
-60 , 1 ! I 1 1 I 1 , ! L 1
34 6 8 10 20 40 60 80 100
Range in miles
(f)) Vertical polarization”
Fm. 5%-Variationof field strength relative to free-space field (2010s,oF) from anisotropi[
antmma for a wavelength of 10 cm and terminal heights of 90 and 1000 ft over a smooth sea

the field, consisting of contours of constant field strength plotted on a

graph whose coordinates are range and height (a contour diagram). Each
of these methods has advantages in presenting information in certain
regions, and examples of each will be given.
Examples of the first type of diagram are show: in Fig. 5.8, which
shows the field strength in decibels relative to the free-space field (2o IOglfl)
as a function of range for 10-crn transmission over sea Water, with terminal
 408 REFLECTIONS FROM THE EARTH’S SURFACE [SEC. 53

heights of90and 1000ftand anisotropic radiation pattern. These curves

reveal uninteresting property of the product Dp. The quantity Disunity
high in the interference region and falls to zero rather abruptly along the
tangent ray, whereas p is unity at grazing incidence and decreases with
increasing grazing angle, as shown in Figs, 54 and 5.6. As a consequence

3=I=F=
6 I

I
5
-–r
c
%4 -7 .—-—
%
5
s
53
.5 r = -- 1
E Stancard refraction
,y
?
Tangent ray
----— ------ ------
2

1 /
-60 -50 -40 -30 -20 -lo 0 +10
20 log10 F
Fm. 5.9.—Field strength relative tothefree-space field (2010gloF’) asa function Of height
at a range of 80 miles from a transmitter at a height of 110 ft. The broken curve indicates
the intermediate region (Sec. 2,15).

DP reaches a maximw at a small grazing angle; for horizontal polarization

the maximum value of DP is larger and occurs at a larger angle than for ver-
tical polarization. This fact is responsible for the deeper minima and
stronger maxima in the interference pattern for horizontal polarization
{revealed by the shape of the envelope of maxima and minima) and for the
fact that the minimum of the envelope occurs at a shorter range. This
phenorneno~ will be noticed only for large terminal heights, because for
SEC. 5.3] EFFECTS OF REFLECTIONS ON FIELD STREATGTH 409

small heights the maximum in Dp occurs at ranges outside the first few
minimal
The depths of the minima and heights of the maxima give an indication
of the magnitude of DP and, as will be shown in Sec. 5“6, can be used in
measurements of p.
It is worth mentioning again that with standard refraction the field
strength along the tangent ray (at the total horizon range) is always con-
siderably less than the free-space field by an amount that depends on
wavelength, heights, and range; moreover, the rate of decrease of field
strength with range at and beyond the horizon is large. 2 Thus, the horizon
constitutes an upper range limit for radar detection under standard refrac-
tive conditions, although point-to-point communication beyond the horizon
is far less difficult because the transmission loss does not occur twice as it
does in radar.
The behavior of the field in the intermediate region and near the lowest
lobe of the interference pattern portrays the superi~rity of very short waves
in concentrating a large field near the surface, that is, of providing good
low coverage. Such information can be presented on plots of either type 1
or 2 described above. Fig. 5.9 shows an example3 of type 2 for wavelengths
of 3 m and 75 and 9.4 cm. This trend for the interference region is obvious
from the discussion of F given in Sec. 2.2 for a plane earth, but it is illus-
trated in more detail here. This and the previous figure point clearly to
the desirability of using short wavelengths in applications requiring detec-
tion as near the surface as possible.
The continuation of the trend of wavelength dependence into the inter-
ference region is shown in Fig. 5.10, which shows only the two lowest lobes
of the interference pattern for the same wavelengths and transmitter
height used in the preceding figure. The marked increase in the fine struc-
ture of the lobes results from the increase in effective transmitter height,
measured by z,/A~~,as the wavelength is decreased.4 If, on the other hand,
this ratio had been held constant by changing the transmitter height w the
1Surface roughness, discussed in later sections, is an even more important factor
in destroying the shape of the bottom of the envelope in Fig. 5.8.
Z The presence of surface ducts reduces this trend, as shown in Chaps. 1, 2, and 4.
3As these curves are plotted for r = — 1, they represent the behavior of a horizontal y
polarized field. If the earth constants are taken into account, the field in the dif-
fraction region is slightly greater for vertical than for horizontal polarization on all
wavelengths and is slightly less in the interference region at the maxima of the inter-
ference loks. The difference in the diffraction region decreaswsrapidly with decreasing
wavelength because of the decrease in e. (see Sec. 2.11 j.
4It will be recalled from Chap. 2 that once a choice is made of the contour to be
plotted (Rf or lE/I?, 1) and the height of the transmitter in natural units is specified,
the coverage diagram is uaiquely determined “(for r = – 1 and standard refraction).
Tbe transmitter height z, is related to height in natural uaits by
%
Z,=$=2Z,
()& .
410 REFLECTIONS FROM THE EARTH’S SURFACE [SEC.5.3

wavelength was changed, the lobes for all three cases would have coincided.
[Anincre=e intheheight of the3-mtransmittir tollO(3OO/9.4)~~ = 1100
ftwould benecessary toplace itslobes in the position of the 9.4-cm lobes
from the transmitter at 110 ft.] Itisinteresting tonotethatwherem the
lobe positions are governed by the ratio zl/W for the spherical earth, they
1/ / I 1 I

i
X 1
I

Standard
refraction
\
o 50 100 150
Rangeinmilaa
Fm. 510.--Contmms of field strength 103 db below that at 1 m from an isotropic antenna
110 ft above the surface (R, = SS miles). Only the two lowest lobes are shown for each
wavelength.

are governed by zl/x for the plane earth. As shown in Sec. 2“2, for a plane
earth the angular elevations of the successive lobe maxima are proportional
to h/zl, but no such simple relation exists for the spherical earth.
The dotted line in Fig. 501Ois the envelope of maxima, which in the
present case is just a contour of 1 + D, aa we have assumed r = – 1.
At high angles, D = 1 and Frau = 2, as can be seen from the doubling of
Rf at high angles.
The assumption that I’ = – 1 is, of course, an oversimplification. For
wavelengths of the order of 1 m over the ocean it represents a good approxi-
SEC.5.4] SURFACE ROUGHNESS 411

mation at small grazing angles even for vertical polarization; but as shown
in the following sections, it may become very poor for ordinary terrain and
wavelengths of a few centimeters. The idealized cases are worthy of
detailed study, however, because of the insight that they give into the rela-
tions between the various parameters and because they are approached
reasonably well in many practical cases.
6“4. Surface Roughness.-The discussion thus far has assumed that
the earth’s surface is smooth. We now consider qualitatively the way in
which surface roughness modifies the results for a smooth surface. Per-
haps the simplest experiment that one can perform to obtain an idea of the
effects of roughness is to observe the light reflected from a sheet of paper
having a rough surface, At large grazing angles the surface appears dull,
but at sufficiently small angles it appears shiny and acts sufficiently like a
mirror to produce a crude image of
the light source.
It seems reasonable from intu-
ition that the efficiency of specular ~,
reflection from a rough surface ~ t
should involve the ratio of the
dimensions of the surface rough-
FIQ. 511 .—Phase ddl erence between rays
ness elements to the wavelength as reflected from two levels.
\vell as the grazing angle. Lord
Rayleigh suggested a way of formulating the relation between these
quantities. In Fig. 5.11 let h represent the height of an irregularity of the
surface and +2 the grazing angle. The path difference between the two
rays shown is just AR = 2h sin +2, and the phase clifference is

If this phase difference is very small, the effect of the roughness is small and
the surface is effectively smooth. Increasing h/~ or 4, increases the path
difference and weakens the resultant reflected field; when kAR = r, the
direct and reflected rays are in phase opposition. Between these two
extremes it is desirable to establish a value of phase difference to divide
“rough” from “smooth” surfaces. We shall arbitrarily choose Ir/2 as the
limiting value,l which gives as a criterion

(19)

for the surface to be considered smooth.

I There appeara to be no well-established practice in thematter,althoughSchuster
and Nicholeon (1’%mryoj Optics, 19’2S,p. 166) make the definite sutzg@ion given above.
In view of the crndity of thiz method of approach there scxnnzto be little point in being
more precize.
412 REFLECTIONS FROM THE EARTH’S SURFACE [SEC. 5.4

It should be clear from the nature of this argument that it cannot be

considered a quantitative statement of the effects of roughness. The use
of the simple ray picture automatically excludes from consideration the
local diffraction effects that occur when the roughness elements are com-
parable insizeto the wavelength. Ifthissimple concept isapplied to the
ocean surface, additional questions arise because of the irregular distribu-
tion of size and shape of the waves, because of foam and bubbles, etc. A
rigorous solution of the problem would require techniques as yet undevel-
oped for satisfying electromagnetic boundary conditions over a surface
with a statistical distribution of irregularities. Calculations have been
made of effective reflection coefficients using simple models of the sea
surface, such as sinusoidal or wedge-shapedz waves. Because the surface
in reality cannot be represented well by any simple geometrical configura-
tion, it seems preferable to limit the present discussion to consideration of
the effects of roughness in terms of simple Fresnel diffraction theory.3
In the derivation in Chap. 2 of the expressions for field strength in
the interference region, it was shown that the field could be described in
terms of interference between two waves following the paths of a “direct”
and “reflected” ray. The location of the point of reflection was deter-
mined from simple image theory.4 The ray reflected from a single point is
in reality a means of expressing the fact that the energy source illuminates
a large region of the surface, inducing currents that radiate in all directions
(Huygens’ principle); at any point in space the “reflected” field is the sum
of the radiation from these induced currents.
As a first step in analyzing the reflected field from this point of view,
we shall locate the areas on the earth’s surface from which the secondary
radiation has a specified phase relation to radiation proceeding directly
from the primary source to the field point.
Figure 5.12 shows the source and the field point over a reflecting plane
surface.
The dotted line indicates the path of the reflected ray and the point of
reflection. The ground range between source and field point is r, and the
slant range is R1. Radiation traveling between the two points by any other
path than RI will travel a greater distance, which will be denoted by R*.
The difference between any other arbitrary path length and R, will be
denoted by 6,
&– R, =8.

] F. Hoyle and M. H. L. Pryce, “The Lfiting Rangcx of R.D.F. Sets over the
Sea,” ASE Report No. M395; G. G. MacFarlane, “Sea Returne and the Detection of
Schnorkel,” TRE Report No. T1787, Feb. 13, 1945.
sS. O. Rice, BTL MemorandumNo. MM43-21O-6,Oct. 13, 1943.
sSeetion6.7 representsa diseuzzionof the natwwof the am surface.
4This dieeuesionwill be confinedto a plane earth,as all the essentialfacts can be
obtainedwithoutrecourseto the much more dif3iculttheoryfor the sphericalearth.
SEC. 5.4] SURFACE ROUGHNESS 413

The locus of all points in space corresponding to a specified value of 6 will

be an ellipsoid of revolution with the two terminals (O,O,Zl), (~,O,Zz)as foci
and R, as the axis of revolution. If now 8 is allowed to increase in steps,
of, let us say, A/2, a family of ellipsoids results. The intersections of these
ellipsoids with the z~-plane is a family of ellipses, each ellipse corresponding
to a given value of 3, The average phase of the radiation from each zone
bounded by adjacent ellipses cliffers from that of the neighboring zone by
just T; that is, the elementary waves from successive zones are in phase

FIG, 5.12.—Half-period zones in the xI;-plane.

opposition, [They do not quite cancel completely, as the amplitudes

change very slowly from zone to zone, but the first zone (n = 1 in the
figure) is the principal contributor. ] It is of interest to calculate the dimen-
sions of the zones in order to discover how large an area must be sensibly
smooth if the smooth-earth phase formulas are to be applicable. The
algebraic details of the following development are tedious and uninterest-
ing; consequently the steps will only be outlined briefly.
The equation for the ellipsoids is most conveniently written relative to
a new set of axes that have the new z’-axis tilted up at an angle 0 with
the x-axis and falling along R,. The ~‘-axis is parallel to the y-axis,
but the origin of the new axes is shifted to the mid-point of R,. From ana-
lytic geometry one finds that

“=(
’-~)cos’+(z--)sine
y’ = y,

Z’=-(’-+’+(’-+coso
and the equation of the ellipsoid corresponding to a given value of 6 is

Z#x’j + az(y’z + Z’2) = a%2, (20)

414 REFLECTIONS FROM THE EARTH’S SURFACE [SEC. 5.4

where

b = ~~62+2r8sec0, (22)

tan e = ‘+. (23)

If the expressions for the primed coordinates are substituted into Eq. (20),
the resulting equation gives the family of ellipsoids in terms of x, y, Z. AS
only the ellipses in the zy-plane are of interest here, we set z = O in the
transformed equation and obtain, after some manipulation,

(z – * r – p)’ (b’COS20+a’sin’8) + ab’ =

azb2(b2 COS2L9+ a’ sinz 6 — d), (24)

bz COS20 + a’ sinz 8
where
c(az — bz) sin 0 cos e
‘= – b2cosz O+a2sin20’

Equation (24) represents an ellipse in the xy-plane, with its center on the
x-axis at the position XO,given b~

() ZZ — z,

‘o=i+~=i ‘-[:+ J+~2;z)’l’,’

{
’25)
2}
The z- and y-intercepts of the ellipse may be found from Eq. (24).
The y-intercepts (and length of semiminor axis) are found by setting
z = zO,yielding
(26a)
y’=’b~e
or

(26b)
SEC,54] SURFACE ROUGHNESS 415

Similarly, the x-intercepts are found by setting y = O and then using

Eq. (26).

(27a)
or

The length of thesemimajor axis isthesecond term of Eq. (27). It will

be denoted by ~fi. Then z, = XO+ ~,.
These equations are exact but are so complicated that they do not lend
themselves to simple analysis. They can be greatly simplified by intro-
ducing the approximations used in most practical cases, namely, that ZI,
zt, and 6 are all much smaller than r, This assumption leads to

We also make an additional substitution

(29)

where

(30)

will be recognized as the approximate form for the path difference AR

between RI and the length of the ray path via the point of reflection. This
is done because it is the excess of path difference over that through the
point of reflection which is of immediate interest rather than the total path
length. Incorporating these approximations and the transformation of 6,
we have finally
~ + 22,(2, + z,)
r nhr
..” % – —- (31)
(2, + z,)’ ‘
21+
nkr

Xln =zon+–
;1— (32)

(33)
416 REFLECTIONS FROM THE EARTH’S SURFACE [SEC.5.4

The subscript n refers to the particular ellipse being considered. The area
of the ellipse for a given n is Am = mtmy..

1+:;
TT4G
An=~ (34)
~ + (z, + z,)’ ‘*
[ nhr 1

Further simplification is possible for a special case of some practical

importance. If we impose the additional restriction

4Z,
y <<1, (35)

and if we consider only the first ellipse (n = 1) at the reflection point for
the bottom lobe of the interference pattern (80 = A/2), we have

(36)

(37)

(38)
i L
These formulas are useful in cases of transmission between a very low
terminal and a high terminal, such as an aircraft, and are useful for radar
siting calculations. 1
A numerical example is helpful to illustrate the sizes of the zones
involved. We shall compare two wavelengths in two types of problems.
In the first case the path geometry (z,, q, and r) will be fixed, and it is
required to determine the position and dimensions of the first zone, In the
second case Z1and r-will be fixed, and it will be required to find the position
and dimensions of the first zone producing radiation reflected to form the
lowest lobe of the interference pattern, for which ~, = ~/2. The calcula-
tions are summarized in the following table. The grazing angle +2 at the

I Since the foregoing material was written, a paper entitled “ Ma~imum Range of a
Radar Set,” by K. A. Norton and A. C. Omberg, has appeared in Proc. IRE, 36, 4
(1947). Formulas corresponding to 13qs. (25) to (27) are derived, but the results arc
written in such a way that direct comparison is difficult. These formulas reduce to
IZqs. (36) to (38) under the assumption stated. This paper gives some discussion of
the siting problem, In discussing the Rayleigh criterion for roughness the value of
k AR suggested to mark the limit between rough and smooth surfaces is m/4, thus redur-
ing the allowable height of surface roughness elements to half the value given in E)q.
(19). In a recent communication to the author, Norton states that he now believes
the use of r/8 provides a more realistic criterion for deciding when the smooth-earth
theorv may be used with confidence.
SEC.5.4] SURFACE ROUGHNESS 417

point of reflection and the maximum wave height from Eq. (19) are also
given.
TABLE 5.2.—ANALYSIS OF REFLECTION ZONES
(Distances in mekz)

Caze 1 Cax 2
A
0.1 1.0 0.1 1.0

21 100 100 100 100

T 10,OOO 10,OOO 10,OOO 10,OOO
.% 1000 1000 2.5 25

!30 20 20 0,05 = ; 0.5 = ;

201 !310 943 9,350 6,830

w1 9. 29 6.6 44
/1 83 262 615 2,760
A, 2,370 23,900 128,000 382,0CH3
+2 6.3” 6.3° 0.59° 0.72”
hm.. 0.11 1.1 l,~z 1.25

The highly elongated shape of the ellipse, particularly for the lowest
lobe, is very striking. [It is most exaggerated in cases covered by Eqs. (36)
to (38), which apply to Case 2 for X = 0.1 m.] The large area of the first
zone, particularly for the longer wavelength, illustrates the need for a large,
smooth, elongated reflecting area if a welldeveloped lobe pattern is to be
formed. For the first lobe considered in Case 2 a crest-to-trough wave
height of about 1 m gives a surface that is effectively smooth for either
wavelength, according to Eq. (19), but in Case 1 the same surface is far
from smooth for the shorter wavelength.
Thus far only the phase of the reflected radiation has been considered.
We have derived formulas for the zones from which the average phase var-
ies by units of mfrom one zone to the next. In this respect these zones are
the Fresnel zones familiar in physical optic s.’ But there k one essential
difference. The usual Fresnel zones are constructed k such a way that
they are concentric and that their amplitudes of excitation (whether through
surface currents or fields in an advancing wave front) are symmetrical
about the direct ion of propagation. The amplitude of excitation varies
slowly from one zone to the next, with the result the contributions of suc-
cessive zones almost completely cancel, leaving the radiation from approxi-
mately half the area of the first zone as the end product. In the present
instance, however, the zones are inclined at a large angle to the direction of
propagation, and their eccentricity is so large, for small grazing angles,

] J. C. Slater and N. H. Frank, Introduction to I’%eoretical Physics, McGraw-Hill,

1933; F. A. Jenkins and H, E. White, Fundamentals of Ph~ysical Optics, McGraw-Hill,
1937,
418 REFLECTIONS FROM THE EARTH’S SURFACE [SEC. 5.4

that theamplitude ofexcitation varies markedly over the zone. The total
contribution from each zone is given byintegrating the excitation over the
zone. It is not evident, a priori, that the contribution of the first zone alone
predominates in the present case. For example, it does not seem entirely
reasonable in the numerical examples given above that there is not con-
siderable contribution from the higher order zones from a direction along
the minor axes of the ellipses near the reflection point; presumably at the
same time the contributions from the ends of the ellipses would decrease in
importance. If the antenna radiation pattern is sufficiently narrow, it can
also enter into the problem. It would still appear that the principal part
of the reflected wave arises from an area near the point of reflection, but
whether or not the relative importance of the series of half-period zones
illustrated above is the same as for the usual Fresnel zones is not clear.
To the author’s knowledge this problem has not been carried beyond the
qualitative arguments presented here.
The problem of time variations in the effective reflection coefficient of a
rough surface such as the ocean is particularly interesting. Explanation
in terms of fluctuation of average altitude of the half-period zones, with
resulting variable “zone-plate” effects, does not appear promising because
of the large size and elongated shape of the zones. It would appear more
likely that the fluctuations arise from random superposition of reflections
from areas smaller than these zones and depending for their effects upon
details of shape and spacing of the roughness elements as well as upon their
average height. Intuitively one suspects that there should be a close con-
nection between the reflection coefficient of the ocean and sea echo. No
simultaneous measurements of both quantities are available, but the
sea-echo measurements described in the next chapter indicate that sea echo
tends to be caused (for 10 and 3 cm at least) by very small elements, such
as droplets. A parallel conclusion regarding reflection coefficient would
not be reasonable, however.
Although the effects of surface roughness have not been formulated in a
quantitative manner, this qualitative approach probably indicates the
trend of variation of some of the most important factors. The few experi-
ments thus far made that are sufficiently clear-cut to give relevant informa-
tion are discussed in following sections. The general problem of the effects
of surface roughness merits serious study from both theoretical and experi-
mental sides. Lacking much better information than is now available,
prediction of microwave coverage rests on insecure ground.

RJIFLECTIONCOEFFICIENTOF THE OCEAN

In the preceding sections the theory of specular reflection and its effect
upon field strength has been discussed, on the assumption that the ground
constants of a perfectly smooth spherical earth are known, and an indica-
tion has been given of possible effects of surface roughness. In the latmrn-
SEC. 5.5] MEASUREMENTS OF SHORT-TIME VARIATIONS 419

tory the conductivity and dielectric constant for any type of surface at
any given wavelength can be measured with some accuracy but for lack of
adequate theory we must resort to experiment to investigate how surface
roughness modifies the Fresnel laws. The reflection coefficient for both
ocean and land have been measured by several different techniques, and
about as many different sets of values as measurement techniques have
been obtained. When the circumstances under which the measurements
were made are properly weighed, the variation in values of p can be recon-
ciled and some understanding obtained of the reflection phenomenon from
a rough surface. The observations made to date have been limited in
scope, but they are of considerable value in estimating field strengths and
coverage patterns.
5“5. Measurements of Short-time Variations.1-There are often large
and rapid fluctuations in the energy reflected from the earth’s surface.

ES
u~

0123456+ A91f)111’2
Time in seconds
Fm. 5 13,—Variation with time of 10-cm horizontally polarized radiation reflected from
a rough sea at a grazing angle of 110. The white line indicates the amplitude of the direct
wave.

This is particularly true of a rough sea, where the continually changing

position and size of the surface irregularities cause variations of the reflected
field. Two experiments have been performed that demonstrate this phe-
nomenon admirably. In the first,z one-way transmission measurements
were made on a wavelength of 9 cm between two cliffs separated by an inlet
easily invaded by waves from the open sea. The path length was 231 yd,
and the grazing angle was about 110. The antenna patterns were suffi-
ciently narrow to allow the transmitting and receiving antennas to be
directed to measure either the direct or reflected waves separately. The
transmitter was pulsed at a recurrence frequency of 1000 cps with a pulse
length of 500 psec. The receiver output, roughly proportional to voltage,
was displayed on an oscillograph without a sweep and recorded on a con-
tinuously moving fihn. Except for slight line ripple the direct wave was
very steady. Figure 5.13 shows the reflected wave on horizontal polariza-
tion. During the interval shown the amplitude of the reflected wave varied
by more than a factor of 3. It should be repeated that there is no question
1 By Donald E. Kerr and Herbert Goldstein.
2 H. Archer-Thomson, N. Brooke, T. Gold, and F. Hoyle, ‘(Preliminary Report on
the Reflection of 9-cm Radiation at the Surface of the Sea,” ASE Report No. M542,
September 1943.
420 REFLECTIONS FROM THE EARTH’S SURFACE [SEC. 5.5

here of motion of an interference pattern; the reflected wave was examined

separately. It is significant that for periods of about 0.5 sec occasionally
the reflected wave was stronger than the direct wave.
The average values of p~ver periods of several seconds were approxi-
mately 0.5 for horizontal and 0.15 for vertical polarization. The estimated
height of the water ripples was 20 cm, and the waves were traveling nearly
at right angles to the transmission path.
In the second experiment, also in England,l airplane targets were simul-
taneously viewed by a radar set having two antennas and receiving chan-
nels; one antenna had a narrow beam in the vertical plane and was used
both to transmit and receive in the conventional fashion; the other antenna
had a broad vertical beam and was used for receiving only. The sharp
beam was sufficiently narrow that the sea surface was not illuminated
appreciably at angles greater than 2° from the antenna axis. The wide
beam received both direct and reflected waves. The output voltages of
both receivers were photographed simultaneously, and the gains were so
adjusted that respective deflections corresponded to the same r-f input
intensity. The ratio of the two output voltages then eliminated effects due
to the variation in target aspect. A complete report of the results has not
yet been made, but with grazing angles less than 5° very deep fluctuations of
the reflected wave were observed with periods in the neighborhood of 0.02
sec. Above 5° the reflected wave was described as “sporadic in character. ”
The experiment was performed off the coast of Scotland at a season when
the sea was rough and hence probably represents fairly extreme conditions.
If the surface is rough, in the sense of the Rayleigh criterion, one would
expect large spacediversity effects. (Such effects have in fact been
observed for points separated by only a few feet, ) Hence with any sort of
extended target the amplitude and phase of the incident field on the target
should be a rapidly varying function of time and position. It is natural
that under such conditions the radar echo would show violent fluctuations.
Even when the sea was not quite so rough as required by the Rayleigh
criterion, a 10-cm radar echo from a lighthouse at a range of 8000 yd in
Boston Harbor has sho~vn time fluctuations of 5 to 10 db.
The effect of the v~rying reflection from the sea surface is most pro-
nounced when a point target is in the minimum of an interference pattern
that shifts in position with the tidal cycle, for then a relatively small change
in the reflected field will cause a large percentile change in the total signal.
The scatter of points at the minimum in the plot shown in Fig. 6.24 for the
reflection from a corner reflector can be ascribed to this cause. It has been
reportedz that at the minimum of the tidal cycle, the echo from a corner
1 ‘~Re~ews of Progress of LT.S. W, Propagation, ” L-ltra Short Wave Propagation
Panel, No, 11, A.C. 7027, Oct. 14, 1944.
2 Interservice KXS Radar Trials, “Overwater Performance against Surface Targets, ”
ASE Report No. hf688, February 1945.
SEC. 5.6] INTERFERENCE MEASUREMENTS OVER LONG RANGES 421

reflector observed on 1.25 cm wavelength at a grazing angle of 0.3° suffered

violent “beating” of 20 db even for a moderate swell. Figure 5.14 presents
a series of photographs of an A-scope showing the echo from a lighthouse
in Boston Harbor at the “tidal” minimum. The signal on the left is an
artificial echo from a signal generator, and some outlying rocks show as
echoes immediately surrounding the lighthouse signal. The photographs
are separated in time by 0.25 sec. During a period of less than 2 sec the
echo strength changed by more than 10 db.

Fm. 5.14.—Photographs of A-scope, showing the echo from a lighthouse at a tidal minimum.

5“6. Interference Measurements over Long Ranges.’—Measurements

of the reflection coefficient of sea ~vaterat wavelengths of 3 and 10 cm were
made by the Radiation Laboratory on a one-\vay transmission path in
Massachusetts Bay.z One terminal of the Dath tvas fixed on land; the
other was carried in an airplane that flwv to~vard the fixed terminal witli
as nearly constant bearing, altitude, and ground speed as possible. In
this manner a horizontal cross section of the interference pattern was
obtained, from ~vhich P was detrrmirwd. Such a record is shown in
Fig. 5.15. This type of measurement technique NW employed to simulate
the practical situations in ~vhich the d~ta are to I)e applied; that is, to con-
ditions over the ocean at consideraljle heizhts and distances. The heights
and distances at which the observations were made are much greater than
those frequently employed in reflection-coefficient measurements and are
I By William T. Fishback and Donald E. Kerr.
~W. T, Fishback and P. J. Rubcnste in, 1’I?arth(!r Nlc:lsurclu(,]]ts of :;- aud l(km
Reflection Coefficients of Sea Water at Small Gr:izing Anghw, ” RL Report N-o. 568,
May 17, 1944.
422 REFL.ECTIONS FROM THE EARTH’S SURFACE [SEC.5.6

the major distinguishing characteristics of the experiment. Flights were

made at heights between 500 and 5000 ft, and useful data were obtained
between 5 and 60 statute miles.
In the interpretation of a record of the type shown in Fig. 5’15 a number
of considerations are involved. The formula for the ratio of actual to
free-space fields valid for isotropic radiation patterns and a smooth spherical
earth is F = ]E/EOl = II + Dpe – ‘al [Eq. (2”452)], where a is the phase
difference between dh-ect and reflected rays, D is the divergence factor, and

$ii~
~ o 5 10 15
Range m mtiles
20 25 30

_9 70 ~
8 80 -

1%

35 40 45 50 55 60
Range m males
FIG. 515.—Reflection-coefficient field-strength flight of Apr. 7, 1943, using verticsdIy polarized
10-cm radiation with terminnl heights of 122 and 5000 ft over sea water.

E and E. are the actual field strength and free-space field strength at a point
in space. In a region of fine lobe structure a changes rapidly with position;
in particular, for the cases under consideration, the fractional change in
range and the change in grazing angle between a minimum and an adjacent
maximum of the field pattern in Fig. 5.15 are so small that Dp and Eo
may be considered constant for this section of the pattern. If E~.x and
E~im are the field strengths at a maximum and an adjacent minimum, at
which points a is 2nrrand (2n + I)rr, respectively, the preceding equation
yields

b’mtu – lErm.1 FI.MX– f’min

(39)
‘p = lEmtixl+ En,,,,) = F,,,.. + F~in’

from which p can be determined by using the observed values of E~.x,

ll~i., and D calculated from Eq. (2.441). This assumes 1) to have its theo-
retical value for a smooth surface and requires all departures from theory
to be represented by the behavior of p. This is necessary to compare
results for a wide range of transmission-path geometry, as D and p depend
in such different ways on the grazing angle 42.
This technique is not suitable for measurement of the phase shift on
reflection, since extremely accurate determination of the positions of maxi-
ma would be required and in addition the inherent fluctuations of the signal
Ivould probably make such determination impossible.
SEC, 561 INTERFERENCE MEASUREMENTS OVERLONG RANGES 423

Figure 5“16 shows the values of p, measured by the technique outlined

above, at 10 cm for horizontal and vertical polarizations; Fig. 5.17 shows
thesame results for3 cm. Each dotrepresents avalueof pdeterminedby
a measurement of field strengths at adjacent maxima and minima. At
both wavelengths the agreement with theory forasmooth seais good for
vertical polarization, but the experimental values for horizontal polariza-

-. ... . . .. . . 1,0
.::*..::..
:. :-.1>!%..
.. ... . . .. . ..
..1.....:,., ...!”.’ .“
. . ... . :...,{” .:. ..” 0.9
. .:. .::
.. .. . ..:1. . ..’..
,... . . . .....” ““:...:: ”... :::. “ .
..l~
.“. ..: “.:::. . .
. . .. . . . : . . . ...0.8
. . . .. . . .
. . .. . . :. :..
. . .”.”’”... ..”,
.. .. . . . ..
. .. . .
. : ,“. 0.7
. .
. .. .. . ..”
:.

# o
1 2 3 4 50 1 2 3 4 5
Grazing angle in degrees Grazing angle in degrees
(a) (b)
FIG. 5. 16.—Values of the magnitude of the reflection coefficient observed by the Radiation
Laboratory at a wavelength of 10 cm over sea water. (a) On horizontal polarization; (b) on
vertical polarization.

tion are appreciably less than the theoretical values of ahnost unity and
show a marked scatter.
The departure of the results from theory is attributed to surface rough-
ne8s, but a satisfactory quantitative explanation of the effects of roughness
has not yet been found. Let us consider in a qualitative way the possible
effects of however, particularly as it affects Eq. (39), which
roughness,
served m a means of translating the interference pattern measurements of
424 REFLECTIONS FROM THE EARTH’8 SURFACE [SEC. 56

Fig. 515tothei ndicatede xperimentalv aluesofP inFigs. 5“16and5”17.

It is desirable to seek a reason for the large scatter and the deviation from
theoretical values of p for horizontal polarization, by contrast to the
apparent better agreement with theory for vertical polarization.

1.0
.,....
. .
.. . .
0.9
..:. ... . . .. ..
..: ..
,.
0,8 . “..
. .
. .. . . . ...
.“. .
. . .
.
...

. . .
. .

.:”

..

0.2

0.1

o~l) >
o 1 2 3 4( 1 2 3 4 5
Grazing angle indegrees Grazing angle in degrees

(a) (b)
FIG. 5. 17.—Values of the magnitude of the reflection coefficient observed by the Radiation
Laboratory at a wavelength of 3 cm over sea water. (a) C,hhorizonta lpolarization; (b) on
vertical polarization.

From Eq. (39) it can be seen that when Dp is very nearly unity,
lll~inl << Illn,.xl. Accurate measurement of Dp in this region requires
very accurate determination of E~in. If the field is fluctuating at the
time of measurement, E~i. in the vicinity of the interference minimum
ia subject to a relatively large random variation. Let us attempt to
represent this effect crudely in the following way, Assume that Dp has
SEC.5.6] INTERFERENCE MEASUREMENTS OVER LONG RANGES 425

its theoretical value for a smooth surface at the average level of the sea
surface. Superposed on the reflections predicted by this Dp are many
reflections that, when added vectorially, can be represented by a small
quantity qe –” which fluctuates randomly in both space and time. Then
we can write
F=ll+Dpe-’”+qe-”l. (40)

Because D p e – ‘“ is nearly unity in a maximum and q is assumed small,

F ,,,ax = 2, Near a minimum, q becomes important, as F~in = q. Equa-
tion (39) then becomes
2–T
Dp=— =1–;. (41)
2+q

Thus \vesee that values of DP obtained by the use of Eq. (39) and a rapidly
moving receiving terminal are always at the mercy of the rapid time
variations in reflecting properties of the sea and will give values of D p
less than the theoretical values when these are very nearly unity, as they
are for horizontal polarization.
When DP is somewhat less than unity, Eq. (39) can be rewritten to show
the range of variation likely to be encountered, 1

Dp=ll+Dp -Yql-ll-Dp+vl
(42)
ll+Dptql+ll– Dptql”

This equation indicates that the measured values of Dp should scatter

about the average value of D p when DP k not near unity; and as q is
equally likely to have a given value in either a maximum or minimum,
the scatter should be nearly symmetrical about the average value. The
data in Figs. 516 and 5“17 are not sufficiently plentiful either to confirm
or to refute this point, although no marked disagreement is apparent.
This discussion makes no pretense of rigor or completeness, but it
makes plausible a connection between time-varying surface-roughness
effects and the values of reflection coefficient deduced from measurements
of the interference pattern. During the course of these experiments
attempts to correlate the minor day-today variations of measured re-
flection coefficient for horizontal polarization with sea roughness and
direction of wave travel were unsuccessful. A wide range of roughness
could not be investigated in this case, because navigational difficulties
limited flights to days when wind speeds were low, and measurements
could be made only for a calm sea.
1 This is not a true representation of Eq. (39), az F~x is not necessarily
II + Dp t q I but rather, for the purpose of these meazurementz, the maximum value
of Eq. (40) encountered as the receiving terminal traversed the region of a maximum;
a slmdar statement is true for Fjni.. Also note that q does not necessarily have the
same vcdue at any two positions or times.
426 REFLECTIONS FROM THE EARTH’S SURFACE [SEC. 5.6

Itisreasonable to expect that the observed value of p would depend

upon thesurface area illuminated if surface roughness and inhomogeneity
are important in the reflection process. Thus the p appropriate for a
transmitter height of 30 ft might not be appropriate for a height of 1000 ft.
In the former case only a small surface area of approximately homogeneous
surface roughness might be involved, but in the latter many such areas
with clifferent roughnesses might be involved. During the 10-cm measure-
ments the fixed-terminal height was varied from 25 to 125 ft and the
aircraft altitude from 500 to 5000 ft; at 3 cm the fixed terminal was at
20 ft and frights were made at 500 to 1000 ft. No dependence of p upon
the area illuminated was observed within the narrow limits allowed by
this variation of terminal heights.
This type of experiment is susceptible to several sources of experimental
error, which may be divided roughly into three classes. The first consists
of instrumental errors. At very short ranges and high angles the inter-
ference pattern was traversed so rapidly that the recorder could not
indicate the full depth of the minima, and it was possible to use only the
measurements made at grazing angles less than about 5“ on 10 cm and
3“ or 4“ on 3 cm.
The second possible source of error arises from impure polarization
of the radiation from the antennas, but in the present instance this error
is at most about 2 per cent in the product D p and can be neglected.’ It
is worth noting that measurements based on Eq. (39) are most subject to
error when DP is nearly unity, a-s weak stray fields tend to “fill up” the
minima in the interference pattern and decrease the calculated value
of Dp.
The third and most important sources of experimental error arise
from physical factors outside the equipment and constitute the principal
limitations of the method. When one terminal is on the shore, the
properties of that part of the ocean surface where most of the measured
reflection occurs are likely not to be representative of the open sea,
because of the effects of shore line, shallow bottom, underwater obstacles,
and so forth, on the water-wave structure. To prevent extraneous “filling
up” of the interference minima, care must be taken to ensure that no
radiation strikes objects other than the sea surface; this precaution will

LThe upper limit of this enror may be estimated in the following manner. Assume
that the ratio of amplitude of field radiated with the wrong polarization to that with
correct polarization is c for both transmitting and receiving antennas. When the
receiving anhmna is in a minimum of the interference pattern and DP is near unity,
the received field is obtained primarily on the wrong polarization and is at most 4 times
the correctly polarized free-space field. In the maximum of the interference pattern,
however, the former is outweighed by the correctly polarized field, which is nearly
twice the free-space value. Then the value for DP obtained from Eq. (39) is approxi-
matdy (2 — +/(2 + d), for DP nem unity. Thus impure polarization reduces the
apparent value of DP.
SEC. 5.7] INTERFERENCE MEAS URElfENTS AT SHORT RANGES 427

frequently require the use of narrow beams, a fact that complicates the
aircraf t-navigat ion problem. Nonstandard refraction may distort the
interference pattern, rendering it useless as a quantitative measure of
reflection from the surface (see Sec. 4.21).1 Nevertheless the principal
source of difficulty lies with navigation of the aircraft. Ideally one
would use radar or, bet ter still, radar-beacon navigational techniques,
but these were not available; consequently excessive deviations from
correct position and aircraft heading frequently necessitated discarding
considerable sections of record.
5“7. Interference Measurements at Short Ranges.2-The Sperry
Gyroscope Company3 has measured reflection coefficients by varying the
terminal heights on a transmission
path of a few hundred feet in
length. Over such a short path
the effects of surface roughness
may not be pronounced, and the
observed values of p are frequently
in better agreement with the
theory forsmooth surfaces. lVleas-
urements made over extremely
calm sea water with ripples of 2
in. or less are in good agreement
with theory (using El = 69 and
IJL
u = 6.5 mhos/m) for grazing o 5 10 15 20
angles up to 20”. On occasion Grazingangle in degrcs

the observed values for vertical FIG. 5.lS.—Values of the magnitude of the
reflection coefficient observed hy the Sperry
polarization are slightly below the Gyroscope Company at 10 cm over a tidal canal
theoretical values for grazing with l-in. ripples. The circles give measured
points and the curve represents the theoretical
angles between 12° and 28°. values for smooth water.
Figure 518 shows the observed
values of p for a tidal canal with ripples estimated to be about 1 in. high.
Measured values of pfor very cafm freshwater are in good agreement
with the theoretical values for a perfect dielectric with SI = 80, for angles
up to 18°. At greater grazing angles the values are somewhat below
the theoretica, values for both polarizations.

1The measurementsrepo~d here werefor the most part accompaniedby meteor-

ological soundings;except for possibleshallowevaporationducts (the effects of whkh
were not determined), the M-profiles were required to bestandard for the field-strength
measurements to be ussd for measurement of p. For the measurements to be con-
sidered reliable, the field strength at the maxima in the interference pattern was rs-
quired to vary inversely with range and the observed ranges of maxima and rainima
were required to check closely with tbe ranges calculated for standard refraction.
‘By William T. Fishback and Donald E. Kerr,
8 See E. M. Sherwood, “S-band (lO-cm) Measurements of Reflection Coefficients
for Various Types of Earth,” Sperry Gyroscope Co. Report No. 5220-129, Oct. 29, 1943.
428 REFLECTIONS FROM THE EARTH’S ,’SURFAC’E [SEC. 57

Measurements were made by the Navy Electronics Laboratory’ in

sheltered harbor waters near San Diego at a fixed range of 49OO yd and
grazing angle of approximately 1039’, using radar systems and specially
constructed targets instead of the customary one-way circuit. z The
height of the target was varied through the interference pattern and the
resulting variation in echo strength was used to obtain p by a procedure
that may beillustrated inprinciple inthefollo~ving way: If ~ is assumed
to be 180°, theequation for F can be written
F’z = 1 + (Dp)’ – 2DPcos(k AE);

F2 varies between (1 – DP)2 and (1 + Dp)z as k AR varies between 2mr

and (2rr + 1) m (where n is an integer) and is a linear function of cos(k AR).
A plot of F2 as a function of cos (k Al?), derived from the echo strength?
then gives a straight line of slope – 2DP. If the slope rather than the value
of F2 in a minimum is used as a measure of Dp, the difficulties from rapid
fluctuations in the minimum are avoided, and the accuracy then depends
upon fitting a straight line through a series of points that are also subject
to fluctuation, although perhaps relatively less than those in the minimum.
After corrections were made for finite vertical target extent, the effec-
tive values of p for horizontal polarization were so near unity that the
departure from unity could not be detected on wavelengths between 2 m
and 44 cm, Similar measurements on vertical polarization gave values
between 0.6 and 0.4, slightly lower than the theoretical values for a
smooth surface.
Welldefined specular reflection of vertically polarized 1.25-cm waves
from the sea was observed by the Radiation Laboratory on a one-way
transmission path across the harbor at Gloucester, Mass. The terminals
were about 40 ft above mean sea level. The variations of tide level of 8 to
10 ft changed AR by about three wavelengths, producing a periodic varia-
tion of received field strength as the interference pattern moved past the
receiving antenna. Because of the fluctuations of the signal caused by the
rough surface the ratio of field strength at the maxima and minima of the
interference pattern could not be determined accurately, but it appeared
to be in the neighborhood of 3 or 4, corresponding to values for p, of 0.5
to 0.6. The grazing angle +2 was about 0.2°. It is interesting to note

1 L. Anderson, J. B. Smyth, F. R. Abbott, and R. Revelle, “Radar Wave Propaga-

tion,” NRSL Report No. WP-2, Nov. 30, 1942, pp. 10-12. Further results were pre-
sented at a conference at the Radiation Laboratory in July 1943.
z This method is susceptible to error because of the finite vertical dimensions of the
target. At short wavelengths it may intercept several lobes; even if this is not true,
it is likely to have sufficient vertical extent to cover a very sharp minimum. In the
preeent instance this effect wes corrected approximately by integrating the field over
tbe target to obtain the echo strength. The principle of this method is discussed in
&C. 6.5.
s The echo voltage output of a linear radar receiver is proportional to ~.
Sin-. 58] I,VTERPRETA TION OF ME.l, Y( ‘l{ E,ffE.\-T,~ 429

that in a maximum the signal fluctuated about 3 db but in a minimum 8 to

10 db. This is in kce~irw with the discussion in Sec. 56.
Some of the most interesting evidence of specular reflection from the
sea has been obtained by the &ncral Electric Company of England.l
One-way transmission was carried out with vertical polarization on wave-
lengths of ,5.81 and 6.35 mm lmtl~ecn a fixed shore transmitter at heights
of 15 and 48 ft and a shipl)ornc recci\ing terminal at a height of 63 ft.
The range varied het}veen about 1 ~nd 10 km, l)ut the grazing angle was
always less than 10, The ship follmw’d a rfidial course from the shore sta-
tion, and the resulting signal tr:wc, obtainml on recording milliammeters
operating from the receivers, sho}~rd }yell-developed and fairly regular
interference patterns, The positi(m~ of the maxima and minima agreed
\vell \vith theory, and there \vas no e\idcmce of s~lpcrl(lfl>l(~tionor other
extraneous effects, z The reflection coefficient p,, }vw ctilculated from
relative field strengths at the maxima and minima of the interference pat-
tern and u as found to \ary I)etl!een (),25 and 0.S on different runs; theor~
for a smooth sea and the same range of g]i~zing :m~lrs predicted puto var~
bet}vcxm 0.87 and ().97. The sea \vas reportc(i to Iw f~irly calm in all
cases, having ripples of less than 12 in. an(l I()!v Sll[,11, On the basis of the
Rayleigh criterion discussed in Sec. 5.4 the lwights of the surface irregu-
larities ~vould be required to be much lms tlum 12 in. (mom nearly 1 in.)
over most of the range if p were to approach the theoretical value.
Further experiments of this type, \vith the addition of objective measure-
ments of sea state, are very much needed
5.8. Interpretation of Measurements.’—The measurements described
in Sees. 5.6 and 5.7 indicate that for wavelengths of about 10 cm or less
the amount of specular reflection is markedly affwtecf by surface rough-
ness. When the effective part of the reflecting surface is very smooth,
which is usually true only over short paths, the measurwl values of p are in
good agreement with the theoretical values for a smooth surface cal-
culated from the known values of conductivity and dielectric constant.
When the surface is rough, there is enough scattering of the incident
radiation, particularly if it is horizontally polarized, to diminish the
average intensity of the reflected wave appreciably. This can be equally
true either at short or long ranges, but it is particularly noticeable ovel
long transmission paths, where it is improbable that the whole reflection
area will be sufficiently smooth for efficient specular reflection. The
effects of surface roughness are manifested not by lowering p to a fixed
] H. R. L. Lament and A. G. D. Watson, Natrme, 168, 943 [1946).
2 The wavelengths were chosen to place the 5.81-mm signal in the oxygen absorp-
tion band and the 6.35-mm signal in a region where absorption should be negligible
(see Chap. 8). The 5.81-mm signal showed, in addition to the interference pattern,
an exponential range attenuation, from which a value of attenuation coefficient of
1.5 db/km was estimated, a value considerably larger than that given in Chap. 8.
3 By Donald E. Kerr and William T, Fishback,
430 REFLECTIONS FROM THE EARTH’S SURFACE [SEC. 5.9

value but by causing it to vary over a wide range during short time
intervals.
Because of the uncertainty in the field strength resulting from these
fluctuations there is no unique value of field strength above the ocean at a
given point in the interference region; the field strength varies continually
and rapidly. In terms of coverage, this means that a unique coverage
pattern does not exist, even for the overidealized case of a point target and
an isotropic antenna radiation pattern. Prediction of radar coverage is
then a statistical problem involving the instantaneous value of p for the
sea surface and orientation and position of the target, in addition to the
transmitted power, antenna gain, receiver sensitivity )etc. In the absence
of more detailed information than that presented in Fig. 5.16 we suggest
that areasonable procedure istocalculatea n` `average'' coverage diagram,
using the theoretical value of p for vertical polarization, No universally
applicable average value of p for horizontal polarization can be determined
from Figs. 5.16 and 5.17. It should be noted, however, that the observed
values appear to be, on the average for any angle, slightly higher than
those for vertical polarization, and a conservative procedure would be to
use the values for vertical polarization.
Very few measurements are available for wavelengths longer than
10 cm, but practical evidence with meter-wave radar (using horizontal
polarization almost without exception) indicates that p for the sea is very
nearly unity for grazing angles up to several degrees. The Rayleigh
criterion does not seem always to be reliable, as large roughness effects
have occasionally been observed even when the critical roughness was
not exceeded. This improbably to be expected, for, as mentioned earlier,
the Rayleigh criterion cannot be considered adequate for the present
problem. Much more experimental information is needed, therefore, on
the prevalence and magnitude of the fluctuations, and a more compre-
hensive theory of thescattering from rough surfaces is also required. The
practical importance of these questions requires no underlining. The
answers are needed to determine to what extent free-space coverage is
modified in the interference region by reflection from the seal

REFLECTION COEFFICIENT OF LAND

5“9. Measurements over Long Ranges.2-Reflection-coefficient meas-

urements over land were made by the Radiation Laboratory at a wave-
1The reader should not forget that for very small grazing angles P is effectively
unity even for fairly rough surfaces. This fact is undoubtedly of importance for long-
distance transrnkion caused by surface ducts, in which the elementary waves strike
the surface at very small grazing angles.
2 By Wdliam T. Fishback.
s P. J. Rubenstein and W. T. Fkhback, “Preliminary Messurementa of lo-cm Re-
flection Coefficients of Land and Sea at Small Grazing Angles,” RL Report No. 478,
Dec. 11, 1943.
SEC. 59] MEASUREMENTS OVER LONG RANGES 431

length of 10cmusing atechnique identical with that desctibedin See, 5.6.

Measurements were made over flat, sandy land, with little vegetation,
near Orlando, Fla.; over very flat farm land with low vegetation on Long
Island ;andover hilly, rocky land, thickly settled or wooded, near Boston.
Flights were made between 600 and 107000 ft, with the ground station
sited at heights of 100 ft or less above the immediately surrounding ter-
rain. For all three locations the signal recordings showed minor varia-
tions but no regular interference patterns up to grazing angles of about 5°.
In general the received power followed the inverse-square law of atten-
uation within the horizon, indicating that free-space propagation was
occurring. Figure 5.19 shows the results of such a flight madeat Boston

: Range in miles
z
-80-
%
-100 -
-110 - ! [ I 1
30 35 40 45 50
Range in males
FIQ. 5l9.-Reflection-coefficieutfield-strengthflightof July 16, 194:3, usl,lghon.ontallv
polarized 10-cm radiatioll with terminal heights of 100 and 3000 ft over rough land. ‘rhe
dashed line incficatesthefree-spsce field.

with horizontal polarization. The observed signal obeys the inverse-

square law well at ranges of less than 43 miles and has variations in strength
of up to 5 db, but it does not exhibit any regular interference pattern.
The results obtained at the Florida site were similar and were sub-
stantiated by calibration flights on a near-by 10-cm radar system, \vhich
showed no extension of detection range and no observable lobe structure.
Calibration flights for a 30-cm radar system at the same site did show
noticeable lobe structure, however.
The locales selected for these measurements represent a broad range of
surface conditions, from the very rough terrain near Boston to as flat land
as will ordinarily be encountered. The results indicate that specular
reflection over long ranges at wavelengths of 10 cm or less is negligible for
most laud surfaces. (Exceptional cases are cited below,) On the basis
of the Rayleigh criterion, described in Sec. 5.4, for each degree of surface
roughness and grazing angle there should be a lvavelength region in which
the reflection changes in character from specular to diffuse; longer \~ave-
Iengths undergo appreciable specular reflection, but the shorter do not.
The experiments indicate that this transition wavelength is greater than
10 cm for most land surfaces and grazing angles do]i n to shout ~“. Tlw
radar evidence at the Florida site suggests that it is k!ss tlam 30 cm for a
432 REFLECTIONS FROM THE EARTH’S SURFACE [SEC.5.9

fairly smooth surface, although the measurements were not sufficiently

detailed todetermine the magnitude of specular reflection.
That specular reflection of microwaves over land is possible, given a
smooth enough surface, is evident from observations made by the U.S.
Army Signal Corps in California.1 One-way transmission measurements
were made on a wavelength of 6 cm on an overland path 170 miles in
length between Blue Ridge (5860 ft) and Mt. Hamilton (4300 ft). The
grazing angle for this path is 0.19°. Fading of as much as 30 db was ob-
served at times when soundings made near the point of reflection in San
Joaquin Valley revealed essentially standard M-profiles.z Installation of
a second receiver below the first by an amount equivalent to one-half lobe
of the expected interference pattern revealed that fading on the two cir-
cuits was complementary, that is, when the signal strength increased on
one, it decreased on the other. The most obvious explanation of this
phenomenon is that large specular reflection occurred, producing a lobe
structure that shifted slightly in the vertical direction because of minor
variations in the shape of the .lI-profile.3 The geometry of the region of
reflection lends plausibility to this suggested mechanism, because for many
miles about the reflection point the land is smniarid and extremely flat,
with almost no vegetation and an averagr slope of less than 5 ft per mile.
It is reasonable to expect specular reflection over land at 6-cm wavelengths
with as smooth a reflecting surface as this and th(, small grazing angle
involved. This path is probably not typical of those to be encountered
in microwave communications or radar.
A second interesting example of efficient reflection from very fkit ground
is offered hy some results observed on the GCA (~,roul~{l-controlled Ap-
proach) radar instrument landing system. This system employs a \rery
narrow 3-cm beam that scans vertically to measurr the zltitude of an ap-
proaching aircraft. It is a common occurrence for a strong and \vell-
defincd mirror image of the aircraft to appear as a result of reflection from
the near-by ground, usually o very flat sccti(m of an airport.
Memurrment. of the rrffection coefficient at 3 cm \~eremade by the
Bell Telephone Laboratories on a 12.6-mile trammission path between
Beer’s Hill and De:al, N.J. (This is the path used for the cxperimrnts
described in Sec. 4.23). The profile of the path \vas irregular enough to
preclude exact calculation of the grazing angle, but its maximum value
was considerably IPSSthan 10. The intrrference pat tcm \ras investigated
1T. J. ( ‘wall, ‘{( ‘ollll>l(,lllL!rltary T)ivcrsit,v ILcccptioll on NIicrmvavcs, ” OC’Sig( )
Report IYo. RI’S-4, Jan. 3, 1!)46; R. 13atcman, F’roc. IRE, 34, (i(j2 [ 1!)4w,
? (;round-t)ased mlllipment was used, and irrcgtllaritics ahovc the so~lnding height
may have occurreti.
,] Xotc the sit)lilarity to the results obtained in a so]no>vhat difft, rent m:mnrr over
water,dwwilxxi in SW,,4,8,
‘ W’, J1. Shwpless,“CrOtlnd I{(,flu, tion ( ‘{,cffiric,,,t l;k]],,]i]l]t,r,ts at X-l Mnd (3 cm),”
BTI, llen~orandum Xo. NIXI- 44-lfiO 250, l)cc. 1.5, 1944.

I
SEC. 5.10] MEASUREMENTS AT SHORT RANGES 433

by varying the transmitter height at such times when obviously standard

refractive conditions prevailed. Such conditions occurred on Sept. 22
and Dec.4, 1944. Theresults obtained onthese twodays show no marked
difference inspite of theseasonal difference in foliage. Theover-all space
variation in signal was observed to be less than 4db, but it was so regular
and repeated so exactly throughout all the observations that undoubtedly
a slight amount of specular reflection was taking place. The values of
p determined from the experiment are 0.17 for horizontal and 0.20 for
vertical polarization. Attempts to determine the height of the effective
ground-reflection surface have been carried out fortwo different assumed
reflection points. Both show the height to beabove thetrue surface by
an appreciable amount. This is not surprising in view of the irregular
profile of the path, which undoubtedly renders indeterrn,nate the area or
areas at which specular reflection occurs.
501O. Measurements at Short Ranges.’-The Sperry Gyroscope Com-
panyz also made measurements at wavelengths of 10 cm over various types

Grazing
anglein dagraaa Grazing angle in degrees Grazing angle in degrees
(a) (b) (c)
(a) Over small, dry sand (b) Over dry, slightly (c) Over a beet field with
hillocks. rolling land with grass 4 weeds.
to 18 in, high,
FIG. 5.20.—Values of the magnitude of the reflection coefficient observed by the Sperry
C,yroscope Company at 10 cm,

of land. These were similar to their overwater measurements (see Sec.

5.7). High values of P were observed over level, dry, or wet sand; a finely
plowed clay-sand field; tidal flats; and an airport. Moderate values were
found over a slightly rolling field with grass 4 to 18 in. tall. Virtually no
reflection was found when more thickly vegetated areas were investigated.
Figure 5.20 shows typical values of p observed. Although an experiment
carried out at very short ranges might be expected to be less affected by
surface roughness, even this experiment confirms the fact that a very
1 By William T. Fishback.
Z E. M. Sherwood, “S-band (lO-cm) Measurements of Reflection Coefficients for
Various Types of Earth,” Sperry Gyroscope Co. Report No. 5220-129, Ott. 29, 1943.
434 REFLECTIONS FROM THE EARTH’S SURFACE [SEC.5.11

smooth surface is required to prevent diffuse reflection of microwave

radiation. The types of surface over which this experiment reveals good
reflection are usually limited in area and would be likely to affect only a
small portion of a radar system coverage diagram or a very fortunately
sited communications link, such as the one used in the U.S. Army’s
California test.
As was mentioned in Sec. 5.1, measurements have been madel of the
reflecting and absorbing properties of various samples of earth at 9 cm to
determine their permittivities and conductivities. The reflecting prop-
erties were determined by measurements over a 50-ft path with terminal
heights of 10, 18.5, and 26.5 ft (corresponding to grazing angles of 20°,
36;”, and 46*”). Narrow antenna beams were used, and separate measure-
ments made of the direct and reflected radiation. The surface consisted
of a plot 20 by 30 ft which was raked and leveled with a plank until it was
“optically” smooth. The reflecting properties of this sample for different
degrees of wetness were found to be consistent according to Fresnel reflec-
tion theory for the various grazing angles available and were used to obtain
the values of ground constants listed in Sec. 5.1,
Measurements were made over this and some other natural samples to
determine the effect of surface roughness on the value of p. The trend
predicted by the Rayleigh criterion (Sec. 54) was verified; it was found
that if the product of the depth of the irregularity and sin ~1 was equal to
k/5, the values of p were reduced by one-half; if the product was A/2, the
observed values of p were 0.1 or less. Even a growth of short grass on the
very smooth sample of earth was sufficient to reduce the value of p for
horizontal polarization at these high grazing angles; the decrease was not
so pronounced on vertical polarization, and on occasion an increase in the
value of p was observed.
Attempts were made to simulate conditions over the sea by raking the
sample into a series of ridges having wavelengths of 60 to 120 cm and
amplitudes of 5 to 16 cm. The ridges were placed at angles of 0°, 45°, and
90° with the direction of transmission. In all three cases the observed
values of p were materially decreased, so much so that evaluation of the
effect of the various angles of inclination was not possible. Considerable
spatial variation was present in the reflected radiation. The signal level
measured over the reflected path was observed to vary with small displace-
ment.: of the antennas, and the observed value of p was found to vary as the I
geometrical point of reflection moved from a wave trough to a wave crest.
5-11. Measurements of Time Vanations.2—It has been shown that the
reflection coefficient of even dry ground, as measured over short ranges on
I
IL. H. Ford and R. Oliver, “An Experimental Investigation of the Reflection and I
Absorption of Radiation of 9-cm Wavelength,” RRB/C107, Oct. 27, 1944; also l%oc.
~h~,. l%c., 68.265 (1946).
z By Herbert Goldstein. I

I
SEC.5.12] INTERPRETATION OF MEASUREMENTS 435

carefully leveled plots, can be high; it is the common experience, however,

that specular ground reflection is rarely found on microwaves for long
ranges and appreciable grazing angles. This is not surprising because the
irregularity of most terrain is such that the Rayleigh roughness criterion is
exceeded. As a result the intensity of the wave reflected from the ground
surface is small compared with the direct wave.
It also seems reasonable that this small scattered wave would fluctuate
strongly under certain circumstances. Thus, if the reflection area is
heavily vegetated, one would expect that the nature of the surface would
be constantly changing with timfibecause of the wind. Again, if the
reflection takes place over city areas and includes roads and railroad yards,
similar effects seem reasonable.
The transmission over a number of short paths, about 10 miles long,
across the city of Boston was briefly observed simultaneously on wave-
lengths of 9.2 and 3.2 cm. At the longer wavelengths the fluctuations
were about + 0.2 db, with an average period of about 5 sec. On 3.2 cm
the amplitude of fluctuation was about ~ 0.5 db, with a period nearer to
2 sec. The dependence of the signal characteristics on wavelength is in
agreement with the hypothesis that the fluctuation arises from the ground-
scattered wave, and not from atmospheric turbulences (see Sec. 6“14).
Additional evidence for this view comes from the results of crossing the
polarizations of transmitter and receiver. From the normal depolarization
of the paraboloid antennas a decrease of 20 to 30 db is to be expected.
Actually decreases of 10 to 25 db were observed, and the signal fluctuated
violently between these limits. It seems therefore that over these paths
there is an appreciable component scattered in such a manner as to rotate
the direction of polarization.
As in the case of fluctuations in the reflection from water, the problem
of ground reflection has been too little explored.
5“12. Interpretation of Measurements.’—The experiments described in
Sees. 5.9 to 5.11 indicate that wavelengths of about 10 cm or less suffer
specular reflection according to the Fresnel equations if the surface is suf-
ficiently smooth but that they are sufficiently scattered by most types of
earth surface so that little or no specular reflection will be observed except
at almost zero grazing angle. The critical factor in determining specular
reflection is the roughness of the surface, not the conductivity and dielec-
tric constant of the surface. Reflection can be observed at either long or
short ranges, as indicated by the California and Sperry measurements, but
it is probable that it will be observed oftener at short ranges. Terrain
similar to that over which Sperry found high reflection coefficients is fairly
common, but it is usually not extended in area (desert regions are a possible
important excepti~n). A microwave system operating over long ranges
may illuminate a smooth plowed field, but it may also illuminate trees,
1By William T, Fishback,
436 REFLECTIONS FROM THE EARTH’S SURFACE [SEC. 5.12

fences, buildings, and other large objects in the first few Fresnel zones to
such an extent that the reflection will become largely diffuse. The spec-
ular reflection observed at long ranges on microwaves in California is
understandable, in view of the small grazing angle and the presence of a
very large and very flat area in the region of the point of reflection, but
frequent occurrence of such a combination on overland microwave long-
range communications links seems improbable. It seems even less prob-
able that reflections and lobe structure would be pronounced on a 10-cm
search radar system, for in this case the flat reflecting surface is likely to
delimited in azimuth. (Specular reflection over ground has been observed
on microwave radar systems, but only when the system was at a low site
near an airport runway or similar flat surface. ) Such systems operating
over land should not be expected a priori to provide other than free-space
coverage.
No quantitative data are available for long wavelengths; but judging
from themeager qualitative information available for30cm and above, it
would appear that specular reflection over ordinary terrain improves
rapidly with increasing wavelength, but whetherornot in accordance with
the Rayleigh criterion one cannot say. Accurate determination of this
trend is a problem for the future.

ERRORS IN RADAR HEIGHT MEASUREMENTS

BY JYILLIAM T. FISHBACK

Although the range and azimuth of a radar target can be easily deter-
mined with considerable accuracy, the problem of measuring height is more
involved and frequently susceptible to considerable error. To find the
height of a radar target, it is convenient to measure the angular elevation
of the tar~et. Two common methods consist of varying the elevation
angle of the radar antenna to find the direction from which maximum echo
is received on single beam or varying the elevation angle to equalize the
echo on two overlapping beams symmetrically displaced relative to the
mechanical axis of the antenna,l Once the elevation angle is determined,
graphs, tables, or automatic computers may be used to determine the
target height over a sphm-ical earth as a function of ckwation angle and
range, assuming standard refraction. This assumption may lead to errors
at very low angles under nonstandard refractive conditions; and although
the magnitude of the angular error will be small, the resulting error in
height may be excessive. L’Iuch greater errors will be introduced at low
rlcvation angles \vhen appreciable surface reflection occurs. When this is
true, maximizing signal strength by varying tilt of the antenna will not
LThe latter scheme has been referred to in the past as “pip-matching” or “lobe-
switching. ”
SEC.5.13] QUALITATIVE DISCUSSION 437

guarantee that the antenna is pointed directly at the target, nor do equal
echo strengths on overlapping beams guarantee that the angle of elevation
of the antenna is the true angle of elevation of the target. This phenom-
enon has not been analyzed completely, but a qualitative summary is
possible of the effects that surface reflection can have on radar height
measurements. In the following discussion standard refraction will be
assumed.
5“13. Qualitative Discussion.—We shall first consider the case of height
measurement by maximizing echo strength on a single beam. In terms
of the transmission formulas, we must find the value of antenna elevation
angles & that makes the pattern-propagation factor F a maximum for a
given 10,. In the case of free-space propagation we have, from
Eq. (2.453),
F = j(~, – ~),

which has a maximum value of unity when $1 = f. In other words,

there will be no height-finding error introduced in this case, as one would
expect. When surface reflection takes place, errors are introduced. When
the target is in a lobe maximum, we must maximize

but for a target in a minimum we must maximize

by variation of ~ alone. In the former case F has a maximum value

for ~ < ~,; in the latter case the maximum occurs for ~ > t,, where ~ is a
positive angle. There will also be negative maximum values of ~ where
~ > ( –i, – ~) in a lobe maximum and ~ < ( –4, – v) in a lobe minimum.
As a result the indicated elevation angle will oscillate about the true
elevation angle and its mirror image as the target moves through the
interference pattern. We can see the physical reason for this variation
of ~ by considering a radar with its antenna pointed directly at a target
in a lobe maximum, If the antenna is lowered, the return along the direct
ray will not be greatly reduced, but the return along the reflected ray
will be materially increased. Thus the total returned signal will be
increased by decreasing the antenna elevation angle. In a like manner,
if the target is in a minimum and the antenna is raised, there will be less
destructive interference from the reflected ray and the signal return will
be increased. A similar argument holds for oscillations about the mirror
image of the true elevation angle.
An example of the errors produced is shown in Fig. 5“21 in which F
(a measure of the received field at the radar or of the energy density
incident on the target) has been plotted as a function of f for targets at
438 REFLECTIO.VS FROM THE EARTH’S SURFACE [SEC. 5.13

elevation angles of 1°, 2°, and 3°. An “error-curve” antenna pattern

with a 3° beamwidth was used, and it w’as assumed that 41 = $2 + q,
which is a good approximation for a radar at a very low altitude looking
at an aircraft. An effective reflection D p of 0.8 was used. The upper
and lower solid curves give the value of W when the target is in a maximum
and minimum respectively; the dotted curve shows the value of F’z that
would be observed in free space, which is just fl. It can be seen that for
high enough angles accurate height measurements will be possible. This
2.5

2.0

1.5
~2

1.0

0.5

0
-4 -2 0 +2 +4 -4 -2 0 +2 +4 -4 -2 0 +2 +4
(a) (b) (c)
Tilt angle ~ in degrees
FIG. 5.21 .—Relative intensity of illumination of u tmgct at elevation angles of (a) 3°, (b) 2“,
(.) 1°, as a function of tilt angle. Ilalf-power lwwll\\idtt, = 3°; DP = 0.S.

region is between 2° and 3° in this case. As the elevation angle of the

target decreases, the field strength in ~ maximum !vill increase and that in
a minimum \villdecrease. At the sxmc time the indicated elevation angles
in a maximum \vill approach zero; indeed as indicated in Fig. 5“21c the
system will scarcely be able to resolve the target and its image. In
a minimum, however, the value of I~1for mzximum F2 ~\’illdiverge more
and more from zero as the true elevation of the target decreases.
The figure would seem to indicate that at low elevation angles the
indicated height would oscillate about the true height, varying in both
directions. If the low elevation an~le occurs at a great range, however,
the value of F2, even ivhen at its maximum, may be very small in an
interference minimum (see Fig. 5.21). As a result, the indicated heights
SEC. 5.13] QUALITATIVE DISCU,%$’ION 439

may all be too small, as the echo may be strong enough to be detected
and maximized only when the value of F2 is sufficiently large, near an
interference maximum. It has been observed in practice that indicated
heights for low elevation angles and great ranges are all too low because
of this phenomenon. 1
In the “lobe-switching” scheme of
height-finding, we do not maximize F
but require that the F associated with
the upper beam be equal to the 1’
associated with the lower beam. Let
f be the elevation angle of the cross-
over point of the two beams, and let 2(
be the angular separation between the
beam maxima, as illustrated in Fig. 5.22.
FIG. 522. -Fund anwt]tal ar.glrs in proh-
Now when the target is in a lobe maxi- Iem of I,eight-finding IIY lol,r-at~itdnng.
mum, we must have

F=/j(+l –f–f)+DPf(–#2–n– i–f)i

= lf(41–t +r)+~Pf(–42–q– t+ f)l, (43)

whereas in a lobe minimum we require

F=\.f(*, -t-() -DP.f(-42– T-t –{)1

= l.f(’A– t+r) –~P.f(-42-n – t+r)l. (44)

Though for a single beam it seemed reasonable to expect two regions of

oscillation, one about the true elevation and the other about the mirror
image, in Iobe-swit thing it would seem reasonable to expect a tbird region
of oscillation at the point where the antenna was pointed horizontally.
Because the return along the reflected ray is always less than along the
direct ray (Dp < 1), this third branch should occur in the region of very
slightly negative tilt angles. This hypothesis is confirmed in Fig. 5.23,
which is a plot of indicated height against true height at a constant range
where the dotted lines A and B are solutions of Eq. (43) and C, D, and E are
solutions of Eq. (44). The solid lines are the graph of indicated height that
the radar system could observe. The figure shows that two negative
branches do indeed exist with a lobe-switching scheme but that in the
region ED, these negative branches merge and accurate height measure-
ment is possible only when the target is near an interference minimum. In
this region the oscillations become discrete “islanck,” which are the only
part of the negative branch of practical importance. Most errors will
occur during the oscillations in AC with occasional excursions into DE.

1 It should also be pointed out that side lobes have been neglected in Fig. 5.21. They
will cause very small variations of indicated elevation angle in the region where good
height measurement is to be expected (Fig. 5.21a).
440 REFLECTIO,V,Y FROJl~ THE EARTH’S SURFACE [SEC. 5.13

At greater heights (and elevation angles) where the allowed regions are
AC, BE, and BD, the system will remain in AC’ and will give fairly accurate
height data.
Noprecise quantitative analysis of the limiting angles t’orgoodheigbt
measurement has been carried out, but some plane-earth calculations for
10 cm,’ assuming an error-curve antenna pattern and the theoretical values
of p for a smooth sea, give an estimate of the limiting angle of elevation
belolr \rhich height measurements
are likely to be seriously in error.
The angular error \vill be O.1° or
less forhorizontal polarization if the
antenna is ele\’ated by at least its
half-po\ver beamwidth and for Irer-
tical polarization by 75 per cent of
its beamwidth. The calculations
showed that the advantage of
single-beam maximizing over lobe-
s~vitching was negligible, eventually
disappearing as bcam~vidtl]s ivere
narrowed. Operational evidence
indicates that these values are some-
what pessimistic, at least for conical
scanning, and that height-finding
can be made successfully at some-
~vhat lower angles. This is probably
attributable primarily to the fact
that the average reflection coefficient
for horizontal polarization and sea
water tends to be lower than the
theoretical values for a smooth sea
(see Sees. 55 to 58).
FIG. 5,23.—Height indicated b? a lohe- Although this fact may indicate
switching radar ax a function of true height the reason for the increased region
at constant range.
of good height measurements, it
also shows that height cannot be measured down to zero elevation angle
over water. As long as substantial specular reflection occurs, oscillations
in the indicated elevation angle will occur with an amplitude depending
upon p, the antenna beamwidth, and the elevation angle. Because reason-
ably large values of p occur near grazing incidence over water for both
polarizations down to wavelengths at least as low as 3 cm, the only
obvious practical way to increase the region of accurate height measure-
1R. A. Hutner et al., “ Radar Height-finding,” RL Report No. 21, April 6, 1943.
The analysis referred to was essentially empirical: it is probably not suited to general
application in a strictly quantitative manner
SEC. 5.14] ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES 441

ments using the present schemes is to decrease the vertical beamwidth

of the antenna by increasing the vertical aperture or by shortening the
wavelength.
Overland specular reflection of microwaves is likely to be sufficiently
small to permit accurate height measurements at small elevation angles,
but care must be taken in siting a radar so that it will not illuminate any
large area sufficiently flat to give appreciable specular reflection.

+ 6(300 +3°
/’
+ 5000
+p
,.’
+ 4000
,,”

+ 3000

:
~s
go
+2000

+1000
2 J==-
--
-0°

$.1000
g
-2000

-3000

-4000

-5000

-6000

FIG. 5.24.—Theoretical values of indicated height of a target at 1000 ft viewed by a lobe-

switching, horizontally polarized 10-cm radar sited at 125 ft and having a beamwidth of 4.4°.

5“14. IUustrative Examples. -An example of the oscillations in indi-

cated height is shown in Fig. 5“24, in which indicated height is plotted as a
function of range for a target height of 1000 ft. The curves are drawn for
a horizontally polarized, conically scanning 10-cm radar system having a
half-power beamwidth of 4.4° and sited at a height of 125 ft. Theo-
retical values of p for a smooth sea have been used in computing the curves.
At short ranges only the envelopes of maxima and minima are shown. It
will be seen that accurate height measurement will be possible in this case
only at ranges of about 2 miles or less. At greater ranges large oscillations
will occur, and on occasion the system may even indicate negative heights
if it becomes locked in one of the “islands” of the negative branch. Figure
5.25 shows the envelopes of the oscillations for the geometry of Fig. 5.24
with horizontal and vertical polarizations. The difference between
442 REFLECTION’S FROM THE EARTH’S SURFACE [SEC. 514

● 6000

+5000

+ 4000

+ 31300

+ 2000
c
.= + 1O(10
~
M
.a
L o
u
~
~ -1000
.-
‘u
= -2000

-3000

-4000

-5000

-6000
FIG. 525. -Effert of polarization on amplitudes of indicated height oscillations shown
in Fig. 5.24,
+600 r
= + 400 - - ?
f-l n
“: + 200
0 _-wA/-4A1A ,
0 ~
: 1000 2000 3000 ~ 6000
$-200 - 4000 u
Range in yards 5000
2? -400
-600 - d
(a)

.
u nfl nf’ n
u
1000 2000 3000 4000 W@
, 1
6000
Range in yards

(b) b
_lm L
FIG.5.26.—Height-finding errors observed by a laboratory model of SCR 5R4 tracking
a pl*ne at 600 ft. (a) Height error as meamred by telescope; (b) height of target as indicated
b~- radar.
SEC. 514] ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES 443

+ 1200 .
. .
n
.0
n I
.

.-“c
% + 200
.-
&

-400

-600

-800

-1000
I
FIG. 5,27,—Comparison of theoretical and observed indicated heights for a target at 600 ft
tracked by a laboratory model of SCR 584 at 100 ft over the sea.

+1200 .

+1000 .
.
+ 800 .
A
+600

+ 400
4=
“: +200
z
.-M
2 0
~
.g -Zf)o
u
&
-400

-600

-8W

-1OOC

-120C
I?m. 52 S<omparison of theoretical and observed indicated heights for a target at 450 ft
tracked by a laboratory model of SCR 584 at 25 ft over tbe sea.
444 REFLECTIONS FROM THE EARTH’LS SURFACE [Sm. 514

polarizations is slight in the positive branch and \vould be even less had
experimental values ofp been used (see Fig. 5.16).
Experimental confirmation of height-finding errors is contained in
some experiments carried out with an early laboratory model of the
SCR-584 radar set in which the system was used to track an airplane
flying aradial course at a constant height. During the flights the height
indicated by the radar was recorded and checked by telescopic measure-
ments of the angular displacement between the target and the antenna
axis. Figure 526 shows the indicated height as observed by the radar
and the height error as measured by the telescope as a function of range
for a flight at 600 ft. In Fig. 527 points from several such flights are
shown along with the appropriate theoretical curves. Figure 5.28 shows
a similar plot for a target height of 450 ft and a radar height of 25 ft.
In both cases the positions of maxima and minima check surprisingly
well, although there is a tendency for the amplitude of the oscillations to
exceed that predicted by the theoretical curves, This phenomenon is
probably caused by variations in the instantaneous value of p and by
mechanical overshoot of the tracking system. In all, about 30 sets of
data \veretaken with this system for antenna heights of 25 and 100 ft and
for target heights from 20 to 600 ft. On all flights large oscillations of
indicated height were observed and frequent large “negative heights”
were encountered.
 CHAPTER 6

RADAR TARGETS AND ECHOES

BY DONALD E. KERR AND HERBERT GOLDSTEIN

In the earlier parts of this book it has been assumed that radar targets
could be characterized by the radar cross section u, which has been treated
primarily from the phenomenological point of view. In this chapter we
shall examine the properties of u and its relation to the properties of the
target. It will be found that in only a negligible number of extremely
simple cases is it feasible to calculate u from the geometry; the remaining
cases, which for the most part are those of greatest practical interest, are
beyond the scope of existing mathematical methods.

THE RADAR CROSS SECTION OF ISOLATED TARGETS

BY DONALD Il. KERR

If the target subtends a sufficiently small angle, as viewed from the

energy source, the incident wavefronts may be considered plane. The
problem of calculating u of such a target in free space is thus reduced to the
problem of scattering of a plane wave. The problem can be solved exactly
forasphere andapproximately forafe\v other simple shapes. Thesolution
for the sphere will be given in some detail because the results are needed in
later sections, and because the general method serves as a pattern that
can be used in approximate form for other cases. In all cases the medium
external to the target is assumed to be free space.
6“1. Scattering from a Sphere.—The diffraction of a plane wave by a
sphere was first given by Miel and has been elaborated upon by Stratton,2
whose method of treatment will be outlined very briefly here. For details
Stratton’s analysis should be consulted.
To describe the scattering of plane electromagnetic waves from a
sphere, solutions of the vector wave equation must be found that add up to
give a plane wave at large distances from the sphere but are of the proper
form to satisfy boundary conditions at the surface of the sphere. As is
well known, in a charge-free homogeneous and isotropic medium E, B, D,
and I% satisfy the vector wave equation

V2C + k2C = O. (1)

1 Mie, Ann. Physik, 26.377 (1908).

$ J. A. Stratton, Electromagnetic Theory, McGraw-Hill, 1941, p. 503fl.
445
446 1!.41).4R 1A RGET,5 AND ECHOES [SEC, 61

In spherical coordinates R, 8, 0, it is possible to construct solutions to

Eq. (1) from the vectors M and N derived from the solutions of the scalar
wave equation V2# + lcz~ = O in the following manner:

M=vYx R=~vx N, (2)

N=~vx M, (3)

where R, the position vector, is i,R. It is clear that M and N are proper
functions to represent E and H, because each is proportional to the curl
of the other, and it is also easily shown that V . M = V. N = O. We shall
express E and H in the form

where the coefficients an and b. are to be determined.’

The elementary solutions of the scalar wave equation are

in which P~(cos 0) are the associated Legendre polynomials and z,,(kl?)

are spherical Bessel functions appropriate to the range of R under considera-
tion. The subscripts e and o describe solutions that are even or odd in O.
Inside the sphere of radius a, where the field remains finite, we use the
Bessel function of the first kind:

zZ(kR) = j.(kR) = & J.+ ,$(kR), R<a. (6)

d

Outside the sphere’ where the field is a traveling wave we use

z.(kR) = h~z)(kR) = ~& HY+ Ij(kR), R>a, (7)

where H~~ ~j(kR) is the Hankel function of the second kind.2

The incident and scattered waves and the field inside the sphere must
now be expressed in terms of M and N. If Eq. (5) is inserted into Eqs. (2)
and (3), and if the time factor is removed by writing
M = meti’ and N = ne’w’, we find
dPy(cos e) Cos
m e“,. = Tio~ z.(kR) P~(COS 0) Cos
“n mb – i~zn(kR) do sin m+, (8)
o

I The vectorsM and N are essumedto form a completeset in the absenceof space
charge.
ZThe Hankelfunctionof the secondkindis requiredherebecausethe time variation
is assumedto be e+ ‘“~.
SEC. 6.1] SCATTERING FROM A SPHERE 447

—. m
—~[Rzn(kR)] ~(cos O)~o~mgk (9)
● 16 kR sin O dR

If the positive direction of propagation is the z-axis, the incident

plane wave to be represented is of the form

(a‘a(:)e-’kRc””
‘z=RcOse)l
where a is a.unit vector with components along the x- and y-axes. It can
be shown that a plane wave traveling in the z direction in free space and
polarized on the z-axis can be expressed in terms of the vector functions by
.

where q~is the intrinsic impedance of free space, 1207 ohms, and where

no,“ = i, ‘(n + 1)jn(k~) p~(cOS@ &. 1$+ id [kRj.(kR)]’ dP~(cm 0) sin ~

kR kR de Cos

+ i+ [k~j.(~~)]’ pA(cos e) cos ~ (12)

—
kR sin 8 sin “

The primes indicate differentiation with respect to the argument. It is

of interest to note that m in Eqs. (8) and (9) has become unity, because of
the physical requirement that the field must depend upon o only as cm o or
sin O. The subscript for m is dropped to simplify notation, Equations
(10) to (12) express the unperturbed plane ~vavc incident on the sphere.
The induced secondary field consists of two parts, one scattered by the
sphere and the other inside the sphere. They will be referred to as the
scattered and transmitted fields, denoted by superscripts s and t. The
transmitted field will involve the j. radial functions, but the scattered field
behaves as a spherical wave for large R and requires the h~’1of Eq. (7) in
place of j.. This modification in Eqs. (11) and (12) will be indicated by
m? and n$). If the propagation constant of the sphere is k,, where
448 RADAR TARGETS AND ECHOES [SEC. 6.1

k; = U’plel – iWF,u,,wecannow wtitethe scattered andtransmitted fiel&

*=1
m

The boundary conditions for continuity of tangential components of

Eand Hat R= aare
i, x (Ei + ES) = i, x E*,
(17)
i, x (Hi + H’) = i, x Hi, 1

where the incident field is given by Eq. (10). Carrying through this opera-
tion yields four equations for the coefficients a;, b~, a:, b~, of which only
the first two are of interest for the present purpose. If we assume that
M = m, and if we introduce the complex refractive index n. and a conven-
ient measure of the size of the sphere p,
.
n,= ~;= $ = V,l - iO,iLOeO,
27ra
p=ka=TJ

a;=— i(P) [WPjn(WP) 1’– j.(w) [pjn~

M’)(P)[%Pj=(rbP) 1’– i(w) [P M?(P) 1“
(18)
b~=–
djn(ncP) [Pj.(P) 1‘ – j.(P) [win(w) 1’,
n:jz(ncp)[pw(p) ]‘ – w (p) [ncpjn(ncp) ]‘

The complexity of 13q. (18) and the lack of tables of jn and hmfor complex
argument place severe limitations on calculations for spheres of arbitrary
size and complex refractive index. The progress that has been made thus
far will be described in Chap. 7; for the moment, however, we shall continue
with the development of general expressions for the power scattered and
absorbed by the sphere.
The effect of the sphere on the incident wave maybe most conveniently
determined by integrating the Poynting vector over the surface of a
spherical surface concentric with the scattering sphere. The time average
SW. 6.1] SCATTERING FROM A SPHERE 449

of the radial component of the Poynting vector is

where E and H are the sum of the incident and scattered fields. With
appropriate grouping of terms, this becomes

The integral of SR over the external spherical surface gives the net outflow
of energy from the sphere. As the sphere is a sink rather than a source of
energy, this quantity is negative; it will be denoted by —P., where Pa is
the power loss in the dielectric of the sphere, The integral of the first term
on the right of Eq. (19) is zero, as it gives the net outflow of energy in the
incident plane wave. The second term, when integrated, yields the total
power scattered out of the incident ~\raveand will be denoted by P,, a posi-
tive quantity. If we denote the integral of the third term of Eq. (19) by
– P,, we see that
P, = Pa + P,;

that is, P, gives the total power removed from the beam by scattering and
dielectric loss. We must now evaluate

P,=–~Re ‘r “ (E;W; _ E;H;” + J3:Hj’ – E;H:) R’ sin 9 de dqk (20)

// 00
The integration is performed at a very large value of R, and the asymp-
totic expansions for zn(kR) are employed:

j.(W = & cos (M – ‘~. ); (21)

The integration of Eq. (2o) may now be performed, using Eqs, (21), (22),
(8), and (9) and certain orthogonality relations of the L~gendre functions.
This is a lengthy and complicated task and will not be given here. The
final result is
m
— TEi
P, = ——— Re (2n + 1.)((Z; + M).
qov z

The total scattering cross section of the sphere Q, is the ratio of the total
scattered power Pt to the incident Poynting vector ~j = E~/2TO;

(23)
450 RADAR TARGETS AND ECHOES [SEC. 6.1

We shaIl employ Q, in the following chapters in connection with attenuation

by spherical raindrops.
The radar cross section may be obtained from the radial component
of the Poynting vector of the scattered wave, given by the second term of
Eq. (19) and computed at a large distance for the backward direction o = u.

~~ = ~ Re (E~H$ – E;H~). (24)

If Eq. (22) is employed in Eqs. (13) and (14), it is readily found that for
very large R,

–Eoe-’kR m 2n + 1
E: = qoll: =
ikR x n(n + 1)
.=1

(~i
(25)
F%(cos (?)
sin ~ + P.
CW;(cos e)
do
) Cos #,

n=l
(26)
~; dP:(cos @ + ~i P;(cos 0)
sin @
( d% sin 0 )
Then Eq. (24) becomes

E; o “ 2n+l 2Tn+l p~p~ ~iaz ~osz4

z%= 2q,(kR)2
— Re
n(n + 1) m(m + 1) ((sinz d
22
n=l m=l

This equation gives the power scattered in the direction t?, +. For back
scattering it must be evaluated for e = T. For this purpose we employ
the relations

-[p~:)le=.= [dp’$:se)lo===(-l’”n(n:l)

and after some manipulation obtain

SEC. 6.1] SCATTERING FROM A SPHERE 451

Recalling the definition of u, in the present notation,

where 31 is the magnitude of the Poynting vector incident on the sphere,

E~/2~0, It is particularly convenient to employ the ratio of u to the geo-
metrical cross section of the sphere,

o — 1-
7 lx
~az — ~ (–l)”(2n + l)(a: – b;) ‘ (29)
71=1

Although Eq. (29) is simple in appearance, ]umerical calculations for a

wide range of sphere radii and dielectric properties present serious difficul-
ties. We consider at first the case for p<< 1. If we expand Eq. (18), dis-
carding powers of P higher than the sixth and writing E. = ~?, we have’

(30a)

2E, –1 , ~+3ec–22_i~% -13

b;=– i-— (30b)
3E, +2P ( 5E, +2P 3E, +2P )‘
–1
b~=–~~ (30C)
15 2E, + 3 ‘5”

The physical interpretation of the a; and b: coefficients aids in visualizing

the mechanism of the scattering process. It can be shown that bi is the
amplitude of a field distribution on the sphere corresponding to a simple
electric dipole oriented along the z-axis. Also a; is directly related to a
magnetic dipole field distribution, and a; to a magnetic quadruple. In
general, the a~’s and bn’s are proportional to the amplitudes of magnetic
and electric multiples, which are induced by the incident wave.z
Returning to Eq. (3o), we observe that for sufficiently small p and finite
e, only the first term of 13q. (30b) is important,

2E, –1 ,.
b;=–i– —
3EC+ 2P’

that is, the sphere behaves like an electric dipole. Its dipole moment is
easily shown to be
~ . 4TC0Ed a3Eo.
EC+2
LValues for b! and b; are taken from L, Goldstein, in Radio Wave Propagation,
Academic Press, New York, 1949, p. 271,fj. Goldstein reports that M and b; as given by
Stratton are incorrect, that Eq. (35), p. 571, should have 2n + 1 rather than 2n + 2,
and that the right side of Eq. (36) should be negative.
z For a detailed discussion of the multlpole fields and their magnitudes, see M.
Born, Optik, Springer, Berlin, 1933, pp. 274fl.
 452 RADAR TARGETS AND ECHOES [sm. 6.1

Equation (29) yiekis, for this case,

This is precisely the well-known Rayleigh scattering law (for the backward
direction), which occurs in all problems of scattering of electromagnetic
radiation by very small dielectric spheres. Two c~es that are of some
interest in special applications are

Finite Ie,l>>1, ~ = 4P’ = 6.234

() ~ 4 x 10s,

\Ec]
<<1, ~
=a2 = P4 = 1.559 ; 4x 103.
()
The scattering coefficients for spheres with infinite c, (either infinite
dielectric constant or conductivity or both) may best be obtained directly
from Eq. (18):

a:=–h~
i(p) [PMP)’
(30d)
m = – [phi’’(p)]’”

If, as before, these expressions are evaluated for small p, we discover that
both a; and b~ now contain terms in p3 but b; begins with p5. If we retain
only the p3 terms,
a;=—? ~ P3, (30e)

(30j)

[Equation (3oj) can be obtained directly from Eq. (30b), but this is not so
simple for Eqs. (3oe) and (30a)]. We now observe the interesting fact that
the magnetic dipole term is half as large as the electric dipole term and in
phase with it. The effect is to increase u by a factor ~ over the value for
large but finite e,:

lEc\ = m, > = 9p’ = 1.403 ; 4x 104.

()

Figure 6.1 shows the radar cross section for a sphere with infinite con-
ductivity. For small a/X the Rayleigh law is followed closely,’ but above
about a/A = 0.1 the higher-order multipole moments become larger and
fluctuate in phase and magnitude in a complicated way, causing the curve
to exhibit marked oscillations. The oscillations diminish S1OWIV in amdi-
tude,z and u approaches asymptotically the geometrical cross se~tion as ~/A
1 Unfortunately the dashed line labeled ‘ ‘Rayleigh Law” is displaced to the right
of its correct position. It should follow u/wa2 = 1.403 (a/x)4 x I@.
2 Presently available tables permit calculations only up to p = 10.
SEC. 6.1] SCATTERING FROM A SPHERE 453

becomes very large. Itwillbe shown in Sec. 6”3that this isjust the value
to be expected on the basis of geometrical optics.
The analysis of scattering by a sphere has been sketched in sufficient
detail toshowthe principles required foran exact solution. Itisclear that
fulfillment of boundary conditions equivalent to Eq. (17), in order that
coefficients of the scattered waves can be obtained, automatically limits
the shape of the target to a handful of the simplest geometrical forms.
4

>
0.6

0.4

0.2

.0.1
0.05 0.1 0,2 0.4 0.6 1.0 2 4
a/A
FIG. 61. -RatIoof t>ack-b,.attcrll~gcro>sscctiot~ w geomet!lcal wuss section asa (unction
of radius to wavclelLgtll for a sphmc with infinite rondurtivity. The line labeled “Rayleigh.
Law” ismispl~ccci. Scc footnoteon page 452,

This geometry must correspond toa coordinate system in which the wave
equation isscparablc, and \rhichgives risctoordinary differential equations
with solutions of Imolvn properties. These properties must be sufficiently
simple that the necessary manipulation of these functions does not require
unreasonable effort. As an illustration of hoJr difficult these operations
can be with a seemingly simple target, the analysis of scattering from an
ellipsoid has been completed only for limited range of shapes because the
general solution offers such great pr:wticu lcomputationa ldifficulties.1 The
remainder of this chapter will bede~,oted toapproximate methods of calcu-
lation of cross section and to measurements of cross section of targets that
IF. V. Schultz, “Scattw-inghya I’rol;itcS phc,roi{i,” .&cronautical Research Center,
University of Michigan, Mar. 1, 1950.
454 RADAR TARGETS AND ECHOES [*C. 62

become progressively so complicated that the methods become essentially

empirical in nature.
6“2. Vector Form of Huygens’ Principle. -As the rigorous method of
the preceding section cannot be applied to most problems, we shall consider
a second method that forms the basis for solution of essentially all diffrac-
tion problems that can be solved. It is the familiar Kirchhoff-Huygens
principle, which states that if the value of a field quantity is known at every
point on any closed surface surrounding a source-free region, each elemen-
tary unit of surface can be considered as a radiating source, and the total
field at any interior point is given by integrating the contributions of all
the individual elements over the surface. This principle is generally given

FIG. 6.2.—Plane wave incident upon a surface S of arbitrary shape, The direction of prOp-
agation is no, and the normal to the surface at any point is n,

in a form appropriate for scalar fields, such as sound. It is frequently

applied in this form to vector fields, such as those of electromagnetic waves,
despite the fundamental differences between the two kinds of field, Such
procedures cannot yield information on polarization, however, and conse-
quently are not suitable for the present purpose, Recently Stratton and
Chu have given a particularly elegant and compact statement of the Kirch-
hoff-Huygens principle for electromagnetic waves,’ which will be used
here to calculate scattering cross sections. (The same method could have
been applied to the sphere.)
If a plane wave falls on an object of arbitrary surface S, shown in
Fig. 6.2, the object scatters the incident wave, and we may consider the cuT-
rents and charges within the object as the source of the scattered wave,
We shall specialize the present analysis in two ways: (1) Only scattering
back along the direction of the incident wave will be calculated and (2)
the scattering object ~villbe considered to have infinite conductivity. The
second restriction requires all fields inside the object and the tangential
component of E and the normal component of H on the surface to be zero.
Then the scattered field is given by

(31)

1J. A. Stratton, Etec&omagnetic Theor~, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1941, Sec. 8,14.
SEC. 6.2] VECTOR FOR.11 OF H U YGEA’S’ PRIX( ‘IPLE 455

where the surface of integration is the surface of the object and a closed sur-
face at infinity (the integral over this surface is zero), n is a unit normal to
the surface, H, is the total magnetic field on the surface and is entirely tan-
gential to the surface.’
Because we consider only targets at distances kwgc compared with
dimensions of the target an(l only back scattering,

‘t,’”)=‘n(](ik~)’
where r is the distance from any element of area CM to the point of observa-
tion (in this case the source of the ~va\,c). The r in the clcnominator may
be replaced by R, the distance to the center of the target. In the exponent,
hulvevcr, \vc must use better approximations. Tll(m 1;(]. (31) becomes

Ha=–~ no x (n x Ht)e – ‘t’ d,S, (32)

4rTR
“/ ,V

The term n x H, can be recognized as the surface curnmt K on L$’, \vhicll

sometimes aids in visualizing the scatterin~ pattern.
As the system is linear, H, will l~eproportional to the incident magnetic
field, the magnitude of \vhich is 11.. Then we may \vrite

where ((x,v,z) is a complex function describing the variation of field over

the surface and i, is a vector (not in general of unit length) tangent to the
surface and giving the direction of the total surface field.
The ratio of the scattered to the incident Poynting vector is proportional
to the square of the ratio of scattered to incident fields; so the scattering
cross section becomes
P H-’2
“ = 4TR2
F = 4=R2
iz
or
2

“=P
rr

!/s
m x (n x i,) ~(x,y,z)e – ‘k’ dS . (34)

Thus far the only approximation has been that for large distances. It
has been assumed that H, is known, but H, will be known exactly only if
the boundary value problem can be solved. It was pointed out in the pre-
LEquation (31) is Stratton’s Eq. (20), ibid., p. 466, adapted to the present case.
It might be mentioned here that a method of approach more frequently used involves
calculation of the surface currents, the resulting vector potential, and then the field
from the vector potential, This method is equivalent to the one to be given here but
involves more mathematical manipulation without increasing the clarity of the pro-
cedure in the present case. The derivation of Eq. (31) requires that the fields and
their first derivatives be continuous on S, but we shall apply it to cases in which this
condition is not strictly fulfilled. Because we consider only objects larger than the
wavelength, the necessary correction terms are small and will not be given here.
456 RADAR TARGETS A.h’D ECHOES [SEC. 63

ceding section that exact solutions can be obtained in only avery fewcases.
Weshall next consider applications of Eq. (34) tocases inwhichitispossi-
bletoobtain approximate formulas for H, that will allow Eq. (34) to be
integrated. Theapproximation to beusedis stated formally in Eqs. (53)
and (54); physically, it is that HL is twice the tangential component of the
magnetic field of the incident wave.
6-3. Scattering from Planes and Curved Surfaces. Large Planes.-A
plane linearly polarized wave is incident upon a plane surface, as shown in

Fm. 6.3.—Plane linearly polarized electromagnetic wave incident upon a pIane surface S.

Fig. 6.3. The plane of incidence is the m-plane, and the incident mag-
netic field is given by
Hi = a~&–ik(R–zain#), (35)

where a is a unit vector in a plane perpendicular to no. If a is the azimuth

of a in this plane, measured from the plane of incidence,

a=izcos aces O-tiU sina +i, cosasin O.

In order to determine H, we now introduce the assumption that the surface

S is so large in terms of wavelength that H, has the same value that it would
have if the surface were infinite in extent. On the back side the field is then
zero, and on the front side H 1is twice the tangential component of the inci-
dent wave:1
10ne occasionally encounters the incautious statement that the surface magnetic
field is twice the incident field. Clearly this is true only if the incident magnetic
vector is perpendicular to the plane of incidence and thus a = T/2. The correct state-
ment of the boundary condition is given in more general terms in 13qs. (53) and (54)
later in this section.
SEC. 6.3] SCATTERING FROM PLANES AND CURVED SURFACES 457

HI = it ZHO ~–tk(R–zsin O), (36)

where
it = i= cm a cos O + itisin a.

One then finds without difficulty that

mx(nxi,)=acosil

Equation (32) then becomes

(37)

This equation shows, as might be expected, that maximum back scattering

occurs for normal incidence (0 = O) and that there is no depolarization of
the scattered wave. The last conclusion is not strictly true because the
surface fields near the edges are not actually as we have assumed them; but
as long as the smallest dimension of the surface is several wavelengths long,
the present procedure can be expected to give satisfactory accuracy.’
The radar cross section u may now be found from Eqs. (33), (34), and
(36)
47r
U= FCOS20 ~e– ‘“z “n ‘ diS12, (38)
Ill
where the integration is performed over the front, or illuminated surface.
For normal incidence Eq. (38) reduces to the important formula

where A is the area of the surface, which may have any shape as long as it is
not so complicated that the initial assumptions regarding the surface fields
are seriously in error.
If the surface is rectangular, with total dimensions of a and b parallel to
the z- and y-axes, respectively, Eq. (38) becomes

~(o) = 47A2 sin (ka sin O) 2

COS2e. (40)
A* [ ka sin 9 1

If the incident wave had come from the direction 6, IP,where @ is the azi-
muth angle measured from the z-axis, an analysis similar to that above
would show that

4rrAZ sin (ka sin 0 cos O) sin (kb sin 0 sin 4) 2 Cosz~
0(0,0) = A2 . (41)
[ ka sin 0 cos @ kb sin 0 sin 1#1 1

1 For scattering from objects such as flat strips or ribbons having widths comparable
to the wavelength see P. M. Morse and P. .J. Rubenstiln, Phw. Reu., S4, 895 (1938).
458 RAD.4R TARGETS AND ECHOES [SEC. 63

The factors in Eqs. (40) and (41) having the form (sin z)/z occur in all
diffraction problems in which a uniform field distribution occurs across a
slit or rectangular area. There is one difference between the expressions
above and those ordinarily encountered, however; in Eq. (41), for instance,
we have ka sin o cos O, whereas in cases in which the primary source of radi-
ation is in the surface S one finds ~ ka sin e cos @ The difference occurs, of
course, because in the radar case the phase differences governing the inter-
ference between the elementary current elements are double those for the
one-way case, The result is that the main lobe of the diffraction pattern
of a given surface acting as a radar target is only approximately half as wide
as that from an obstacle or opening of the same dimensions scattering in
the forward direction.
Comparison of Eqs. (39) and (40) or (41) shows that at normal incidence
u is inversely proportional to X2,whereas for any appreciable value of 0, u is
a rapidly oscillating function of x and approaches zero for very small X.
This is to be expected; for as ka becomes large, most of the incident energy
experiences specular reflection and little is scattered backward. The dif-
fraction pattern was indicated qualitatively in Fig. 1.3.
If the surface S is a circular disk the integration in Eq. (34) must be per-
formed in polar coordinates p, o in the xy-plane. Then

2kx sin 0 = 2kP cos ~ sin 0 and dS = p dp d~.

Using well-known integral definitions of Bessel functions’ Eq. (38) becomes

47A2 z J, (2ka sin 8) ‘ Cos, ~

u(o) = ~ ? (42)
[ 2ka sin e 1

where J1 designates the first-order Bessel function and a is the radius of the
disk. The factor in square brackets has the same general oscillatory nature
as the corresponding (sin x),/x terms in Eq. (40). Its first three zeros are
at 3.83, 7.02, and 10.17, and it is unity for O = O. The factor 2 is included
within the brackets because Jl(z) /x = ~ when z = O.
Cylinders. Scattering from cylindem may also be calculated with the
same kind of approximation that was used for plane surfaces. Two cases
will be considered first: that of longitudinal polarization, in which the
cylinder is oriented with its axis parallel to the electric field of the incident,
wave, and that of transverse polarization, in which the cylinder is perpen-
dicular to the incident electric field and to the direction of propagation,
The procedure will be to find the surface fields from a solution of the bound-
ary value problem on the assumption that the fields on a finite length of
cylinder do not differ from those on an infinitely conducting cylinder of
infinite length and then to calculate the cross section by Eq. (4o).
For the case of longitudinal polarization let the cylinder be oriented
I Jahnke and Erode, Z’abh oj Frt7Lctbz2,
Dover reprint, 1943, p. 149.
6EC. 63] SCATTERING FROM PLANES AND CURVED SURFACES 459

along the z-axis of the coordinate system, as shown in Fig. 6.4. The inci-
dent wave traveling along the z-axis is obtained from the expansion of a
plane wave in cylindrical coordinates:
m

,,=0
.

Hi_ ‘1 VxEi=~ (2 – 60J (–i)” i, ~ sin nf#I.Jn(kr)

i+ j Z,blo z [
n,=lJ

+ i$ k cos n@J~(kr) )
1

where 60. is the Kronecker delta, equal to unity for n = O and zero for all
other values of n. If the cylinder is infinite in length, the scattered wave

t’

FIG. 64.-Geometry for calculation of scattering from a cylinder

will be given by a similar series, except that in order to represent outward

traveling waves for large r the Bessel functions of the first kind must be
replaced by the Hankel functions H$2)(kr), each with a coefficient an, which
must be determined from the boundary conditions. Recalling that the
magnitude of the incident magnetic wave is HO = EO/qO, we may now
write the total field as the sum of the incident and scattered fields:
.
H = –iHo (2 – &iJ( – i)” i, #r sin m$ [J.(kr) + a&A2)(kr) ]
2 I
.=O

+ i+ cos m$ [J~(kr) + a~Hi2)’(kr)]

)
. (43)

At the cylinder surface, where r = a, the radial component of the magnetic

field is zero, which requires that

J.(p)
am=—— p = ka. (44)
H~2)(p) ‘

●
460 RADAR TARGETS AND ECHOES [SEC. 63

Referring to Eq. (33), we see that H, is obtained from Eqs. (43) and (44) by
settingr = a. Wethenhave thelongitudinal surface current K, given by
i, x iLHo~(z,y,z) =
.
J:(P) H$2)(P) –Jn(p)H~2)’(p) . (45)
— iziHO (2 – &.)(–i)’ cos nq$
2 [ H~2)(p) 1
7,=0

The numerator of the expression in brac.kets is the Wronskian of Jnand

H~Jl,given by2i/~p. Thevector product of Eq, (45) with~ = i. changes
the direction to that of they-axis, and Eq. (34) becomes

7r2 m (2 – 8oz)(–i)” 2

“=26 Iz .=0
H~2)(p) / s
e – ‘*’ cos n~ di3 . (46)

If R is the distance from the point of observation to the center of the cylin-
der, T = R + a cos + The surface element dS = a do dz, and the inte-
gration is performed over the angular range from zero to 27rand over the
length 1. The ends are omitted, as the currents and fields are assumed to
be zero there.
Integration of Eq. (46) requires the integral representation of Bessel
functions mentioned earlier.’ After integration Eq. (46) becomes

2
4P m (_l)n(2 –&.)* !
~,=— (47)
7 lx
,,=0

which can be written in a form more convenient for numerical computa-

tions as
m
41’
~,=—
T Y4
.=O
(– l)n(2 – &)e”. sin & ‘, (47a)

where
J.(P)
tan6n=– —
N.(p)

Analysis of the transverse-polarization case proceeds in similar fashion

and leads to
2
41’ m
gf=— (–1)”(2 – !30.) * ! (48)
r 12
.=0
1 Ibid.
2 The angles & (and the & for the case of transverse polarization) have been tabu-
lated by P. M, Morse et al., in “Scattering and Radiation from Circular Cylinders and
Spheres, ” MIT Underwater Sound Laboratory, Applied klathematic.s Panel Report
No. 62.lR, February, 1945.
SEC. 631 SCATTERING F170zW PLAh’ES A AD CUR~’EO SURFACES 461

which can be rewritten in a manner similar to Eq. (47a) as

m
412
~t=— (–l)n(2 – &Je”; sin &’2, (48a)
T 12
*=IJ

where

the primes denoting differentiation with respect to the argument.

The dependence of o on cylinder radius is important. For very small
p, Eqs. (47) and (48) become

Ul=irlz-)
()12
lnp
(49)

cl = : 12p4, (50)

The fourth-power law in u, is reminiscent of the Rayleigh scattering law for

the sphere discussed in Sec. 6.1; in fact, closer scrutiny reveals that there is
a marked analogy between scattering by spheres and cylinders. The coeffi-
cients a; and b; of Eq. (18) were identified with multipole moments from
the surface currents induced by the wave incident on the sphere. The
a. of Eq. (44) is analogous to al representing magnetic multiples for the
sphere and similarly the analysis of the transverse-polarization case for the
cylinder involves a scattering coefficient b. representing electric multiples,
which is analogous to a; for the sphere. In the spherical case both a;
and b; varied with p in the same manner for very small p but this is not true
for the cylinder, with the result that the cross section shows a marked de-
pendence on polarization. Eq. (49) shows that u~ is considerably larger
than a, for p less than about 0.2. For larger values of p the complete ex-
pressions must be employed. They show that u, decreases monotonically
with increasing p but that u! departs markedly from the fourth-power law
and oscillates in a manner very similar to that of the curve in Fig. 6 1.
The square of the series in Eqs. (47) and (48) approaches the limiting value
TP/4 for P greater than about 6, and both cross sections approach the limit-
ing value
2ra12
u1”ul~P12=~J (51)

independent of polarization. This is also the value that would be predicted

by geometrical optics. This point will be discussed further later in the
section.
Equations (47) and (48) were derived for the direction of propagation
perpendicular to the axis of the cylinder. If the incident electric field lies
in the zz-plane of Fig. 6.4 with the direction of propagation no forming an
462 RADAR TARGETS AND ECHOES [Sm. 63

angle ~withthe z-axis, theinduced currents along thecylinder cause adif-

fraction pattern similar to that from the plane reflector, and the effective
value of p is multiplied by the factorcos d. Consequently for this case the
cross section becomes

(52)

where UIis obtained from Eq. (47) after replacing pby p COSL?. For very
small p cos P, u, is given by Eq. (49) with the same substitution; and for
large pcos~, u,isobtained byusing Eq, (51) inthe same way.
The degree of approximation involved inneglecting the effect of finite
length of the cylinder cannot be evaluated directly, but some useful qualita-
tive statements can be made. If p is small, the assumption of constant-
current distribution is likely to be seriously in error because of resonance
effects and standing waves unless the wire is very long. If the diam-
eter of the cylinder is roughly x/4 or more, however, and if the cylinder is
several wavelengths long, the current is probably near the predicted value
a fraction of a wavelength from the end. The correct current distribution,
if it were known, would produce a dependence on 1different from the
sin (ld cos @) z
factors 1’ and occurring in the preceding analysis.
[ kl COSP
1
An important conclusion to be drawn from the difference in reflecting
properties of a thin cylinder for the two polarizations is that a wave
polarized linearly at an angle with the cylinder axis will be scattered with
elliptical polarization. [The difference in amplitudes of the two com-
ponents of the scattered wave is indicated by Eqs. (49) and (50), but
the differences in phase must be obtained by performing the integration
of Eq. (32). ] If the radius of the cylinder is greater than about one
wavelength, the depolarizing effect essentially disappears. This fact
forms the basis for some important relations that will now be developed
to extend the methods given above to other cases of practical interest
and to illustrate the relation between these results and those of geometrical
optics.
Simplified Formufa joi- Cross Section.-If a plane wave is incident
upon a perfectly conducting surface having undulations or convolutions
with radii of curvature greater than about one wavelength, the induced
currents and the fields radiated from any infinitesimal unit of area are
very nearly those which would be obtained from the same area if it were
part of an infinite plane, tangent to the surface at the location of the
element of area. The currents and fields on the surface are determined
by the boundary condition that the surface magnetic field is entirely
tangential and is twice the tangential component of the magnetic field
of the incident wave. For convenience we assume the incident wave
traveling along the z-axis, with its magnetic vector of amplitude Ha in the
SEC. 6.3] SCATTERING FROM PLANES AND CURVED SURFACES 463

direction a, perpendicular to the z-axis. On the surface the magnetic field

is given by
H, = i,2H~ – ‘k’, (53)

where i, is given by

i,=a-(a. n)n (54)

and n is the outward normal to the surface. I

To calculate the scattered field we must evaluate the triple vector procl-
uct of Eq. (32), using Eq. (54). Using standard vector identities we find

nox(nxit) =–a2(no. n).

If dS is the element of area on the scattering surface, the projection of

dS onto the zy-plane will be denoted by dA. The relation betw-een these
areas is
dA=–(n, .n)dS

The scattered field is, then, from Eq. (32),

ikHo ~ - ,,kR dA
H’=a — (55)
2r7R / ~

and the cross section given by Eq. (34) reduces to

(56)

where the integration on dA is now to be performed in the xy-plane,

using the known shape of the surface to express z as a function of the
coordinates in the xy-plane.
It is convenient to employ polar coordinates p, @in the zy-plane. Then

dA =pdpdc+=~dzd~,

and Eq. (56) becomes

477 “2” .(+) ~p

““ dz d~ 2. (57)
‘=2 1//-“ “ cke–

Scattering by Quadric Surfaces. -- Integration of Eq. (57) is not

difficult for quadric surfaces but becomes cumbersome for other shapes.
We shall consider an elliptic paraboloid and an ellipsoid in order to obtain
a scattering formula of some practical importance and in order to illustrate
the relative importance of scattering from the “nose” and from the
remaining parts of the surface.
] Equation (54) can be derived from the fact that t}]e tangential component of a is
obtained by subtracting from a its component normal to the surface.
464 RADAR TARGETS AND ECHOES [SEC. 6.3

From analytic geometry, the equation for an elliptic paraboloid

opening outward along the positive z-axis is

(58)

where bl, bz, and G are constants. The quantities of interest in the present
case are the radii of curvature of the surface in the ZZ- and ~z-planes at
the origin. These radii areeasilyshown to be

Transforming topolar coordinatesp, dinthezg-plane, Eq. (58) becomes’

(59)
‘=~[’-(’-:)sid”d”
If Eq. (59) isemployedin Eq. (57) andtheintegration onzis carried out
to a height h, independent of 1#,

o = 7ralajle– ‘z~h— 1]2 = 47ralazsin’ M. (60)

The – 1 of the complex expression represents the contribution of the tip of

the paraboloid, whereas the exponential expresses the interference between
successive Fresnel zones on the paraboloid.’ If the height of the parabo-
loid were not well defined, that is, if the top edge were cut very irregularly,
the contributions of the last zone (or zones) would tend to cancel, causing
the exponential term to disappear, then

u = ira, a~. (61)

If the scattering surface is a closed surface, such as an ellipsoid, the

contribution of the last Fresnel zone disappears, leaving Eq. (61). This
point may be illustrated briefly by the same method used for the paraboloid.
The equation for an ellipsoid with semi axis h, along the axis and ~vith radii
of curvature a, and a~ at the lower tip is, again in polar coordinates,

“=’”- ‘2:[1
-(1-:)sin’d”
Substituting into Eq. (57) and again integrating to a height h < h,,

“=”a’@[(:)’+’(’
-9s’4’ (62)

where terms in (2WZO)–1 have been dropped. In this case the successive
Fresnel zones again cause u to depend upon the height of the section of
I For al = a~ the surface is a paraboloid of revolution.
2 Each zone corresponds to an increment Ah = k/4 rather than the h/2 {wed in
optics because of the doubled ptith length in the present case.
SEC. 6.3] SCATTERING FROM PLANES AND CURVED SURFACES 465

the ellipsoid, but in a rather different manner from that found for the
preceding case. If h = ho, or if h is very irregular around the periphery,
the argument used above shows that again u = ~al~. In the important
special case of a sphere al = ~ and u = raz, in agreement with the results
of Sec. 6.1 for a sphere with large a/k.
In the present approximation the back half of the surface is omitted
from the integration of Eq. (57), as the fields are assumed to be zero there.
The cross section of the sphere is, of course, independent of aspect, but this
is not true for the other surfaces. The scattering surface has been oriented
tip foremost with its symmetry axis along the direction of propagation
of the incident wave. We have seen that if the back edge is sufficiently
irregular, or if the surface is closed,l the scattering can be accounted for
by the shape of the tip, The proof has been given for a surface that can
be represented by an equation of the second degree. Surfaces of different
shapes require other methods of integration of Eq. (57) than that given here.
Small Objects. – Before proceeding to geometrical optics we quote
without proof some useful values for u for targets that are comparable in
dimensions to the wavelength.
For a thin perfectly conducting prolate spheroid, A/2 long (essentially
a “half-wave” dipole), the maximum value of a is approximately 0.88A2,
and the average value over all orientations and polarizations is approx-
imately 0.1 lAZ.
A small perfectly conducting disk shows markedly a phenomenon
discussed in Sec. 6.1 in connection with the sphere; the induced surface
currents give rise to both electric and magnetic dipole moments of com-
parable magnitude, and the disk acts like both a straight wire and a loop
radiator.z As a consequence the maximum echo is not obtained when
the disk is oriented normal to the incident radiation, but rather when both
the incident electric vector and the direction of incidence are parallel to
the surface of the disk. The cross section at normal incidence and the
average cross section over all orientations and directions of polarization are

The fourth-power dependence is again an illustration of the Rayleigh

scattering law. It is interesting to note that the numerical coefficient
for the sphere is about 12.5 times that for the disk.
Geometrical Optics. – Thus far the analysis of scattering has been
carried out in terms of solutions of the wave equation, in which the ratio
1 More correctly, for the purpose of the present approximation the surface needs
only to be “half closed” in the forward direction, as only the illuminated portion is
considered.
‘H. A. Bethe, “Theory of Diffraction by Small Holes,” RL Report No. 128, Jan.
23, 1942; Phys. Reo., 66, 163 (1944).
466 RADAR TARGETS AND ECHOES [SEC.6“3

of target dimensions to wavelength plays a prominent role. In the limit

aa the wavelength approaches zero, however, it is possible to make further
approximations that lead to geometrical optics, where polarization and
phases are neglected and energy flow follows straight-line ray paths deter-
mined from the target and antenna geometry (ina homogeneous medium).
It is convenient to generalize temporarily the backscattering cross
section used up to this point by introducing the differential scattering
cross section u’, defined for arbitrary scattering angles O, +, where Ois the
acute angle between the surface normal and the direction of propagation
of the incident wave (assumed to be the z-axis) and ~ is the azimuth
measured in the zy-plane.l We denote u’ as the cross section of an
isotropic scatterer that would scatter the same amount of power in
any given direction w the given target. This definition is expressed by

(63)

where d~ is the power scattered into the solid angle dil in the direction
(6’,@) and ~’ is the magnitude of the incident Poynting vector. When
@ = O, u’ is the back-scattering cross section u used elsewhere in this volume.
At the reflection point the angle of incidence is equal to the angle of
reflection. The angle between the direction of incident and reflected
waves is then 20. If we denote the solid angle enclosing the normal to
the surface by d~~,
dflo = sin t? dtl d~.

Similarly, the solid angle enclosing the direction of reflection is d~;

dfl = sin 20 d(20)d@ = 4 cos 0 d%

But the scattered power is

d~ = S’ COSt? dS,

where d~ is an element of area on the target and is not to be confused

with the Poynting vector. Combining the foregoing expressions in
Eq. (63), we have
d~
(64)
“’=%’

which is independent of o and is a function only of the shape of the surface

at any point. As u’ is independent of O, we now drop the prime. The
power scattered per unit solid angle is

dPn
—= S’
___ dS (65)
d~ 4 d%

1 We use here the method of R. C. Spencer, “Reflections from Smooth Curved

Surfaces,” RL Report No. 661, Jan. 26, 1945.
SEC. 6.3] SCATTERING FROM PLANES AND CURVED SURFACES 467

Application of Eq. (64) to the case of a seconddegree surface with

principal radii of curvature a, and a2 gives dS = a,u di%, and Eq. (64)
reduces to Eq. (61);
u = ral~. (61)

Marcus has analyzed this case in greater detail’ and reports that for a
radar antenna of circular shape the correct result is

(66)

Neither Eq. (61) nor (66) is valid if ~/a, >>1 or for flat or cylindrical
surfaces .Z
The mean value of u averaged over all orientations of a smooth convex
surface may be obtained from Eq. (64).

thus, u is one-fourth of the total surface area. (The simplest example is a

sphere. ) The requirement for convexity of the surface can perhaps be
well illustrated by the extreme case of the corner reflector, which gives an
enormously greater value of u than S/4.
For a flat plate normal to the beam and large enough that the reflected
cone of rays fills the entire receiving antenna area the effective cross
section may be shown from Eq. (64) to be

where R, as customary, is the distance from radar to target. This odd-

appearing result causes the echo power in the radar transmission equation
to vary as R- rather than as R–4; this is the usual result when a target is
very large instead of appearing essentially as a point as viewed from the
radar.
The absence of wavelength in Eq. (61) to (66) is characteristic of geo-
metrical optics. These formulas are the limits approached by those of
physical optics as the wavelength approaches zero. Few actual radar
targets are so smooth or symmetrical that these formulas can be applied
to a large fraction of the target. If, however, the formulas are used with
! P. M, lMarcus, “Reflection of Radiation from Curved Surfaces,” RL Report No.
1029, Jan. 16, 1946.
I For these formulas to be valid the target must have sufficient curvature that at
lesst the first Fresnel zone is included on the surface. For a sphere of radius a this
requires the tilameter d of the spherical segment to be

d>a.
468 RADAR TARGETS AND ECHOES [sic. 63

some care (ii particular, with due regard for Fresnel zone effects), they
can often explain the major characteristics of echoes from prominent
structural featuree of targets such as ships, aircraft, water towem, and
similar objecti.1
Po.?urization.-All of the discussion and formulas up to this point have
assumed the incident radiation to be a linearly polarized plane wave, and
the definition of u has referred to the echo energy carried by that part of
the scattered field which is polarized in the same direction as the field in-
cident on the target. Most radar targets produce some depolarization of
the scattered wave; and if the receiving antenna system is arranged to
receive other types of polarization than that transmitted, the received
echo may vary over a wide range as the characteristics of the receiving
antenna are varied. Some very interesting preliminary experiments in-
dicate that targets such as wooded hills or housee produce a large degree
of depolarization of the radar echo whereas ships or water towers produce
very much less depolarization. 2 Insufficient data are given to draw any
general conclusions, but the experiments are highly thought-provoking
and suggest numerous other investigations in a field that has received
practically no attention. Certainly the idealizations employed here of
infinite conductivity and simple geometrical shapes do not begin to in-
dicate the possibilities of interesting (and, we hope, useful) properties of
radar echoes, and further research along these lines is urged.
One further result is worthy of discussion. If the outgoing wave from
the radar antenna is elliptically rather than linearly polarized, the effective
back-scattering cross section of the target depends upon the degree of
ellipticity of the incident radiation as well as upon the target geometry
and wavelength. In particular, if the radiated wave is circularly polarized,
and if the target produces no depolarization of the back-scattered wave,
its effective cross section is zero !3 This peculiar result is demonstrated
in Appendix A, along with an apphcation of the powerful Lorentz
reciprocity theorem to radar scattering.
An interesting application of this property of the back scattering of
circularly polarized waves was suggested by E. M. Purcell to reduce
the intensity of echoes from rain.4 As individual raindrops do not de-

1For further discussion of limitations and applications of the formulas from geo-
metrical optics we J. F. Carl son and S. A. Goudsmit, “Microwave Radar Reflections, ”
RL Report No. 195, Feb. 20, 1943; S. A. Goudsmit and P. R. Weie.s, “Possible
Measurement of Radar Echoes by Use of Model Targets, ” RL Report No. 196, Mar.
4, 1943; also R. C. Spencer, op. cd., and P. M. Marcus, op. cd.
z M. Kessler, C. E. Mandeville, and E. L. Hudspeth, “The Depolarization of Micro-
waves,” RL Report No. 458, Nov. 1, 1943.
3 This assumes the usual radar circuit arrangement in which the echo is measured
in the transmission line (or waveguide) along which the radiated power flows to the
antenna system.
i See Sec. 3.10 of Vol. 1 of the Radiation Laboratory Series.
 SEC. 6.3] SCATTERING FROM PLANES AND CURVED SURFACES 469

polarize the back+ cattered wave, and as multiple scattering is too small
to be important, a rainstorm fulfills the necessary conditions on the target.
Tests revealed a reduction of rain echo of about 25 db. No effort was
made to fabricate the antenna with great accuracy, and it seems not un-
likely that further reduction could be obtained if it were desired. This
scheme has the disadvantage that echoes from most other targets suffer
some attenuation also. For some purposes, however, this fact might be of
secondary importance. It appears that further generalization of the
Lorentz reciprocity theorem given in Appendix A, coupled with further
antenna developments, could lead to useful applications of the
polarization properties of radar echoes.
COMPLEX TARGETS
BY DONALD E. KERR

Thus far we have considered only targets composed of single kinds of

surfaces, isolated in free space. It was shown that subject to certain
simplifying assumptions u could be determined uniquely in terms of target
geometry, orientation, and wavelength. Such highly idealized situations
occur rarely in practice, however. Most targets are complicated com-
binations of surfaces of such irregular shape that the scattering pattern is
a maze of lobes which may or may not have a welldefined peak in one
general direction.
An airplane is an example of a combination of fairly simple smooth sur-
faces from which portions of characteristic scattering patterns can some-
times be identified but which is still too complicated to permit accurate
analysis. A ship presents an even more difficult problem, not only because
of its geometry but because of the nonuniform illumination of its area
resulting from the interference pattern formed by reflections from the sea
surface. A hillside with trees moved by the wind presents a still different
problem as the respective scattering elements move independently of each
other. The echoes from such targets usually fluctuate rapidly over a wide
intensity range. Because measurement of such echoes is very difficult}
the concept of radar cross section encounters difficulties from the practical
standpoint.
We should distinguish between two aspects of the problem, however.
It is still true that for every possible type of incident radiation and con-
figuration of the elements of a complex target a unique scattering pattern
exists, am-l from this pattern of u could in principle be
an effective value
determined uniquely for any particular direction. When the target (or
some of its parts) is in motion, however, u varies so rapidly and over such
a wide range that the final outcome of any measurement depends markedly
on the observer and his instruments. In the present state of the radar art,
the latter factors play a prominent role in determining the available data
on u for aircraft and to a lesser degree for ships.
470 RADAR TARGETS AND ECHOES [SEC. 6.4

Because of the need for some means of describing complex targets

certain desperate artifices have been evolved to preserve the concept of
cross section for such targets. When used with proper precautions the
results so obtained serve a useful purpose, although to be used effectively
they must be supplemented by further detailed information on the nature
of the scattering. The remainder of this chapter summarizes both types
of information.
6“4. Radar Cross Section of Aircraft.-Because of the multilobed scat-
tering pattern of aircraft, definitions of cross section have meaning only in
relation to the specific method employed to observe the echo. During the
war many measurements of cross section over a wide wavelength range
were made, but unfortunately almost none were made with sufficient ac-
curacy or uniformity of measurement technique that they can be con-
sidered meaningful.’ Probably the most definitive approach (at least in
the wavelength range of 10 cm and below) is that of Linford and his col-
laborators.’ Linford defines the cross section as that value of u obtained
from the measured quantities and the radar equation

(47r)3R4P,
a = G2~2 ~

which is exceeded during one-half of a series of measuring-time intervals.

In this way the essential feature of the probability of detecting the echo is
introduced into the definition of u. (Whether or not this degree of prob-
ability is satisfactory for field operations depends upon the specific problem;
if necessary the required degree of probability could be modified, and the
resulting value of u would be changed accordingly.)
In his measurements, Linford employed a measuring-time interval of
5 see, and the echo was considered as ‘(seen” if the echo was distinguishable
in the noise on an A-scope at least once during the interval. The strongest
echo occurring during the interval was measured by a signal generator and
was plotted as a function of range as shown in Fig. 6.5. The line is drawn
through the points in such a way that half the measured points are above
and half are below it (except for the closest ranges, where data were diffi.

LDisagreement between different observers’ resulfi by a factor of 10 in cross section

on a given type of aircraft have occurred not infrequently. This factor corresponds to
a difference in signal level of 10 db, which at first glance seems very large. Further
examination reveals, however, that there are numerous understandable reasons for dis-
agreement, such as errors in determination of antenna gains, r-f system losses, absolute
power levels, ground-reflection effects, and method and duration of echo display and
observation and differences in criteria as to what type of averaging or peak measure-
ments of echo amplitude are most appropriate.
2 L. B. Linford, D. Williams, V. Josephson, and W. Woodcock, “A De6nition of
Maximum Range on Aircraft and Its Quantitative Determination,” RL Report No.
353, h’ov. 12, 1942.
SEC. 6.4] RADAR CROSS SECTION OF AIRCRAFT 471

cult to obtain). The fact that the slope corresponds to the inverse fourth-
power range law indicates that ground reflections were negligible.1 The
intercept on the horizontal axis gives the free-space range RO, where we
now mean RO to be the range at which the echo is visible in the noise on
an A-scope during 50 per cent of a series of 5-see intrrvals.z
Two more important factors must be specified before the figures above
have a unique meaning. The measurements were made with the radar
trained directly on the target and with the operator watching for the echo
at a known spot on an A-scope. The measurement intervals were so long
that the highest possible perform-
ance was observed (variation of
the interval from 2 to 32 sec pro-
duced about 5 per cent variation
in a). Extrapolation of these
results to situations in which the
observation time may be 0.01 sec
or less because of rapid scanning
and narrow beamwidths and to
the use of an intensity-modulated
indicator such as a PPI may lead
to appreciable error in prediction
of performance. In general, the
effective values of u are likely to 8 10 20 40 60 80 )0
be noticeably lower than those Range m thousands of yards

obtained during observation times FIG. 6.5.—Echo strength from an aircraft

as a function of range, as obtained by a 10-cm
of the order of seconds. A dis- radar system. The target is viewed over m“Eh
cussion of the many factors terrain, vnth head~n aspect. The heavy hne,
drawn as explained in the text, gives a free-space
affecting detection of echoes near range % of 63,000 yd.
noise level is beyond the scope
of this volume.3 The problem has been mentioned here only to point out
the need for use of the concept of radar cross section with appropriate
regard for its relation to the properties of the radar system.
Some of the results obtained by Linford4 are given in Table 6.1.
Simultaneous comparisons on 10 and 3 cm (and a few rough checks on
1.25 cm) indicate that for most aircraft u is not noticeably dependent upon
wavelength in this range of wavelengths. Polarization is also of negligible
importance. (This result would be expected in view of the remarks of the
‘ Figure5,19 shows measurements made over the same flight path to determine the
amount of specular reflection present. Both one-way and radar measurements showed
the propagation to correspond essentially to that in free space.
x Because of screening by near-by hills the measurements could not be carried
beyond 40,0@3 yd in the case illustrated.
3 Consult Vols, 1 and 24 of the Radiation Laboratory Series. See also A. V. Haeff,
Proc. IRE, 34, 857 (1946),
~Op. cit., also other unpublished data.
472 RADAR TARGETS AND ECHOE.5 [SEC. 65

preceding section concerning targets with radii of curvature much greater

than the wavelength.) All measurements weremade with either head-or
tail-on aspect. Some aircraft sho~v noticeably larger cross sections
head-on than tail-on, but many others show no difference. Usually an
aircraft viewed from the side gives very strong echoes in a series of sharp
lobes, but these can hardly be used as a basis for a useful definition of u.

TAELE6 1.—AIRCRAFT CROSS SECTIONS

Akcraft type 0, ft?

0S2U . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
Curtiss-Wright 15D. . . 410
J2F Grumman amphibian. ..440
B-17 . . . . 803
B-18 . . . . 640
AT-11 ,200
PAY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . : . . ...”.... .560
Taylorcraft .170

For the longer radar wavelengths, greater than about 1 m, a large amount
of work has been done to calculate u by treating sections of the aircraft as
cylinders, ellipsoids, or various combinations of curved surfaces. Some of
these methods have achieved a moderate degree of success, but we shall
not discuss them here. For the longer wavelengths the scanning period is
so long that it presents no difficulties, and in general the whole detection
problem is less difficult than it is in the microwave range. It is important
to observe that for the longer wavelengths the effective cross section is
noticeably dependent upon both wavelength and polarization. Resonance
effects in the various parts of the aircraft become important. Many
model studies have been made, and they probably represent the most
fruitful method for future study of both microwave and meter wave cross
sections.1 A large amount of work remains to be done both in the field of
measurements of scattering and in the application of the results to radar
operating techniques in a way to minimize uncertainties and confusion.
6“5. Radar Cross Section of Ships.—Most of the difficulties described
in the preceding section and, in addition, others more serious are en-
countered when one attempts to define and measure u for ships and other
surface targets. Although an aircraft can usually be considered to in-
tercept and scatter a plane wave, z the wave incident on a ship is far from
plane, and its characteristics are strongly dependent upon range, wave-
1For example,seethe following report: R. B. Jacques, “B-17E Bomber at 100 Mc.
Reflection Patterns, ” Ohio State University Research Foundation, NDRC Report
No. 15-759-22, March 18, 1944; G. Sinclair, Proc.12?E,36, 1364 (1948).
‘Unless, of course, the vertical extent of the aircraft is comparable to the thickness
of the lobes of the interference pattern. The scattering cross section of any target is
independent of its position only if its dimensions are small compared with the space
interference pattern,
 SEC. 65] RADAR CROSS SECTION OF SHIPS 473

length, radar height, and reflecting properties of the sea surface. Very
often at the range of threshold detection the bulk of a ship lies below the
lowest lobe in the interference pattern (in the intermediate region dis-
cussed in Sec. 2.15), and the tops of the rigging or stacks may supply the
echo first detected.1 If range is decreased or radar height increased, the
deck structures and hull receive increasing illumination, until finally they
usually supply the major part of the echo (although the orientation affects
the contribution of the hull).
Analysis of scattering under these circumstances requires two major
simplifications. (1) The target must bereplaced byapresumably equiv-
alent model of simple shape and (2) assumptions must be made regarding
the distribution of field over the target. All procedures adopted thus far
for ships represent extreme oversimplification of the true situation but have
the advantage of obtaining, with a reasonable amount of effort, results
that bear sufficient resemblance to experimental facts to be useful. No
attempt will be made here to analyze or compare in detail the various pro-
posed methods. h’one rests on firm enough theoretical grounds or has
enough unambiguous supporting experimental evidence that it can claim
superiority over all the others. Here again, as in the case of aircraft, only
certain major essentials of the scattering pattern can be obtained, and the
mass of “fines tructure” of the lobe patterns cannot be predicted.
Once the incident field and geometry of the target model have been
decided upon, surface currents can be estimated and the back-scattered
field can be computed. The simplest analysis is that in which theeffec-
tive area of the ship is assumed to be concentrated at a single point above
the surface and the incident wave is assumed to be that obtained over a
flat, perfectly conducting surface. If the heights of theradar and target
arezlandzz, respectively, andthe ship cross section is a, the pattern-prop-
agation factor F is 2 sin(2~z~z@R), and the radar equation (Sec. 2.2)
becomes

z=Fw2sinr=)b
P,

where the antenna pattern is omitted because of the small angles involved.
(68)

This will be recognized as the equation for the plane~arth version of the
curve of Fig. 5.8. It predicts large fluctuations in echo strength at ranges
less than that of the most remote maximum of the interference pattern
4,zlzz/k; whereas for ranges sufficiently greater that the argument of the
sine function is small, Eq. (68) becomes

(69)

1This situation tends to be reversed in the presence of surface ducts, which may
illuminate the hull strongly; sufficient y deep ducts extend the detection range far
beyond the horizon.
474 RADAR TARGETS AND ECHOES [SW 6.5

Although these two equations are not correct in detail because of the
crudity of the underlying assumptions, the second contains two important
features that are qualitatively correct. If radar sets on two different
wavelengths aretobe compared and G2A2and uare held constant, Eq. (69)
predicts an advantage in low coverage for the shorter wavelength, the
dependence having the form k-’. (If the effective antenna area is held
constant instead of G2X2the dependence has the form A–G.) A striking

Range in thousands of yards

Fm. 66.—Typical plot of ship echo as a function of range. Radar height is 125 ft;
h = 30 cm. The strsight lines correspond to variation of echo strength with R4 and R+.
(NRL data.)

advantage of the shorter wavelengths for detection of small surface objects

and ships on a smooth ocean surface is actually found in practice.
Thesecond important feature of Eq. (69) isthe R–8 range dependence.
The true dependence is actually more complicated than this, of course, but
within the limits of possible measurement accuracy it represents many
actual cases reasonably well.’ If the threshold signal is reached in the
region in which Eq. (69) is valid,

(70)

A plot of echo power from a medium-sized ship as a function of range

usually contains a section for short ranges that varies as R+ as predicted
by Eq. (6S), but the fluctuations of the sine factor are absent or are poorly
defined because the echo comes from a large number of scattering regions
1 It is far from correct if superrefraction is prssent (cj. Fig. 1.5).
SEC, 651 RADAR CROSS SECTION OF SHIPS 475

rather than from a single point. At a range that is sometimes fairly well
defined, the R-4 dependence changes to something approximating R–g.
The latter variation may persist to the maximum detection range or may
become even more rapid, depending upon how soon the earth’s curvature
begins to be effective. Figure 6.6 shows a plot of echo strength from a
ship, illustrating the features just described. (Marked deviations from
this example are not infrequent, however.) As in the aircraft case
discussed in the preceding section, obtaining useful numerical data of the
type shown in Fig. 6.6 requires a standardized technique for accurate
signal measurement in order to minimize the ambiguities caused by the
large and rapid echo fluctuations that invariably occur. Usually the
information plotted is the maximum echo measured by a signal generator
in a fixed time interval. (For the data in Fig, 6.6 the interval was 15 sec. )
Although a ship is not a point target at a fixed height, there is sufficient
similarity curves like that of Fig. 6.6 and the trend predicted
between
by Eqs, (68) and (69), omitting the sinusoidal fluctuations, that useful
information can be obtained on this hypothesis. Assuming that the
transition between the R–4 and R–a sections of the echo-vs.-range curves
occurs in the vicinity of the most remote maximum of the interference
pattern, where R = 4z,zz/h, the height ~ may be estimated. Having %,
u may be obtained from Eq. (69). Measurements made in this way
show a !vide range of values of u, depending on the type of vessel, Some
of these measurements are summarized in Table 6.2, The radar height
is 110 ft.’
TABLE 6.2.—SHIP CROSS SECTIONS

I
a x 10–3 fti
Ship
A=l Ocm

Tanker . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24 24
Cruiser ...,..,...,,.,.,,. 150 150
Small freighter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.5 1.5
hfedium freighter. 80 80
I,arge freighter . . . . . . . . . 160 160
Small surfaced submarine 1.5 0.4

As \vould be expected, there was no noticeable dependence of cross

section on wavelength or polarization in this range (except for one case),
as most of the reflecting portions are much larger than the wavelength.
There is, however, a marked dependence on orientation of the vessel at
any wavelength. Broadside aspect gives very strong echoes, presumably
because of the large areas of hull with large radius of curvature.
1Balser, Counter, Fzirbznk, Gordy, and Hudspeth, “Overwater Observations at
X and S Frequencies,” RL Report No. 401, Joly 26, 1943.
476 RADAR TARGETS AND ECHOES [SEC. 6.5

It is clear at this juncture that we have departed very far from the
original concept of cross section defined in Chap. 2. Cross section is no
longer a function of the target properties alone but depends upon height
of the radar, the range, wavelength, and the over-all performance of the
radar set. Consequently, to be useful it must be stated in conjunction
with all of the other quantities affecting it. This point will become even
more apparent as other methods of approach are considered.
Instead of representing a ship by a point target at a fixed height,
some investigators choose for a model a flat, perfectly conducting plate
projecting vertically from the ocean surface, viewed along the normal to
the plate.’ The echo from the plate may be calculated by the methods
given earlier if the effects of reflection at the surface are taken into account.
We shall consider that the reflection coefficient at the ocean surface is -1.
The field incident upon the target is in effect the sum of two waves, one
directly from the source and one from the image of the source. The
wave from the image is 180° out of phase with the direct wave because
of the phase revereal upon reflection at the surface.2 The surface current
K on the surface of the sheet is then twice the sum of the direct and
reflected magnetic field strengths. If RI is the distance from the source
at the height z~to the point A on the sheet, if RZ k the distance from the
image to the point %, and if only small angles are considered,

K = 2HO(e - ~kR1– e-~kR;) = 2Hcs - ;kR~ (1 – e-ik ‘),

where A R = R2 — R,. Equation (32) in Sec. 6.3 gives a formula for the
back-scattered field in terms of the surface current.3 We now have two
fields to add at the source, however; one from the current sheet on the
plate and one from its image. The integrand of Eq. (32) will then contain
K(e -;@ – e-%) rather than Ke -W alone. The back+cattered field
from a plate of width b and total height h is then

(71)

I M. V. Wifkes, J. A. Ramsay, and P. B. Blow, “Theory of the Performanceof

Radar on Ship Targe@,” ADRDE end CAEE Joint Report, CAEE Ref. 69/C/149,
ARDE Ref. R04/2/CR252, July 1944. See ako a seriesof reportsfrom the Naval
ResearchLaboratoryentitled “Radar Crces Sectionof Ship Targeta,” Parts I-VI, by
Katzin, Ament, McDoncld, and Barr. These reports give me~ments for the
wavelengthrangefrom 1.5 m to 10 cm. See eJso M. V. W&es and J. A. Ramsey,
Pmt. Carob. Phil. Sot., 42, 220 (1947).
2 Itwillbe recalledfrom Sec. 5.1 that this is a good approximation for either polrmiza-
tion at very smallgrazingangles because of the tinite conductivity of the water.
~The vector notation is omitted here because the ecnttering sheet is assumed much
larger than the wavelength and there is no depolarization by the plate or by the oecam
surface.
SEC, 605] RADAR CROSS SECTION OF SHIPS 477

where R is the surface range of the target. Introducing the customary

flat-earth approximations from Sec. 22,

““R[1+K31 ‘R”*’

and rewriting the factor (1 — e- ~~An)zin terms of the exponential definition

of the sine, we have for Eq. (71)

H-a%
L
— 2irzl.r2 ~%
e – i2kR(l +zz/’2w
I
o
e
_ brz~
AR
sin?

()
_
M “
(72)

An alternative way of writing the intergral in Eq. (72) is to retain the

exponential form of Eq. (71) and to expand the square in the usual way.
The integral then becomes the sum of three Fresnel integrals of the form

(73)

where UIand w are different for each of the three integrals and one integral
has an additional external phase factor.’
In the work of the Naval Research Laboratory group (Zoc. cit.) the
phase factor in the integrand of Eq. (72) has been ignored; that is, it is
assumed that all parts of the surface are excited in phase and the total
variation of the field on the surface of the target is expressed by the sinz
term. This is hardly an acceptable approximation in a general analysis
of the flat plah2, although from a practical point of view this fact is not
fikely to be important because of the inadequacy of the fiat-plate flat-earth
model in representing in detail an actual ship.
If Eq. (72) is integrated omitting the phase factor in the integrand,
one finds

“=%(++ (74)

where

(75)

1This procedure was followed in the analysis of echoes from a standpipe viewed
over water (we Sec. 6. 15). It is particularly advantageous if the effects of the tilt of
the target are to be considered.
2At the maximum of the lowest lobe of the interference pattern the exponent in
the phsse factor of the intagrand is rrAR/&~, which not infrequently may be too Iarga
to neglect.
478 RADAR TARGETS AND ECHOES [SEC.6.5

and irrelevant external phase factors have been omitted. The cross
section is then

(76)
“=4”R21Hr=4u0M9°

where UOis the cross section of the plate in free space at normal incidence,
namely,

Uo = 47
() bh 2
x“
(77)

M. Katzin points out that the factor can be approxi-

(1- ?)
mated, without incurring an error of more than 2.6 db at any range, by
A2/6 for A < 0.78r and by unity for A > 0.78r. This fact provides a
convenient means of distinguishing between the behavior of u for small
and large ranges, called the “near” and “far” zones, respectively.1 For
the two zones we have

Near zone, A < 0.78v, u ==4u,, (78)

Far zone, A > 0.78T, (78a)

“=(2YV+’)’$
Katzin defines two kinds of cross section on the basis of these expressions,
the second of which differs from our usage in this volume. The near-zone
cross section is defined as
on = ‘Uo, (79)

and the far-zone cross section is

“=G ()
1 4rh
T
4
“0”
(80)

This method of defining Ur splits off the (z,/R)4 factor pertaining to a

given set of measurement conditions in order that a quantity dependent
only on the target properties may be obtained. Application of a numerical
value of CJ measured for one geometry to a dtierent geometry can be
expected to give reliable results only in so far as the plane-reflector model
represents the actual target and the earth curvature is unimportant.
A further consequence of the definition of al is that its numerical
value is likely to be extremely large (1012ft2or larger for mediumsized
vessels) but the reduction to a magnitude comparable with values deter-
mined by other methods such as those of Table 6”2 is obtained when the
factor (z,/R)’ is applied to reduce u, to our form of u [Eq. (78)]. This
1The dividing line betweenthe near and far zones, A = 0.7%, correspondsto a
range R = 5zlh/?., which is 25 per cent greater than the range to the meet distant
maximum of the interference pattern at the height h over a plane earth.
 SEC. 6.5] RADAR CROSS SECTION OF SHIPS 479

step also emphasizes that the effective value of cross section is in reality
a function of range and radar height.
The wavelength trend inherent in the definition of Urhas been verified
roughly in a few cases in the wavelength range from 1.5 m to 10 cm but
in general is not so simple as indicated.1
The transmission equations for the two zones are2

(81)

or
()P,
% far
= ~~ez~’
()
Zlh 4 UQ
y 9~0’ (82)

P, G72~2 4
= (47)3~4 ~ of. (83)
()F, far ()

With these eauations and the necessary absolute calibrations of the radar
set an and u~ may be determined from the type of data presented in
Fig. 6.63.
The relation of the actual dimensions of the ship to b and h or to COis
not clear, because of the artificiality of the flat-plate model. The fact
that UOis proportional to (M)’ does not necessarily imply that UOshould be
proportional to the square of the geometrical cross section of the ship.4
On the other hand, the ADRDE-CAEE group, assuming incoherent
superposition of the scattered energy, predicts that the effective cross
section is proportional to bh and reports that its data are not inconsistent
with the view that the effective area is proportional to the silhouette area
of the ship and is independent of wavelength (presumably in the vicinity
of 10 cm, as no data are reported for other wavelengths).
1The predicted wavelength dependence arises from the fact that the model is a
flat plak viewed at normal incidence. If, on the other hand, the target were assumed
to consist of a combination of plane and curved surfaces with random orientations,
tbe wavelength dependence would be expected to be much leas marked. This would
arwear to be a matter worthy of further investigation.
2 Compare with Eqs. (68) and (69).
t In the past tbe lack of reliable means of absolute measurements of echo strength
and radar set characteristics has often necessitated comparison with echoes from
“standard targets,” the free-space cross sect ion and appropriate value of F for these
targets supposedly being known accurately. This procedure is difficult in practice and
is beset with numerous pitfalls. It is to be expected that technical advances will soon
make possible absolute measurements of suOicient accuracy that calibration by external
means will be unnecessary.
~The British .krmy operational I%earch Group, however, reports that the effective
cros.. section for k = 10 cm of ships, viewed at aspecte other than broadside, is pro-
portional to tbe square of the broadside silhouette area. See “The Performance of
10 cm Radar on Surface Craft,” AORG Report No. 155,Jan. 3, 1944. The approach
is essentiallyempirical.
480 RADAR TARGETS AND ECHOES [SEC. 6.5

The ADRDE-CAEE approach also differs from that of the Naval

Research Laboratory in that incoherent scattering is assumed from ele-
mentary units of area. The received echo power is then assumed to be
given by

‘r “ FL ‘in’(%)’” (84)

(A further correction is also made for the actual variation of the incident
field strength at very low altitudes as the ship moves into the diffraction
region.) An elaborate set of charts has been made, predicting echo
strength on various types of ships as a function of radar performance,
wavelength, and set height. The effect of earth curvature becomes fairly
important for high-performance sets with high sites.
Two other methods have been proposed that consider the ship as an
array of isot ropicall y scattering elements with random relative phases.
Although expressed in slightly different ways, the two methods are essen-
tially identical. The Radio Research Laboratory suggests that in the far
zone the cross section be obtained by a formula of the type

(85)

where ui is the free-space cross section of the ~th horizontal strip of the ship
and z~is its height above the surface.’
The Telecommunications Research Establishrncnt suggests’ instead an
“echoing parameter” T, defined by

T’ = z; AS, (86)
/
where dS is an e’ernent of area at the’ height 2’. This parameter is derived
from an analysis that assumes the elementary scattering elements to scatter
isotropically with random phasrs. For a perfectly conducting plane earth,
the back-scattered Poynting vector is then

9 ‘%VS’’’’(2%)’S (87)

Restricting the analysis to fllc region !vrll l)elow the maximum of the first
lobe in order thtit the sine funrtion may be replaced by its argument,
Eq. (87) becomes

1 Kuhn and Sutro, “Theory

,58 _ P,(;
ir’R’ (-)
2TZ, ‘ ~,
AR ‘

of Ship Echoes as .kpplic{l to >’aval RCN’I Operations, ”

RRL Report No. 411-93, July 14, 1944.
2 W. Walkinshaw and !J. E. Curran, “Scrrencd a,,d (-nscreened Radar Coverage
for Surface Targets,” TRE Report No. T1666, 1944.
SEC. 66] NATURE OF THE PROBLEM 481

where P is given by Eq. (86). Although T has the dimensions of volume,

there is no relation to the volume of the ship. Estimates of T have been
made from ship silhouettes. In terms of u as used in this volume,

(88)

The foregoing discussion has attempted to trace only the fundamental

ideas underlying current methods of estimating ship cross sections the-
oretically, without reviewing the experimental data that have been pre-
sented in support of the several points of view. (Security regulations do
not permit such a review.) In a detailed analysis of all the available
evidence, the ADRDE-C’AEE group remarks (1oc. cit.), “In view of the
uncertainties in the definition of a and its dependence on the situation of
the target we are of the opinion that far from simplifying the problem one
adds to its difficulties by endeavoring to define and measure the radar
cross section of ships. ” Even if one does not agree entirely with this point
of view, it must be admitted that there is a large measure of truth FL it.
At the same time, however, it emphasizes the need for further developnient
of a practical means of representing a ship in the radar transmission
equation.
SEA ECHO

BY HERBERT GOLDSTEIN

6“6. Nature of the Problem. —(’Sea echo” is a term used to denote a

type of radar reflection associated in some manner with the surface of the
sea. This definition has been deliberately worded in a vague fashion be-
cause the precise connection between the echo and the sea surface is not
yet understood, The purpose of the next few sections is to present the
existing information on the characteristics of sea echo and to discuss, in
the light of this information, which phenomena of the sea surface may be
responsible for the echo.
The appearance of the echo is well illustrated in Fig. 6-7, which shows
two PPI photographs taken with a high-po\rer 10-cm airborne system on
two occasions. The sweep lengtht~differ slightly but are about 100 miles
in both cases. Figure 6.7a was taken with the systcm slightly inland, near
Boston, Mass., on a day when sea echo ~vas negligible. The distinctive
geographical features of the region—Cape Cod, Nantucket, Martha’s
Jhneyard, etc.-are clearly reco~nizable. Figure 6.7b was taken with the
same system in roughly the same location but on a day when sea echo ~vas
present out to ranges of more than .50 miles. The practical importance of
the sea-echo problem is strikingly demonstrated by this photograph (which
is more representative of normal conditions during winter than is Fig. 6.7a),
for the signal acts as a “built-in jammer,” almost completely obscuring
482 RADAR TARGETS AND ECHOES [SEC. 6.6

Cape Cod and the Massachusetts Bay area. Sea. echo may thus often
constitute a serious limitation on the effectiveness of radar systems.l
Whatever its nature may be, the target responsible for sea echo can
always be resolved into a number of individual scatterers that can be treated
as independent of each other. These scatterers may range in size from small
spray droplets to large-scale surface waves or even a train of waves. Let
us consider the radar echo received at one given instant, that is, at some

(a) (b)
Fm. 67.—Two photographs of the PPI display on a 10-cm airborne radar system. In
both photographs the system was near Boston, Mass. (u) Sea echo was neghglble on the
day the photograph was taken (b) Strong sea echo is present out to 50 miles.

given range on the indicators. Then the contribution to this signal by the
reflection from the jth scatterer is given by

p,, = &f’(ej 4,)P(R,).,. (89)

In this formula the jth scatterer is identified by a pair of coordinates

dj, Rj, where o is the azimuth measured from the electrical axis of the
antenna and R is the slant range from the radar system. It will be
assumed in the following discussion that the depression angle f? is suf-
ficiently small so that slant range and ground range can be used inter-
changeably.z The function f(d, ~) is the antenna pattern function. The

1 Circuits have been devised that considerably improve the appearance of the PPI
for navigational purposes (see Vol. 24, Chap. 11, Radiation Laboratory Series); not,
however, without some sacrifice of weaker signals.
Z In Sees. 6.6 to 6.12, 0 will be used interchangeably for depression angle and grazing
angle. There is a slight difference between the two angles because of the curvature of
the earth, but it is completely negligible in the following dismm~ions.
SEC. 66] NATURE OF THE PROBLEM 483

function p(l?) is proportional to the magnitude of the Poynting vector of

the incident wave at R at such a time that the echo reflected from the
scatterer returns to the radar at the instant h under consideration and is
related to the pulse shape in the following manner. If g(likt) gives the
instantaneous distribution of the transmitted power in range, then

p(lt) = g(2R&) (90)

The quantity u, is the radar cross section of the scatterer, as defined in

Chap. 2, except that it includes the pattern-propagation factor F4. Hence
oj, M used here, may possibly depend on the height (if any) of the scatterer
above the seal and on the depression angle O.
The total signal received will be the’ sum of the contributions from all
scatterers. As the individual scatterers are considered independent, the
received power,j averaged over many pulse periods, is just the sum of the
powers received from each scatterer separately,

(91)

where Uj is the time average of the scatterers’ cross sections,

It will now be assumed that the sum involves so large a number of
scatterers that the summation may be replaced by an integral. For this
purpose a density function N(R, q$, 5)R dR d~ & is introduced, which
gives the number of scatterers in an area element R dR d@ for which the
radar cross section lies between F and ; + &. It will be further assumed
that the scatterers are distributed uniformly and homogeneously over the
surface of the sea, so that the function i’Vdepends only on ~. With these
assumptions, Eq. (91) becomes

The integral over F defines a dimensionless quanity, which for simplicity of

reference will be denoted by @ and which will be called the average radar
cross section of sea echo per unit area of the sea surface. Similarly, the in-
tegral of f~ over the azimuth ~ defines a beamwidth ~, a function of 0,
given by
+r
-f’(e)4) dd = @f’(e, 0]. (93)
/ —m
1 It will not depend on the antenna gain because the height of the scatterers must
be so low that there is no difference in angle between the direct and reflected waves.
2 By received power is meant the power in the r-f received signal as obtained by aver-
aging over a small interval of range, small compared with the pulse length but covering
man y cycles of the radio frequency. By average received power is meant the averaqc
of these values over many sweeps.
484 RADAR TARGETS AND ECHOES [sm. 6.6

With these definitions Eq. (91) simplifies to

G2A2@ m
Fr=— p(e, o) d(o) qp. (94)
(h)’ / ,
The function p(R) is different from zero only over a distance given roughly
by the pulse length. In that distance, under the geometrical conditions
assumed, j4, d’, and R–3 are essentially constant and may be taken out
from under the integral sign. The resulting integral defines the product
P,, in terms of the pulse shape from Eq. (90),
.
p(R) dii = $ C, (95)
/o
where Pi and r are closely proportional to the peak power and pulse dura-
tion as conventionally defined. The final expression for the time average
of the power received at one given range on an indicator is, therefore,

F,=P, —“k’ @j’(e) ; a“ (e) (9 small), (96)

(47rR)3

where f’(tl, O) has been abbreviated by j’(d).

As has been noted, the quantity u“ is dimensionless, being the ratio of
a cross section to unit area. It is entirely correct therefore to speak of
log U“, and in later discussions values of co will almost always be given,
for convenience in decibel notation, as 10 log,, ~. It is often not feasible
to obtain d in absolute measure, the values being indeterminate to the
extent of an unknown multiplicative factor. When the decibel notation
is used in such cases, the values will be labeled “referred to an arbitrary
datum. ” At all other times it will be assumed that u“ is given in absolute
measure. The value of u“ need not necessarily be less than unity, for the
radar cross section of a surface may be much greater than the geometrical
area.
The azimuthal beamwidth @ used in Eq. (96) is not identical with
the value as defined conventionally in terms of half-power points on the
antenna pattern. For the usual antenna patterns conversion between
the two values is obtained by a nearly constant multiplicative factor of
the order of unity. The difference is of no significance in this work.
Equation (96) is limited to small grazing angles only as a consequence
of the geometrical conditions assumed. A more general expression can
be derived which is not subject to these geometrical limitations and which
therefore holds for all 0. The final result is
w/2
7%= ~4(@@(L9)a0(0) sin 8 p (97)
(4?r)3z’ /, () 20 ‘“

where z is the height of the radar above the sea surface. In addition to
the usual assumption of a large number of scatterers with uniform dis-
tribution over the sea surface, Eq. (97) assumes only that the field over
 SEC. 6.6] NATURE OF THE PROBLEM 485

any individual scatterer is uniform and that the azimuthal beamtidth

@ is small compared with unity.
A useful limiting case that can be obtained from Eq. (97) occurs with
“pencil” beams at such high angles that the pulse packet covers a much
Iarger region of the sea surface than is defined by the beamwidths. The
function j4(0) then vanes much more rapidly than the other quantities
in the integral in Eq. (96), and they may therefore be taken outside the
integral. The remaining integral defines a vertical beamwidth (3 in
analogy to Eq. (93), and the formula for ~, reduces to

PtG2k’@3 ptG2~2(3*
P. = Sm duo(~) = IAr)’~2 sin d U’J(e) (0 large), (98)
(47)32’

where 0 is not the variable of Eq. (97), but is now the depression angle
of the axis of the beam. Equation (98) is frequently referred to as the
“large-angle” formula, in contradistinction to Eq. (96), although it holds
only for pencil beams and therefore breaks down even at high angles if a
“fan” beam, such as the cosecant-squared beam, is used. The transition
between Eqs. (96) and (98) may be considered to occur at the angle for
which the distance on the sea surface illuminated by the vertical section
of the beam is equal to the pulse lcmgth on the sea surface, that is, an
angle o such that
(99)

-2
Equation (97) and companion Eqs. (96) and (98) are essentially
phenomenological. They require no assumptions about the specific
nature of the scatterers responsible for the echo. As a consequence, the
informat ion that can be obtained from them is rather limited. Thus the
important quantity co is independent of many of the characteristics of
the radar set but is a function of at least five parameters:
1. The angle that the incident ray makes with the horizontal (0),
2. Wavelength.
3. Direction of polarization.
4. State of the sea,
5. Azimuth relative to the \vave pattern on the surface of the sea
(that is, upwind or downwind, etc.).
Equations (96) to (98) tell us nothing about the dependence of U“ on any
of these parameters; this information can be obtained only by experiment
or, by assuming a particular scattering mechanism, from theory.
The succeeding sections are to a large extent devoted to the presenta-
tion of the experimental and theoretical information about the properties
of U“. However, as sea echo is so intimately connected with the sea
surface, the pertinent oceanographic knowledge of the characteristics of
the sea surface is first summarized in Sec. 6.7 and the validity then con-
486 RADAR TARGETS AND ECHOES [SEC. 6.7

sidered (Sec. 6“8) of the fundamental assumption that lies behind Eqs.
(96) to (98), that is, that the distribution of the sea-echo scatterers is
homogeneous. The conditions under which it is possible to speak of a
quantity U“ having thus been established, experiments carried out at the
Radiation Laboratory on the wavelength dependence of d are described
in Sec. 6.9, which goes into some detail in order to introduce the peculiari-
ties of, and the difficulties involved in, the experimental measurement of
sea-echo characteristics. The results of all known and reliable measure-
ments of the properties of U“ are then given briefly (see Sec. 6“10). The
scattering cross section a“ naturally refers to the firm atrer~e signal;
however, the fluctuation of sea echo is one of its most striking character-
istics. Although the mechanism of this fluctuation properly belongs in
one of the later sections of this chapter, Sec. 6“11 tells what information
about the scattering process may be obtained from a study of the fluc-
tuations. Finally, in Sec. 6“12 the theories of sea echo that have been
proposed are examined m the light of all the experimental evidence,
and suggestions are made concerning the direction that future investiga-
tions should take.
6“7. Nature of the Sea Surface.-It is obvious that the phenomenon
of sea echo is in some manner related to the surface of the sea. For a
proper understanding of the phenomenon the present state of knowledge
about the characteristics of the sea surface must be briefly reviewed.
Most of this knowledge waa gained in recent years, some of it from war-
time research.1
The outstanding feature of the sea’s appearance is the presence of
periodic or near-periodic waves on the surface. These waves are obviously
caused by the action of the wind on the sea,2 but they may outlast, or
outrun, the wind system responsible for their growth. Wave structures
still driven by their generating winds are commonly referred to as “sea”;

1H. U. Sverdrup,Oceanograph~ for Meteorologists, Prentice-Hall,New York, 1942.

See pp. 133-137for a summary of the informationavailablebefore the war. For a
longertreatmentseeH. B. Bigelowand W. T. Edmondson,Wind Wavesat Sea Breakers’
and Surf, U.S. Govt. Printing Office, 1947. V. Cornish, Ocean Waves and Kindred
Geophysical Phenomena, Macmillan, London, 1934, is a classic, notable especially for
its mathematical appendix by H. Jeffreys. American research during the war is to
be found chiefly in three publications of the Hydrographic Office, prepared by the
Scripps Institution of Oceanography: “Wind Waves and Swell, Principles in Forecsst-
mg, ” HO Misc. 11,275; “Breakersand Surf, Principlesin Forecasting, ” HO 234, and
“Wind, Sea and Swell, Theory of Relations in Forecasting,” H. U. Sverdrup and W. H.
h~unk, HO 601. Two papers on the subject have also been published by H. IJ.Sverdrup
and W. H. Munk: Trans. Am. Geophw. Union, 27, 823 and 828 (1947), Some of the
similar British work is to be found in ‘&M. Roy. Sot. (London), A: 240, No. 824 (1948)
by N. F. Barber and F. Ursell. A summary of the results of classical hydrodynamics
is given in M. P. O’Brien,. “A Summary of the Theory of Oscillatory Waves, ” Beach
Erosion Board, Corps of Engineers, U.S. Army, Technical Report No. 2, 1942.
z Isolated waves such ss “tidal” waves are of no importance in the radar problem.
SEC. 67] NATURE OF THE SEA SURFACE 487

waves that are no longer driven by the wind but are in the process of
decaying are termed “swell.”
When the wind is high the waves of a sea often exhibit little similarity
to the conventional picture of a regular succession of sinusoidal waves
whose crests and troughs extend indefinitely. The sea surface more
often resembles heaps of water irregularly piled and of irregular dimen-
sions, occasionally breaking, that is, showing “white water. ” Such a
sea is called “short-crested,” as the crest length is of the same order of
magnitude as the distance between crests.
“Swell” tends to be much more regular, with near-sinusoidal waves
and long crests. As the waves of swell are decaying, their amplitudes
are likely to be small, and they may often be completely obscured by a
superimposed “sea” caused by local winds.
Even the more regular “swell” is not characterized by a particular
wavelength or amplitude; a whole range of values will be present in any
given region. One can speak only in terms of “spectra” or probability
distributions of these quantities. This variability, an essential charac-
teristic of the sea surface, is even further emphasized in rough seas, where
it is often doubtful whether “wavelength” or “wave height” can be
defined. The shape of the waves differs radically from the sinusoid and
resembles more a trochoid, 1 presenting a peaked appearance. Under the
influence of the wind these peaks become still sharper until they break,
forming whitecaps. Theoretically the limit of stability occurs for a peak
angle of 120°, at which angle the ratio of wave height (from trough to crest)
to wavelength, denoted by H/L, exceeds 1/7. These limiting values have
been reasonably well verified experimentally. (In actual seas the steepness
ratio H/L is found to vary from 1/7 to about 1/20. In swell, of course,
the ratio may be much lower, of the order of 1/100.) The formation of
whitecaps and spray by the peaking action of the wind (which can occur
even when the wave height is small) is to be clearly distinguished from
breakers on a beach. Here the action is caused not by the wind but by
the modification of swell waves as they advance into shallow water. The
wavelength decreases and the wave height increases until the peaks
break over.
The preceding description of the sea surface has been confined to the
large+cale structure, that is, to dimensions of the order of feet. Super-
imposed upon this structure there are always much smaller waves, or
ripples, presumably caused by very local eddies in the wind. In fact,
the wavelength spectrum probably exhibits a continuous range from
waves of many feet down to ripples of only a few inches. These ripples
are comparable in size to the microwave wavelengths, and there is no
reason to believe they are not as pertinent, if not much more so, for the
IThe trochoid is the wave shape of finite amplitudepredictedby classicalhydro-
dynamictheory; cf. M. P. O’Brien, op. cit., p. 24.
488 RADAR TARGETS ANI) ECHOES [SEC. 6.7

radar problem than are the large and obvious sea waves. Yet nothing
is known about these ripples, and it is almost impossible to make observa-
tions about their nature in an actual sea. In seeking some empirical
correlation between sea-echo intensity and sea state it is therefore necessary
to deal with the large-scale wave structure, keeping in mind that any such
correlation may only be symptomatic of a more fundamental connection
between sea echo and the small ripples.
The great difficulties facing a theory that attempts to account for even
the large-scale structure are obvious. By its neglect of viscosity and other
dissipative processes, classical hydrodynamics can say nothing about the
generation of waves and very little about the dimensions of waves. It
does furnish a number of useful relations dealing with the propagation and
shape of waves. Thus, for a sinusoidal \vave of negligible amplitude the
wavelength, period, and velocity are connected by the relations

L=2:T2=?U2 (loo)
9’

where U is the wave velocity and the other symbols have obvious meanings.
These equations assume infinite depth, but they may be easily modified
to include the effect of finite depth. Although they hold strictly only for
very small wave amplitudes, the changes for finite waves (such as the
trochoid) are not important.
Jeffreysl was the first to construct a satisfactory theory of the generation
of waves by wind, involving the turbulent nature of the wind in the lee of
an obstacle and the viscosity of the water. On the basis of this theory the
Scripps group has been able to build up a more or less complete picture of
the growth and decay of waves, A differential equation for the history of
the waves has been constructed, essentially from consideration of the
“energy budget ,“ that is, all the processes whereby a wave can gain or
lose energy. The constants in the solutions obtained from the differential
equation are evaluated by means of an experimental graph of wave steep-
ness H/L as a function of the “wave age, ” the ratio of wave velocity to
wind velocity. The results of this theory may be summarized as follows.
Any given wind structure is, of course, not uniform over an unlimited
region of the sea. The length of the path to the observer over which a
substantial] y constant wind blows is known as the “fetch.” At any given
fetch the wave amplitude increases with the length of time that the wind
has been blowing, After a certain time a steady state is reached at which
the wave height remains constant.’ The time that it takes to reach this
state of equilibrium, known as the “minimum duration,” increases with
the length of the fetch and the wind velocity. The characteristics of the
waves in this equilibrium state are also a function of the fetch and wind
velocity. If the wind blows for a time shorter than the minimum duration
the wave height does not depend upon the fetch but only upon the time
1Sss V. Cornish,Op.ant.
SEC. 67] NATURE OF THE SEA SURFACE 489

andwind velocity.’ Foraslong asthewind is building ormaintaining the

waves, the wave velocity is equal to or slightly less than the wind velocity.
In a similar fashion the transition from a “sea” to “swell” has been
worked out. Swellwavesu suallya riseonlyfrorn the highest, long-crested
waves of the sea, as these w-aves have the most energy and therefore take
the longest time to die down.
It has been emphasized that at any given time a whole spectrum of wave
heights and lengths will be found in the sea. The term wave height as
used above must therefore refer only to some particular characteristic or
moment of the spectrum. There is both theoretical and experimental
evidence that the particular characteristic involved is the average of the
highest third of the spectrum. This is stated by the Scripps group only as
a tentative conclusion ;amorcdefinite statement must await more detailed
experimental data.
The preceding discussion makes obvious the futility of attempting to
describe completely the sea state by a single number. Nevertheless, for
lack of anything better, a number of scales of sea state have been described
and widely used.’ The use of such scales, especially for the radar problem,
can be characterized only as unfortunate. Even experienced seamen on
shipboard will differ in their estimates by one or more numbers in the sea
scale. Yet sea-scale numbers have often been assigned solely by visual
observation from a high-flying airplane. Particularly pernicious is the
practice of associating certain sea states with wind force in the Beaufort
scale.a This “scale” apparently arose from an attempt to give aviators
flying over water a method of estimating w’ind speed, but it is often used
in the reverse fashion. It has already been emphasized that the wave
structure depends not only on wind speed but also on the duration and
fetch of the wind. The sea state cannot be determined simply from a
statement of the wind speed.
Admittedly, however, no convenient objective method of specifying
sea state is yet available to replace the sea scales. 4 Ideally, one should
1See HO Misc. 11,275 for graphs for wave height and period se a function of fetch,
wind velocity, and duration.
z A summary of the more important of these scales wdl be found in HO Misc. 11,275,
p. 35.
3A brief dkcussion of a scale of this sort is given in Bureau of Aeronautics, U.S.
Navy, Aemfugy for Pilots, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1943, p, 49.
~ Whenever terms are used in subsequent sections to denote sea states, reference is
to the Douglas scale as given in “Instructions to Marine Meteorological Observers,”
U.S. Wedw Bw. Ci7c. M, 7th cd., 1941. An abbreviated form of this scale is given

No. Term Wave height, ft

o Calm o
Smooth
i Night ;;
3 hfoderate 3-5
4 Rough 5-8
Very rough S-12
2 High 12–20
490 RADAR TARGETS AND ECHOES [SW. 68

know the spectra of the various wave characteristics, such as wave height
and wavelength, that could be obtained from records of the instantaneous
sea height. During the war, pressure recorders were developed for this
purpose,l and they will probably be widely used in the future. Stereo-
photography from shipboard has been used in the past, but the analysis is
extremely lengthy.z The method of taking stereophotographs from low-
flying planes with special “strip” cameras shows considerable promise,3
All the methods require considerable analysis, however, before the desired
quantities are obtained. The radar problem is further complicated in that
none of the methods so far proposed yield information about quantities
likely to be of the most primary concern for sea echo, namely, small
ripples or spray.
6“8. Validity of the Fundamental Assumptions.—The form of the
“phenomenological” Eqs. (96) to (98) for the average sea-echo in-
tensity depends, aside from purely geometrical factors, upon the assump-
tion that the scatterers are uniformly distributed over the surface of the
sea. Before discussing the dependence Co on the various parameters, it
is well first to examine the conditions under which this assumption is
valid, for only then can one truly speak of a “cross section per unit area. ”
This examination can take two possible forms. One can try to verify
those predictions of Eqs. (96) to (98) which are independent of the
scattering mechanism, namely, that the echo is proportional to the
beamwidth and pulse length and varies inversely as the cube of the range
(or as I/R’ for high angles) for constant angle of incidence. Or the
distribution of the scatterers can be studied directly by examining the
appearance of the echo on a high-resolution radar system. Both methods
have been used to some extent.
Measurement of the dependence on range at constant angle of incidence
has obvious technical difficulties and has been attempted only once.’
A 3-cm airborne system was used at several grazing angles from 5° to 90°.
At normal incidence the expected l/R2 relation was obtained. For the
more interesting lower angles the results were interpreted as l/R3 at
large distances but l/R’ for small distances. Such behavior is to be
expected qualitatively (cf. Sec. 6“6), but the apparent “crossover” points
all occur at ranges far greater than those calculated from Eq. (99). The

1 Brief descriptions of these recorders are to be found in N. J. Helter, Electronics, 19,

94 (1946), in a note in Nature, 167, 165 (1946), and in “Ocean Surface Waves, ” Arm.
h’. Y. Acad. Sti., 61, 343 (1949).
‘ See Bigelow and Edmondson, op. cd., for some contour maps obtained in thm
fashion by Schumacher.
~Recently a radio altimeter has been used at Telecommunications Research Estab-
lishment in England to memure wave heights with an accuracy of * 1 ft. & TRE
Report No, T2044, “A Preliminary Report on an .4irborne Sea Swell Recorder. ”
4 E. W. Cowan, “X-band Sea Return Measurements, ” RL Report No. 870, Jan.
10, 1946.
SEC, 6.8] VALIDITY OF THE FUNDAMENTAL ASSUMPTIONS 491

accuracy of the measurements is believed not to be great enough to justify

the interpretation put on them. One can say only that the results, to
within experimental error, are not inconsistent with Eqs. (96) to (98).
lMeasurement of the variation of echo intensity with beamwidth also
involves many technical difficulties because it is almost impossible to
change bearnwidth without affecting other properties of the system, such
as antenna gain. In the course of the experiments on the frequency
dependence of u“ (See, 6.9), measurements were occasionally made on
the 3-cm system with both 48- and 18-in. paraboloids, corresponding to a
ratio of 2.5 in beam width. After correction for the change in antenna
gains, the observed differences in received power were between 4 and 7 db,
compared with the expected 4 db. The discrepancies are within ex-
perimental error and are probably
polar diagram of the antennas.
The dependence of echo power
on pulse length has been more fre-
quently studied. In the experi-
ments at 3 cm cited previously,l
measurements \rere made with
pulse duration of 2, 1, and 0.5~sec.
As expected, the return at lo\ver
angles was roughly proportional to
pulse length and became indeprmd-
ent of it at higher angles. Similar
results were obtained at 10 cm for
7 = 1 and 0.5 psec in the course
of the experiments on frequency
dependence.
lMeasurements have also been
Research Establishment’ with a narrow-beam system operating on 1.25 cm
with pulse lengths of 0,5 and 0.2 pscc. Theaverage change obtained was
4.7 db, compared with the 4 db expected. The use of such high-resolution
systems, however, has at other times revealed striking examples of break-
down of the “uniformity” assumptions. These deviations are best
illustrated by means of the second method, i.e., study of the appearance
of the echo.
Figure 6.8 is a photograph of the delayed-sweep B-scope on a system
operating at 1.25 cm with a pulse length of 0,15 psec and 0.8° beamwidth.
The dimensions of thepicture areroughly 20” by 2000 yd, witht hec enter
of the pattern at 2500 yd. The picture was made toward the end of a

~Ibid.
‘A. L. Cockroft,H. Davies, and R. A. Smith, “A Quantitative Study of sea Returns
at Ckmtimetm Wavelengths for Moderately Small Angles of Elevation, ” TRE Report
No. T1933, September 1945; also Proc. Phys. Sot., 58, 717 (1946).
492 RADAR TARGETS AND ECHOE,S [SEC.6.8

“northeast’’storm, with thesystem looking out over Boston Bay. Instead

of the customarily unif orm grainy appearance, as in Fig. 6. 7b, the echo takes
on the form of parallel straight rows. Figure 6.9 shows a photograph of
the 2000-yd expanded-sweep A-scope taken at the same time. on this
indicator the echo is concentrated in the form of “spikes” with intervening

Fm. 69.-Photographof theexpanded-sweep A-scope onthe system of Fig. 6S, showing

“spiky” appearance of sea echo. The sweep length was 2000 yd. The square-topped pulse
is an artificial echo from a signal generator.

regions of little or no signal.’ (This photograph may be contrasted with

Fig. 6“10 which shows the more normal appearance of the echo on the
A-scope.)
Theecho appearance in Figs. 6“8 and 6.9is strongly suggestive of the
pattern of the waves on the sea surface. This inference is supported by

Fm. 6.10.—Normal appearance of sea echo onthe A-scope; wavelength 3 cm, sweep length
4000 yd, pulse length lpsec.

the following measurements. Assuming that the radar is in effect “seeing”

the waves, the distance between rows, or between “spikes,” should cor-
respond to the wavelength. The value obtained, when corrected for finite

1 A “spiky” appearance of the A-stops under similar circumstances hss also been
reported from Telecommunications Research Establishment (cf. TRE Report No.
T1933).
SEC.68] VALIDITY OF THE FUNDA ME,VTAL AS’SUMPTIO.V5 493

depth of the bottom, is 250 ft, which is in itself not unreasonable and agrees
fairly well with predictions based on HO Misc. 11,275. Furthermore,
the wave velocity could be measured, for the “spikes” traveled along the
A-scope and could be tracked in range for 10 to 15 sec. The result of this
measurement, 25 mph, is again consonant \vith the wind speed at the time,
viz,, 32 mph, Furthermore, an internal check can be made on these
measurements, because, as stated in Sec. 6.7, classical hydrodynamics
furnishes relations between wavelength, wave velocity, and period, The
wavelength calculated by Eq. (100) from the measured \vave velocity is
260 ft, in excellent and probably somewhat fortuitous agreement with the
observed value.
one must therefore conclude that in this case the scatterers are, in
effect, not uniformly distributed but appear concentrated in definite
regions of the waves.’ That this concentration may be only apparent is
clear from a consideration of the length-to-height ratio of the waves. As
stated in Sec. 6.7, this ratio \,aries between 7,11 and 20/1 for waves in a
“sea.” The crest of the \vave will thus obscure the trough, ditl’raction
being neglected, unless the grazing angle is greater than 6° even for the
flatter waves. As the grazing angle \\-asabout 1“, it is obvious that even
with diffraction a large portion of the possible scattering region must not
have been illuminated by the incident beam. This “shadow” effect \~ill
obviously enter only at low angles and ~vhene~,erthe pulse length is less
than the water wavelength and \vidth of the beam is less than the crest
length, These conditions are almost never to be expected when an air-
borne system is being used, when the pulse length is 1 sec or more and the
beamwidth several degrees, or when the sea is short-crested. For such
cases the concept of a cross section per unit area is therefore meaningful
and will be freely used. The cross section per unit area can, however, be
a function of position over the sea surface because of local variations in
winds and currents: A striking example of such variation is sho\vn in
Fig. 6.11 which is a portion of a photograph of a 5-mile PPI on a 1.25-cm
system operating with a 0.75-psec pulse. The system was located on
Fishers Islandj off the Connecticut coast, and the sea surface at the time
was calm, with no more than slight chop. Almost all the signal is sea
echo, expect for Fishers Island itself and near-by islands in the upper half
of the oscilloscope. The striated appearance is fairly marked and is pos-
sibly due to freak currents. It is definitely not due to a shadow effect, for
there were no large waves present. The regions making up the striations
were much larger than the pulse packet, and within each region one can
still speak of a scattering cross section per unit area, Such marked local
variations were found only for relatively calm sea states.
] It should be pointed out that the waves observed were too far out to be breaking.
In fact these waves, which actually came from the storm center off shore, were not very
obvious by visual observation from shore, being masked by a cross-wind “chop.”
494 RADAR TARGETS A.VI) ECIIOE,$’ ISm. 69

6“9. Frequency Dependence of Sea Echo.—Two possible mechanisms

for sea echo have been frequently suggested. According to one view, back
scattering by the droplets of spray present in whitecaps and other breaking
water constitutes the major portion of the echo. The other view proposes
that the observed signal is the result of diffraction from the corrugated
surface of the sea or even specular reflection if a portion of a wave happens
to be favorably oriented. These two hypotheses differ widely in their pre-
dictions for the frequency dependence of the cross section.

FIG. 6.11 .—Photograph of the PPI on a 1.25-cm system, showing the striated appearance of
the sea echo. Range markers are 1 mile apart. The bright line is the north heading.

By the droplet theory, if the radii of the droplets are much less than
x/27r, only the dipole terms in the back-scattering cross section are impor-
tant, and the frequency dependence is given by the familiar Rayleigh law,
namely, as A-4. Because of the interference lobes of the field above the
sea surface, the frequency variation of the received echo should be even
faster, possibly as much as X-8. The alternative mechanism predicts a
much slower variation. If only a geometrical reflection is involved, then
the cross section is, of course, independent of frequency. Even on the
basis of a diffraction phenomenon, if the dimensions of the surfaces involved
are comparable to or greater than X, the dependence should not be faster
SEC. &9] FREQUENCY DEPENDENCE OF SEA ECHO 495

than h-’. Ineither case thedifferences with thedroplet theory should be

sufficiently marked to be measurable experimentally.
A series of measurements was carried out at the Radiation Laboratory to
make just such a comparison.1 The experiment will be discussed in detail
in order to show some of the difficulties involved in the study of sea echo
and the precautions that must be taken to obtain significant results.
Three truckborne systems were used, operating onwavelengths of 9.2,
3.2, and 1.25 cm, respectively. The systems, whose characteristics are
summarized in Table 6“3, were experimental ones, specifically designed for
accurate measurements of signal strength. (The majority of the measure-
ments were made with the 3- and 9-cm systems, as difficulties with the
1.25-cms ystem prevented it from being used as often or with the same accu-
racy as the other systems.) A few details of the systems are worthy of

TABLE63.-CHAMCTEMSTJCS
OF1{.*D.\~
SYSTEMS
II I I I
Beamwidths,
Pulse Peak
SW’S J:h; Antvnna dimensions, degrees
length, power,
in. —
cm psec kw.
E-plane H-plane
—— —
XT-3 9.2 48 (paraboloid) 6.8 8.9 2,1,0.5 35
XT-2 3,2 (a) 48 (paraboloid) 1.9 1.9 1,0.33,0.15 20
(b) 18 (paraboloid) 4.8 4.8 1,0.33,0.15 20
T-141 i,251 48 X6(pa raboliccylinder)l OS I 6.1 [0.75,0.35,0.1.51 10

notice, The direction of the polarization in each system could be changed

rapidly, intheparticular case of the 1.25-cm set, thechange was effected by
inserting a metal-strip half-~yave plate in front of the antenna.
It is a desirable precautionary measure to have all systems measure the
echo from the same area of the sea surface in case the assumption of homog-
eneous distribution of scatterers is not satisfied. hIost of tile measure-
ments on 3,2 cm \vere therefore made \vith an lt+in. -diameter antenna,
whose beam\\-idthnearly matched that on 9.2 cm. In addition, the pulse
length used \ras in all cases either 1.0 or 0.75 WWC. It should be noted,
however, that the pulse length need not be accurately known in practice, as
Eq. (96) forthereceived polvercan bcrcwritteni ntheforrn

(101)

where Q is the pulse recurrence frequency and p, is the average transmitted

polver. (It is just this average power, and not the peak pow7erP,, that is
measured directly by the usual test equipment.) The pulse-recurrence
frequency \ras crystal-controlled and hence known very accurately.
1For ,an~[pr<,
(,(>!)]r)r~,})ctl,?iv(,diw[]s.siol) s(,t>H. ~(ll~l<t[in, I’I(!Ys. R(f)., 70 938 (1946).
496 RADAR TARGETS AND ECHOES [sDC. 69

Theimtantaneous seaecho intensity fluctuates rapidly and over wide

limits. Inorder tomeaure u”, thetime average of thereceived echo must
be obtained. Anurnber ofmethods have been devised (see Sec. 610), but
an electrical averaging technique was chosen as the most direct and objec-
tive procedure. A narrow section of the video signal (shorter than the
pulse length) is selected by a gate and passed through an amplifier having a
long time constant. To smooth out all fluctuations it was found that the
averaging time had to be as long as 30 sec. The reading of the output
meter on the amplifier was converted to r-f input level by means of a cali-
brated r-f signal generator.’
The systems \vereset up at a number of locations on the New England
coast at elevations of 70 and 120 ft above mean sea level. Because of the
relatively low elevation the grazing angle of the beam with the horizontal
was restricted to less than 2° and usually had to be below 1° to avoid shal-
low water close to shore. Unfortunately sea echo at these elevations was
not very extensive, never extending farther than 8000 yd. Therefore, for
seas calmer than “moderate,” measurements could often be made only at
angles greater than 1° and may not be representative of open-sea conditions.
Possible sources of error in the measurements are of two types,
(1) There may be errors in the calibration and constants of the system.
On the 9.2- and 3.2-cm systems, calibration was made frequently and by
several well-known methods. The limits of error in the values of received
power, transmitted power, and antenna gain were + 0.5 db for each. In
addition there were a number of minor corrections to be applied in deter-
mining ~0: IOSS in the radome, correction for the vertical polar diagram,
TR switch recovery losses (at close ranges only), etc. The uncertainty in
each of these corrections was small, but the cumulative effect is not neg-
ligible. The probable systematic error in the absolute measurement of
U“ on 3 or 9 cm is, therefore, estimated to be 2 db. Because of difficulties in
obtaining consistent absolute measurements of received and transmitted
po]ver and owing to additional losses from water vapor attenuation, proba-
ble systematic error on 1.25 cm is estimated to be 4 db. (2) In addition to
such systematic errors there are random errors arising from the inherent
scatter in the data. The value of the cross section is not strictly constant
with time but fluctuates as the sea surface changes and the number and
size of the scatterers varies. Some of this fluctuation is smoothed out in
the electrical averaging process, but the slower variations (over periods of
minutes) are not affected. Furthermore there is generally little correlation

1 Strictly speaking, this procedure yields an average of the video signal, which
differs from the average of the signal at the input because of the nonlinearity of the
rcm,iver. A correction can be calculated from the memurcd receiver law and the
probability distribution of the instantaneous sea-echo amplitudes. Conditions were
always so adjusted that this correction was never greater than 1 db and was mughl y
the same in all systems (see H. Go]dstcin, op. cit.),
SEC. 6.9] FREQUENCY DEPENDENCE OF SEA ECHO 497

between the scatter on Werent frequencies. These random errors were

reduced somewhat by repeated measurements made in rapid succession.
Thescatter inthevalues ofsucha sequence wssusually lto2db.
The variation of the cross section from 9.2 to 3.2 cm is expressed by the
ratio
u0(3.2)
—’B,
u0(9.2)

usually given in decibek, that is, 10 log@. Measured values of the ratio
varied from —8 to + 18 db. A definite difference was found between the
two polarizations, the ratio being consistently smaller on vertical polariza-
tion. The results also show a correlation with the roughness of the sea.
Unfortunately, it was not possible to measure the sea state beyond some
rough and unsatisfactory visual observations (along with surface wind
data). The cross section at any given angle, wavelength, and polarization,
however, should be a function solely of the parameters lumped under the
term sea roughness. This cross section can therefore serve as a dependent
variable, or scale, to illustrate any correlation of the frequency dependence
with sea roughness.
The 110-odd observations made are spread rather thinly over a variety
of sea states and grazing angles. The observed ratios were divided into
three broad ranges of grazing angle and were then further separated into
groups according to the measured value of the cross section on 9.2 cm for
horizontal polarization. The average ratio for each group is shown in
Table 6.4. For the middle group an attempt has been made to translate
the cross-section scale into the conventional sea-state scale using visual
observations and predictions based upon the observed winds and fetch.
The very rough correspondence so obtained between the scales is shown in
the table. This correspondence cannot necessarily be carried over to the
other groups because the cross section varies with angle in a way that is
not well known and that probably changes with sea state.
The values of/3 listed in the table are to be compared with the figure of
+18.5 db, corresponding to a variation as 1/~4, or with +37 db, corre-
sponding to l/h8. With the exception of two points, the experimental
values are much smaller, well outside the expected error. The results
thus do not support the spray-droplet theory.
The data on the ratio uO(l.25)/u0(3.2) are too few to permit any detailed
analysis, They cover angles from 0.45° to 0.90° and have been measured
only for moderate seas on horizontal polarization. The average value of
the ratio was found to be about +5 db for these conditions, compared with
+16.5 db predicted by a l/A4 variation.
An important by-product of this investigation is information on the
dependence of the cross section on the polarization. This information is
presented as the ratio of the cross section for vertical polarization to the
498 RADAR TARGETS AND ECHOES [SEC.6.9

TABLE 6 .4.—EXPERIMENTAL VALUES OF THE FREQUENCY DEPENDENCE

OF SEA ECHO

e > l.OO

No. in interval P, db
Interval of a~(9.2), db
Her. Vert. Her. Vert.

–40t0 –50 2 0 + 8.5

–50t0 –60 o 0
–60 to –70 5 4 +13 +2
–70 to –80 1 2 +18 +11

0.65° < 0 < l.OO

I I
No. in interval & db I Approx.
Interval of a~(9.2), db sea
Her. Vert. Ho,. I Ye,,, state

–30 to –40 db 6 4 –2 –5 Rough

–40 to –50 15 11 +3 –1 Moderate
–50 to –60 5 7 +9 +3 Slight
–60 to -70 2 0 +18 Smooth

0 <0.65°

No. in interval & db

Interval of uj(9.2), db
Her. Vert. Her, Vert.

–30 to –40 db 6 6 0.0 –5

–40 to –50 11 11 +4 0.0
–50 to –60 5 4 +6 +3

cross section for horizontal polarization (u~/uj)A usually measured simul-

taneously on 9.2 and 3.2 cm. The data should be ahnost completely free
from systematic error, as the ratio is independent of the absolute calibra-
tion of the system. Almost the only sources of systematic error are changes
in the antenna characteristics and faulty calibration of the signal-generator
attenuator, both of which are deemed negligible. There is still a random
error, of course, arising from the fluctuations in the values of a“. If any-
thing, this random scatter tends to be larger than that for the frequency-
dependence data because of the unavoidable time difference between meas-
urements on the two polarizations.
The observed values of the ratio vary between – 8 and +22 db. A
definite correlation exists between the values of the ratio on 9.2 and 3.2
SEC.6.10] PROPERTIES OF SEA-ECHO CROSS SECTION 499

cm, as illustrated by Fig. 6.22 in Sec. 6-12. There the ratio for A = 9.2
cm is plotted as ordinate, and the ratio for x = 3.2 cm as abscissa. The
circles represent experimental values for grazing angles between 0.65° and
1.35°. Although the points show considerable scatter, the presence of a
correlation is clearly indicated. High values of the ratio on 9.2 cm are
almost always accompanied by high values on 3.2 cm. Similarly, low
values on 9.2 cm are paired with low values on 3.2 cm. The ratio on 3.2
cm, it will be noted, is ahnost always lower than the simultaneous ratio on
9.2 cm. In fact, although vertical polarization ahnost always returns the
stronger echo on 9.2 cm, the reverse is frequently the case on 3.2 cm.
An analysis of the data also indicates a correlation of the “polarization
ratio” with sea state. Large values of the ratio are found only when the
sea is calm; in fact, it is then one of the most striking characteristics of the
echo. As the sea becomes rougher, the ratio steadily decreases, there being
little difference between the two polarizations for very rough seas on 9.2 cm.
Under the same conditions the echo on 3.2 cm, however, is considerably
stronger on horizontal polarization.
Very few observations of polarization dependence are available on 1.25
cm. The values obtained indicate that the echo is about the same for both
polarizations, with a scatter of roughly ~ 3 db,
A word might be said about the absolute magnitude of the cross section.
From Table 64 the lo~v-angle cross section on 9.2 cm for horizontal polari-
zation is seen to vary between —30 and —70 db. These figures mean that
the echo from each square foot of the sea’s surface can be accounted for by a
cross section of between 10–3 and 10–7 sq ft. The values seem low, and
this in itself mitigates against specular reflection playing an important role.
The radar beam usually covers a considerable number of square feet, how-
ever, and the total cross section can be rather large. Thus, in a system with
a pulse length of 1 psec and a beamwidth of 3°, the beam covers an area of
3X 10’ sq ft at a range of only 40,000 yd (23 miles). The total sea-echo
cross section under these conditions then varies between 3000 and 0.3 sq ft.
The larger figure is quite sufficient to mask the presence of a large aircraft
or a surfaced submarine.
6“10. Measurements of the Properties of Sea-echo Cross Section.—
Section 6.8 has shown that except for certain rare conditions, the concept
of a cross section per unit area for sea echo U“is meaningful. The present
section attempts to summarize the available experimental information on
the properties of co and its dependence on various parameters. Table 6.5
lists the attendant circumstances for nine investigations on sea echo. No
attempt is made to list all the known researches. A good many investiga-
tions, especially older reports and those in the nature of system service
trials, have been omitted. It is believed, however, that the table includes
all reported investigations making a significant contribution to our knowl-
edge concerning the sea-echo cross section.
 500 RADAR TARGETS AND ECHOES [SEC. 6“10

The items listed in Columns 1 to 4 of Table 6.5 need no explanation.

Column 5 indicates the parameters as a function of which U“has been meas-
ured, that is, grazing angle of incidence O,wavelength k, polarization p, and
state of the sea S. In Column 6 is stated the method of measuring ~,. All
investigations except II, in which only the maximum range of sea echo was
measured, used some kind of signal generator. The measurement of
sea-echo intensity presents some peculiar difficulties because of the rapid
fluctuations of the signal, and various procedures have been devised in order
to obtain some definite quantity to measure. In one investigation the
highest, or peak, signal occurring in a given time interval was observed.
This is not believed to be a good choice; Sees. 6“11 and 6.18 will show the
probability distribution for the instantaneous signal amplitude to be such
that there is a finite probabilityy for any amplitude, no matter how high.
A more precisely defined level is the amplitude exceeded by a specified frac-
tion of the pulses, usually in the neighborhood of 2 to 5 per cent. In prac-
tice it is found that this 14vel can be reproducibly estimated by visual
observation of the A-scope. This method is denoted as “mean peak sig-
nal. ” Sea-echo intensity has also been measured by finding the r-f level
of a signal-generator pulse that can just be detected in the sea echo,
analogous to the determination of minimum discernible signal in noise.
The level so obtained is reproducible for one observer and system but, as is
well known, depends upon pulse length, pulse-recurrence frequency, method
and size of display and upon the observer. In addition, the level, unlike
the “mean peak signal, ‘‘ is not connected in a known way with the average
intensity. By far the best method of measurement, and the one that is
least subjective, involves averaging by electrical means, as described in
Sec. 69. This method has the additional advantage that it yields exactly
the quantity most suited for theoretical discussion, viz, ~,.
Most of the investigations indicate the state of the sea or the height of
the waves. Column 7 indicates the type of observation upon which such
statements are based.
Variation Of Maximum Ranqe with Height. The way in which the maxi-
mum range of sea echo’ on the indicator varies \vith the height of the sys-
tem is of obvious practical importance, The range enters into the basic
formula [Eq. 96] for the received intensity at low angles in two places: in
the R3 term in the denominator and as a parameter of U“ in the form
z/i? = t?. Thus, Eq. (96) can be rewritten

(102)

Until the specific function uO(z,R) is known, the variation of maximum

range with height cannot be predicted. For discussion purposes, it is con-
I Defined as the range at which the sea echo is lost in noise.
 TABLE 6.5.—A SUMMARKOF THQS1aNIF1cANT INVESTIGATIONSON SEA ECEO

System ‘ropcrties 0 Method of ~ Type of observations

Number 0, deg. Organization and reference
(1)
height, ft
(2)
(:) (4)
u“ studied
(5)
measurement
(6)
, on sea state
(7)
(8)

1 \ 60 and 20 9,3 <2 e,p,s S]gual generator, r-f; Wind speed, visual RL: O. J, Baltzer, W. M. Fair-
peak signal estimate bank, and J. D. Fairbank, RL
Report No. 536, Mar. 14, 1944
11 25&13,000 10,3 <5 e Maximum range Wind speed, visual RL: Unpublished Memoranda
(airborne) estimate
III Airborne 3 5-90 tl,p,s Signal generator, r-f; Visual estimate RL: E. W. Cowan, RL Report
mean peak signal No. 870, Jan. 10, 1946
IV 70 and 120 9,3,1 < 1.5 p,k,s Signal generator, r-f; Wind speed, visual RL: H. Goldstein, Phys. Rev.,
electrical averaging estimak 70, 938 (1946); see also Sec. 6.9

v Airborne 10 <5 0,s Signal generator, r-f; Wind speed, visual RL: Unpublished
minimum discern- estimate
ible
VI 500 10,3,1 0.5-5 e,x,s Signal generator, i-f; Measurements from TRE: A. L. Cockroft, H. Davies,
mean peak signal submarine, wind and R. A. Smith, TRE Report
speed No. T1933, September 1945*
VII 3OOCL1O,OOO 3 l&90 8,s Signal generator, i-f; Visual estimate TRE: G. S. R. Maclusky and H.
(airborne) (indirectly); mean Davies, TRE Report No.
peak signal T1956, Nov. 20, 1945*
VIII 3500 10 0.8-2 e,s Signal generator, r-f; Not stated, probably ASE: H. Bondi, ASEE Wltley,
(Mt.Snowden) electrical averaging visual estimate Interim Report No. Mk38/45
Feb. 16, 1945
Ixt 150 and less 10,3.3 < 1.2 e,A,S Electrical averaging Not stated, probably ASE: T. Gold and W. Renwick,
visual estimate ASEE Witley, Report No.
XRC, Sept. 8, 1946

* Also see H, DaviesandG,G, McfMle.ne. Proc.Ph~s.SOC., 56,717(1946)

t Information on this investigation was unfortunatelyreceived too late for inclusion in the discussion inthetext
’502 RADAR TARGETS AND ECHOES [SEC. 610

venient to assume that a“ has the form (z/R)’. Equation (102) then can
be solved for the range;
(103)

As long as n is positive, the maximum range will increase more slowly than

A /—
the height.
This procedure can obviously be reversed; from measurements of the
variation ol range with height the functional dependence of U“ on 8 can be
deduced; it will, in fact, be proportional to the cube of the maximum range.
As the measurements do not require any additional test equipment beyond
the normal indicators, the method is tempting. Unfortunately, what con-
~~5 104
‘“’r—————i

EE D
=9.2 cm .“ k =9.2 cm .] A=3.2 cm I
.
]~4 . 103 104 \.
e .
.
~03
102
~03
o

R: R;
&

102 10 102
1
10 1 10
0.40.6 1.0 2346 0.40.6 1.0 2346 0.2 0.40.6 1.0 234
t?m degrees e in degrees 0 in degrees

b) (b) (c)
RG, 6. 12.—Three typiral curves of maximum range of sea echo vs. grazing angle, replotted
from Reference II, Table 6,5, The quantity R- is in statute miles.

stitutes maximum range is not clear, and the readings depend upon the
observer and the type of indicator. Furthermore, since u0(6’) = R:, small
errors in R~ result in large errors in uo., or to put it anot,her way, the varia-
tion of maximum range with height is not a sensitive function of U“.
Nevertheless, because of its simplicity, the method has been applied
frequently, usually in the course of field trials of new systems. The results
obtained in Reference II of Table 6’5 are typical and probably represent
the most careful measurements made in this way,L Two commercial 9- and
3-cm systems, the ASE and ASD respectively, were used, mounted in
separate light airplanes. The only modification of the systems consisted
in adding a 5-in. A-scope. Unfortunately, almost all the measurements
were made for relatively calm seas and all for horizontal polarization only
Three typical curves are shown in Fig. 612 where the logarithm of R:
is plotted against the logarithm of the angle 0. In all cases, aO(0) rises very
10ther references are G. A. Garrett and K. L. Mealey, “Photographic Polarization
Tests,” RL Report No. 382, May 1943; “Trials of Mk XI ASV (3 cm),” RNAS Report
No. 707/1 /2, March 1945; ‘.’ASD in a Ventura,” TRE Report No. T1651, September
1943.
SEC.6.10] PROPERTIES OF ,YE.t -EC’110 CRO.%Y ,$’E(‘Tf O.V 503

rapidly at low angles, approximately as t?”\vhere n is about 3 or 4. Occa-

sionally, as in Fig. 6.12a, this rapid rise continues to the highest observed
angles. More often, as in Fig, 6. 12b, the initial rate of increase is not main-
tained, and there appears a definite tendency for saturation; hence the
cross section eventually becomes substantially independent of angle. This
tendency is even more pronounced in the curves for A = 3 cm.
The difficulties of this method are \rell illustrat,cd in the curves of
Fig. 6. 12c for 3 cm, \vherethe solid and open circles represent simultaneous
measurements by two observers in the same airplane and the crosses repre-
sent measurements made by a third obser\rerfrom oscilloscope photographs
taken at the same time. According to one observer, u“(o) decreased by a
factor of 2 in goin~ from O = 1“ tO .5°, Jvbereas, according to another, it
increased by a factor of 1,4 in the same interval.
Obviously, the method of maximum range can furnish only a general
idea of the dependence of U“ on d; more painstaking procedures must be
used to obtain accurate information.
Variat~orzof 00 with 0. Eight of the nine investigations listed in Table
65 give data on the variation of U“ with grazing angle. As has already
been seen, however, all are not equally reliable, nor are many of them at all
comparable. Thus, in none of the American work with airborne systems
was attention paid to obtaining favorable oceanographic conditions, In
most cases the winds were not high, and the fetch \ras almost al\vays 50
miles or less. On the other hand, because the prevailing winds are on-shore
in Britain, the English \vork was probably done \vith sea states rougher
than any encountered in the airborne work in this country; this may
explain some of the apparent contradictions found. Again, the elevation of
land-based systems is usually far less than those attained in airborne work,
and the normal range is thus far smaller. Therefore, in order to obtain
sufficient sea echo to work with, the land-based measurements are usually
made in weather unsuited to aircraft operation. In any case, it is risky
to try to find the variation of U“with 6 from the land; too often one merely
measures the change in the sea roughness as shore is approached. Trust-
\vorthy data on the angle dependence of cr”can probably be obtained only
from aircraft or from ships in rough seas, well away from shore.1
The investigations are rather sharply divided into two classes: low
angle, in which the grazing angle is less than about 5°, and high angle,
where 19varies from 5° up to normal incidence, These two classes will be
treated separately, especially as it seems likely that two different mecha-
nisms are involved.
Two of the researches listed in Table 65, III and VII, fall into the latter
class, both on 3.2 cm. In III, a night-fighter system (AIA) was used, to
1Difficulties arising from nonuniformity in the sea surface were ‘also encountered in
airborne measurements as a result of the airplane’s ability to cover large distances
rapidly, but with proper planning of flight procedure surh difficulties can be eliminated.
 504 RADAR TARGETS AND ECHOES [SEC.610

which considerable calibrated r-f test equipment had been added so that
absolute measurements could be made. Data were taken for both polari-
zations, employing the “mean peak signal” criterion. A noteworthy fea-
ture of this investigation was that the range was kept constant, as the angle
was varied, In Fig. 6.13 the data for the roughest sea measured (yet for
which the wind speed was below 12 mph) hav~ been replotted to show the
cross section in absolute measure. The range of variation is extremely
large, almost 60 db from 1,5° to normal incidence.
In the corresponding English investigation a similar radar system and
criterion for signal level were used, but only horizontal polarization was
available. Also, the measurements ~veremade by calibrating the gain con-
trol with an i-f signal generator; thus absolute figures could not be obtained.
The range of sea states covered \vas much greater, ho\vever, than in
Reference III. Figure 6.14 is a replot of only tlvo of the many curves
given in the original report. Figure 6. 14a was obtained for a slight sea
(Douglas 2), while Fig. 6.14fJ is listed as very rough (Douglas 5). The
rate of increase of U“ with d and hence the total range of values are much
less than in Reference 111, The dotted lines show the function sin /3,
which represents the o dependence of UOfairly well up to grazing angles
of 40° to 60°. The general level of u“ changes only slightly with sea state,
in fact, the cross section at normal incidence is constant to within + 3 db.
Below 45°, U“increases by only 10 db from the calmest to the roughest seas,
In comparing these two investigations it should be emphasized again that
the description “calm seas” in Reference VII probably means a rougher sea
than any in III.
of the five investigations at low angles (I, V, VI, VIII, and IX), the
least trustworthy is probably I, because of the unsatisfactory criterion for
signal level (peak signal in 10 see) and because measurements were made
very close to shore. The spread in the data is considerable, but the results
can be roughly represented by U“ = d“, for /3 < 1°, with the exponent n
varyingl between 1,3 and 4.0. There is some indication that the exponent
tends to be less on 3 cm than on 9 cm. NO significant variation of the
exponent with sea state is noticeable.
Land-baeed systems were also used in Reference VI, but elevation was
much bigher, 500 ft, and the location (Llandudno in North Wales) such
that the fetch was large. As a result, the sea-echo intensity was suf-
ficiently high for measurements to be made at much greater distances from
shore. Data were obtained from two systems, both on 1.25 cm, but with
different beamwidths and pulse le~gths, and from two others on 3,2 and
9 cm, respectively, all with horizontal polarization. Signal measurements
1 Similar results were obtained at an almost identical location using the radar
systems described in Sec. 6.9 but with the averaging of ~, obtained by long-expOsure
photographs of the A-SCOW.
SEC.6-10] PROPERTIES OF SEA-ECHO CROSS SECTIO.V 505
0
0
0
506 RADAR TARGETS AND ECHOES [Sm. 610

were made with an i-f signal generator and calibrated gain controls, but an
absolute calibration for 1.25 and 3.2 cm was obtained by measuring the
echo from metal spheres. Values ofuOonthe twol.25-cms ystemsdiffered
consistentlyby4 db, a fact that may reflect the errors involved in the cal-
ibration. This is the only sea-echo investigation for which actual measure-
ments of wave height were obtained. These were made on a submarine
sufficiently submerged to be unaffected by the waves, with the wave height
read through the periscope by reference to a scale lashed to the super-
structure.
All the data on 3 and 1 cm are very well represented by a linear de-
pendence of U“ on 0. Figure 6.15 reproduces two of the graphs shown in
the original report, in which ~, is plotted against the logarithm of the
range. The straight line indicates the l/R4 variation that corresponds to
U“= d. All the curves given in the report can be fitted by a power-la\v vari-
ation of ~, with R, in which the exponent lies between 3.5 and 4.5 at the
extremes. The scatter of the points is much smaller than is usually en-
countered in investigations of this nature. It may be noted here that the
ratio uO/O was remarkably independent of wave height for waves above 2 ft
high. The absolute values of maaccord well with corresponding measure-
ments of Reference IV.
Because of poor functioning of the system, the data on 9 cm were much
less reliable and no absolute calibration was obtained. The one curve re-
produced in the report, at a wave height of 6 ft, definitely indicates, how-
ever that U“ rises faster than o for small angles.
An extreme case of land-based measurements is represented by Ref-
erence VIII, as the radar was located atop Mt. Snowden, North Wales, at
an elevation of 3500 f t, and the data should be free of some of the uncer-
tainties characteristic of land-based work. Only one system, on 10 cm
and with horizontal polarization, was used. Averaging of the signal was
performed electrically as in Reference IV.
It is stated in this report that the results are well fitted in all cases by
the following form of u“
a
u“cse, –z ().8° < 0< 1.9°, (104)

where 190is a constant whose value is about 3.8° + 1°. Unfortunately,

only an interim report has been issued, and actual curves are not shown.
Too much emphasis should not be put on the various analytic forms in
which the &dependence of U“ is expressed. Thus, the above exponential
dependence, over the limited range of angles, can be replaced by the
power-law f Ormula COa @j with an error of less than + 1 db, which is
undoubtedly well within the experimental scatter.
The most complete set of data for 10 cm is given by Reference V. The
measurements were made in the course of desigri flight trials for a high-
SEC.610] PROPERTIES OF SEA-ECHO CROSS SECTION 507

60 - I 1 I , I 1 I

50 z

,% 40
g

j
m 30 -
$
,-c
4’ 20

10

0 1 I I ! 1 , 1 1
2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
Range in thousands of yards

(a) Wavelength 3.2cm Wave height6ft

2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
Range inthousands of yards

(b) Wavelength l.25cm Waveheight4ft

Fm. 6.15.–-Two typical plots of sea-echo intensity aa a function of range. The circles
are experimental points and the straight lines indicate l/R4. Taken from Reference VI,
Table 6.5.
508 RADAR TARGETS AND ECHOES [SEC. 610
qp UI(8)0D
m-
V:
k-
, , .
1= ‘.
0 ‘.

I
‘.
., 0
k ‘--
\\ h
.,0 2
o
\ -.: :
0 ‘>..2 o .x
D -.*.
a
:;..
. . 0
a (r4; .-
..\. m
-., O 0
. . -a, w
. . . . 0
●
-..
.
——
 SEC.6.10] PROPERTIES OF SEA-ECHO CROSS SECTION 509

power 10-cm airborne system operating with horizontal polarization. In

a typical run the sea-echo intensity was measured as a function of range by
the “minimumdiscernible-signal-generator” technique, usually for several
altitudes. About ten such runs were obtained over a period of several
months.
The work is somewhat marred by the almost complete lack of attention
to the proper oceanographic conditions (admittedly often enforced by the
limited range of the aircraft) and by the large number of observers with
varying degrees of training (with the result that separate runs are often
not comparable),

TABLE66.-PROPERTIESOF i HE CuavEs OF a“ vs. d ,i~ OBTAINED FROM

REFERENCE V, TABLE6.5

Power-law exponent
Run
u~(l”), lltl
No. degrees
0<80 I 0>00 ‘o
——
1 – 74 3.6 0 4
2 – 63 24 0 4
3 – 62 2,5 0 4
4 – 60 28 07 2.1
5 – 5{) 31 10 20
6 2.0 03 2,0
7 3.6 1.3 2.7
~ ::, z,
8 00 2.0
9 –52 5 2.6 02 1.5
10 –42 38 0.4 11

The results have been recalcul~ted and plotted as a function of the

grazing angle e. In this form the curves obtained at several altitudes
should coincide, ideally. Figure 6,16 reproduces three of the plots. The
condition of the sea surface cannot be determined from the information
available, but it seems likely that Fig, 6.16a refers to a slight sea and
Fig. 6. 16b and c to a moderate sea (no sea state rougher than moderate was
encountered. ) The separate altitudes at which the measurements were
made are indicated by d~fferent symbols. The scatter of the points is
considerable, as might be expected, but the data for the various altitudes
seem well intermingled, and the deviations appear random. Exceptions
occur only at low altitudes and angles, and can probably be attributed to
the low signal-to-noise ratio under these conditions.
There is obviously considerable latitude in fitting the points with a
smooth curve, but for convenience the general behavior may be represented
by segments of two power laws, which in the coordinates used become
straight lines and are shown by the dotted lines in Fig. 6“16. ThE type
510 RA DAR TARGETS AND ECHOES [SEC. 610

of representation is also suggested by some theoretical considerations.

All the ten plots have been fitted in the above manner,’ and the exponents
of the two power laws are listed in Table 6“6. Also listed are the angles
at which the two segments intersect and the value of the fitted curve at
8= 1.OO. This last is given in absolute measure and was obtained in a
crude fashion from assumed noise figures and constants of the system.
The values should therefore be depended on only for orders of magnitude.
It should also be remembered that the calculation did not include the
unknown and variable difference bet\reen the minimum discernible and
average signal level. The order of increasing values of U“(lo) as given in
the table should correspond approximately to the order of increasing ea
roughness. All values of the cross section are considerably smaller than
those measured for rough seas in the experiments discussed in Sec. 6“9.
This fact is another indication that the waves did not exceed moderate
heights.z
Ahnost all the investigations described refer to somewhat different
external conditions and cannot therefore be compared with each other.
It is tempting, though not altogether legitimate, to try to summarize
the various results and build a composite picture of the curve of U“ as a
function of 0. Certainly it seems clear that at 10 cm the curve rises \-cry
steeply at low angles, being approximated by a power law whose exponent
lies between 2 and 4, At somewhat higher angles co increases much more
slowly; the curve lies between a constant value and a linear dependence
on 6. The angle corresponding to the “knee” of the curve decreases as
the sea becomes rougher (cf. Table 6“6), ranging from 5° for calm seas to
less than 1° at very rough seas.
The initial rapid rise is presumably present at 3 cm also (as evidenced
by Fig. 6.12c), but the angle at which the curve begins flattening off is
apparently much smaller at 3 cm than at 9 cm for the same sea state.
The guess might be hazarded that the trend is continued in the same
direction at 1.25 cm, but the data for this wavelength are very
fragmentary.
The cross section does not continue to rise slowly indefinitely. At
some higher angle a new scattering mechanism appears to become im-
portant and U“begins to rise rapidly again, reaching a maximum at normal
incidence. The onset of this second rapid rise, at least for 3 cm, occurs
at about 45” to 60” in rough seas and at 15° to 30° in calmer seas. The
maximum values of U“ can become fair!y large, greatly exceeding unity,
indicating that some specular reflection is taking place.

1The fitting was at times more ambiguous than in the case of the three examples
shown.
z Note added in proof: The data of Reference IX, limited to angles leas than 10
rind wave heights from 2 to 4 ft, are fitted well by a cross section U“ varying s-s
d’e–kjg, where k is 0.02 radians for A = 10 cm and 0,01 for A = 3.3 cm.
SEC. 010] PROPERTIES OF SEA-ECHO CROSS SECTION 511

Variation of U“ with L The manner in which the cross section changes

with wavelength is of great importance for theoretical considerations, but
measurements of this quantity have been rare because of the difficulties
involved in making absolute measurements.
Reference VI of Table 6“5 presents some data on the change of cross
section between 3.2 and 1.25 cm for horizontal polarization. Two systems
at 1.25 cm and one system at 3.2 cm were calibrated absolutely by means
of a standard target consisting of a sphere suspended from a balloon. The
ratio of the cross section at the two wavelengths U“(1.25) /u0(3. 2) was
independent of O in the range measured and independent of waveheight
above 2 ft. The value obtained for the ratio under these conditions
were +3 db using one of the l-cm systems and +7 db using the other.
As has been remarked, the difference of the values is an indication, perhaps,
of the accuracy of the absolute calibration. The smaller value is stated
to be the more reliable and is considered to be indicative of a variation
as l/h. Unfortunately, dependable absolute values on 9 cm could not be
obtained, but there was some evidence that the ratio of the cross section
on 9 cm to that on 3 cm decreased somewhat as the sea became rougher,
The results obtained in Reference IV have been discussed in detail in
Sec. 69 and need be summarized here only briefly. With horizontal
polarization it was found that the increase in the cross section in going
from 9.2 to 3.2 cm varied between +18 db with relatively calm seas to
– 2 db when the sea was rough. When the polarization was vertical,
over the same wavelength region, the cross section increased by 11 db
for cahn sea and decreased slightly (5 db) for rough sea. A few rough
measurements were also made at 1.25 cm, horizontal polarization, and
the cross section was found to be approximately 5 db larger than that
at 3.2 cm.
The two investigations discussed barely overlap, but their results
are not mutually inconsistent. 1
References in the literature to sea echo at wavelengths greater than
10 cm are very meager. It would appear that the echo is not very strong
outside the microwave region, although it is risky to generalize from such
qualitative information, or rather lack of information. But if the cross
section does not vary much with wavelength, one might expect sea echo
to be as prominent on the large CHL (low-frequency) radar installations
on the English coast as on the near-by microwave sets. As this is not
the case, it seems probable that u“ decreases very rapidly with wavelength
above 10 cm, at least for horizontal polarization.

1Note added in p~oof: ‘~he results of Reference IV on horizontal polarization also

bear on this question. Strirtly interpreted, they would indicate a wavelength depend-
ence between 10 and 3 cm that is a function of angle, varying from a dependence
m X1 around 1“ to X4 at about 0.2° grazing angle. ‘l’he range of sea states was too
limited to indicate any variation with sea roughness
 512 RADAR TARGETS AND ECHOES [SEC.6.10

Dependence of # on Polarization. The earlier qualitative studies of

polarization effects all agreed that the cross section of sea echo on 10cm
was much greater for vertical polarization than for horizontal.1 In the
investigation of Reference I it was similarly found that for 9.1 cm and
calm seas, the echo could be as much as 20 to 30 db greater for vertical
than for horizontal polarization. The difference steadily decreased,
however, as the sea became rougher; thus even for moderate seas the
echo was about the same on the two polarizations. With a wavelength of
3.2 cm and for calm seas, the echo was greater for vertical polarization
but the difference was not so great as for 9.1 cm. As the sea became
rougher, the behavior on 3.2 cm paralleled that on IO cm, and it was
found that the ratio of intensities even reversed at moderate seas, with
the echo becoming stronger on horizontal polarization,
This general picture has been confirmed by the investigation described
in Sec. 6.9 (Reference IV), and the correlation between the behaviors on
9 and 3 cm has been worked out in greater detail (c\, Fig. 6.22 in Sec. 6.12).
A few rough observations were also made on 1.25 cm, but no significant
difference between the polarizations could be found. The only other
known quantitative study of polarization effects is contained in Reference
III. It is there stated that for 3.2 cm at high angles the echo was in-
variably stronger on vertical than on horizontal polarization, the ratio
at times exceeding 10 db. This result is not inconsistent with the obser-
vations previously mentioned, as the sea condition during the investiga-
tion was never rougher than “slight.”
Variation oj u“ with State oj the Sea. It is clear that the intensity of
sea echo increases as the sea becomes rougher, Because of the difficulties
of measuring objectively the sea state, as discussed in Sec. 6.7, quantitative
information is, however, extremely rare. Even many obvious questions
of a qualitative nature still remain unanswered. Thus, it is of great
importance for theoretical discussions to know how the presence or absence
of whitecaps at a given wave height affects sea echo, but no clear answer
has yet been given.z In general it must be stated that very little progress
has been made toward determining what parameters of the sea state,
if any, are clearly correlated with sea-echo intensity.
The most reliable measurements of sea echo as a function of wave
height are contained in Reference VI of Table 65, as the wave
heights were actually measured from a submerged submarine. It will be
remembered that the cross section was observed to be a linear function

1Cf. G. A. Garrett and K. L. Mealey, op. cit., and E. hf. Lyman and J. J. Hibbert,
“Radar Target Contrast,” RL Report No, 375, June 1942.
ZIn “Report on an Investigation into the Nature of Sea Echo, ” TRE Report No.
T1497, May 1943, a single instance is cited in which the sea echo incrcascd considerably
when whitecaps developed because of a cross wind that did not influence the height of
the waves. It would be highly desirable to determine if this fact is true in general.
 SEC. &lO] PROPERTIES OF SEA-ECHO CROSS SECTION 513

of e between 0.5° and 5° on A = 3.2 and 1.25 cm. The ratio uO/13is there-
fore considered to be an empirical constant. Figure 6.17 reproduces
from this reference the plot of uO/6’vs. wave height for the three systems
used. Above wave heights of 2 ft the cross section is substantially con-
stant or increases only slightly with frequency. Below 2 ft there is good
evidence for a rapid variation of uO/Owith wave height. (The existence
of a “saturation” effect at large wave heights is in accord with general
qualitative impressions obtained in the course of the Radiation Laboratory

t +
-lo I
1 4 )7

- -20 8.
~
2
~
-30
0 0 h=3.2cm
+ x A=1.25Cill

-40 t.
Verylarge
waves
-50.
5 6 7 8
Wave height in ft
FIG. 6. 17.—Variation of the ratio uD/,9 at low grazing angles with wave height, as measured
on three systems. Taken from Reference VI, ‘f’able 6.5.

investigations. ) It is stated that the maximum value of uO/d depended

on wavelength as

()0“
lima
.Ao
x-z (105)

where AO = 008 cm. As the measurements were of the ‘[mean peak

signal” this value is two to three times larger than for the true co.
The behavior at 10 cm is even less well known. It is believed on the
basis of qualitative data that a saturation effect is still present but that it
occurs for much larger wave heights, in the neighborhood of 10 ft. The
only quantitative data are given in Reference VIII, where it is stated that
the echo increases about 10 db for every foot of wave height up to 6 ft and
at roughly 8 db per ft from then on to a height of 14 ft, which was the
maximum observed. It is not certain ho\v these measurements were
obtained.
514 RADAR TARGETS AND ECHOES [SEC. 6.11

Mention should be made of the variation of sea echo with the azimuth
of the beam relative to the wave structure. All the investigations that
deal with this variation (II, III, VII, VIII, and others’) agree with rare una-
nirdy that the echo is strongest when the set is looking into the wind.
The relative increase over the downwind value varies but is generally about
5 db. The phenomenon can be marked and has at times been proposed
as a means of determining wind direction from aircraft, though with ques-
tionable reliability. Unfortunately, this universally observed phenomenon
is amenable to explanation by ahnost all the theories of sea echo yet pro-
posed and consequently sheds little light upon the nature of the scattering
process. The lee side of a wave driven by the wind tends to be steeper
than the windward side, and diffraction or specular reflection is expected
to be greater when looking into the wind. Correspondingly, breaking
waves will break over on the lee side, and the scattering from the increased
quantities of spray and foam equally well account for the observations.
There is not such complete agreement about the intensity in the cross-
wind direction. Generally it has been found to be intermediate between
the values for upwind and downwind. Occasionally it is stated to be even
smaller than for downwind. In Reference III both types of behavior are
reported.
6.11. The Fluctuation of Sea Echo.—One of the most striking char-
acteristics of sea echo as viewed on the A-scope is its rapid and irregular
fluctuation, which gives the signal a family resemblance to ordinary re-
ceiver noise. This fluctuation is well illustrated in the photograph of the
A-scope shown in Fig. 6.10 and in Fig. 6“18 which is a plot of the instan-
taneous intensity of sea-echo signal on 9.2 cm for a period of about 1 sec.
Later sections of this chapter discuss the fluctuations of sea echo in detail
as an example of the general subject of fluctuations of clutter signals. This
section, however, will be concerned primarily with that information about
the nature of the sea-echo scatterers which is furnished by a study of
the fluctuations. As will be seen, this information is disappointingly
meager.
The range or extent of the fluctuation is specified in detail by the prob-
ability distribution for the instantaneous echo intensity, that is, the frac-
tion of signals whose intensity lies within a given interval. Such a dis-
tribution, which tells nothing about the frequency of fluctuation, is called
the jirst probability distribution. The origin of the majority of sea-echo
fluctuation is thought to be the varying interference between the echoes
from scatters that lie within the region illuminated by the radar beam. As
the scatterers move about, the relative phases of their echoes change and
the total echo (which is the vector sum of the component echoes) varies
correspondingly. It can then be shown (cj Sec. 6.19) that when the average
1See, also, RL Report No. 382, RNAS Report No. 707/1/2, TRE Report No.
T1551.
SEC. 6-11] THE FLUCTUATION OF SEA ECHO 515

intensity of the component echoes is constant in time and the number of

independent scatterers is large, the probability of receiving an echo of
intensity P in range dP is

-gL#
W,(P) dP = e PO, (106)

where PO is the average intensity. Strictly speaking, this distribution is

only the limiting form approached as the number of scatterers becomes in-

0
0 0.1 0.2
! 3 0.4 0,5 0.8 0.9
Time in ssconds
FIG.6.lS.—Plot of the r-f intensity of sea echo on 9.2 cm as obtained from pulse-to-pulse
photographs of the A-scope.

finite. It is conceivable, therefore, that the number of scatterers present

could be found by studying the deviations of the actual distribution from
the simple exponential law. Unfortunately, the limiting process is a rapid
one. Although the difference between two and three scat terers is fairly
large, with higher numbers the distinction decreases rapidly. If there are
as few as five comparable scatterers present, then the experimental dis-
tribution should be indistinguishable from the limiting form.
Whenever the average intensity is constant in time, the distribution
obtained experimentally agrees with the exponential form within the
516 RADAR TARGETS AND ECHOES [SW, 6.11

limits of error. Figure 6.19 shows the distribution obtained from the
analysis of 2000 pulses onA = 3.2 cm. The fraction of signals in unit power
interval (that is, the smallest power interval used in the histogram) is
plotted on a logarithmic scale against P/PO as the abscissa. With these
coordinates, Eq. (106) becomes a straight line as shown. Equally good
agreement with theory has been obtained even with the highest resolution
available. The most that can be deduced from the first probability

100
60
40
20
10
6
4
2
1
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.1
1.06
).04
).02
0,1 ~ ).01
012345 O 5 10 15 20 25
Normalized signal power P/~ Normalized signal power P/I&

FIQ. 6.19.—Probability distribution of Fm. 620.—Probability distribution of

theinstantaneous signal powers for sea echo. instantaneous signal powers for sea echo.
The histogram shows the analysis of 2000 The histogram shows the analysis of 2000
pulses, 0.002 sec apart, on 3.2 cm. The pulses, 0.024 sec apart, on 9.2 cm. The
straight line is the theoretical prediction, as- straight line is the theoretical prediction, as-
suming random scatterers. suming random scatterers.

distribution, therefore, is that within an area of the sea 100 by 20 yd there

are at least four or five independent scatterers present. This conclusion
seems reasonable on the basis of almost any theory of sea echo. It does
exclude, however, the possibility that specular reflection from an occasional
steep surface of a wave plays an important role.
The fast fluctuations of sea echo may be described as the Doppler beats
between the various scatterers. The rate of fluctuation, therefore, depends
on the velocities of the scatterers relative to each other. Actually there is
no single rate of fluctuation, but instead there is a continuous spectrum, as
might be expected from the irregular nature of the fluctuation. Typical
power spectra, which are proportional to the fraction of the energy of the
incoming signal for which the fluctuation frequency lies between v and
SEC. 611] THE FLUCTUATION OF SEA ECHO 517

v + dv, are shown in Figs. 6“55 and 6.56 in Sec. 6“21. The maximum of
the spectrum is always at zero frequency; the curve decreases mono-
tonically with increasing frequency, roughly similar to a Gaussian
curve.
For sea echo on 9.2 cm the width of the spectrum, defined as the
frequency at which the power spectrum reaches half of its maximum
value, has been measured to be between 25 and 40 cps. The correspond-
ing relative velocities of the scatterers are a few miles per hour. It should
be remembered that the fluctuation frequency depends, not upon their
mass motion or average velocity, but rather upon the fluctuations of the
individual velocities about the average. The scatter in velocities thus

Time in seconds
Fm. 6.21. —Theamplitude ofaeaecho asa function of time on9.2 cm, averaged for a period
slightly less than 0.5 sec. (This represents part of the data used in obtaining Fig. 620.)

obtained from the frequency spectrum seems numerically reasonable,

whether the fluctuation has its origin in the slightly different velocities
of ripples driven by the wind or refers to the turbulences in clouds of
spray drops. Very little information about the fundamental scattering
mechanism can be obtained from the fast fluctuations of sea echo.
It should be mentioned if the fluctuations are principally Doppler
that
beats, the width of the fluctuation spectrum should be proportional to
the signal frequency. Experimental verification of this point has not
been easy to obtain because of the difficulty of making measurements
simultaneously in time and space. Satisfactory agreement, however,
was obtained with the one pair of measured spectra that referred to sea
echo from the same patch of sea (see Fig. 656).
In addition to the fast fluctuations of sea echo, averaging about 30 cps
at 9 cm, a slower fluctuation, measured in cycles per second or fractions
of a cycle per second, is almost always present. Figure 6.21 is a graph
of the amplitude of sea echo, averaged over intervals of about 0.5 see,
plotted as a function of time up to 10 sec. The fluctuations shown are
518 RADAR TARGETS AND ECHOES [SEC. 612

far too large to be only statistical fluctuations attributable to the finite

averaging interval. Nodetailed statistical analysis ofthis slow fluctuation
has been made, but the maximum of the spectrum is probably in the
neighborhood of 1 to 2 cps. The spectrum, however, often has com-
ponents with periods as long as 30 sec. The extent of this fluctuation
spectrum points up the experimental difficulties in measuring the
“average” intensity of sea echo. Because of these slow fluctuations such
measurements must be expected to have an inherent scatter of 1 or 2 db
with any reasonable averaging time.
The origin of these slow fluctuations must clearly be sought in the
constantly changing nature of the sea surface. Ripples and other possible
scattering surfaces grow and decay. Waves become peaked and break
over; clouds of spray are formed, remaining suspended for a short time
before settling on the surface. All these changes occur in times not
incompatible with the observed periods of the slow fluctuations. Once
again, the phenomenon offers little help in distinguishing between the
fundamental scattering processes.
The presence of the slow fluctuations has a considerable influence on
the first probability distributions obtained from an analysis of the echo
in a finite time interval. During this interval the “average” intensity is
not constant and the random process is no longer a stationary one. Devi-
ations from the theoretical distributions are therefore to be expected.
Figure 6.20 shows the first probability distribution obtained from 2000
measurements covering a time interval of 48 sec. (Figure 6.21 was
flrepared from the same data.) At very high signal intensities the
number of observed pulses is much higher than predicted by the ex-
ponential law. It can in fact be shown (cj. Sec. 620) that in the first
approximation the effect of the slow fluctuations is always to increase
the standard deviation of the distribution above the theoretical value for
a stationary process.
6.12. Theories of Sea Echo.—In formulating any theory of sea echo
care must be taken to distinguish between high and low grazing angles
of incidence, for the origin of the phenomenon is likely to be different in’
the two regions. From the fact that O“at normal incidence is considerably
greater than unity, at least for calm seas, it seems quite clear that specular
reflection plays the dominant role at high angles. The size of the reflecting
surfaces can be estimated from values of the cross section at normal
incidence. Suppose that in unit area of the sea surface there are n flat,
horizontal reflecting surfaces. Then, at normal incidence,
4mA2 4rrA
00(90°) = ~ = — (107)
AZ c’

where c = nA, the fraction of the sea surface occupied by the flat reflecting
surfaces, From Reference III, Sec. 6“10, it is found that u0(900) = – 25 db
Sl:c. 6 I 21 THEORIE,Y OF SEA ECHO 519 ~

on A = 3.2 cm for slight seas. Assuming arbitrarily a value for c of 0.1

for the sake of discussion, \ve then find that A must be about 3 ft’, with
appropriate chan~es for other values of c.
The objection has been raised that the ocean surface would hardly be
sufficiently smooth (A/4 being only 0.3 in.) to constitute a specular reflec-
tor. Although there is considerable force to the objection, it is seen that
the observed echo can be accounted for with only a small fraction of the
total surface contributing, yet with surfaces of modest dimensions. It is
to be expected, of course, that with rougher seas the extent of the reflection
would decrease sharply, in accord with the decreased cross section at normal
incidence found in Reference VII for rough seas.
The phenomena at high angles are thus qualitatively explicable on the
basis of specular reflection. As quantitative data at high angles are
meager, the rest of the section \rill be devoted to discussion of the phe-
nomena at low grazing angles, especially below 5°.
The failure of the cross section to exhibit the characteristic 1/k’ fre-
quency dependence, as shown in Sec. 69, is sufficient to eliminatf: small
spray droplets, of circumference small compared with A, as the principal
sea-echo scatterers. Attention is therefore turned to diffraction from the
corrugated sea surface as the next most likely mechauism.1
The scattering from a sinusoidal surface has often been calculated:
with varying degrees of rigor. Most of these attempts assume uniform
wavelength and wave height and infinite crest lengths. Such a model of
the sea is extremely artificial and leads to some phenomena that un-
doubtedly have no reality, namely, scattering peaks at angles correspond-
ing to discrete spectra. An attempt to take into account the intrinsic
irregularity of the sea surface has been made by the Mathematics Group
at the Telecommunications Research Establishment.3 The surface was
still assumed to consist of sinusoidal waves, but successive waves were ‘
considered to have different amplitudes and wavelengths distributed ac-
cording to a Gaussian law. It was assumed also that the wave height was
small compared with the wavelength. The calculation should, therefore,
best apply to calm seas in the absence of steep and breaking waves.
The computation of the scattered field was carried out by a modified
Kkchhoff-principle method, essentially as used earlier in this chapter in
obtaining the scattering from plates and cylinders. Currents flowing on
the surface of the sinusoidal corrugations were calculated from the incident

1Specularreflectionis very improbable,M the occurrenceof sufficientlysteepsur-

faces is extremely ufllkely.
2A partial list includes Lord Rayleigh, l’heor~ of Sound, 2d ed., Vol. II, Macmillan,
London, 1896, p. 89; T. L. Eckersley, BRL Report No. 506, January 1945, and un-
published work by A. J. F. Siegert and hy L. I. Schh7 and H. Feshbach.
*G. G. Macfarlane, “Sea Returns and the Detection of Schnorkel,” TRE Report
No. T1787, Febmary 1945.
520 RADAR TARGETL~ AND ECHOES [SEC.6.12

field as if the scattering surface were not present, and the reradiated
field in turn was calculated from these currents. Some difficulty was en-
countered because of the sharp edges at the junctions between successive
waves, but it is believed that “edge effects” have been eliminated from the
final answer. As would be expected, the discrete spectra disappear in the
averaging process.
The final formula for the cross section per unit area is

LA
~o(e,h) = m e–z’ ~~(zz), (108)

where

4irA . 47TAe
z.7sm 6=- (109)
A

and

~=gcoso 21.
= —, (110)
A A

for small 6. The wavelength of the sea \vaves is denoted by L; the wave
amplitude by A (half the crest-to-trough height H); and 1~ represents the
modified Bessel function of order m.
This result can be simplified if o is restricted to certain ranges. If the
argument of the modified Bessel function is small compared with the order,
more particularly if
24<< 4m, (111)

then the function is well approximated by the first term in its series expan-
sion. Therefore, for angles much less than

e,=
() “4+)
: (112)

the cross section has the form

~z m+] ~–zz
LA
d(e) = — (113)
(47r)’A2 () ‘~ I’(,m + 1)’

where, as usual, r denotes the gamma function. If, furthermore, z is

much less than 1, that is, O<<k/47rA, then the exponential term is un-
important and the e dependence is determined by ~ z’ and hence

U2(e) = W, (114)

where

n=2m+2=~ +2. (l14a)

SEC.6.12] THEORIES OF SEA ECHO 521

At the other extreme, when the argument of the modified Bessel func-
tionisgreater than the order, that is, the angle is greater than

L
(115)
‘2 = Za’

then theasymptotic expansion forthe Bessel function maybe used. The

formula for the cross section then reduces to

V’z
l+(o) = —
(47)>i~ sin e“ (116)

Thus, at large angles, the cross section increases only slowly with angle.
Forangles lying between 01 and d,anintermediate behavior prevails.
The qualitative agreement of the picture thus arrived at with the
experimental results presented in Sec. 6.10 is striking. It will be recalled
that the cross section, especially in calm seas, was found to increase
rapidly with angle at first, following a power law, and then to flatten off
above some critical angle, with a linear or slower dependence on angle.
However, if the accepted values for wavelengths and wave steepness
are substituted in the formulas, a number of quantitative contradictions
appear.
Consider first the critical angle /3,. If one assumes the steepest
possible waves, with L = 14A, then the formula for the critical angle
can be written

(117)

At A = 10 cm, with a wave height of as much as 7 ft (beyond the limits

of applicability of the theory), it is found that 01is about 2.5 °andis larger
forless steep waves. Hence atgrazing angles of l“the approximate forms
for ~ given by Eqs. (113) and (I 14) should always hold. The value of o-O
depends upon the parameter m + 1 which is both the argument of the
factorial function in the denominator and the exponent of a quantity
less than unity in the numerator. This parameter in turn depends on
the ratio of the sea wavelength to the radar wavelength. It is seen that
if ordinary waves are assumed, the value of m is quite large and U“ is
extremely small. In fact, if the steepest possible waves are assumed
and A taken to be as small m x (and therefore L = 14A), then
UO= – 760 db at 1° ! Furthermore, the cross section then varies as the
angle raised to the fifty-eighth power!
Approaching the matter from the other direction and taking the
measured exponent of o (which is never larger than 4), then one finds
that the maximum sea wavelength which contributes to the echo is only
h/2 or about 2 in. at X = 10 cm. These waves can thus only be small
irregularities on the surface of the larger waves. In fact, they correspond
522 RADAR TARGETS AND ECHOES [SEC.612

to ripples smaller than have been as yet observed. Again assuming

maximum possible steepness ratio, one finds that the computed cross
section at 1° is still too small, about —100 db, but it is much closer to
actual values.
It maybe objected that these quantitative contradictions result from
stretching the applicability of the model too far and that the general
picture is not thereby invalidated. Calculations for trochoidal waves
have, in fact, been attempted by the same group at the Telecommunica-
tions Research Establishment; and when they are published, it will be
interesting to see whether or not this more realistic model furnishes closer
agreement Ivith experiment. But there are some fundamental difficulties
with this mechanism which will not be affected by changes in the details
of the model.
For example, no provision has been made for the “shadow effect,”
that is, that much of the wave lies in the geometrical shadow of the wave
crest at low angles. The importance of this effect is evident from the
fact that with a steepness ratio of 1/20, the troughs of waves are visible
only at angles of 6° or greater. The reality of the effect is also clearly I
demonstrated in the B-scope photograph in Fig. 68. Although there
is some illumination in these shadowed portions by diffraction, never-
theless at low angles of 1° or less it is expected that the shadow effect
would greatly influence the calculations.
More important is the total inability of this mechanism to account
for the striking polarization changes that are observed. The TRE
calculations assume perfect reflection and obtain the same back scattering
for both polarizations. It was shown in Sec. 6.3 that on the basis of this
method of computing the induced currents, the back scattering is the same
on both polarizations as long as the convolutions of the surface have radii
of curvature greater than the radar wavelength. Even a more rigorous
calculation, such as the Sommerfeld solution for a half plane or wedge,
yields the same result for back scattering. The assumption of perfect
reflection is not strictly valid, of course. The reflection coefficient on
horizontal polarization is close to unity, but that for vertical polarization
is somewhat smaller. Presumably this would have the effect of diminish-
ing the scattering on vertical polarization, but only in proportion to the
decrease of the reflection coefficient. Yet for cahn seas (where this
mechanism should be most applicable) the observed difference between
the two polarizations k in the other direction and may be as great as
a factor of 1000!
In the light of these grave difficulties in the surface-scattering theory
it does not seem pointless to examine once again in detail the droplet
theory. For on this theory the polarization dependence admits at least
of a qualitative explanation. The total field incident upon the spray
droplets consists not only of the direct beam but also of the field reflected
SEC, 6.12] THEORIE,9 OF ,$’EA ECHO 523

fromthe seasurface. Onhorizontal polarization thereflection coefficient is

very nearly unity and the phase change is ~. As a result, the total field
is practically zero just above the water surface but then rises to a maxi-
mum at the height corresponding to the first interference lobe, etc. On
vertical polarization the phase shift is also r, but the magnitude of the
reflection coefficient is sensibly different from unity even at low angles.
Although the maxima of the lobes are not greatly affected, the minima of
thepattern are not sodeepas on horizontal polarization. Oncahn seas the
conditions should be most favorable for setting up this interference pattern,
and it would also be expected that the spray droplets, if present, would
be close to the surface. Under these conditions, the incident field for
horizontal polarization would be small and the back scattering should
be far greater on vertical polarization.
As the radar wavelength is shortened, the height of the first lobe de-
creases. Hence, for the same height of spray droplets, the average incident
field on horizontal polarization increases as the wavelength decreases. The
advantage on vertical polarization should therefore decrease, as is actually
observed.
As the sea becomes rougher, the interference pattern, especially at the
minima, tends to be destroyed. Furthermore, the spray droplets are
thrown to greater heights and cover larger portions of the interference
lobe. The polarization dependence should therefore decrease as the sea
becomes rougher. For ~ery rough seas, especially on the shorter radar
wavelengths, the height of the spray is enough to cover several lobes of
the interference pattern. The average incident field on horizontal polariza-
tion is then the greater, because the magnitude of the reflection coefficient
is larger, and the echo should then become slightly weaker on vertical
polarization.
In order to illustrate these changes more concretely the calculations
have been carried through explicitly on the basis of a simple model. It is
assumed that the sea surface is perfectly smooth and horizontal and that
the reflection coefficient on both 9.2 and 3.2 cm is the same as that cal-
culated from the constants of sea water at 10 cm (see Sec. 5“1). The cross
section per unit area is then determined by the expression
m.
d(e) =
H00
u(r) n(r,h) ~4(Z,&~) dz dr, (118)

where F(z,13)A)is the pattern-propagation factor given at low angles by

F’=l+exp
( 47rize
–~–i+~
)

u (r) ia the cross section of a single drop of radius r, and n (r, z) is the dis-
tribution function of the number of drops per unit area according to radius
and height z above the sea surface.
524 RADAR TARGETS AND ECHOES [SEC.612

It will also be assumed that the distribution of drops in height is in-

dependent of their size. This is undoubtedly not true; the very small
drops would presumably be found at greater heights. Only the largest
drops, however, would contribute to the echo, andthe range of drop sizes
to be considered is therefore fairly limited. The distribution function can
then be split into two functions

n(r, z) = ?h(r)nz(z), (119)

and the cross section is given by

m
UO(8)= NiF m(z) F4(z,e,A) dz, (120)
/ o
where F is the average cross section
o per drop and N is the total number
+25 of drops per unit area of the sea.
Finally, it is necessary to as-
sume an explicit function for the
+20
distribution in height. The baro-
0
metric law
z
+15
. W(Z) = ~e–~ (121)

+10 must be qualitatively correct and

,
will be used. The quantity ZOis
0
0 an adjustable parameter which is
+5
00 a measure of the average drop
-0
.
“O height.
01 R With these assumptions, the
ratio of u~/uj has been calculated

.LLL_L_i-5 0 +5 +10
for 0 = 1° at X = 9.2 and 3.2 cm
as a function of the parameter zO.
The results are plotted on Fig. 6.22
as the continuous line. The curve
FIG. 6.22.—Correlation diagram for the comes to a definite terminus in the
polarization ratio of sea echo on 9.2 and 3.2
cm. lower left-hand corner at a value
of —4 db on both wavelengths.
Also plotted are the experimental points, obtained as described in Sec. 6“9,
for a range of o between 0.65° and 1.35°. Considering the artificiality of
the model and the inherent scatter of the experimental points, the quali-
tative agreement is satisfactory.
The dependence of @ on the grazing angle O is also in agreement with
the drop theory, at least on horizontal polarization where most of the
measurements have been made. The inital rapid rise of N with O occurs
at angles for which the height of the fimt lobe is considerably greater than
SEC. 612] THEORIES OF SEA ECHO 525

the drop height, and therefore d’ c W. As the angle increases, the lobe
height decreases until the drops cover several lobes and u“should become
independent of 0, except for the shadow effect.
On the basis of the model used above, a simple explicit formula for
uO(19)can be obtained for horizontal polarization, where the reflection
coefficient is practically unity and the phase shift almost r:

\Aj
u“(O) = N;(2P – 1) (122)

1+ ’(%)+4(%)”
[ 1 -.–
.
-35r-- -35 -
7
-40 -40

I
-45 t -45
.

/
.
$3–50
~.. .

/’”-
~ ..”
(
o ~ .
.
‘e _55 0

-60

-65
Run No. 7 Run No. 6
I
I 1 I
-70 ~
02°0.3004” 06° 2.643.G440”6.W 0.1” 02° 0.?04° 06° 2P 3W4.0” 6.0”
Q a
(a) 20;10 cm [b) zO~30cm
FIG, 623.—Two experimental plots of o“as a function of Oon 10cm (taken from Fig. 6.16)
and fitted by theoretical curves predicted by the drop theory.

This formula has been fitted to the curves of UOvs. din Reference V of
Table 6.5 by suitable choice of Zo. Figure 6.23 reproduces two of the plots
in which the fit was better than average. The values of zo ranged from
less than 1 in. up to slightly more than 1 ft. The scale of increasingzo
agreed approximately with the scale of increasing sea roughness. Thus
the predictions of the drop theory are not inconsistent with the present
experimental knowledge about the dependence of UOon 19.
The data onthe frequency dependence ofti show thatthedrops cannot
be of circumference small compared with k, for then C#should vary as X-4
in rough weather and as k–s in cahn weather. Actually, as seen from the
results of Sec. 6.9, the dependence is more Iike A“in rough weather and A–4
526 RADAR T.4 RGETS AND ECHOES [s~~r.6.12

in very calm weather. To explain this frequency dependence with the

drop model it is necessary to assume that the drops are such that their
individual cross sections are practically independent of k. This condition
would be satisfied with drops of dimensions comparable to k, i.e., in the
neighborhood of the first resonance maximum (Fig. 6.1). The minimum
diameter would be in the neighborhood of 1 cm and the cross section not
far from m’, or roughly 1 cm’.
Under these assumptions the frequency dependence of a“ stems entirely
from the effects of the interference pattern, For calm seas the variation
of Co with A should, therefore, go as h–4, The observed decrease of the
frequency dependence with increasing sea roughness can then be inter-
preted as the result of two factors, (1) The height of the drops increases,
covering greater portions of the interference lobes (2) The increasing
roughness tends “to “wash out” the whole interference pattern.
Some idea about the magnitude of h% required may be obtained from
the values of a,(9”2). The data of Table 6.4, Sec. 6“9, require values of
Nti ranging from – 30 db in very rough weather to – 50 db and possibly
– 60 db in very calm weather. With the foregoing drop size, the cor-
responding variation in N is 10 drops per square foot to one drop every
10 or every 100 sq ft.
The improbabilities of the drop theory in this form are fully recognized.
The greatest polarization effects have been observed with seas so calm
that no spray, not to speak of blobs of water ~ in. in diameter, could be
perceived. Another strong objection is that the reflection coefficient for
any actual sea, as is ~vell known, is considerably less than the theoretical
value for horizontal polarization. In rough seas the effect of the surface
irregularities should almost completely destroy any interference pattern.
A’evertheless the effect of surface roughness should be less marked here
than in the usual setup for measuring reflection coefficient. Because
the height of the drops is small, the size of the flat area necessary to ensure
almost perfect reflection is correspondingly small (cj. Sec. 5.4). It might
even be furnished by the surface of the crest of a wave. Finally, drops of
this size are unstable and should break up. They would also be expected
to fall to the surface rather rapidly.
It is therefore not likely that the drop mechanism represents the actual
state of affairs. However, it remains the only way at present to account
for the polarization dependence. There is thus no really satisfactory
explanation available at this time for the origin of sea echo.
Any theoretical discussion of sea echo must at present be based on ex-
perimental data that are, at best, inadequate and often contradictory.
Future progress in the sea-echo problem requires a systematic and accurate
study of the characteristics of the echo. As the polarization dependence
appears to be the most distinguishing feature of the present theories, it is
especially important to measure # as a function of o for both polariza-
SEC. 6. 13] THE LIMITATIONS OF SYSTEM STABILITY 527

tions. Both the form of the curve and the absolute level should be
determined. These measurements are best made from the air. Especial
attention should be paid to oceanographic factors, and a careful study
made of the correlation of the radar data with the sea state. All possible
means of obtaining quantitative information about the sea surface should
be exploited, as, for example, submerged pressure recorders on expendable
radio buoys and “strip” stereophotographic cameras. 1
On the theoretical side, a rigorous computation of the scattering from
an irregular surface is the most pressing desideratum. In order to yield
realistic results, the boundary conditions imposed should be “statistical”
in nature; that is, the surface should be specified, not by an artificially
simple model, but by probability functions for the height and slope of
the surface at any given point. It would also be necessary to use more
rigorous methods than have hitherto been customary, as the surface
irregularities of importance must be of the dimensions of the wavelength
or less. The possibility of obtaining a polarization dependence through
the interference between multiple reflections from the sea surface also
deserves investigation.
Some of the details of the drop theory also seem to warrant further
development. The frequency dependence of single drops should be
worked out in detail to beyond the first resonance maximum. Attention
should be paid to attenuation and multiple scattering in dense layers of
drops. It might be possible to account for the frequency dependence of
a“ in that fashion without postulating large drops.

THE ORIGINS OF ECHO FLUCTUATIONS

BY HERBERT GOLDSTEIN

A portion of this volume is devoted to a description of the effects of

varying atmospheric refraction on the amplitude of radar echoes from
targets near or beyond the horizon. It is a common observation, how-
ever, that the echoes from less distant targets will often also show large
fluctuations. It is not at all obvious that the same mechanism is re-
sponsible in both cases, and the following sections discuss in detail the
possible sources of the fluctuations of echoes from near-t)y targets.
6“13. The Limitations of System Stability .—The radar system itself
can be a source of variations in the amplitude of the received signal.
Apparent fluctuations in the echo may be caused by changes in the
amplitude of the transmitted si~nal or by variations in the transmitter
and local-oscillator frequency and in the gain of the receiver and video
amplifiers. It is outside the scope of this book to treat in detail the many
sources of system instability and the methods by which such instability
1A program of this sort had been projected in the Radiation I,aborat,ory but ww
ahamlcmwl at t hc ccswtt ion of host ilitim.
528 RADAR TARGETS AND ECHOES [SEX. 6.13

may be reduced. A tew typical figures will be presented, however, to

give an idea of the magnitude of echo variations that can be ascribed
to system fluctuations. These data were taken on an experimental
9-cm mobile radar system.’ They are characteristic of the stability that
inay be obtained in the laboratory without too great an expenditure of
effort but by no means represent the limits that can be achieved if sufficient
care is taken. On the other hand, they are not applicable to field systems,
especially airborne sets, which are designed for maximum sensitivity and
compactness and in which such refinements as carefully regulated power
supplies cannot often be included.
Stability of a system or of its components cannot be specified without a
statement of the time interval involved. The source responsible for
fluctuations over fractions of a second may have no connection with the
source that gives rise to variations over minutes or hours. Thus the
pulse-to-pulse amplitude fluctuation of the magnetron pulse because of in-
herent “jitter” could be easily reduced to less than ~ 0.06 db, the limit of
observation. But careful voltage regulation is necessary in order to keep
the variation over minutes down to f 0.10 db; otherwise even ordinary
line voltage changes of 1 or 2 per cent will cause pulse variations several
times x large. In general, the parameters of a radar system cannot be
maintained constant over a period of days or longer without repeated ad-
justments and the frequent use of test equipment.
Ripple in the receiver and indicators is a common cause of apparent
fluctuation. This is especially true in airborne sets where jitter arising
from microphonics action \vill often make the indicators unusable. lVith
adequate filtering the ripple can be greatly reduced. Thus the apparent
fluctuation of a signal generator was reduced to a point \vhere the standard
deviation of the amplitude ~vas 0.12 db, which is close to the limit of ob.
servation. The high-gain i-f amplifiers in receivers are naturally difficult
to stabilize over long periods of time, and they cannot be depended on to
have a constant gain even for a few minutes. They are often especially
sensitive to changes in heater voltage. These difficulties can be avoided
by measuring echo amplitudes with reference to an r-f signal generator
pulse that passes through the same receiver as the echo.
Frequency stability of the system depends upon the type of transmitter
used—magnet ron, klystron, etc.—and even on the individual magnetron.
No exact measurements of frequency flucutations have been made, but an
examination of a properly operating 10-cm magnetron with a spectrum
analyzer shows that the pulse-to-pulse changes must be less than 200
kc/see. Likewise, the frequency modulation within the pulse can be de-
termined from the shape of the spectrum and is usually less than 200
kc see/W sec. These figures, especially for frequency modulation, must be
increased somewhat at higher frequencies.
I Th(; Syst(,n) ~v~~ (,[ tll(. ~rditlaiy tvpc, uot designed for IhlTl oporat, ion.
 SEC. 6.13] THE LIMITATIONS OF SYSTEM STABILITY 529

In most radar systems fluctuations in the magnetron frequency are

compensated by an AFC which keeps the local oscillator in tune with the
magnetron. Some types of AFC, however, if not adjusted precisely, will
“hunt” slightly and thus cause a certain amount of jitter in the final
signal. In addition, frequency changes can cause variations in the echo
amplitude if the cross section is a sensitive function of the frequency. Thus,
let us consider a target consisting of two equal scatterers spaced so that
they are barely unresolved, that is, a distance Tc/2 apart, where , is the
pulse duration and c the speed of light. The number of wavelengths in the
round-trip distance between them is n = rv, where v is the frequency. If
the number n changes by ~, the interference between the echoes from the
two scatterers can change from destructive to constructive. The frequency
shift required is l/2~ or, for a l-psec pulse, 500 kc/see. This is larger than
the limits of pulse-to-pulse frequency instability, at least for 10 cm, but
frequency shifts as large or larger are often caused by slight supply-volt-
age changes.
The question arises ;vhether or not it is possible to find a complex target
that is more “frequency sensitive” than just two equal scatterers. Al-
though no general answer can yet be given to this question, it seems likely
that two equal scatterers is in fact the most extreme case, Thus, let us
suppose that instead of two targets, there are N targets, equally spaced,
with the distance between the first and last equal to 7c/2. Then it can
be shown that the frequency shift necessary to go from maximum ampli-
tude to minimum amplitude is the same as with just two targets.1
It is instructive to consider a more general class of targets, namely,
those consisting of a large number of uniformly dense scatterers, with
randomly distributed phases. The individual scattered amplitudes do not
necessarily have to be equal. As will be shown in the following sections,
most types of “clutter” targets fall in this category, and even a ship may
be well approximated by such a model.
The instantaneous amplitude received by the radar is given by

V = ~ vjs(xj)ez’kz;, (123)

where VIis the amplitude of the jth scatterer alone, s (zl) is a real function
giving the variation of the incident field in space and depends solely on the
pulse shape, k is the wave number 27r/k, and z is the radial coordinate from
the radar. The instantaneous signal power is given essentially by

P a VV’ = ~ Vjv: e2ik(’J “J S(izj)s(xt). (124)

,,1

1 Equivalent to this statemsnt is the well-known fact that the apparent width of a
monochromatic line in a diffraction grating spectrum depends solely on the width of
the whole grating and not on the spacing between the slits.
530 RADAR TARGETS AND ECHOES [SEC. 6.13

Let us suppose that an imaginary experiment is ‘now performed, in

which two radar systems located at the same spot and looking at exactly
the same target are identical except that one operates on a wavelength h
and the other on Az = k, + Ah. If P, is the instantaneous signal power on
one set and PZ the corresponding simultaneous value on the second set,
then the quantity (PZ – Pl)z (where the average is over all possible random
configurations of the individual scatterers) will be a function of AA and is a
measure of the frequency sensitivity of the target cross section. From
Eq. (124),
P2 – P, cc ~ vjo; S(zj)s(z{) ezi~f” “[) ~jl, (125)
j,l
where
~j, = ~2iA!c(.f-zJ _ 1. (126)
Squaring Eq. (125), one obtains

(P, – pl)~ ~ ~ Vjff;LIjUaS(Z,)

S(Zl)S(Z,)S(Z,) e“k(” - ‘i “’+”) #j, +Jq. (127)
j,[,p,Q
When the average over all possible configurations is computed, only those
terms will remain for which the exponent vanishes, as the phases are
assumed randomly distributed.’ The exponent vanishes only when
j=landp =qorwhenj=pandl =q. The average is therefore given
by
(P2 – F’))z m ~ t~~~sz(~j)~z(~p)tjj~~o+ ~ ~~L’j~z(xj)s2(z~)+~. [ 128)
JP 7,1
From Eq. (125), ~,, and tjp vanish identically and the average reduces to

(129)

To evaluate this quantity further it will be assumed that the number of

scatterers is sufficiently large that the sums may be replaced by integrals.
Let N be the number of scatterers in the beam per unit length and .f(u’) the
distribution function for Vz,that is, .f(uz) dvz is the fraction of scatterers for
which rJ2lies between V2and V2 + dvz. This distribution is assumed in-
dependent of x. Then the average signal power is given by

P.
s“’s’(x)
3
‘JvLms2(x)dxlm (130)

and Eq. (128) becomes

(p2-p])’aN’JjmJ’’2f(v2)s2( z,’~(z,’zjs’(z’) +z(x,z’)dx’dt’zdzdt’z,

LThis operation is really a time averaging if the scatterers arc moving

(131)

about ran-
domly, ~$ in the case of storm echoes, etc.
SEC.614] ATMOSPHERIC VARIATIONS 531

where #2(z,z’) = 4 sinz [Ak(z-z’)). If there is now int reduced a normalized

function
Syit) ,
s’(z) = ~ (132)
s*(z) dz
/ o
then Eq. (131) can be simply ~vritten as

(P, – P,)’ = 4P’

H “
00
mS’(z) S2(Z’) sin’ [Ak(z – z’) dz’ dx. (133)

These integrals cannot be evaluated without a knowledge of the function,

S2(Z), which depends solely on the pulse shape. The rise and fall time
of the pulse is usually small compared with the period of oscillation of
sin’[~k(z-z’)], and there is therefore little error in assuming the pulse to
be rectangular. The function S’(z) is then

= O elsewhere,
~vhere R is the range and 3 is the radar pulse length, equal to rc/2. With
this choice for the pulse shape, Eq. (133) reduces to

(P’-
P)’=
2F2[1
- t*)12
(134)

The corresponding mean-square change can be easily computed for the

case of t~vo equal scatterers a distance J apart and turns out to be

(P2 – P])’ = 2T’2sin’ (rrr Av). (135)

The first maximum of ~q. ( 135) occurs at Au = 1/2T, in agreement with

the rough conclusions given earlier. Bllt in Eq. (134), the first maximum
occurs at A. = 1/7. Hence this type of target, consisting of many ran-
dom scatterers, is less frequency sensitive than the simple case of two equal
scatterers. It should be remarked again that a large fraction of radar
targets fall within thisand that the assumptions made in the
classification
derivation for the sake of mathematical simplicity could be removed
without mat erially affecting the results.
It seems safe to conclude that with a carefully regulated system,
fluctuations caused by frequency shifts of the transmitter will uot be
important.
6.14. Atmospheric Variations.—It has been shown in the preceding
chapters that varying atmospheric refraction may have a profound
influence on the strength of signals coming from beyond the horizon.
The question immediately occurs whether or not this same phentmenou
532 RADAR TARGETS AND ECHOES [SEC. 6.14

might not also be of importance in the variations of echoes from near-by

targets. The problem is most simply attacked by considering one-way
transmission paths rather than the actual radar situation. Unfortunately
experimental data of this type are rather meager, most attention having
been paid to the effects in the diffraction region.
Anderson and others’ have measured transmission over a 13.5-mile
land path in which the angle of the ray with the horizontal was 2.5°.
The results obtained have already been discussed in Sees. 4“12 and 4-13;
it will be recalled that the maximum variations were f ~ db and always
of a long period. The signal strengths over longer nonoptical paths
measured at the same time showed much larger fluctuations.
Pertinent theoretical work is even more meager. Freehafer has
studied the case of a rather pronounced S-shaped duct by means of ray
theory calculated with the aid of the MIT differential analyzer. The
transmitter was assumed located at a height of 150 ft, in the middle of
the duct. At a distance of 7 miles the calculated field differed from the
standard by not more than 2 db. At 12 miles the deviation was not much
greater.
Despite this paucity of information, it seems safe to conclude that
near-by echoes may be somewhat affected by nonstandard refraction but
that the effects are many orders of magnitude smaller than those com-
monly observed in the diffraction region. Furthermore, the changes
that may occur are of a fairly long period; hence one should speak of
variations and not of jiuduations. It should be remarked that these
conclusions are based solely on one-way transmission data. There is no
known unambiguous case in which changes of radar echoes from clearly
optical targets have been correlated with the presence of nonstandard
atmospheric refraction.
There might be other mechanisms whereby changes in refraction
would cause echo fluctuations. Thus, the beam might actually be bent
“off” the target. It is easy to calculate, however, that even in the extreme
case of grazing incidence on the boundary between two greatly dissimilar
air masses, the beam deviation is not greater than a small fraction of a
degree. Sharpless and Crawford2 have measured the deviations occurring
over somewhat longer paths than are of interest here and found that they
never exceeded 0.1° in azimuth or 0.70° vertically. Only with excep-
tionally large antennas would this amount of bending be at all important.
(See Sees. 4.23 and 424 for an account of these experiments.)
Another interesting possibility is the existence of a phenomenon
analogous to the familiar twinkling of stars. The image of stars close to

1 P. A. Anderson et al., NDRC Project PDRC-647, R7ashington State College,

Report No. 4, Oct. 26, 1943.
Z A. B, Crawford and W. M. Sharpless, P~oc. IRE, 94, 845 (1946). See also A. W.
Straiton, Proc. IRE., 37, 808 (1949).
SEC. 614] ATMOSPHERIC VARIATIONS 533

the horizon will often show large intensity fluctuations with standard
deviations as high as 60 per cent. The rate of fluctuation varies from 25
to 150 per second. Since the time of Kepler this twinkling has been known
to be associated with atmospheric refraction. More recently it has been
shownl that the effect is produced by small inhomogeneities in the refrac-
tive index which act as weak lenses focusing and defocusing the rays. The
wavefront thus becomes somewhat corrugated. The light and dark
shadow bands seen on the surface of the earth at the instant before a total
eclipse of the sun are evidence of these corrugations. Similar shadow
bands exist for stars except that they are too weak to be perceived directly;
but as the bands pass across our vision, the apparent intensity of the star
image fluctuates. The size of the inhomogeneities has been measured to
be from 4 to 60 in. These striae have been found to move at speeds com-
parable to that of the wind.
It would seem, a priori, that similar effects should occur at microwave
frequencies. There is no conclusive evidence, however, either theoretical
or experimental, that they are of practical importance for transmissions
over paths not extending into the cliffraction region.
Some calculations on the possible effect of these inhomogeneities have
been made by Scott,z but the most detailed theory so far is that of
Bergmann.3 He has considered the problem solely as one in geometrical
optics, neglecting diffraction effects and assuming that the variations of the
refractive index are isotropic in space. The rms intensity fluctuation in
?fb on a one-way path is given by

(136)

where R is the range, a is the “patch” size defined in a certain manner,

V2n is the Laplacian of the refractive index, and the averaging is to be
taken over all space.
Meteorological data that can furnish us with values for a and V% are
practically nonexistent. A. H. Woodcock, of the Woods Hole 0ceano7
graphic Institution, has made some measurements with wet- and dry-bulb
thermometers in a situation of unstable cold air moving over water at a
higher temperature.’ The meteorological conditions were thus favorable
for the production of inhomogeneities. The maximum deviation of the

1 For a description of the experimental investigations and further references see

R. W. Wood, Physics. 2ptics, 3d cd,, Macmillan, New York, 1934, p, 91; J. A. Anderson,
Jour. Optical Sot. Am., 26, 152 (1935); and .M. Minnaert and J. Hontgast, Z. Astro-
physi.k, 10, 86 (1935].
2 J. M. C. Scott, ADRDE Memorandum No. 42, March 8, 1944.
3 P. G. Bergmann, Phys. Rev., 70, 486 (1946).
4 Unpubl ishcd data. These measurements are not the same as those referred to in
Sec. 326 and have been analyzed in a different fashion, as the above section deals with
the purely meteorological azpects of the situation.
534 RADAR TARGETS AND ECHOES [SEC. 614

index from the average was ashlgh as 1 X 10–5, but therms deviation was
about 2.5 X 10–b~ These calculated fluctuations are probably too small,
as a result of the large lag of the thermometers. The data have been
analyzed statistically to furnish the quantities needed in Eq. (136). The
patch size a was about 40 yd. At a range of 20,000 yd, an extreme case,
thecomputedrms echo fluctuation is O.15db, which isentirely too small
to be of importance.
The maximum fluctuation of the index of refraction is probably higher
than the data indicate, but not enough to affect the result greatly. If,
however, the size of the inhomogeneities were much smaller, let us say
comparable to those which are of importance for star twinkling, that is,
much less than 1 yd, then for the same absolute deviation of the index the
Laplacian would be much greater and hence the fluctuation would become
large. But if the inhomogeneities are small in extent, then the corruga-
tions in the wavefront are also small; hence the average antenna aperture
would include many of the “shadow bands. ” Now it can be shown that
the fluctuations in phase will always be small. Bergmann has derived the
following expression for the rms fluctuation of the optical path length:

(137)
where ~ is another patch size defined in a slightly different manner from a.
Using the same data as for Eq. (137) with a range of 20,000 yd, s turns out
to be 0.3 cm. If the patch size were only a few inches, the phase fluctua-
tions would be even smaller. Hence the various shadow bands across the
antenna aperture are in phase, and the total signal measured would tend
to be an average over the several fluctuations. The corresponding
phenomenon has been observed optically, that is, the intensity fluctuations
of a star image decrease as the telescope aperture is increased.
There is no experimental evidence of fluctuations on short paths that
can be indisputably ascribed to atmospheric inhornogeneities. Whenever
the data have been subjected to close examination, other mechanisms have
always been found that fit the observations as well or better. Simul-
taneous transmission of 9- and 3-cm waves was briefly studied on an
overland path of about 10 miles, and fluctuations observed that were
slightly larger than those due to purely instrumental causes. The rms
fluctuation on 3 cm, 0.27 db, however, was roughly three times the fluctua-
tion on 9 cm. A statistical analysis showed that the rates of fluctuation
were also inversely proportional to the wavelength. Finally, the cross
correlation between the simultaneous signal intensities on the two
wavelengths was completely negligible. These facts agree perfectly with
the assumption of a small amount of ground reflected signal that is varia-
able, chiefly in phase. On the other hand it has been seen that only such
inhomogeneities as are large compared with the wavelength are likely to
have much effect practically. But in this case one would expect, in con-
SEC.6.15] FLUCTUATIONS IN SPACE INTERFERENCE PA TTERh 535

tradition to the experimental data, that the fluctuations would be

independent of wavelength.
It seems likely, therefore, that inhomogeneities of the refractive index
will have a negligible effect on microwave transmission over short dis-
tances. On longer paths, extending into the diffraction region, the effects
are greater. It is obvious, however, that here, as in the influence of
nonstandard refraction on near-by echoes, the investigations have been
initiated and much further work remains to be done.
6“15. Fluctuations in the Space Interference Pattern. -If a microwave
transmission path is over water and to a smaller extent if it is over land,
the field incident on the target consists of both a direct and reflected
component. Changes in the amplitude and phase of the reflected com-
ponent relative to the direct one are a fruitful source of variations in the
radar signal. Two types of phenomena are to be distinguished:
1. The reflecting surface is smooth but moves up and down relative
to transmitter and target. A space interference pattern is still
present, but the positions of the maxima and minima relative to the
target are changed.
2. The reflecting surface is not smooth but irregular; hence there may
be many reflecting and scattering points whose contributions will
be changing in time. The whole nature of the interference pattern
is changed and is often almost destroyed,
A striking illustration of the first type of effect is the frequently ob-
served variation of signal strength with height of the tide. As a simple
case let us consider a point target, and assume a wide beam vertically
and a reflection coefficient of —1. The variation in echo power is con-
tained in the factor F~ in the transmission formula. With the foregoing
assumptions this factor can be written as

F~ = 16 sin4 ~ (h – ho)(h, – ho) , (138)

[ 1
where hl and b are the transmitter and target heights above a given
datum level and ho is the tide height referred to the same level. Obviously
if the tides are of sufficient range, F4 can vary from a minimum of zero to
its maximum value of 16.
Figure 6.24 shows a plot of the received echo at 9 cm from a 40-in.
square corner reflector at a range of 6000 yd. The transmitter was
210 ft and the target height about 50 ft above mean sea level. The
circles represent the echo power on horizontal polarization, as measured
at half-hour intervals in a 72-hr period (covering some 12 tidal cycles),
and show a range of more than 25 db. The continuous curve was cal-
culated on the basis of Eq. (137) and was shifted vertically on the decibel
scale to agree with the maximum values. Good agreement is obtained
except in the neighborhood of the minimum. There are a number of
 ..
:%.
..
. .
A

>.
..
-“. ~
..
“8 -.
.
...

. .
. .
.r:....., .. ...
,.-”
●
..
:1.

. ““&
...
..
.
. .. . .
.
“.
.
.\.
.

. .
. .
.
..

.“.
.“

“\
. .
..
.“. .
. . .. ..””
.. ..
.. “
. .
. . .. . ,

-28
1 I I I I I I I 1 I 1
-4 -2 0 +2 +4
Height of tide in ff above mean sea level Height of tide in ft above mean sea level
FIG. 6, 24.—Tidal cycle in the echo from a 40-in. corner reflector FJG. 6.25.—Tidal cycle in the echo from the Strawberry Hill
on 9.2 cm. Transmitter height 210 ft, target height 50 ft, range standpipes on 9.2 cm. Transmitter height 120 ft; the targets extend
6000 yd. The dots are experimental points; the solid line is the in hcigbt from 100 to 160 ft. range 10,000 yd. The dots are experi-
theoretical curve for a point target, assuming the reflection coe!licmnt mental ,joints: the solid line shows the medicted variation on the
 SEC.6-15] FL UCTUA TIO.V,Y IN ,$’PACE INTERFERENCE PATTERN 537

reasons for this exception. The reflection coefficient, even for a smooth
surface, is not exactly — 1 at the angles involved, and the water, of course,
was not smooth. The fluctuations caused by surface roughness are
greatest at the minimum where the direct and reflected rays are out of
phase (cj. Sees. 5.6 and 5.8). In addition, the corner reflector is not
exactly a point target but is sufficiently large to cover an appreciable
portion of one of the interference lobes; this should have the effect of
filling in the minimum without appreciably changing the signal at its
maximum.
In fact, if the vertical extent of the target is sufficient to cover several
lobes of the interference pattern, it might be thought that the “tidal
effect” would be small if not complete] y negligible. In practice, however,
it is found that echoes from extended targets often do show a large varia-
tion with tide.
Figure 6-2.5 is a plot of the signal strength from Strawberry Hill on
Nantasket, Mass., over a 4-day period. The radar, operating on 9 cm,
horizontal polarization, was located about 10,000 yd away on a hill 120 ft
above mean sea level. The target consists of a large steel standpipe
57 ft tall on a hill 100 ft high, along with a much smaller neighboring
water tank. As before, the circles represent experimental points measured
at half-hour intervals over a period of 4 days. Although the scatter is
large, there is a definite variation of some 18 db with tide.
The standpipe covers one and one-half
lobes of the interference pattern,’ including
two minima, a maximum, and most of
another maximum. Nevertheless the effect
of these lobes is not “averaged out. ” z
FIG,6.26.—Illustrating
tidal varia-
essentially because the component parts of tionswithextendedtargets.
the target scatter coherently. The nature
of the tidal variations of echoes from extended targets is best understood
by examining the various components of the received signal. Referring
to Fig. 6.26 one sees that the echo can be divided into three portions:
1. The incident and reflected waves travel along path A.
2. The incident wave travefs along path A, but the received wave
along path 1?; or equivalently, the field is incident on path B and
reflected on path A.
3. Both the incident and reflected waves travel along path E.
The first component is obviously uninfluenced by the tide, but for the
other two the variation in the height of the sea causes a corresponding
1The water tank can probably be neglected as a target compared with the stand-
pipe.
2 An equivalent analysis was given in %c. 6.5 for the flat-plate model of a ship
target.
538 RADAR TARGETS AND ECHOEA’ [SW. 615

change in the angle of incidence on the target or in the angle of scattering.

The reradiation pattern of a geometrically simple object, such as the
standpipe, as obtained from Fresnel diffraction theory, has a sharp peak in
the direction corresponding to specular reflection, The width of the peak
corresponds roughly to k/1, where t is the vertical extent of the target.
Away from the peak the amplitude of the scattered signal is small and varies
only slowly with angle. The phase of the diffracted wave, on the other
hand, is almost stationary in the neighborhood of the specular reflection
peak but varies rapidly outside this region. If now the angles are such
that all three components of the received signal correspond to diffraction
angles away from the main peak, so that their amplitudes are of the same
order of magnitude, then the change in the relative phases with tide may
be great enough to cause large variations in the total signal. Obviously,
it is possible that at one. stage of the tide the amplitudes and phases may
be such as to result in almost complete cancellation of the signal.
In the case of the Strawberry Hill standpipe the first component (direct
wave) comes almost exactly in the direction of specular reflection, pro-
viding the target is exactly vertical; it would then be much larger than the
other components. Little tidal variation is then to be expected. If the
target is not exactly vertical, however, but leans at an angle of the order of
A/1, the specular reflection beam is thrown away from the receiver and
destructive interference may easily take place. The angle involved is small,
20’ of arc or less. The continuous curve in Fig. 6’25 was calculated on
the assumption of an angle of about 8’, chosen to give the best fit with
the experimental points. The corresponding deviation of the tower from
the vertical would be not more than 1 in., which seems reasonable.
The true state of affairs is probably much more complicated, because
of the presence of the water tank and the hill itself. This simplified model
has been considered in detail, however, in order to demonstrate that large
tidal variations of signal strength may occur even with extended targets.1
The phenomena resulting from the roughness of the sea have already
been described in Sec. 5.5. Targets viewed over water often exhibit
characteristically violent and rapid fluctuations because of the irregular
nature of the reflection (especially in the minimum of a tidal cycle; cf.
Figs. 6.24 and 6.25). Although the fundamental origin of these fluctua-
tions seems clear, many questions about the magnitude of the effects and
the conditions favorable for their occurrence remain to be answered by
further investigations.
The discussion has so far been restricted to reflection from water sur-
faces. In Sec. 510 it has been shown that the reflection coefficient of even
1 Similar effects for both point and extended targets have been reported by G. C.
Southworth, A. P. King, and S. D. Robertson, “K-band Radar Transmission.” BTL
Memorandum No. MM44-160-1 15, May 1944.
SEC.6.16] ISOLA TED MOVING TARGETS 539

dry ground, as measured at short ranges on carefully leveled plots, can be

high. It is common experience, however, that ground reflection is rarely
found for long ranges, This situation is quite understandable, since the
irregularities of most terrain are such that the Rayleigh roughness cri-
terion [Eq. (5 19)], is greatly exceeded. As a result, the intensity of the
wave reflected from the ground surface is small compared with that of the
direct ray.
It also seems reasonable that this small scattered wave will fluctuate
violently under certain circumstances. Thusj if the reflection area is
heavily vegetated, one would expect that the nature of the surface would
constantly change with time because of the wind. Again, if the reflection
takes place over city areas including roads and railroad yards, similar
effects seem reasonable.
The transmission over a number of short paths, about 10 miles long,
across the city of Boston, Mass., was briefly observed simultaneous y on
9.2 and 3.2 cm. At the longer wavelength the rms fluctuation was 0.1 db
and the autocorrelation was down to 0.5 at 4 sec. On 3.2 cm, the rms
fluctuation was about 0.27 db with the corresponding width of the correla-
tion function near 1.6 sec. Vanishing cross correlation was found between
the two records. As has already been pointed out in Sec. 614, the de-
pendence of the signal characteristics on wavelength is in agreement with
the hypothesis that the fluctuation arises from the ground-scattered wave
and not from atmospheric turbulences.
Additional evidence for this view comes from the behavior }vhen the
polarization of transmitter and receiver were crossed. From the normal
depolarization of the paraboloid antennas a decrease of 20 to 30 db is to be
expected. Actually decreases of 10 to 25 db were observed, and the signal
fluctuated violently between these limits. It seems, therefore, that over
these paths there is an appreciable component scattered in such a manner
as to rotate the direction of polarization.
As in the case of fluctuations in the reflection from water, the question
with regard to ground reflections has been too little explored. Much more
work must be done before the magnitude and importance of these fluctua-
tions are known.
6“16. Isolated Moving Targets.-On coherent types of radar systems
the echo from a moving target will show a periodic fluctuation because
of the target’s radial velocity relative to the radar. With noncoherent
systems this Doppler beat, so-called, is absent but echoes from moving-
planes or ships still show large fluctuations.
The most striking characteristic of aircraft echoes is an almost periodic
variation of the signal strength. It has been shown conclusively that this
variation arises from a periodic modulation of the plane’s radar cross
section as the propellers rotate. The nature and properties of “propeller
540 RADAR TARGETS AND ECHOES [SEC. 616

modulation” have been studied intensively and are reported in detail

elsewhere.’,2
Figure 6“27 shows the signal from a B-26 bomber on a 10-cm system
for an interval of about 0.1 sec. The periodicity is strikingly evident.
The fundamental frequency is given, not by the shaft speed itself, but by
the shaft speed times the number of blades per propeller and is about
50 to 60 cps. It is obvious from the figure that the signai must be rich
in harmonics of this fundamental frequency. Figure 6,28 shows the

I
lime — Modulation frequency _
FIG. 6’27.—Modulation from pro- FIG. 6,2S.—Frequency spectr~m of the
peller rotation on the 10-cm echo from modulation shown in Fig, 6.27.
a B-26,

frequency spectrum of the signal in Ilg. 6“27. The peaks indicate the
intensity of the individual harmonics in terms of per cent modulation.
It is to be noted that the harmonic at three times the fundamental fre-
quency is stronger than the fundamental. There is an appreciable con-
tribution from as high as the tenth harmonic.
.4s is to be expected, the propeller modulation percentage is a function
of the plane’s aspect. It is naturally greatest head-on, slightly less for the
tail aspect, and considerably less broadside, where the reflection from the
fuselage predominates. Figure 6.29, which is a record’ by Ashby and
Martin of the propeller modulation of the signal from a B-26 as a function
of aspect, illustrates these clifferences. The plot also shows that the pat-
tern has a very detailed lobe structure. The same general dependence

I J. L. Lawson, Ed., “Detection of Propeller and Sambo Modulations,” RL Report

No. S10, May R. M .kshbyand F. Martin,RL Report No. 914, March 28,
16, 1944;
1946. Also see Vol. 24, Chap. 10, of the RadiationLaboratorySeries.
~British work in the same field is reported by G. H. Beeching and N. Corcoran,
“The Characteristics of S-band Aircraft Echoes,” ADRDE Research Report No. 253,
May 8, 1944.
s Aehby and Martin, Op. tit.
SEC. &16] ISOLA TED MO VIA’G TARGETS 541

of propeller modulation on aspect is reported by Beeching and Corcoranl

who also state that the greatest modulation, head-on, was found in a
Mosquito plane (65 per cent) and the least for a B-17 bomber (25 per
cent).
If the propeller modulation is smoothed out by averaging the signal over
a time long compared with the fundamental period, a much slower variation

FIG. 629.-Per cent propeller modulation of the echo on 10 cm from a B-26 bomber, as a
function of azimuth.

in signal strength is found to be present in addition to the propeller modula-

tion. Figure 6.30 shows the echo intensity from an AT-11 aircraft,
head-on, averaged over intervals of 0.03 sec and plotted for 3.2 sec. These
measurements were made from pulse-to-pulse A~cope photographs and
show a fading exceeding 10 db. A frequency analysis of the data indicates

1 op. d.
 Echo Wwer in arbitrary umts
-rQoJa mm
0’

0
N

0
-

0
m

0
m

!-
0
y
N

.,,.,,”,.,
SEC.616] ISOLATED MOVING TARGETJ!S 543

a maximum in the spectrum of about 0.6 cps, Similar results have been
obtained by recording the AGC voltage in the radar receiver.1
This fluctuation, slow compared with propeller modulation, is almost
entirely attributable to the fine lobe structure of the radar cross section as
afunction of aspect. Onewould expect thewidtho fthelobestobegiven
roughly by A/21, where 1 is some characteristic length of the airplane.
Thus at 10 cm, with 1 = 30 ft, the width of the lobes should be of the order
of magnitude of 0.3°. An airplane in flight will change aspect by many
times this figure, yawing being the most important motion for these con-
siderations. These small changes in aspect due to yaw give rise, therefore,
to large changes in the echo. Figure 6.31 shows a record taken by Ashby
and Martin of the signal strength from a B-26 bomber as a function of
azimuth. The detailed lobe structure is evident, although quantitative
conclusions are difficult to draw because the recorder could not follow the
rapid changes satisfactorily.
These results provide an adequate explanation for the “spotty” nature
of aircraft echoes on microwave scanning systems. Normally the beam
is on the target for a time long compared with the propeller modulation
period but short compared with the slower fading due to aspect changes.
Consequently it becomes a matter of chance whether the beam hits the
target when it is oriented to give a large echo or a small echo. If the gen-
eral signal level is not too high above noise, the echo \vill apparently dis-
appear for one or more scans, as has been observed in many cases. The
fluctuating nature of reflection from the rough surface of the sea also often
contributes to the fading and “spotty” signals.
Ship echoes, of course, do not have propeller-modulation effects but
nevertheless shot~ deep and often rapid fading.g These fluctuations are
the result of changing aspect or variahl~ reflection from the sea surface.
The reradiation pat tm-n of a ship should ha~-e an even finer lobe structure
than that of aircraft, as ship dimensions are us~mlly much greater.
Se\eral attempts have becm made to correlate the position of a ship
\vith the irmttintaneous intensity of the echo. C’ooper~ obtained simul-
taneous measurements of a tr~\\-ler’sroll and sle\valong \vith the echo cm a
1O-cm system but failed to find any correlation. From a battleship,
Kolkr’ searched on 10-cm radar for regular periods in the echo which might
be attributed to roll, also without success. At these high frequencies,
1 Lawson, op. cit.
z There arc several reports, however, that cchocs from PT-i~oats show a character-
istic rapid flutk,r that has txwn ascribed to wl>mtiou cuus(d hy the engines. s~(, “~;s~
of Shore 13ascd 10 CULItadar for Watching Ships and Aircraft, ” AOILG Puhlicmtion
N3, Scptemlwr 1944.
I R. I. 11, Cooper, “The Fading of S-hand Echoes from Ships in the Optical Zone, ”
RRDE Report No. 265, Dccemher 1W4.
i I.. R. Kollcr, “ldelltifiration of N’aval Spoofs, ” ItIiL Report No, 411–129, Nov.
29, 1944.
544 RADAR TARGETS AND ECHOES [SEC. 616

however, the lobes of the diffraction pattern maybe so extremely fine that
the aspect would have to be measured with extreme precision before any
significant correlation could be attempted. Also, the slight differences in
the ship’s position from one roll to the next would mask any regular period.
[In confirmation, Keller was able to find a regular repetition of fluctuations
corresponding to the roll period on a much lower frequency (700 Me/see).]

I I 1 1 I
o 06 1.2 1,8 2.4
Time in seconds

FIG.63?. -Fchn frnm a battleship on 10 cm. (Takm fmm J7A’I- RCJIIJI f .~u. J1 1-1 ~’9.~

In addition, the varying nature of the sea reflection tcnlis to mask any corre-
lation with ship aspect.
The rates of fluctuation of ship echoes cover an extremely wide range.
Figure 6.32, taken from Keller’s report, shows a S1O]V fade of several seconds
in the echo from a battlmhip on 10 cm. The ordinate is height of signal
on the A-scope, and the abscissa is time, up to 2.4 sec. 1 At the other ex-

+5 +5

0 -0
n, =
=s-5 -5
.= a
~ ~ -lo -10
,; .%
& : -15 -15
.5 c
0 m -20 -20
jg
~ -25 -25
-30 -30
-35 -35
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 05 0.6 0.7 08 0.9 10
Time an seconds

FIG. 633.-l’l0t of tile r-f Iatcthity of the m-l~nftom a hattlc~l,i[] 0119.2 ml at a r:mw of
5000” ) ([

trwme, Fig, 6.33 is a plot taken from a pulse-to-pu]sc film of a battleship

echo on a 9-cm systcm \\lth a ]~tllse-1,(,(’tlrrt~nc~; fr(qurncy of 333 pps. The
signal intensity is given in drcibels refrrrcd to an tirllitrary d~turn, and the
time scale extends to 1.0 SCC. Frcquenciw up to 20 cps are present in the
~hToreceivercalibrationis given in the ~~rigin:~l~~,l~~~r6but app:tr~(ltl~the bOttOm
line correspondsto the .i-scnpc hasclir)caa(i tht iol, Ilt)tto the sat uratiou level of tli(,
rweiver. The dynamic raagc is probably arol]nd 20 (11).
SEC. &16] ISOLATED MOVING TARGETS 545

record. It seems likely that ship echoes show such high rates of fluctuation
only when the ship is turning relative to the radius vector from the radar.
The fine lobes of the reradiation pattern then pass rapidly over the receiving
antenna. Such is the situation in Fig. 6.33. Coales and Hopkinsl have
found fluctuations at rates of about 10t020cps in the 10-cm echo froma
destroyer turning at the rate of 0.8°/ sec. This is in rough agreement with
the expected lobe structure from a target about 200ft long.
The rate of fluctuation would be expected to increase linearly with r–f
frequency. Theonly dataonthis point arethose given by Ifoller(op. cit.),
u-ho found no significant difference between the ratcsat A = 10cm and at
k = 40cm.2 Tllelack ofagreement \\-asinterpreted asindicating that the

FIG.6.34.—Section of the puke-to-pulse rword of the echo from a battleship on 9.2 cm.
l’[llsc-recur rencefrcc~tlcllr>- 333 VW, pulse length 1 psev.

effective reflectin~ surfaces arediffcrent at the two wavelengths, masts and

rigging playing a proportionately larger role at 40 cm than at 10 cm.
In general, ships are sufficiently large structures so that the various
reflecting surfaces are at significantly different ranges, If the receiver
bandwidth is }vide for the pulse length (i.e. much greater than 1 ‘7), then
the echo pulse will have a complex shape, ~vith different portions of the
pulse often fluctuating independently of each other. This phenomenon is
clearly illustrated in Fig. 6.34, which shofrs a strip of the pulse-to-pulse film
from which Fig, 6.33 was obtained. The pulse length is 1 ~sec, and the
receiver bandwidth, about 3 Me/see, The complexity of the echo is one
of the most convenient, ways of identifying the signal as coming from ships.
As the reflecting elements on a vessel are so numerous and di~,erse, it
has often been suggested that a ship may be considered simply as a group
of independent scatterers \vhose echoes have random phases (cj. Sec. 6.,5),
The theory of the return from such a group is presented in det:iil in Sec.
619, \vhereit is stated that the probability of obtaining an echo intensity
between P and I’ + W is given by

(139)

where P. is the average intensity. There are se~eral a priori objections to

this picture. As all reflecting objects are more or less ri~idly connected,
1J, R. Codes and 11. Hopkins, ‘Report on Trialsto Deter,ninethe Variationof the
.ApparcntReflectingPoint of Plane 10 cm \Vavesfrom a Destroyer,” ASE Report No,
M627, July 1944.
? The ,~lcas[,r(,,,lf,]lts, hmvcw.], \vcrc not nmde simldtamwasiy on the two freq,,(,,icicw.
546 RADAR TARGETS AND ECHOES [SEC. 616

the phases cannot change independently. Also there are likely to be a few
surfaces whose contributions are far greater than the others. It seems
reasonable, however, that this model should be a fair approximation to the
actual case.
Cooperl, KolleP, and Wilkes, Ramsay, and B10W3, and others have
tried to verify the probability distribution [Eq. 139] or rather its integral.
The published reports in general show fairly large deviations from the
exponential law. With the exception of Cooper, the investigators have

\\

.-c

‘\
‘\
\
.% 0.06 \
c ‘\\
“% 0.04 \\
z \\
\\
\
\
\
\
\\
0,011 1 I 1 1 ( 1 I I )
01234567 8910
Signal power in arbitrary units
Fm. 6.35. —E’rolmhility distribution of the levels of 333 echoes from a hattled!ip on
9.2 cm. The dotted line indictites the exponential formula predicted theoretically for random
scatterers.

assumed linearity of the receivers and indicators, an assumption well known

to be frequently erroneous. It is therefore difficult to tell if the deviations
are significant, Cooper, whose work is the most extensive, wsrci a signal
generator for calibration and in general found good agreement \vith I;q.
(139), although occasionally he founcl an cxcess of high-intensity signals.
This difference is in line with the idea that a few large surfaces predominate.
Corroborative evidence is to be found in the probability distrikmticm of a
battleship echo obtained from the data shown in 633. The results are
plotted in Fig. 6.35 in histogram form, showing the number of pulses \vhose
intensities are in a given range. The probability is plotted on a logarith-
1op.cit.
2 op. cit.
3 hf. \r. Wilkes, J. A. Ramsay, and T’. B Blow, “The Theory of the Performance
of Radar on Ship Targets.” Joint ADRDE md CART? Iteport. ,July 27, 1944. C.AT~l:
Ref. 69/(7/149, .IDRDJ: R~f. R04/2/CR2X2.
SEC. 6.17] INTERFERE.VCE PHENOMENA IA1 COMPLEX TARGETS 547

mic scale, as this is the most sensitive method fordetecting differences from
the exponential law. The points for low intensities follow a straight line
fairly well, but the excess at high levels is plainly evident.
6“17. Interference Phenomena in Complex Targets.-The echo fluctua-
tions predicted on the basis of the several mechanisms discussed in the pre-
vious sections are almost always small, so much so that they are usually
second-order effects. Onlv in the case of targets viewed over water or iso-
lated moving targets such- as ships and aircraft has it been possible so far
to account for the observed large fluctuations. ‘I’he echoes in the general
class of “ground signals” should, according to the above discussions, be
fairly steady, and occasionally they are. The Provincetown, Mass.,
standpipe, as viewed from Race Point on Cape Cod, returns a very
steady echo. The standard deviation
of the pulse-to-puke fluctuation on
9.2 cm was measured to be 0.27 db, N
which is only slightly larger than the J.
fluctuation inherent in the signal- ;+7
generator pulse as given in Sec. 6.13. /
\
Such cases are the exception, however. \ //
Nlost ground targets at one time or \ /
\ /
another will sho~v large and often rapid \ /
variations. \ /
\/
The explanation lies in the realiza- \ ,1
tion that a radar echo is almost ne\’er &
the reflection from a single target but Radar
TIG. 6:3(\.--Iilll+tratl0n of the term 8‘tar-
rat}ler from all the objects within a get area.”
‘(target area. ” This area is defined
by the beamwitlth and radar pulse length (we Fig. 6.36); its size is given
roughly by
Rqmc
(140)
2’

where R is the range, o the azimuth bearnwidth, and r the pulse duration.
All objects in this region (and within the vertical ~xtent of the beam) will
contribute to the signal received at the radar at one given range on the
indicators. Because the various portions of the beam are coherent, the
contributions from each of the component targets must be added vectori-
ally, taking into account the phase of each echo. The total echo is thus
the result of interference between echoes from a number of targets that
may be independent and unconnected. The phase of these echoes pro-
vides a sensitive means for changing the interference, for in the microwave
region motions of only a few inches are sufficient to change the relative
phase by r or more radians. The swaying of trees in the wind, the motzon
of vehicles on a road, even the spinning of rooftop ventilators all a~ect the
phase pattern and cause the echo to fluctuate.
548 RADAR TARGETS AND ECHOES [SEC.617

Let us examine in detail some simple examples of this interference

mechanism. The Provincetown standpipe was mentioned above as a tar-
get with an extremely steady echo. Figure 6.37 shows the profile of the
path from the radar to the target. The series of hills (really sand dunes)
along the path acts as a screen between the radar and all but the top portion
of the standpipe.1 Effectively then, the target area contains only one tar-
Provincetown
standpipe
IT
--
-------- ------
----
- J
m
1-
------
--
Race point -----
----
(-----

~ 1

7500n~
t
Fro. 637.-Profile of the path between Race Point and the Provincetown standpipe.

get, this being a very rigid and solid structure. The echo consequently
shows negligible fluctuation. Similar cases have been observed where
intervening hills screen all but one isolated target, and the echo has invari-
ably been steady. On the other
hand, in cases where the target area
Pulse 1
contains many trees, houses, etc., in
n-n
addition to a prominent object such
as a standpipe or water tank, the
echo will often fluctuate badly.
Pulse 2
-nn The next most simple situation
involves not one but two targets in
the target area. Suppose the area
contains two equal point scatterers
separated d in range. Ideally, the
Sum pulse
echo from the nearer scatterer can
A JUL be represented by the top pulse of
(a) (b) Fig. 6.38a; the echo from the second
FIG. 6.38.—Interference of two equal one, just below it, would arrive at a
point scatterers. (a) Constructive interfer-
ence; (b) destructive interference, time 2d/c later. The total signal
received would be the sum of these
two, and its appearance would depend on the relative phase of the two
echoes. If they were in phase, then the echoes would interfere construc-
tively in the overlapping region to produce an echo as shown at the
bottom of Fig. 6.38a. If they were out of phase by m radians, there would
I The portion of the standpipe illuminated because of diffraction can be shown to
be fsirl”qm,ll
 SEC. 6 17] INTERFERENCE PHENOMENA IN COMPLEX TARGETS 549

be destructive interference and the echoes would

cancel as in Fig. 6.38b.
An actual target closely resembling this idealized
picture has been found in the antenna towers of radio
station W BZ at Hull, Mass,, as viewed from Deer
Island, 6 miles away (see Figure 4.1). The target
consists of two 500-ft towers supported by guy wires
up to 400 ft and located about 60 yd apart in range.
A 100-ft hill in the line of sight and 2 miles away
ensures that only the towers are seen by the radar.
The right-hand signal in the 16-frame-per-second strip
reproduced in Fig. 6.39 shows the appearance of the
echo on a 9-cm system with a pulse length of 1 psec.
Both constructive and destructive interference are
well illustrated, along with the evolution of the inter-

ik-.k
mediate stages.1 The differences between these , ,7
photographs and Fig. 6.38 are all attributable to the
finite receiver bandwidth and to the fact that the .$3
1’
towers are not exactly equal scatterers.
The phase bet~veen the t~vocomponent echoes can ‘N
be changed in several ways to produce the various . .:
0
degrees of interference observed. Thus the index of
refraction in the region betlveen the tolvers and,
h&e, the optical path length might change. For a
phase shift of r radians the index would be required
to vary by An = A/4cl. In this case, at A = 9 cm,
An would be 4 X 10-4, \vhich is even larger than the
average value of (n – 1). A change in the trans-
mitter frequency could also produce the necessary
phase shift, but we have already seen in Sec. 613
that the required frequency change is outside the
limits of the transmitter instability. The most
plausible explanation, then, is thfit there is a physical
motion of the towers relative to each other and a
consequent variation of the phase. If the ~vavc-
.-.
length is 10 cm, the relative motion that Jvould shift

] The left-hand signal was the mltput of a narrow-km]ltl

..
m

L-FL
receiver on a scnaratc antenna 25 ft. awav from the rafl:ir.
The striking divc~sity cff{,ct thus shown arisci from the slightly ~~ .,
..
different aspects of the to\vcrs at the two locations. ,-
-..
F1~. 639.-The right-l, and signal is the echo from WI)Z radl{,
towers photographed at intervals of ){ ~ sec. (Left-hand erl]o N A_ ’.& .—
from the same target on a bci,:m~te diversity receiver 25 ft away )
550 RADAR TARGETS AND ECHOES [SEC. 618

the ph~se by m radians is only 1 in. It is plausible that the tall towers
would sway to an even greater extent even in fair] y gentle winds.
To test this conclusion, a 4-day continuous watch was kept on this tar-
get with a 9-cm system. At half-hour intervals the maximum variation
in signal strength within a 1-rein period was noted. These measurements
were compared with the surface wind speed at the time (as recorded at a
spot 5 miles from the target). A definite correlation was found between the
amount of fluctuation and the wind speed. By means of the chi-square
test’ the probability of obtaining this distribution of measurements by
chance, if the fluctuation were really independent of wind speed, was calcu-
lated to be 1 X 10–7.
The examples discussed so far have been simple ones and are rather
artificial and met with infrequently. Of greater practical importance is the
case where the target area contains a large number of scatterers, not merely
one or two. The entire class of so-called “clutter” echoes—’’chaff, ” sea
echo, precipitation echoes, and ground clutter—falls within this group of
targets, Because the area contains a large number of component targets,
echoes of this type can be treated only statistically. The remaining sec-
tions of this chapter are devoted to a discussion of theoretical and experi-
mental investigations of these echoes.

THE FLUCTUATIONS OF CLUTTER ECHOES

BY HERBERT GOLDSTEIN

6.18. The Nature of Clutter Echoes. —” Clutter’’ is a term Ilsed to de-

note the radar echo from an extended target covering a region much Larger
than the target area. The target consists of many individual targets more
or less independent of each other and sufficiently numerous that any given
target area usually contains a large number of them. This class of echoes
includes chaff, sea, and precipitation echoes and ground clutter.
“Chaff” is a code name for a confusion type of interference scheme that
uses large numbers of resonant dipoles.z The dipoles are u,wlally narro~t
strips of tin foil, cut to resonate at thr proper wavelengt}l and dropped in
huge quantities from aircraft. tVhen properly distributed they return an
echo covering a large volume of space. At microlra\’e frcqucncics a single
package may contain hundreds of thousands of dipoles.
It is obvious that the target area will include a large number of the ele-
mentary targets and that the echo phases, as determined by the radial dis-
tance from the radar, will be random. That is to say, the number of dipoles
with any given phase will be the same as those ~vith any other phase. In

1See T. C. Fry, Pi-obabililyand Its Engineering Uses, Jran Nostrand, NTCW York,
1928.
2The term window, often used in the same connection, is a generic term of British
origin.
sm. 6.18] THE ArATIJRE OF CLUTTER ECHOES 551

general the chaff cloud willmovew itht hewind, but in a noncoherent sys-
temsuchmassmotionj which changes allphases alike, has no effect on the
returned signal. In addition, thedipoles willrnove relative to each other
because of the way they fall and because of Iocal turbulences. This rela-
tivemotion will change therelative phases of the elementary echoes, caus-
ing the resultant signal to fluctuate, The faster the motion, the more
rapid the fluctuations. Analternative andvmyf ruitfulwa,vof Iookingat
the rates of fluctuation is to consider them as the differences between
Doppler frequencies from the various targets, All targets having the same
characteristics as a uniform cloud of chaff will be called here an assembly
oj” independent random scatterers and often abbreviated to random scatterers.
The nature of precipitation echo, or,storn echo, isdiscwwedin Chap, 7,
where it is shown that the signal is caused by scattering either from water
drops or from water inasolid forrn,tha tis,ice,snow, etc. Here, too, the
target area contains a large number of elementary scatterers with randomly
distributed phases. Furthermore, because ofturbulencesw ithinaprecipi-
tation area there will be relative motion of the scatterers, causing fluctua-
tionsin the total signal. This type of target theu.-for ealsobelong sinthe
class of assemblies of independent random scatterers.
It has already been pointed out that there is still much debate over the
specific mechanism responsible forsm echo. Present evidence supports the
view that the echo is caused by scattering either from small ripples on the
sea surface or from suspended spray drops. In either case the target area
contains many such ripples or drops, and it is not implausible that the con-
ditions forrandom scatterers wouldagai nbesatisfied. Thiswillbeassurned
to betrue, andtheconsequences of the assumptions examined. Anydevi-
ations from the behavior expected on this basis will be used to obtain fur-
ther information about the fundamental scattering mechanism involved.
A bewildering variety of targets other than man-made objects—rocks,
earth, tree trunks, branches, bushes, leaves, grass, for example—may give
rise to ground Some of these targets return steady echoes, and
clutter-.
some move in the wind, changing the interference between the component
echoes and causing the total signal to fluctuate. It is a common observa-
tion that theharder the~vind blo\vsthe more rapid are the fluctuations of
ground clutter. A quantitative demonstration of this phenomenon was
obtained with the following experiment.
At intervals ina24-hr period, motion picturesat the rate of 16 frames
per second were taken of the A-scope on a 9-cm system, showing the echo
from a portion of the Blue Hills Reservation near Boston, Mass. The
target area chosen is heavily wooded and ahnost free from man-made
objects. During this 24-hr period the surface wind speed, as measured
about 2 miles from the target, varied from over 30 mph to dead calm. Two
hundred frames were chosen in each run, and the echo height in each
frame measured and converted into relative r–f intensity in decibeis. As a
552 RA DAR TARGET,S A.VI) E(:IIOE.S [S,,c. 618

measure of the fluctuation, the diffcrcncc in the decibel values for two con-
secutive frames was then found and averaged over the 200 frames. The
values so obtained are plotted against wind speed in Fig. 6.40 indicated by
the circles.
At low wind speeds the fluctuation is only about 0.2 cfb, the same order
of magnitude as for the steadiest targets. At the other extreme, !vith wind
speeds of 30 mph or more, the Hurtuatlon w fiftcrn tlmcs {w great,. It
should be noticwl that the f>han~c in the signs] from (mc iramc to the next

3.5 ,._~ .. ..T. _

3.0—-–—- ---- “-

l“ 1~~” 0 H
2.5 -—--
t
~ 2.0 -~—

L
~
a
15-!—

1.0 ;—---

0.5
00
0
0
0 5
Wind speed in mph
FIG. 6.40. —.$vcrage fluctuation of a ground clutter echo durir,g 0.06 se., plotted against
wind speed.

fails to be a good measure of the fluctuation when the period of fluctuation

becomes comparable to the exposure time for a single frame (+Z see). Such
a failure occurs at the higher wind speeds, and the actual fluctuations are
larger than indicated on the figure.
The fluctuation seems to increase rapidly in the neighborhood of 20
mph. It may possibly be significant that this corresponds to the wind
speed at which small trees and large branches begin to move as a whole,
according to the Beaufort wind scale. The jump would then indicate that
there is no substantial change in the phase relationships until this large
motion takes place.
There is no sharp dividing line, of course, between stationary and mov-
ing targets. Almost all objects making up ground targets will move to
some extent. Nevertheless it seems feasible to separate the targets into
two classes, those which move less than k/4 and those which move in the
wind by much more than A/4. The former class of targets gives rise to a
steady echo; the latter fulfills fairly well the conditions for an assembly of
independent random scatterers. The total signal is thus the sum of these
two types of echo. The membership of the classes will depend on the wind
 SEC.6.19] THE THEORY OF CL UTTER FL U(7T U.4 TIO,VS 553

speed and the wavelength. At the high wind speeds only rocks and heavy
tree trunks could be classified as stationary. A target that moves only ~ in.
\vould be considered at rest for 9 cm but would certainly be in the assem-
bly of random scatterers for a wavelength of 1 cm. While data at wave-
lengths other than 9 cm are scarce, it has been noted that ground clutter at
1.25 cm shows large and rapid fluctuations at wind speeds far smaller than
those corresponding to the “jump” at 9 cm.
6“19. The Theory of Clutter Fluctuations.—The preceding section has
shown that the targets responsible for clutter echoes generally fall in one
of two classes: either an assembly of independent random scatterers or such
an assembly plus a number of stationary targets, The description of the
echo from these types of targets forms a branch of the general theory of
random processes dating back to Rayleighl and ~vhich has undergone con-
siderable development in recent years, Here only the results of the theory
will be given; deri~-ations \villbe found in Chap. 6 of 1’o1. 24 of the Radia-
tion Laboratory Series.’ The t}vo types of targets will be treated sepa-
rately.
Assemblies oj Independent Random Scatterers,—The received field
strength will be of the form

E = ~r(t) COS [ad + ~(t)], (141)

where m is the transmitter frequency. The functions V(t) and ~(t) ~vill
depend on time chiefly because of the variation of the si~nal characteristics
with range and will be roughly periodic with the pulse-recurrence frequency.
Only the echo from a given target area, that is, at a given range, is of
interest, however. If a small interval of time is chosen centered at a given
range and short compared with the pulse duration but long compared with
the r-f period, then within that interval V and @ will be constant, but they
will still vary from one sweep to the next. It is with this variation in time
and not with the variation from the changes with range that this section
will be concerned. Although the quantities V(t) and ~(t)are thus defined
only at discrete times that are multiples of the repetition period, they will
still be considered as continuous functions of time.
From Eq. (141) it is seen that the signal can be completely specified by
a vector R(t) whose magnitude is equal to V and which makes an angle
with some reference direction equal to the phase O. The Cartesian coordi-
nates of this vector will be called .Y and Y. The term R(t) can be written
as the vector sum
R = ~rj, (142)
1“
1 Cj. the two-dimensional “random walk” problem in Lord Rayleigh, Theory of
Sound, 2d cd., Vol. I, Macmillan, London, 1894, p. 35.
2 See also, S, O. Rice, Belt System Tech, Jour., 23, 282 (1944), and 24, 46 (1945);
Ming Chen Wang and G. E. Uhlenbeck, Reu. Mod. Phys,, 17, 323 (1945); and S, Chan-
dreskhar, ibid., 15, 1 (1943).
554 RADAR TARGETS AND ECHOES [SEC. 6.19

where r ~is the cent ribution to the total signal of one of the individual tar-
gets making up the target area. The components of r, will be denoted by
x, and y,.
It is now possible to describe in more mathematical terms the condi-
tions that must be fulfilled by an assembly of independent random scat-
terers:
1, There must be a large number of scatterers in the target area, What
constitutes a large number will be discussed below.
2. The phases of the component echoes must be random; that is,

(143)

where the bar denotes averaging over time.

3. The probability of receiving an echo r, from the jth target w,(r,)
must be independent of the signal from the kth target. That is, if
w(r,, r~) is the probabilityy of receiving echoes r, and r~ from the jth
and kth scatters respectively, then

w(rj) r~) = wj(rj)r-u~(rk). (144)

Under these conditions the probability that any given measurement of

R lies between R and R + dR is given by’
.,-2 + y,

W,(R) dR = ~Oe- ‘0 dX dY, (145)

where PO is the time average of Rz. Following Uhlenbeck, W, \vill be

referred to as the first probability distribution because it deals with the value
of R at only one time. The shape of this distribution is independent of the
distribution oj the component amplitudes, providing only that there are a
large number of them, strictly speaking, an infinite number. Thus there is
no requirement that the individual r’s be equal or even that the amplitudes
be constant with time but only that the distribution of r be stationary in
time so that ~ ( = 2P) shall be constant. It is, in fact, a direct conse-
quence of the central-limit theorem of probabilityy theory that W, approaches
the form given in Eq, (144) as the number of scatterers increases toward
infinity, independent of the distribution of the r’s.
The rate at which the limiting form is approached does depend on the
distribution. Thus Eq. (145) holds exactly for a finite number of targets
if the distribution for r is Gaussian. Goudsmitz and Schiff3 have studied
the case of finite number of scatterers for certain special distributions.
If all the r’s are equal, then Eq. (145) is a good approximation, even if
n = 4 or 5. When the number is 10 or more, the differences are com-
pletely negligible.
1 Henceforth this type of expression will be shortened to “R in range dR. ”
z S.A. Goudsmit, RL Report No. 196, hlarch4, 1943.
3L. I. Schiff, unpublished memorandum, June 5, 1943.
Sm. 6.1!)] THE THEORY OF CLUTTER FLUCTUATIONS 555

Equation (145) defines a bivariate Gaussian distribution centered about

X = O, Y = O. The most probable value of R is therejore zero. The first
probability distribution in amplitude R is given by

W,(R) dR = $0 e-~R dlt. (146)

R1 ~
FIG. 6.41.—First prohat)ility distribution in amplitude for ramdon scatterers,

Figure 6.41 is a plot of this distribution. The most probable value of the
amplitude is equal to 0.707 of the rms ~’alue, ~, The average value of
R is - times the rms value. Let P denote R’, which is proportional to
the signal energy. Then the dis- ,~
tribution in P is
08
-gdg
WI(P) dP = e P. 0,6
a~a”

and is shown in Fig. 642. It 204

should be noticed that the most 0.2
probable value of P is zero.1
From these distributions the oE
0 05 10 1.5 20 25 3.0
P/P.
fluctuations in the signal are seen
to be fairly large. - The signal F1~.6.42.—Firstprobabilitydistributionin
powerfor randomscatterers,
power will be less than one-half the
average level 29 per cent of the time but greater than twice the average 14
per cent of the time and above five times the average 1 per cent of the
time. In fact, although the most probable value of P is zero, there is a
finite probability for any value of P, no matter how large. A commonly
used measure of the amount of fluctuation is the standard deviation

( 148)

1 A similar situation occurs in the kinetic theory of gases. With the Maxwellian
distribution the most probable velocity is zero, but the most probable speed is different
from zero.
556 RADAR TARGETS AND ECHOES [SEC. 6.19

From F;q. (146) one obtains

~ = Zp:, (149)

andhence thestandard deviationis 100 percent. It should be emphasized

again that because of the randomness of the component vectors theampli-
tude of fluctuation does not depend at all upon the number of scatterers,
provided that there are many of them.
The first probability distribution tells us about the magnitude of the
fluctuation. Information about the rate of fluctuation is obtained from
the second probability distribution, which gives the probability of measur-
ing RI in range dRl at time tl and measuring Rz in range dll~ at time L*. As
we are assuming stationary processes, time enters in only as the difference
T=tz—tl. If the scatterers are moving independently, it can be shown’
that the second probability distribution is

dX, dX, dY, dYz ~

M’, (R,, R,, ,) dR, dR, ==
?# P; (1 — g~)
(150)
x; + Y; + x; + Y; – 2g(.Y,.Y, + Y, Y,)
exp —
[ P,(1 – g’) 1
where g is the correlation coefficient for the Cartesian coordinates of R and
is defined by
X1X2 m,
9==– ~ (151)

The correlation coefficient is obviously a function of the time interval T

and is 1 if 7 = O and approaches zero as 7 increases to infinity and RI and
R, become independent of each other.
It has already been pointed out that the rate of fluctuation depends
upon the relative motion of the contributing scatterers or, more precisely,
on the component of the relative velocities in the direction of the radar
system. Siegert’ has derived the relation connecting the correlation func-
tion g and the distribution of relative velocities
. m

r2 dr w (r,vZ) e~w’’~rlkdvZ
1/ /
g(7) = 0 a , (152)

[m,’~:[ W(T,VZ)dv,
JO J–M (

where v, is the component of the velocity of the scatterer in the direction

of the radar system and w(r,vZ) dr dv, is the probabilityy of finding a scat-
terer that returns a signal of amplitude r in range dr and with a velocity
component v, in range dv,. In addition to the previous conditions Eq.
(152) assumes (1) that the amplitudes of the individual echoes are constant
in time, that is, the fluctuation is caused only by variations in phase and
(2) that phase changes arise solely from shifts in positions of the scatterers.
1SeeVol. 24, Chap. 6.
ZA. J. F. Siegert,RL Report No, 773,January1946.
SEC. 6.19] TIIE TIIEORY OF (’1, (17’TER FL UC1’lJ.t 7’1ONS 557

Equation (152) can bc written more simply as

,72~,m,uz,,,l
g(T) = (152a)
7
r-

The time interval r occurs only in the ratio T/A. Hence if simultaneous
measurements are made on the same torget but at different wavelengths,
the correlation functions plotted as a function of r~~ should be identical.
Another }vay of saying it is that the rate of fluctuation should be propor-
tional to the transmitter frequency, \\hich is obvious from the interpretat-
ion of the fluctuation as Doppler frcqucncics, The fluctuation frequency
spectra on several wavelengths should coincide when plotted against UA.
Equation (150) can be conveniently mwrittm in terms of the ampli-
tudes and phases of the t\vo vectow

1
liT + 1{: – 2q1~:R’ Cos 0 R, dli, R, d~, df? d~,, (153)
7r~P;(l — gl) ‘Xp [ — P,(1 – g-) 1

where o is the angle between R, and RZ, ‘l’he second probability distribu-
tion for P, and Pz is obtained by integration over 8 and @l,

~~2(p1,p2,T)dPl dPz = e -
‘Jo(%fimxl:p;,) “54)

where JO is the zeroth-order Bessel function. From this distribution one

can in turn calculate the correlation function for P, defined by

~(p,,) = (PI – PO)(P2 – Po) _ Plpz – p: _ PIP>; P:;

(155)
(P, – P,)’ – P: – l’: –

and it is found that

p(P,T) = gz. (156)

In a similar fashion the distributions and correlation functions of other

functions of RI and RZ may be calculated. Thus the correlation function
for R has been found by Uhlenbeck’ to be

2E(g) – (1 – g2)K(g) – ;
p(R,r) — , (157)
rr
z–~

where E(g) and K(g) are the complete elliptic integrals of the first and
second kind, respectively. Sollfrey and Barlowz have calculated the

1G. E. Uhlenbeck, RL Report No. 454, Oct. 15, 1943.

2 Unpublished memorandum by W. Sollf rey and E. Barlow.
.5,58 RADAR TA R(7ET,~ AND ECHOES [SmY 619

correlation coefficient for in R:

m
2k
p(ln Zi!,7j = $ 9
~“ (158)
z
k=l

A quantity that is often of practical interest is the ratio Pz 1P,, denoted

by q. The distribution of q can be found from
m
W,(q),) dq = W,(q,P,,r)P, dP, dq, (159)
/ ()

Using Eq. (153) and the integral

the distribution is found to be

(1 + g) dq
wz(q,T) dq = (1 – ?2) ,(1 + q), _ ~g,q]!,” (160)

It is more convenient to use the distribution with q expressed in decibels.

Let y = 10 log,, q. Then

0.230 (1 – gz) e0z30’(1 + e“.z’ou)d!f

W,(y,,) dy = (161)
[fo.’~~~+ 2(1 – Zgz) ~o.?~~u + 1]’!

Equation (161) will be used as a convenient method of verifying the second

probability distribution experimentally.
The first and second probability distributions describe completely the
fluctuations of the echo. The correlation function g by itself contains all
needed information on the rates of fluctuation. It is often desirable, how-
ever, to present this information in the form of a frequency spectrum. A
relation exists, knonm as the Wiener-Khintchine theoreml, that links the
correlation function with a suitably defined frequency spectrum.
Let z(t) be any continuous function arising from a stationary random
process, and let j(a) be its complex frequency spectrum as obtained from
the Fourier integral theorem. Then the normalized power spectrum of
z(t) is defined as
~lf(u)l’
F(Q) = (162)
, If(@)l’~
\

The correlation function of z(t) is given by

[2(6) – z] [2(6 + T) – z] ,
P(2,T) = (163)
[z(h) – Zp

I See Ming Chen Wang and G. E. Uhlenheck OP. cit., p. 326.

SEC. 6.19] THE THEORY OF CLUTTER FL UCTUA TIOATS 559

Then it can be shown that F(u) and p(z,~) are cosine transforms of each
other, that is,

(164)

and
.
p(z,r) = F(cJ) COS UT do. (165)
/o
Hence the frequency spectrum can always be obtained from the correlation
function, and vice versa.
In all practical situations the signal in the receivers is the sum of the
radar echo and a certain amount of receiver noise. In such cases the total
signal can be described by the sum

R=~r, +N,

where N is a vector representing the noise envelope.’ It is \vell knov n

that the noise distributions are identical with those already gi~-cm’ for R.
However, because the smallest time interval of interest here is the time
between sweeps, the correlation function of the noise vector can ~Jeassumed
to be zero. The first probability- distribution for the combined vector is
given by
W,(R) dR = W,(N) W,(R – N) clN dR. (16(i)
/
Similarly, the second probability distribution may be found from

W2(R,,R2, T) dRI dR,

— U“,(N,) H“,(N2) U-2(R, – N,, R2 – N2,7) dNI dN2 dRI dR:. f167)
//
on carrying out the integrations it is found that th(, introduction of noiw,
has not affected the shap~ of the distributions but that ~, and g are trans-
formed as follo\vs:
P“+ f’, + ‘Y: = l’. (l + .s),

fl L
!7 - ;-+–g = ~ + ,,’
[’0

where ~V,is the rms noi.~e~oltagr and s is the ratio of noise poww to echo
po\ver. By means of these rclatiorl.< the mcflsurml !alucs of g can tw cor-
rected for the presence of noise in order to obtain the true correlation func-
tion of the echo alone.

I It is assmm>d that i hc noise is added in orw of ttw Iillt,:lr +(ag(,s of t hr rrcmvcr.

z Scc S. (). Iiic(,, 01). cif.
560 RADAR TARGETS AND ECHOES [SEC. 6,19

Random Scatterers plus a Steady Signal.—If the echo from an assembly

ofindependent random scatterers isadded toa constant echo, then the total
signal will be represented by a vector

(169)

The sum ~ rj represents the contributions from the random scatterers, and
S the signal that is assumed constant in time. The first and second prob.
ability distributions for R obviously differ from those given above only
in that they are now functions of R — S. Thus the analogue of Eq. (145) is
now
_[.Y–s,2+Y3
W,(R) dR = -&e ‘O dX dY, (170)

where, without loss of generality, the x-axis has been takrm in the direction
of S. The quantity P, is no longer the mean square value of R but, only
the mean square of the contribution from the random scatterers. Instead,
we have
p=7=po+s2. (171)

The first probability distribution for P becomes~

W,(P) dP = e - (172)
““6’%’)%

If we denote by m’ the ratio S’/P ~, which can be called the ratio of the
steady to random average power, then the distribution can be rell-ritten as

– :(1+,.,)
Wl(P)dP = (1 + mz) e-””e P Jo 2im v“~+ ~2 m $ g. ( 173)
( )

In Fig. 6.43 this distribution is plotted agaimt P, ~ for several values

of m2. For m’ = 1 or less there is not much difference from the simple
exponential that holds for random scatterers, The most probable wdur of
P is still zero, and the range of fluctuation still very large. As m’ is
increased above 1, a maximum appears in the distribution and the frac-
tional thctuation decreases. W’hen m’ becomes very much greater than 1,
the curve has the form of a sharp peak about P = ~ and appr~,aches
asymptotically the Gaussian di.~tribution
(R– S)2
-—— ~ (I + mv

W,(P) dP = (1 + m’) ‘m,-r~~-- – $. (17+)

] This cqaation is identical ITith the wrll-kn own formula for t hc [list rit),, f ion in pnwvr
of noise plus signal,
SEC.6.19] THE THEORY OF CL UTTER FL IJCTUA TIONS 561

The standard deviation of W,(P) for all values of m is

(175)

and decreases as ~jm when m2 is much greater than unity.

The second probability distribution in R can similarly be immediately
written down:
cLX, dX, dY, dY2 ~
W, (R,, R,, ,) dR, dRj =
7r2P?(l – g~)
(X2 – s)’ + Y; – 2g[(.Y, – S)(.1-, – N + ~’1 ~zl
Y;+
exp —
( (x, – ,s)2 +

Po(l – g’)
(176)
I

The quantity g is now the correlation function for Y and for X-S. The
relation between g and the velocity distribution of the random scatterers
remains unchanged, of course.

P/F
Frc,, 6.43. —Fjrst probability distributions in power for a target consisting of random
scatterers plus a fixed target, for sevcrzd values of mz.

It has not yet been possible to carry out the integrations needed to
obtain W2(P 1, F’Z,7). Some of the moments of the distribution can hc
found, however. Thus the average value of PIP, has been determined by
Barlow to be
PIP, = P: [1 + gz + 2n2’(1 + gz) + m’]. (177)
562 RADAR TARGETS AND ECHOES [S=. 6.20

The correlation coefficient of P is therefore

gz -+2m2g
w,r) = ~ +2m2 “ (178)

Many of the relations derived for random scatterers remain valid, w for
example, the Wiener-Khintchine theorem and the effect of noise on P,
and g.
6“20. Experimental Techniques in the Study of Clutter Fluctuations.—
The preceding sections have presented a theoretical picture of the nature
of clutter fluctuations. This general picture has been confirmed and fur-
ther details obtained in an extensive experimental investigation of clutter
fluctuations. Measurements were made on three experimental truckborne
systems, operating on wavelengths of 9.2, 3.2, and 1.25 cm, respectively.
Special care was taken to reduce the intrinsic fluctuations of the radar sys-
tems to negligible levels, as discussed in detail in Sec. 6“13.
To cover the entire spectrum of echo fluctuations, measurements of the
signal level must be made as of+en as possible, namely, each time an echo is
received. Of the several techniques available for making such me&sure-
ments,’ photography of the individual sweeps on the A-scope was chosen as
furnishing the largest amount of information. The methods developed for
this type of photography are described in detail elsewhere.2 A blue~creen
short-persistence cathode-ray tube running at potentials slightly higher
than customary was used in conjunction with a high-speed camera in which
the film moved continuously to prevent overlapping of successive traces.
It was possible to record traces with writing speeds as high as 70 cm/Wec
and at rates up to 4000 traces per second.
The basic puke-recurrence rate was about 1000 pps, accurately main-
tained by a quartz-crystal-controlled oscillator. By “counting down”
from thk frequency the A-scope could be triggered at a number of rates
down to 42 pps. If the echo fluctuation was slow enough to permit even
more infrequent measurements, conventional motion-picture cameras were
employed at various speeds down to four frames per second.
Figure 6“44 reproduces a strip from a typical film, showing sea echo on
the 9.2-cm system. The interval betweem traces is 3 msec, and the sweep
length is 1500 yd, the most frequently used sweep. For convenience in
reference, each frame area is provided with an identification number,
obtained by photographing a synchronized counter prior to photographing
the A~cope. The prominent pulse on the right is an artificial echo pulse,
1 Specialized methods have been developed for obtaining specific types of informa-
tion, such as the wrperheterodyne audio analyzer for frequency spectrum (cj. RL Report
No. 914) and the “fading analyzer”discussedby R.I.B. Cooper, “The Fadingof S-band
Echoesfrom Ships in the Optical Zone, ” RRDE Report N’o, 265, December 1944.
2H. Goldstein and P. D. Bales, “High Speed Photography of the Cathode-ray Tube,”
Rev. SC;, In.skments, 17, S9 (1946).
SEC. 6%] TECHNIQUES IN STUDY OF CLUTTER FLUCTUATIONS 563

FIG. 644 Fm. 6.45

FIG. 6.44 ..—Section of a pulse-to-p ,ulse film of ech 0 on 9.2 cm. Pulse length 1 psec ,
pulse-recurrence fr6zquency 333 , Sw’eep length 1500 yd.
FIG. 645 ,.—Section of a calibration filmI showin sigmd generator pulse for two cal ibration
Ielrels 2 dt wt.
564 RADAR TARGETS AND ECHOES [Sac. 600

lpaec wide, obtained from a signal generator. The r-f level of the pulse ia
deliberately made so high that it saturates the first video stages of the
receiver. * Such a saturated pulse performs several functions. It may
serve za a range marker. Mom important, the top of the pulse provides a
convenient reference level down from which the echo amplitude is measured.
The baseline is not always suitable as a datum, especially as it tends to be
obscured in any extended clutter signal.
The negative film waa projected in a microfilm reader and the deflection
at some given range read off to the nearest 0.05 cm, with the maximum
deflection about 8 cm.z Between 2000 and 4000 sweeps were recorded on a
single 100-ft roll of 16-mm film, depending upon the fihn speed. Of these,
about 1000 consecutive sweeps were usually measured, although on occa-
sion up to 3000 sweeps have been meaaured.s
Up to this point the data are in the form of deflections on the A-scope
and must first be converkd into some unit proportional to r-f intensity
before being analyzed statistically. The necessary curve of deflection vs.
r-f level is known as the “receiver calibration curve. ” It is obtained by
photographing separately the pulse from an accurately calibrated r-f signal
generator. The r-f level of the pulse is varied in steps of about 2 db until
the entire dynamic range of the receiver is covered (usually about 20 to 30
db). F@re 6.45 is a strip from such a calibration fihn taken at 16 frames
per second and shows the pulses for two levels 2 db apart.
Some typical calibration curves for various receiver gains are plotted in
Fig. 6“46 in a normalized form, that is, deflection, as per cent of saturation,
plotted against r-f level in decibels. (Necessary corrections have been
made for the width of the trace.) The horizontal scale for each value of
receiver gain has been shifted so as to make the points coincide at 60 per
cent of saturation. It will be noticed that for a range of gain of about 30
db (ZS determined from the horizontal shifts) the calibration curve plotted
in this form is substantially independent of receiver gain. Outside this
range, significant changes in the shape of the curve begin to appear.
Therefore when the receiver is being calibrated, an effort is made to set the
receiver gain to approximately the same level as when the echo was origi-
nally photographed, but obviously no great accuracy ia required.
The calibration curve cannot be represented by some simple law, as
is often assumed. Below about half saturation, the deflection is usually a
power-law function of r-f voltage, with the exponent varying between 1.0
and 2.5 depending on the receiver. Above 60 per cent saturation, the

1 The over-all bandwidth of the video stages was from 4 to 10 Me/see, depending on
the systcm.
2 The graininess of the negative determined the optimum magnification.
3 Much of the succezs of these meesurementz was due to the efforts of Margaret

Harwood, whose careful attention to detail and unflagging intcreat resulted in data of
the nesesaary high degree of precision.
SEC. 6%)] TECHNIQUES IN STUDY OF CLUTTER FLUCTUATIONS 565

curve flattens off and approaches the saturation level asymptotically. A

detailed discussion of the sources of the nonlinearities lies outside the scope
of this section,l but such nonlinearities appear to be present in all receivers
commonly employed in microwave radar systems.
From the calibration curve a conversion table is constructed, listing the
r-f intensity corresponding to A-scope deflection in steps of 0.05 cm. With
this table the measured deflections can be converted rapidly to r-f intensity.
Depending upon the eventual use of the data, similar conversion tables

1 “1 I I ! I
-17-16-15-14-13-12-11 -10-9 ‘8 ‘7 -6 –5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 +1 +2 +3 +4 +5
R-f mpul in db above arbitary level

FIG. 646.—Typical curve of the rcccivcr law. ‘rhc ciwlm rcl,,wcr)t data for six gains
covering a range of 30 db, each sl]iftcd l,orizon tally to v(>]r!vi(lc at, 60 pm cent saturation.
The triangles show the data for a gain of 5 dh hclow tl, is rw)gc,

may be constructed for r-f voltage, r-f level in dccilm]s, or any other desired
function of r-f intensity.
The method of calibration described here has proved satisfactory if
noise is not appreciable. No entirely adequate procedure for calibration
has been found, however, when the gain is so high that the noise level
is a sensible fraction of the maximum Mlcction. The noise modulatds
the calibration pulse with the result that its height varies randomly
from sweep to sweep. In practice the average height of this modulated
pulse is measured by averaging the lowest and highest amplitudes. It, is
then assllmcd that to a first approximation the deflection is linear in r-f
power, so that the average height therefore corresponds to the signal-
generator r-f power plus noise power. The calibration curve is than plotted,
adding a constant noise power to the sigmd-generator attenuator reading
In principle the form of the c:dibration so found could be used to calculate
1 The chief source app(ws to k ‘tbc swmd dctzxtor ancf succwding video stages;
but, as cvidcnwl hy the” dqxmdurce on gain, some nonlimwity occurs in the early i-f
stages,
566 RADAR TARGETS AND EC7H0ES [SEC. 6.20

a correction (due to noise) for various signal generator powers and the
procedure repeated in a method of successive approximations, but this
process is too tedious to be of much use. Hence an effort was made to
work with high signal-to-noise ratios in order to avoid these difficulties.
From the converted data the first probability distribution is obtained
in the obvious fashion by dividing the intmaity scale into a number of
adjoining intervals and counting the number of measurements falling in
each interval.l The rates of fluctuation are first obtained in the form of
correlation functions. This quantity haa been defined for an infinite sample
as

For a finite sample it is possible to give several definitions for p, all of which
approach the limit [Eq. (178)] as the size of the sample becomes infinite.
Solely on the basis of convenience in computing, the following definition
haa been used. Let T be the interval between successive measurements,
and n = r/T. Then the correlation function is obtained from
N N
1
P,P,+.- (+ZPJ
x z
j=l j=l
p(P,7) = p(P,n) = ~ N
(180)

The first sum in the numerator requires n measurements of P in addition

to the sample of N values. The number of such “excess” measurements
never exceeded 4 or 5 per cent of N and was usually much smaller. Under
these conditions all definitions of p for finite samples yield substantially the
same value. The sums required in Eq. (180) are most efficiently and rapid-
1y obtained with punched-card computing machines. The correlation
function was computed in this manner in integral steps of n usually up to.
n = 20 or 40 or, in rare cases, up to n = 80.
F@ure 6.47 shows a typical correlation function plotted against ~ or,
equivalently, against n. The correlation function should be, of COUKW,
identically equal to 1.0 for 7 = O. If the curve in Fig. 6.47 is extrapolated
back to ~ = O, it approaches a value less than 1.0. As has been shown in
Sec. 6“19 this discontinuity at the origin is caused by the presence of receiver
noise, random from one sweep to the next, in addition to the echo under
study. The magnitude of the discontinuity is determined by the signal-tc-
noise ratio and may be calculated from Eq. (167).

1 The counting ruay be done manually or by the use of punched-card machines.

SEC, 6.20] TECHNIQUES IN STUDY OF CLUTTER FLUCTUATIONS 567

When , is so large that successive values of P are uncorrelated, then

p(P,r) approaches zero. In Fig. 6.47, however, it is seen that instead
P(P,7) appears to approach asymptotically a curve above the axis, which
in turn is only very slowly tending toward zero. This asymptotic behavior
is indicative of a slow secular variation of the average power PO. Such a
slow fluctuation might perhaps be explained by the change in orientation of
chaff dipoles and the accompanying change in cross section, or, in the case
of sea echo, it might be caused by the rise and fall of a sea wave, producing
variation in the number and size of the scatterers. Whatever the source,
this variation is always very slow compared with the fast “Doppler beat”

1.0

0.8

~ 0.6
g
a 0.4

0.2 -

0
0 4 8 12 16 20 24 28 32 36 40
r in milliseconds
FIG. 6.47.—Voltage correlation function for chaff on 3 cm.

fluctuation. A rigorous treatment of this case would appear to be difficult,

as we are no longer dealing with a stationary process. A first approxima-
tion, however, may be obtained in the following way. The sample of N
values is divided into 1groups, each containing m measurements separated
7 in time. We assume that mr ia long compared with the periods of “Dop-
pler beat” fluctuation but small compared with the period of the variation of
POso that within each group POcan be assumed constant. The correlation
function [Eq. (180)] can now be written (for random scatterers) as

(181)

The sums can be written as averages

(182)
568 RADAR TARGETS AND ECHOES [SEC,620

where the tilde denotes averaging over the distribution of the PO’S. .4s
g*~O, P(P,7) then approaches a value different from zero, which can be
written as

(183)

where 6 is the standard deviation of the distribution for PO. It should

be noted that the asymptotic value of p is always positive. The first
probability distribution will also be affected by the secular variation
of P,. The standard deviation for P is no longer 1 but <l +26’, in-
dicating an excess of large values of P in the distribution. Values of
62 obtained separately from the measured standard deviation of the
first probability distribution and from the measured asymptote of p
agree satisfactorily.
Equation (182) suggests that the intrinsic correlation function arising
from “Doppler beat” fluctuation may be obtained by subtracting from
the measured p the asymptotic curve, indicated by the dashed line in
Fig. 6.47. All the measured correlation functions have been corrected
in this way and then multiplied by a factor that brings the extrapolated
value of p(0) up to unity, thus also correcting for the noise discontinuity.
It will be noticed that p does not approach the asymptotic curve in
Fig. 647 smoothly but oscillates about it. In the corrected correlation
function this behavior appears as oscillation about the horizontal axis.
It is believed that these oscillations aredueentirely tostatistical fluctua-
tions arising from the finite size of the sample, since for infinite samples
gz is always positive. In practice, therefore, these oscillations have been
smoothed out, and the curve is drawn to approach the axis monotonically.
The power frequency spectrum is, as stated by the Wiener-Khintchine
theorem, the cosine transform of the correlation function. Often the
corrected correlation function can be accurately approximated by a
function whose cosine transform is well known, for example, the Gaussian
error curve. If not, then the integration is performed numerically, using
Simpson’s rule. By test with a known function, the numerical integra-
tion has been found to be sufficiently accurate up to about half the puke-
recurrence rate.
The preceding discussion has been based on the implicit assumption
that the data are given in the form of intensity or power, as is usually
preferable. As a consequence, however, of the large range of values
encountered in a given sample (often greater than 1000 to 1), the punched-
card computations often prove to be unduly lengthy. If the deflections
are converted into r-f voltages or amplitudes instead of intensities, the
range is greatly reduced; therefore this conversion was often made.
Equation (157) supplies the theoretical relation between the correlation
functions for amplitude and intensity, assuming random scatterers.
SEC. 620] TECHNIQUES IN STUDY OF CLUTTER FLUCTUATIONS .569

The correlation function p (R,.) is never very different from g’, the maxi-
mum deviation being 0.027. Usually this small difference may be
neglected, and the two correlation functions considered equivalent.
Whenever it is desired to use Eq. (157) to obtain gz from P(R,7), however,
correction must first be made for any slow fluctuation present, and the
statistical oscillations smoothed out, as described above. The correlation
function shown in Fig. 6.47 is an example of an amplitude correlation
function. In Fig. 6“48 the same curve is shown after the various cor-
rections have been made and after it has been converted to an intensity
correlation function.
Significant deviations between
experimental first probability distri- ~ ~ ~
butions and theoretically predicted ~ ‘or
\
functions yield information about ~ t
0.6

L
the size and number of scatterers “~
contributing to the given clutter ~
0,4
signal. To determine if observed .=
deviations are significant, it is im- ~
portant to know the magnitude of ~ 0.2
the experimental errors in the first
probability distribution. Three 0
0 4 8 12 16 : )
types of errors maybe distinguished: T in milliseconds
1. Statistical fluctuations be- FIG. 6.4?3—The correlation function for
chaff on 3.2 cm, converted to an intensity
cause of finite size of the sample. basis and rorrected as outlined in the text.
2. Errors in reading the film.
3. Errors in the calibration.
The fluctuations in the number of measurements falling within a given
intensity range are distributed according to the well-known Poisson
distribution. The rms fractional deviation is 1/fi, where n is the ex-
pectation value of the number of measurements, provided n is small
compared with the size of the sample N. It must be remembered that
independent trials are assumed. Normally there is correlation between
successive measurements, and n should be replaced by an n’, which is
the number of measurements out of n that may be considered independent
(that is, that have little correlation between them).
Errors in the reading of the film may be either systematic or random.
If the trace had a large slope and was faint, the tendency was to read a
value consistently too high. It is difficult to estimate the magnitude of
such an error; fortunately, it occurred only infrequently. A source of
random error was ahnost always present, however; depending upon the
computer and the nature of the trace, there is a certain minimum measur-
able dilYerence in deflection, ranging from 0.05 cm to several millimeters,
but usually about 1 mm. As stated above, the first probability distribution
is obtained by dividing the range of intensities into several groups and count-
570 RADAR TARGETS AND ECHOES [SEC. 620

ing the number of measurements falling in each group. Let us consider now
an interval equal to the minimum measurable difference, centered about
the deflection corresponding to the boundary between two groups. Of
the pulses in this interval zone, some will by chance be assigned to one
group and some to the other. The rms fluctuations of the number in a
group, causeci by such an “uncertainty zone” at one boundary, is given
~~m, where m is the total number of measurements falling in the

0.001 I
o
1 I
1
1 I I I
3
1, 1
4
1 I
2 5
Normalized signal power P/P.

FIQ. 6.49.—Typical first probability distribution for chaff echo on 9.2 cm. The histo-
gram shows the experimental distribution of 1000 pulses i the straight lme is the theoretical
formula, using the measured average power.

uncertainty zone.’ It should be noted that m includes all measurements

falling in the interval, as all trials are independent. This type of error
will be referred to as “boundary error. ”
Errors caused by improper calibration are, of course, difficult to
correct. They are best minimized by proper choice of receiver gain when
the fihn is taken. An attempt was made always to set the gain in such
a way that most of the pulses were well below the saturation level, as the
errors would be greatest in the neighborhood of this level. Any effect
LThe reazcming employed is zz follows: It is equally likely that a measurement will
be assigned to either group; the average number going to any one group is m/2; the rmz
fluctuation in thiz number iz ti(?n/2) (1 –+) = R’z.
SEC. 6.21] EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS 571

attributable to incorrect calibration should appear as a systematic de-

viation from the theoretical distribution, whereas most of those discussed
above would be random.
6.21. Experimental Results.—The previous section has described the
experimental techniques involved in recording the fluctuations of clutter
echoes and in analyzing these records in accordance with the theory
developed in the previous sections. This present section summarizes
the results obtained in this manner at the Radiation Laboratory.
Those targets which may considered as assemblies of random scatterers,
that is, chaff, precipitation, and sea echo, are discussed first. Ground
clutter, in which the target contains fixed as well as moving scatterers,
is considered later.
Cha~. It has been pointed out in Sec. 6.18 that the large numbers
of randomly moving dipoles which make up the chaff cloud should ideally
satisfy the conditions for random scatterers prescribed in Sec. 6.16. In
fact the experimental analysis of chaff echo is in full agreement with the
theory, Thus Fig, 6.49 compares a typical experimental first probability
distribution, on 9.2 cm, with the theoretical exponential curve. The
histogram represents the analysis of 1000 pulses, and the straight line,
corresponding to the theoretical curve, uses the value of the measured
average intensity of the sample analyzed. The deviations between the
two plots are random and do not indicate any significant differences.
Table 6.7 compares the magnitude of the deviations in each interval
with the expected rms fluctuations arising from both the finite size of
the sample and the “boundary error” discussed in Sec. 6.20. In the

T.!RLE 6.7.—DEVIATIONS BETWEEN THEORETIC.IL .+N~ EXPERIMENTAL FIRST PROBA-

BILITY DISTRIBUTIONS FOR CHAFF ECHO; A = 9.2 CM, 1000 PULSES .4 NALYZED

Expected rms fluctuation in

No. of pulses in interval
number
Interval of ~ )ifferenc(
P.
Due to finite he to boundary
kperinmut al Theoretical
sample error

o +.34 275 292 – 17 17 3

0.34+.68 205 202 +3 14 4
0,68-1.01 143 144 –1 12 4
1.01-1.35 136 102 +34 10 3
1.35-1.69 79 72 +7 8 3
1,69–2.03 47 52 –5 7 3
2.03-2.36 32 37 –5 6 2
2.36-2.70 21 26 –5 5 2
2.70-3.38 35 31 +4 5 2
3.3&4.05 14 16 –2 4 1
4.05-5.40 9 12 +3 3 1
[email protected] 4 4 o 2 1
572 RADAR TARGETS AND ECHOES [SEC. 6.21

fifth column it has been assumed that all the measured pulses are
independent of each other. As there is actually considerable correlation
between neighboring pulses, the figures in this column represent minimum
values. The “boundary error” calculation assumes that differences in
pulse height of less than 1 mm were not measurable, which is likewise a
minimum figure. It is seen that the actual deviations are, with one
exception, well inside the expected statistical fluctuations. Equally good
results have been ontained in all measurements on 9.2 and 3.2 cm of
chaff cut to resonate at 10 cm. The first probabilityy distribution of the
1.0

0.8 -

0,6 -
~
k 0.4 -

0.2 -

0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
v inCPS
FIG. 6.50.—Power frequency spectrum for fluctuations of chaff echo, as measured on four
occasions.

echo on a frequency of 515 Me/see from chaff cut for the “Wurzburg”
band (k= 50 cm) has also been measured, and good agreement was like-
wise obtained with theory. 1
All the measured frequency spectra of the fluctuations of chaff echo
have had roughly the same shape, resembling error curves centered at
the origin. The width of the spectra, however, is quite variable even
at one wavelength. Thus Fig. 6.50 shows the spectra for the echo of
chaff cut for 10 cm, as measured on 9.2 cm on four occasions. It is
significant that the widest spectrum D was obtained with gusty winds up
to 25 mph whereas the wind speed was 10 mph or less for the other cases.
The width of the spectrum depends upon the relative velocity of the
chaff dipoles, that is, the so-called “horizontaldispersal rate, ” and it is
to be expected that this rate will depend on the speed and gustiness of
the wind.
The narrowest spectrum, Curve A, was obtained with chaff of the
same electrical properties as used for the other curves but having slightly
1G. P. Kuiper, “A Study of Chaff Echoesat 515 MC,)’ RRL Report No. 411-73,
December1943.
SEC. 621] EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS 573

different mechanical and aerodynamical properties. In addition, the

chaff was dispensed from a slowly moving blimp instead of being thrown
out into the turbulent slip stream of an airplane.
The measured spectra (including a fe~: not shown in Fig. 650) do
not show any significant dependence on the “age” of the chaff, that
is, the length of time bet ~vem the dropping and the measurement. The
data are, however, too limited to allow a definite conclusion. k a
matter of interest, the ages for the four curves A, B, C, and D of Fig.
650 are 3 rein, 20 see, 6 rein, and 10 rein, respectively.
In #

0.2 -

,
00 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200
PA in cm-cps
FIG.65 1,—Power frequency spectrum for the fluctuations of chaff echo on 9.2 and 3.2 cm,
plotted as a functmn of the product vh.

If the fluctuation arises solely from the Doppler beats of the moving
chaff dipoles, then it is seen from Sec. 6.18 that the correlation function
is a function of the product VZr/A. Hence the width of the frequency
spectrum of the fluctuation should be proportional to the radar frequency
for the same velocity distribution. More exactly, if simultaneous
measurements of the spectra are made on several wavelengths, the curves
should coincide when plotted as functions of the product of the fluctua-
tion frequency and radar wavelength. Accordingly, in Fig. 6.51 the
experimental spectra for chaff measured simultaneously on 3.2 and 9.2 cm
are plotted against VA. The small discrepancy between the two curves
is well within experimental error.
The spectrum of chaff has also been meamred’ at 515 Me/see, and the
maximum frequency present to any appreciable extent was found to be
4 cps on horizontal polarization. When “scaled” to 9 cm, this value
roughly corresponds to Curve A of Fig. 650. Considering that the chaff
size was different, the wavelength dependence is at least qualitatively
verified. The frequency of fluctuation on vertical polarization was found
] G. P. Kuiper, op. cit.
574 RADAR T.4RGETS AND ECHOES [SEC, 621

to be somewhat slower, with a maximum of 3 CPS. (All the microwave

measurements were made with horizontal polarization. )
Mention must also be made of some results on the frequency of
fluctuation, obtained in England, that are not in agreement with the
above conclusions,’ Pulse-to-pulse photo~raphs of chaff echoes were
made on 212 and 3000 Me/see. A statistical analysis was not carried
out, but it is stated that there was qualitative evidence of fluctuation
frequencies in the range 10 to 25 cps on both frequencies.
40

~ 20 -
-u
g
~ 10
8-
$6 -
s
$4
3
0
a
.—
:2 -
.-c
2
21
.; 0.8 -
Z 0,6 -
al
3 0.4 -
~
2
2 0.2 - \

0.1 I I I I 1 I I
o “1 2 3 4 5 6
Normalized signal powerP/PO
FIG. 652.—First probability distribution of the echo from a rainstorm on 3.2 cm. The
histogram shows the analysis of 1000 pulses; the straight line represents the theoretical
behavior for random scatterers.

From the measured spectra one might expect to obtain information

about the distribution of the relative velocities. A detailed analysis of
this sort has not been carried out; indeed, there is no unique velocity dis-
tribution corresponding to a given spectrum. If, however, the spectrum
has a Gaussian shape, some information about average speeds can be
easily obtained. Let ; be defined such that one-half of the scatterers
have relative velocities in the direction of the radar set lying between
–; and +;. Then it has been shown by Siegert’ that with a Gaussian
1~i~nal Report on ADRDE Window TriQIs, ” ADRDE RSpOlt No, 250, Aprd 1944.
2 A. J. F. Siegert,RL Report No. 773, January1946.
SEC. 621] EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS 575

spectrum, ii is given by
E = 0.00650Av$$ ft/see, (184)

where h is in centimeters and V$4is . the frequency at which the power

spectrum is down to one-half of its original value. Applying this fo-mula
to the curves of Fig. 650 (though they are not exactly Gaussian in shape)
one finds values of ~ ranging between 0.6 and 2.0 ft/sec. These results
are of the same order of magnitude as the horizontaldispersal rate as
actually measured from motion pictures of chaff dipoles.
The correlation functions obtained for chaff show that in addition to
the fast Doppler-beat fluctuations, a much slower variation is ahnost
always present to some extent. (This slow variation has been subtracted
out in obtaining the curves of Fig. 6.50. The origin of this type of
fluctuation, which extends to a few cycles per second, is not yet clear.
Possibly it may be due to the rotation of the dipoles (about an axis per-
pendicular to their length, which \vould cause variations in the amplitude
scattered by each dipole. )
Precipitation Echo, The scatterers responsible for precipitation echoes
are almost undoubtedly either raindrops or \rater particles in solid form.
One would therefore expect that the conditions for treating the target as an
assembly of random scatterers are as well satisfied as with chaff. This
expectation is borne out by experiment. Figure 6.52 sho}rs a typical
experimental first probability distribution as obtained from the analysis
of 1000 pulses on 3.2 cm of the echo from a rain sho\ver. The deviations
of the histogram from the theoretical curve (plotted as a straight line on
this scale) are random. An analysis similar to that made for chaff echo
shows that the de}-iatiom are \vithin the expected statistical fluctuations,
Unfortunately, only a small :~mount of data is available on the
spectrum of the fluctuations of precipitation echo. Three films were
measured on 9.2 cm, and one on 3.2 cm; the erho in each case came from
a shower or thunderstorm. The ffuctllat i{ms am altvays very rapid, being
several times greater than those for chaff’, Figure 6.53 is a plot of the
power spectrum for the three films measured on 9,2 cm. The spcrtra
have roughly Gaussian shapes except in onc CYLSCwhere there is a pro-
nounced tail above 80 cps. It is doul]tful if’ this tail is significant,, as it
occurs at frequencies so close to the pulse-rcwurmnce rate that the whole
method may be expected to break down. The other curves \vereobtained
\vith much higher recurrence rates.
The ~vidth of the three spectra, given by V,j, varies by a factor of 2.
As in the case of chaff, it is ther(forc not possilJe to speak of the fluctua-
tion spectrum, but orw must expect to find the spectrum depending on
the particular storm, probaljly vtiryin~ even \~ithin the storm region, and
changing with time. Additiorml evidrnce for this varifibility was furnished
by an attempted experiment on the \vavekmgth dcpcmdcnce of the fluctua-
576 RADAR TARGETS AND ECHOES [SEC. 621

tion. Two films were taken of the echo from a rain shower on 9.2 and
3.2 cm, respectively, separated by a time interval of a few minutes and
a range interval of a few thousand yards. The fluctuation spectra,
instead of depending linearly on wavelength, were practically identical
both in shape and width. As all other evidence points to the validity
of the fundamental mechanism assumed for the fluctuations, it must be
concluded that the rate of fluctuations can change by a factor of 3 even
over short intervals of time and space.

~~
o 40 80 120 160 200 240 280
u in cps
F1~. 6.53.—Power frequency spectrum of the fluctuations of precipitation echo on 9.2 cm
as measured on three occa~ions.

A few measurements of the frequency spectra for precipitation echoes

have been made by an entire] y clifferent method, using a superheterodyne-
type audio analyzer.’ Although far quicker than the photographic
analysis, the results obtained by this method m-e in a much cruder form
and comparison is difficult. The frequency at \vhich the spectrum is
one-tenth of the value at the origin, VO.l,variccf bet \veen 200 and 300 cps,
which is somewhat higher than for the curves in Fig. 6.53. Some evidence
was found for an increase of fluctuation frequency with range. This
is attributed to the larger area illuminated by the beam at great distances,
thus including regions of more diverse \vind velocities.
The foregoing method is capable of considerable development and, in
a more perfected state, would be preferable to the photographic technique

1RL Report No. 773. See also R. M. Ashhy, F. W. Martinj and J. L. Lawson,
“Modulation of Radar Signals from Airplanes,” RL Report No. 914, Marrh 2S, 1946
SEC. 6.21] EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS 577

because of the immense saving in time. It would be interesting to use

the method for a detailed study of the variation of the fluctuation spectra
from storm to storm and the variation with range, pulse length, and
wavelength.1
An average figure for the speeds of the drops relative to each other
may be obtained from Eq. (184), but even greater caution must be
exercised than for the case of chaff because of possible deviations from a
Gaussian spectrum. Figure 6.53 yields values of v between 3 and 5 ftfsec.
These relative velocities should be connected with the turbulence existing
in the regions of precipitation, and in this light the values seem low. It
must be remembered, ho>vever, that, the turbulence in a storm is mostly
vertical and the fluctuation depends on the horizontal velocities. Futher-
more, the velocity dist ribut ion is very broad and extends far beyond v.
A detailed study of the connection between the fluctuation spectra and
the degree of turbulence is of considerable practical importance. If some
correlation exists it might be possible from a study of the radar signal to
inform aviators of dangerous precipitation areas.
It has been suggested that the fluctuation arises not so much from
the interference between randomly moving drops as between blocks of
drops, the members of which move as a whole. Although this is un-
doubtedly true to some extent, if there are many such blocks moving
randomly relative to each other, the spectrum is indistinguishable from
that due to completely randomly moving drops. If there is such an
“order” in the distribution of the velocities, it might be possible, how-
ever, to make the illuminated area so small that only a few blocks are
present, and then differences would appear.
The correlation functions for precipitation echo are particularly
marked by an almost complete absence of the secular variation found
for chaff and sea echo. Actually there is a slow variation, from a change
of the number and size of the drops as the character cf the precipitation
changes in space and time. The periods involved, seconds or minutes,
are too long, however, to appear on the correlation functions.
Measurement of the correlation function or the spectrum does not of
itself constitute a verification of the form of the second probability dis-
tribution obtained in Sec. 619. In fact, the previous discussion has
implicitly assumed this distribution. It has already been pointed out
that some degree of verification may be attained by an examination of
distributions derived from the second probability distribution. Thus in
Eq. (160), a distribution is given for the ratio of the echo intensities at
two instants , apart. Figure 6.54 sho\m an experimental distribution of
this sort (actually in terms of A(db) = 10 log,o[l’(t + T)/F’(t)]) obtained
from the analysis of 1000 pulses on 9.2 cm for the echo from a rain shower.
1Such a program is Iming carriwl out in tllc Weattwr liada] I’rojcx.t of the DcIHLrt-
rnent of Meteorology, Massachusetts Institute (J( ‘1’(YIII1OI(W.
578 RADAR TARGETS AND ECHOES [SEC.621

The smooth curve is the theoretical formula [Eq. (161).] using the measured
correlation function for the time interval in question (0.003 sec.). The
differences between the theoretical curve and the experimental histogram
are not completely random. However, this was one of the earliest tilrns
measured, and the technique was still so crude that the errors in measure
ment were large.
flea Echo. Unlike the previous targets, the nature of the scatterem
responsible for sea echo is not well known and it is not possible to predict

0.18~

0.16 -

0.14 -

0.12 -
*+
u
: 0.10 -
u
s
u
: 0,08 -
&
0.06-

0.04-

0.02-

s
:20 -16 -12 -8 -4 0 +4 +8 +12 +16 +
Adb
FIG. 6.54.—ProbabiIity distribution of the logarithm of the intensity ratio of two pulses,
3 milliseconds apart, for a typical precipitation echo on 9.2 cm. The histogram shows the
analysis of 1000 pulses, and the continuous line is the theoretical curve based on the measured
correlation function,

with surety the properties of the fluctuation; rather, the experimental

data are analyzed for what information can be inferred from them about
the scattering mechanism. In Sec. 6.11 this question is discussed in
detail in the light of current theories of sea echo. Here it may be stated
that whether it is assumed the echo arises from spray droplets or from
surface irregularities, there should be a sufficiently large number of
independent scatterers present to satisfy the conditions for random
scatterers. The interpretation of the spectrum in terms of the velocity
distribution, however, would be open to question.
A striking feature of the sea-echo signal is the presence of the slow or
secular variation to a much more marked extent than with the other
echoes of this class. The period of this variation, which must be associated
with the lifetime of the scatterers, is of the order of seconds or fractions
SEC, 6.21] EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS 579

of a second. Within agiven record of theecho covering several seconds,

the average intensity will not in general be truly constant. As has been
pointed out in Sec. 6“20, this has the effect of increasing the standard
deviation of the first probability distribution, and one ~~ould therefore
expect to find an excess of high-intensity echoes. A rather extreme
example of such behavior is sho\vn in Fig. 6.20, Sec. 6.11, where there is
plotted the experimental first probability distribution asobtained from an
analysis of 2000 pulses on 9,2 cm covering a time interval of 48 sec.
The straight line is the theoretical exponential curve for W,(P)AP,
using the intensity averaged over the entire time interval. As explained
in Sec. 6.20, the standard deviation of the distribution of “average”
intensities may be obtained both from the first probability distribution
and from the finite asymptote of the correlation function. The values
computed from the data of Fig. 6“20 and from the correlation function
are large, as \rould be expected, 8 = 0.33 and 0.48 respectively and are
in rough agreement \vith each other.
If a time inter~al is chosen in which the “average” intensity is sensibly
constant, then the first probability distribution has al~rays been found
to agree with the theoretical prediction. Figure 6.19 in Sec. 6.11 illus-
trates such a situation. Here the first probability distribution was
obtained from the analysis of 2000 pulses in a much shorter time interval,
4 see, during \vhich there happened to be little variation of the average
intensity. The deviations are ~~ell within statistical error.’ Thus the
rms fluctuation of the echo relative to the average intensity is 0.93,
compared \vith the theoretical value 1.0 derived in Sec. 6.19. The
asymptote of the correlation function is correspondingly low. Equally
good agreement with theory has been obtained ~vith the highest resolu-
tion available, that is, 0.15 psec pulse and 0.8° beamwidth. It must
be concluded that even in areas as small as 20 by 90 yd the number of
sea-echo scatterers is at least greater than five.
The po\ver spectrum of the fluctuations of sea echo is again roughly
Gaussian in shape and has about the same ~~idth as the spectra for chaff.
The range of \vidths encountered is much smaller, ho~vever, the values for
v,; lying bet]veen 25 cps and 35 cps for 9.2 cm.2
>’o dependence of the spectrum on pulse length was found in one
comparison between 0.15 and 1 ~sec on 3.2 cm. Figure 6.55 presents
the t~ro spectra as measured about 1 min apart on the two pulse lengths
and illustrates the close agreement, Although this is the only example
measured, it is in accord with general qualitative observations.

1It should be pointed out that even in the extreme example of Fig. 6.20 the number
of excess pulses is less than 2 per cent of the total.
z Somewhat larger values have been reported by T. Gold. See ASEE Witley Report
No. XRD/46/3, July 10, 1946. The differences are perhaps attributable to rougher sea
conditions than those encountered in our measurements.
580 RADAR TARGETS AND ECHOES [sm. 621

8everal attempt-a have been made to compare the fluctuation spectra

on two wavelengths. Two such comparisons, between 3.2 and 9.2 cm,
were made, but unfortunately not simultaneously either in time or in
range. The ratio of the widths in these two cases was 2.0 and 2.5, re-
spectively, compared with 2.88 for the ratio of wavelengths. One com-
parison was made between 9.2 and 1.25 cm which was simultaneous in
space, however, and only a few minutes apart in time. The two power
frequency spectra are plotted in Fig. 6.56 m a function of vA. The
widths of the spectra are seen to be in about the right proportion. The
slight difference in shapes is not significant, especially in light of the

0,8 -

0.6 -
2
i
0.4 -

02 -

00 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160

Frequency v in CPS

FIG. 6.55-Power frequency spectrum of the P,urtuations of sea echo on 3.2 cm for two
pulse lengths. The continuous curve is for a pulse Ieng th of 1 pscc; the dashed curve is for
0.15 #sec.

large corrections made on the correlation function because of the slow

“secular” variation. On the basis of the wavelength dependence, it
seems fair to conclude that the fast fluctuations of sea echo are attributable,
at least in major part, to the Doppler beats between moving scatterers
and that the median relative velocity v is of the order of 1 or 2 ft /sec.
The growth and decay of the individual scatterers also gives rise to
fluctuations in the echo; but as already noted, the frequency is much
slower.
The shape of the second probability distribution has been checked in
the same manner as for precipitation echo, that is, by means of the
distribution of the ratio of two intensities ~ apart in time. Figure 6.57
shows the plot of the distribution of the ratio, expressed in decibels as
usual, as obtained by analysis of 1000 pulses 0.003 sec apart on 9.2 cm.
The smooth curve is the theoretical prediction calculated from the
measured correlation function. It is seen that the deviations are random
and the over-all agreement is very good.
 SKC. 6-21] EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS 581

1.0

0.8

0.6

a
i
0.4

0.2

0 I ! 1 I
o 100 200 3rxl 4cn 500 W
v A incm-cm
1IG.6.56. —I’owcr frcqucnc,v ,pcrt~ um for the fl!lrtuat,<,r,s of hea echo on 9.2 and 1.25 cm
plotted a> a function of tlm ploduct vi.

0.14 -

0,12 -

0.10 - \
~
~ 0.08 -
-0
~-
: 0.06 -

z
0.04 -

0.02 -
582 RADAR TARGETS AND ECHOES [SEC. 6.21

G’round Clutter. Theprevious targets could all beclosely approximated

by assemblies of random independently moving scatterers. In Sec. 6.18
it was pointed out that the targets responsible for ground clutter also
include assemblies, such as leaves, branches, etc., that move in the wind.
In addition there are scatterers with random relative phases that are,
however, fixed, for example, tree trunks, rocks, etc. The total echo is
the sum of the echoes from both classes of targets.
The first probability distribution for the echo has been derived in
Eq. (173) asa function of m2, the ratio of theintensity of the steady echo
to the average power of the echo from the moving scatterers, that is,
S2/P,. This ratio will be called the steady-to-random ratio for convenience
in discussion. For mz = O, the distribution reduces to the familiar
exponential for random scatterers alone. When mz is small, that is, less
than 1, there is little difference between Eq. (173) and the exponential.
As mz increases, a maximum appears in the function. When mz >> 1,
the distribution can be approximated by a narrow Gaussian curve centered
about the intensity of the steady echo.
All the steps in this sequence in the development of W,(P) dP can be
illustrated with observed ground-clutter dist ribut ions. At very high
wind speeds almost everything moves in the wind and there are very
few “steady” targets. As the wind velocity decreases, for the same
average intensity of ground clutter, the steady-to-random ratio would be
expected to increase.
The echo from a heavily wooded hill on 9.2 cm has been measured
for gusty winds of about 50 mph, and the first probabilityy distribution is
indistinguishable from the simple exponential curve. A less extreme
case is illustrated in Fig. 6.58a, \vhich shotvs the first probability dis-
tribution of the echo from a densely \vooded section at a wind speed of
25 mph. The flattening of the distribution for low values of signal
intensity is evident, and the histogram has been fitted with a theoretical
curve for mz = 0.8. In Figure 658b is shown the distribution of the
echo from similar terrain but at a wind speed of 10 mph. There is now ,
a maximum in the distribution at slightly less than the average value of
the echo intensity, and the histogram is best fitted by a theoretical curve
with mz = 5.2. The final stage in the sequence is illustrated in Fig. 6.58c.
The distribution shown there is likewise for a wind speed of 10 mph,
but the target consisted chiefly of rocks with sparse vegetation. All the
echoes are closely clustered around the average value, and the theo-
retical curve best fitting the experimental distribution corresponds to
m2 = 30.
As demonstrated by the last two illustrations, the relative contribu-
tion from the steady targets is greater when the vegetation is sparse than
when it is dense. A detailed study of the variation of mz with type of
vegetation has not yet been made, nor is much known about how the
sEr. 6.21 I EXPERIMENTAL RESULT,S 583
—

0.7 -

0.6 -

~ 0.5
-u
gAo,4
&
0.3

0.2 -

01

0 ) 1 .—
0 0.5 1.0 1.5 20 2.5 3.0
Normalized signal power 1~~
(a) Heavily wooded terrain, wind speed 25 mph, m’= 0,8

11
0.6 I

~ 0.5

s- 0.4 -
&
0.3

0.2 -

0.1 -
0
0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0’
Normalized signal power P/~
(f)) Heawly wooded terrain, wind speed 10 mph, m’= 5.2

, ,
2.0 2.5 3.0
Normalized signal power P/~
(c) Rocky terrain,wind speed 10 mph, 7n2=30
FIG. 658.—Several curves of the fist probability distribution for mound clutter on 9.2
cm. Experimental data are shown by histograms; theoretical curves, fitted to the data, by
continuous curves.
584 RADAR TARGET.Y A,VD EC’T1(IE,Y [sm. 621

steady-to-random ratio varies with frequency. one \vould expect mn-

siderable change, as a target can be classified as “steady” only in rrlation
to the wavelength. A tree branch moving back and forth 1 cm would
be steady at 10 cm but would go through all possible phase angles at
125 cm. The value of mz should therefore decrease with wave] en~th,
other factors being constant, and there is some qualitative evidence in
support of this prediction. The question obviously depends on the
relative contribution of leaves and grass to the echo, compared \vith that,
from branches and tree trunks, At 10 cm, at least, it would serm that

18

16
.n.-

‘: 10

~
4-

2-

00 0.9 1.1 ,1.2 1.3 1.4 5

0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 1.0
lime in seconds

FIG. 659.-Plot of the echo intensity on 9.2 cm from heavily wooded terrain, at a wind
speed of 22 mph.

the contribution of the latter can be considerable, as no striking variation

of the average intensity with season has been observed. The situation
may be different at the shorter wavelengths; there the foliage may play
a more important role. Thus ground clutter on 1.25 cm always shows
large and rapid fluctuations even when perfectly steady on 3.2 cm.
Unfortunately, quantitative comparisons on several frequencies have so
far been made at such high wind speeds that mz is very small at all micro-
wave frequencies.
The fluctuation frequencies of ground clutter are considerably smaller,
by an order of magnitude, than the fluctuations of chaff or sea echo, with
a correspondingly smaller median speed v, The relatively S1OW rate is
illustrated in Fig. 6.59 which is a plot of the echo intensity on 9.2 cm of
ground clutter atawind speed of 22 mph. Thetime scale covers l,5sec,
during which only a few oscillations of the signal occur, in comparison
with the rapid fluctuations shown in the similar record of sea echo (Fig. 6. 18).
SEC.6.21] EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS 585

The shape of the spectrum is again roughly similar to those of the

other clutter echoes, though the differences from the Gaussian shape are
more pronounced. A considerable number of spectra have been measured,
mostly at 9.2 cm, for various terrains and at several \vind speeds. Pulse-
to-pulse records of the signal intensity have been used most of the time,
but occasionally the fluctuation is so SIOJVthat this procedure is no longe~
efficient, and A-scope mot ion pictures at 16 frames per second have been
employed instead,
The \vidths of the spectra naturully increase \vith \\-indspeed and, in
addition, deprnd on the terrain to some extent. It \vould be pointless to
reproduce all the spectra in detail. Instrad, three points of a numl)er of
representative spectra for \\-oodrd t(.rrain at 9.2 cm are listed in Table 6.8

Jf-irld, mph rll~ I

.U 3, Clls u“ 5, Cps m 1, Cps

17 13 1 44 077 : 1 67
10 52 0 6!5 ~ 1 10 2 07
23 10 0 72 1 27 27
22 10 1{), 31 I ~,g

23 08 : 19 3,3 86
30 02 33 ,5 (J 10.1
50 0 I 21 I 39 I 14 8

in order to furnish an estimate of the \ridth and shape. The three points
chosen are the frequencies at \\-hichthe po\\erfrequency spectrum is do!vn
to 80 per cent (–1 db), 50 per cent (–3 db), and 10 per cent (– 10 db),
respectively, of its maximum value. In addition, the ]Iind speed and the
steady-to-random ratio mz are listed when available.
Ground clutter most closely resembles the echo from randomly moving
scatterers at high wind speeds, and it ~vould therefore be expected that the
widths of the spectra at these ~~ind speeds would be proportional to the
radar frequency. .+ comparison among several frequencies ~vas made
twice for hea~ily ~vooded terrain at gale \\-indsor higher, One comparison,
between 3,2 and 9.2 cm, ga~e a ratio of less than 2 for the widths of the spec-
tra, compared with the ~vavelerlgthratio of 2.88. The second one, bet\\een
wavelengths of 3.2 and 1,25 cm, gave a corresponding ratio of 2.3, compared
with the wavelength ratio of 2.56. These last two spectra are plotted in
Figure 660 as a function of VA. It is difficult to know how to interpret
the results, especially as there are the usual uncertainties about the
simultaneity of the measurements in time. It would seem, however, that
the width of the spectrum is not quite proportional to the radio frequency.
The spectrum at 9,2 cm ~vasmeasured at the same time as the spectra
at 3.2 and 1,25 cm mentioned above. Ho\vever, the sllapc of the spectrum
586 RADAR TARG&TS AND ECHOES [SEC. 6.21

1,0

0.8 -

0,6 -

~
k
\
0.4 -
\
\

\
0.2 - \
\

\
\
, 1 , , , \
n
‘O 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200
v A in cm-cps
FIG. 6.60,—Power frequency spectra of the fluctuations for typical ground clutter In
gale winds, plotted as a function of the product of fluctuation frequency and radar wave-
length. The solid line is the curve for 3.2 cm, and the dashed line for 1.25 cm.

1.0

0.8

0.6-
z
~
Q
0.4

02

0 1 1
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.C4 0.07 0.08 009
7 in seconds
Fm. 661.—Correlation function for ground clutter on 9.2 cm at winds of whole gale force,
showing anomalous appearance,
SIX-. 6.21] EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS 587

(listed in the last line of Table 68) was so markedly out of line with the
others that nocomparison was possible. Thestrange shape was the result
ofakink inthe correlation function, asshownl in Fig. 6.61, perhaps indica-
tive of two sources of fluctuation. h’o explanation is offered for this
strange behavior, which was not found elsewhere. This instances cited
to emphasize that much is still unknown about the fluctuations of ground
clutter. It is believed the general outlines of the picture have been estab-
lished, but many of the details, especially ~vith regard to frequency depend-
ence, await further investigation.

1The correlation function in the figure is already corrected for a small positive
asymptote because of a very slow “secular” variation.
 CHAPTER 7

METEOROLOGICAL ECHOES
BY HERBERTGOLDSTEIN,DOiVALDE. KERR,
ANDARTHURE. BENT

ORIGIN OF THE ECHO

BY HERBERT GOLDSTEIN

Under certain meteorological conditions characteristic echoes will

appear on microwave radar systems, often covering considerable area and
characterized by irregular, diffuse boundaries and rapidly fluctuating
intensity. A large body of evidence, presented in the following sections,
supports the belief that all such echoes are caused by incoherent scattering
from condensed water, either in the form of raindrops or in some solid form
such as ice crystals or snow. Section 7.1 treats the phenomenon of inco-
herent scattering from any type of scatterer randomly distributed in vol-
ume. This section will provide a common language in terms of which one
can express the results of the several theories and make comparison with
experiment. In Sec. 7“2 it is shown that wherever careful investigations
have been made, precipitation has with few exceptions been found at the
points from which the echoes appear to arise. Section 7.3 presents some
elementary and crude calculations of the magnitude of rain echoes to be
expected on the basis of the raindrop theory and shows that the experi-
mental values are not inconsistent with these results. Some of the alterna-
tive theories not involving condensed water are discussed in Sec. 7.4, and it
is shown that these theories cannot account for the observed magnitude of
the echo. Various modifications of the hypothesis that rain echoes are pro-
duced as a result of incoherent scattering from drops have been proposed at
one time or another. Thus, it has been suggested that coherent scatter-
ing may occur at times. In Sec. 75 reasons are given for believing
these suggested modifications in the hypothesis to be without practical
significance.
The rapid fluctuation of meteorological echoes is so striking as to pro-
vide one of the easiest ways to identify them, On the assumption that
the echoes originate from precipitation, the fluctuation is natural] y expected
because of the changing interference effects among the randomly moving
scatterers. A detailed discussion of the fluctuations, as an example of
clutter-echo fluctuations in general, was presented in Chap. 6, especially
Sees. 6.18 and 6.21, and need not be repeated here.
.588
SIX-. 71] 7’IIE Ij(’llo 1,’1:(),11 [,V(’011111/EAT7’ ,S(’.t7’7’ERER,Y 589

7“1. The Echo from Incoherent Scatterers Distributed in Volume.—

The amplitude of the r-f signal rt’ceii-rd I)y a radar is modulated by the
range varition of the specific targets. ‘1’llc J’requrncy of this modulation,
however, is always vrry slow r(m~p:lred with the radio frequency. It is
always pwsible, thcref[)rr, 10 WI Ill) a small intcmwl of time, large com-
pmed with the r-f perio (i, (I(llillg \vlIich the umpli(u(lc of the echo is
wnstallt. The who r-f powTI (I[lring slrrh an interval, WI1OSC center lies
at a given time (0 aftrr thr lr:lnsmi[te(l ptllsc, u’i]l be ca]]cd the r’nstan-
/(Ir/(,ovscchf) poll(r :it:Lu:lngc 11’(, = C([,’2. ‘1’llis irlst:~rlt:~nt,ollsecho power
will, of course, vary fromoneswm,p ttj 111(,urxl, l)]o(lllringt llefluctuatiot~
of the echo, By ~lrvwqc do powfr at a given range will be meant the
ar,’erage of the irlst:lrll:lrl(~(~lls QCI1O power over nx~uy p(llscs,
I.ct Rj, 0,, ~, Iwthc raugr, (,lev:ttion, andazirnuth coorxiinntcsof some
particular (point) scatterer in ttw tar~et. If p(f{ – et) ~ives the instan-
taneous r-f pojj(,r of tII(Tt r:uwrnitted puke :w a functionof rau~e, then the
}~(~!r(’rirl(ici(,rltflu tll(s(,:~tt(,l(~],:lt suchanirlstant of time tl)at, tlleretllrrleci
who is rrc(,i\(,(l :It :1 tin~c (,, i~ proportion;ll to p(2f?, – cto). The contri-
I)ution of tlliss(,ilttcl(r to tll( total rrrci~cd po\ver (in free space) is then

(1)

~~hereUj is the rodar cross section of thescatterer and.f(d, o) is the antenna

pattern. lnScc. 7,5it \~illbeprove(f in detail that thetotal back scatter-
ing can be tre~tcd as iurollrrent provided (]) tllc distribution of scatterers
is random and (2) the rise CIUIf:~ll time of tlw pulse is long compared with
the r-f period. The total a~-eragereceived po\veris, therefore, just the sum
of the echo po}vers from each of tllc sect terers:

(2)

It will now be assumed that the number of contributing scatterers is

very large and that they are uniformly distributed, in space, completely
filling the radar beam, and that the distribution of cross sections is inde-
pendent of position in space. The sum in Eq. (2) can be then replaced by
an integral by introducing a density function n (u)du, which gives the num-
ber of scatterers per unit volume with cross section lying bet~veen a and
u + da. If an element of volume in sptice is written as R’ dR d~, where !2
represents the solid angle, then Eq. (2) reduces to

— (’J2~2 “ p(2R – et,) dR

.f’(@, 0) dQ m n(uj u da. (3)
1“ = –-l
(47r)3 , R2 \ (*T) /o

When the range is large compared with the pulse length, R is essentially
constant and equal to RO throughout the region where p(2R — ctO)is differ-
590 .l’fli’TEOROLOi71PAL ECHOES [SEC. 71

ent from zero and hence may be taken outside the first integral. If the
pulse were exactly rectangular in shape, this integral would be given by

(4)

where Pi is the peak transmitted po\vcr and 7 the pulse duration. The
pulse isnever exactly rectangular, but itisobviousthat Eq. (4) still holds
toagood degree of approximation if theconventionally defined values are
substituted for P, and r.
Itisclear that thesecond integral of Eq. (3)defines approximately the
solid angle of the beam. If the beamwidths arenot. too large (1 radian),
then theintegral can besaidto define t~vobeam\vidtl~s9, @such that

It should be pointed out that although 0 and @ are proportional to the ver-
ticaland horizontal beamwidths defined in terms of thehalf-power points,
they arenotnecessarily identical ~vith them. Thus, ifthe antenna pattern
is approximated by a Gaussian curve, f3 or @ is about 80 per cent of the
angle between half-power points. Usually this differencwis of no impor-
tance.
The last integral is, of course, simply the definition for the a~’erage cross
section and can be written
.
an(u) do = i%, (6)
/ o

where N is the total number of scatterers per unit volume and o is the
average cross section. It is convenient to replace the product N; by a
single symbolq, which may becalled theradar crmsseclion per unit volume.
The dimensions of q are those of reciprocal length; and whenever numerical
values are given in later sections, the units will be reciprocal meters.
Occasional] y q will be expressed in decibels referred to a level of 1 m-’,
that is, 10 loglO(q/lm-’).
By combining these results, we find the final phenomenological formula
for the average received power to be

(7)

It should be noted that WTCR2 is just the volume illuminated by the

beam. In fact, Eq. (7) could have been derived, though not as rigorously
as above, by the following brief argument. If the scattering is incoherent,
the total echo power is proportional to the number of scatterem or, with
uniform density, proportional to the volume. The total received power is
SEC. 7.2 CORRELATION OF ECHOES WITH PRECIPITATION 591

then given by the echo from a single scatterer of average cross section;
times the number of scatterers per unit volume times the volume illumi-
nated by the beam. Equation (7) then follows immediate] y, with q = N;.
There are a number of instructive variant forms into which Eq. (7) can
be put. Thus, the product P,. is proportional to the average transmitted
power p,, and one can write

(8)

where w, is the pulse-recurrence frequency. Also, e~ is approximately

equal to 4~ IG, where G is the antenna gain. The antenna gain is given by
47r.4/k’, ~vhereA is the effective area of the antenna; hence Eq. (7) can be
rewritten as

(9)

or

(lo)

Thus at constant A the echo \villl)e directly proportiorr:~l to the area of thr
antenna, whereas for a point target the echo is proportitm:d to the square
of the area.
The preceding discussion has not specified the nature of the scatterers
beyond requiring that they be ciistributed randomly with uniform density.
The results therefore are eq~mlly applicable in a wide variety of theories
about the origins of precipitation echoes.
7.2. Evidence of Direct Correlation between Meteorological Echoes
and Precipitation.—The most dirert way of determining the origin of
meteorological echoes is to have an observer ~vith appropriate instruments
present at the point where the scatterers appear to ori~inat (,. This method
has ohviolls technical difficulties and has r:lrely bren attcmptccl on a suffi-
ciently large scale or rvith adequate precautions. lW]erc it lms I)een em-
ployed, it has been found almost invarial)ly that the (’cI1ois ronm>rted with
precipitation of some form. In a few mrly experiments carrie(l out at the
Radiation Laboratory, an airplane f~:w directed to the region of the echo
and precipitation was invariably ohscrved. During the s~lmmer, echoes
were often observed to move in the direction of the radar system. The
passage of these echoes directly over the station was always accompanied
by rain from showers or thunderstorms. (Icrcsion:dly it happened that
echoes were receive(l {Iirectly ovcrhwu] from th~lnderstorm cumlll~us clouds
several minutes before the onst’t of rain. It seems obvimls tlmt in such
casrs r:lin W:Wfwewnl blli was kept :Iloft by up(lrafts.
592 METEOROLOGICAL ECHOES [SEC. 72

The most extensive investigation of this sort to date has been reported
by the Canadian Army Operational Research Group.’ During the summer
months an almost continuous watch was kept for meteorological echoes on
a high-power radar system operating on 10 cm. The recurrence frequency
was sufficiently low that a sweep length of 160 miles was available on the
PPI. The progress of the storm echoes was carefully watched visually
and continuously recorded \~ith a motion-picture camera. By these
arrangements the possibility of confusion because of ‘(second-sweep echoes, ”
that is, echoes of range greater than what corresponded to the interpulse
time, was eliminated. (Thunderstorm echoes have occasionall~- been
received at ranges of 250 miles, and the presence of such second-sweep
echoes on high-recurrence-frequency systems has often led to erroneous
conclusions. )
To provide the meteorological information a network of ground observ-
ers was set up, the network co~ering the region visible to the radar,
When an echo was observed near or clirertly over one of the obscm-ers, a
telephonic report of the currcmt Iveather Ivas obtained. In ihe 48 ccmv in
‘which art obseruey was lorated 1n the echo area rain was inmrinbly reported.
Apparently, and somewhat unexpectedly, there was no instance of rain
suspended aloft. The converse of this correl~tion \ras ~jotfound, that is,
light to moderate rain \vasoccasionally reporter] \rhere no echo \vasfound.
This is not unexpected, as is dlo\vn by a calculation of the expected inten-
sity carried out in the next section.
.i similar experiment was carried out, in \vinter by the same group,!
Some instances were reported of echoes oht~ined in the absence of rain, but
these were definitely attributable to snovxtolms.
The experiments rited here are tlw only knmvn investigations in which
a deliberate and careful attempt JY:Wmade to ascertain the meteorological
nature of the target. But therr is :1 very large I)o(ij, of observations of n
more casual nature supporting the t I)(>sisthat thc rchom arise only from
precipitation, Thus stem rchom uerc usrd mtwsiv~~ly during the ~varin
several theaters of oper:lticm for rollting of :[lrplanr flights to avoid
dangerous precipitation area+. Altllougl) :Idrnitte(lly not a scientific proof,

areas.

LJ. 5. \larsl tall, If. C. Langil l{,, J!”. .11. l’:Ilm{, r, It. ,\. l{<xlg{’r>, (1. P, .Icl:im son, an{l
F. F. Knowles. ‘S!imn]cr storm l;cho~,s o]) I{m{:lr ~[];~!’,” C.ko]{(; ]{cport ~o 18,
Xovcmtxr, 1!)44. .li~t) !1. S. IIar>h;lll. 1,. (;. l;c~!), :in[l L. (;. Til)t]l{!l, “ill .~nalysis
of Storm Erhocs in Efcight tisitlg lIIIIr, ” ( ‘.\( )[{(: I{<lmrt X() :;(), JtIn[I 25, 1945: :in[l
J. S. Marshall, T{. (’. I.angillc, mnd lV. 31. I’:d!lw. “Jl[,:ts[llc,nl(,r)l of I{ainfdl by l{a(i:ir, ”
,JoNr. Jle!eor., 4, 186 (1 !147).
‘~J. S. hlarshxll, Ii. (’. I,aligill,, \\”. 31. l’,l,,)~t, :1,1(11,. (1. Tih},l(r, “S-tmnci I{adm
Echc”% fron] slm\i’, ” (’i\( )1{(; 1{(1)(1!4 so. Xi, ,11111 (,. I(,)!G.
SEC. 7.2 CORRELATION’ OF ECHOES WITH PRECIPITATION 593

Mention must also be made of reports of meteorological echoes undm

circumstances that appear to exclude the presence of precipitation. Most
of these are in the nature of casual observations, but a number have been
reported in sufficient detail to merit attention. In general the echoes
observed fall in two classes. Of the first type are extended echoes closely
resembling normal precipitation echoes. One of the most authentic cases
of this type appears to be an instance’ in which an airplane was directed
to an area corresponding to an echo observed on a radar operating at 10 cm.
Not only was an absence of precipitation noted, but no clouds were present.
There were, however, several columns of smoke from brush fires, ~nd the
correlation of the echoes with the location of the smolie was said to be so
positive as to exclude the possibility of second-sweep echoes.
The second class of echoes has a distinctive appearance, different from
the normal precipitantion echo. Known as “angels,” these echoes have
been observed by an increasing number of investigators. The charac-
teristic experimental arrangement apparently favored by most observers
has been to point a radar set vertically upward, recording the echoes that
appear on the A-scope. JVith such setups “angel” echoes have been
observed in clear weather at ranges up to several thousand yards.2 They
appear most frequently as isolated signals, lasting a fraction of a minute
and lacking the usual rapid fluctuation of precipitation echoes. NTOdefinite
connection with weather conditions has been found, but it is noted they
are more numerous on summer nights under calm conditions. “Angels;’
have been detected on a number of wavelengths from 10 cm to 1 cm.
It is worthy of mention that similar echoes have been observed with
vertical-looking sonars, using sound wavelengths of the same order of
magnitude as microwaves.3
With a vertical radar no information is furnished about the horizontal
extent of the echoes. Baldwin, ~ however, has observed them with an
automatic-tracking radar operating on 3 cm and has found that the echoes
appear to be as shorply defined in space as the pulse length and beam
width will allow, ‘he “angels” were observed to move in space with
speeds the order of magnitude of wind speeds, and Baldwin was able to
1Unpublished information from Major J. 0, Fletcher, Signal Corps Ground Agency,
1943.
‘ H. T, Friis, “Radar Reflections from the Lower Atmosphere, ” F’rwc. IRE 35, 494
(1947); TV. B. Gould, “Radar Reflections from the Lower Atmosphere, ” Proc. IRE,
35, 1105L (1947); cf. also A. JY. Fri{,nd, P,-oc. IRE, 37, 116 (1949). In addition there
seems to be much work as yet unpublished.
3 C,. }V. Gilman, .4. B. Coxhcad, and F. H. W’illis, “Reflection of Sound Signals in
the Troposphere, ” Jo?m. Acoust, ,$’m,, 18, 274 (1946).
411. lJV, Baldwin, Jr., BTL ilfemoranda Nos. Milf44–15&2, 3, and 4, July 18, 1944,
to Aug. 11, 1944, paper presented at the joint VRSI-IRE meeting, hfay, 1946. .~
summary will he found in the BTL Record, 26, 75 (1947). See also a recent letter in

P7’oc. IRE, 36, 363 (1948).

594 METEOROLOGICAL ECHOES [SEC. 72

track a single echo for a few minutes at a time. Ranges varied between
800and2600 yards andheights from ground level to2000 yards. Though
weak, the echoes were clearly above noise, and from the characteristics
of the system one can estimate that the radar cross section of the object
responsible for the echo lay between 10–6 and 10–4 mz.
Similar “angel” echoes have been seen in unpublished observations
made at the Radiation Laboratory, and later at the Cambridge Field
Station of the Watson Laboratories, using a high-power early-warning
system on 10 cm. Confusing ground echo was eliminated by means of
MTI. The observations tallied closely with those of Baldwin, the echoes
appearing asisolated signals moving irregularly with speedsup to20 mph.
Occasionally such echoes were seen as far as 20 miles, indicating (from the
constants of the set) that the cross section could be as large at 10–2 m*.
The “angels’’s eemede specially prominent after sunset, and at times the
echoes would almost completely cover the PPI in a stippled dot pattern
out to a distance of 10 to 15 miles.
By themselves the experimental data available are not sufficient to
determine the source of the “angels” echo. We can exclude precipitation,
for all the observations were made in clear weather. The tendency at
first seemed to be to ascribe the echoes to inhomogeneities in the index of
refraction. Thusj to quote one out of many, Baldwin states (1oc. cit.):
“The most attractive possibility is that the echoes are returned from
clumps of water vapor. ” This possibility is analyzed quantitatively in
Sec. 74,and it is there shown that the gradients of index of refraction
believed to exist in the atmosphere are much too small to account for the
observed echoes on microwaves. It cannot be said by any means that
this explanation is ruled out, for there may exist a microstructure in the
atmosphere too fine to be detected by present instruments. It does serve,
however, to make the possibility much less attractive. Much larger
signal strength can be computed by assuming that the echo arises by
reflection from a horizontal layer,l butsuch anassumption seem surrealistic
on two counts. From the theoretical side the notion of a horizontal
reflecting layer assumes that the reflection from all parts of the layer is
coherent, requiring the layer to be uniform horizontally to within a radar
wavelength over the width of the beam. This seems highly unlikely
even at 10 cm, much less at 3 or 1 cm. Experimentally, the idea of a
horizontal layer seems to have been inspired by the prevalent use of
vertical-looking radars to observe the “angels. ” The experiments of
Baldwin and others indicate, however, that the volume of space giving
rise to the echo is most likely smaller than can be resolved by the radar
and hence cannot be in the form of horizontal layers.
1W. E, Gordon, “A Theory of Radar Reflections from the Lower Atmosphere, ”
F’mc. IRE, 37,41 (1949), and.k. W. Friend, 10C.cit.
SEC. 7.2] CORRELATION OF ECHOES WITH PRECIPITATION 595

One is tempted, therefore, to look elsewhere for an explanation. It

is known that echoes can be observed even from small birds, and British
investigators have paid considerable attention to such echoes. ] It is
stated that the cross section of a large sea bird on 10 cm can be as high
as 0.2 mz. Some of the echoes may possibly be accounted for in this
manner, although Baldwin failed to see any in a telescope mounted on his
antenna. Recently, Crawford’ has produced convincing evidence that
the “angels” seen on a vertical-looking radar were due to the presence of
insects. Many of the observed properties of the “angels” fit in with
such a source—their isolated nature, motion in space, and lack of rapid
fluctuation-and it seems probable that a large proportion of the echoes
arise in this fashion. Conceivably, too, such extraneous phenomena as
“second-trip echoes” or antenna side lobes might contribute some of the
apparent echoes.
Many of the observed “angels,” perhaps most of them, can be explained
in one of these ways. However, there seems at the present time to be a
residuum of observations that cannot be accounted for by such explana-
tions. Thus “angels” have been seen in winter when the ground was
below freezing and the presence of insect life highly unlikely.s For these
echoes one would have to fall back on the atmospheric-inhomogeneity
theory. It deserves repeating, however, that to obtain anything like the
right order of magnitude for the echo, the spatial dimensionsof theinhomo-
~eneities must be far smaller than any yet observed, It is a matter of
inches, not of yards or hundreds of yards. Recent investigations have
indeed revealed an atmospheric microstructure much finer than previously
ccmceived,4 but even so the observations are too coarse for the inhomo-
geneitiesof interest. There is a great need for meteorological instruments
capable of detecting and measuring the extremely fine microstructure
that is needed to account for the echoes.
On the radar side there is need for more controlled observations capable
of producing quantitative data. Once we have a body of numerical in-
formation on the magnitude of the echoes, their variation with range and
radar frequency, and their fluctuation rates, it may be possible to progress
beyond the field of speculation to more solidly established reasoning,
It is conceivable that such radar research may provide a powerful tool
for studying the structure of the lower atmosphere,

‘ D. Lack, “l{adar Echoes from Birds, ” British AORC. Report No. 257, February,
1945.
‘.4. B. Crawford, “Radar Reflections in the I.ower Atmosphere, ” Proc, IRE, 37,
404 (1949!,
~privat[i
commurli cation from R. Wwder.

“J, R. (krhardt and W. 1;. (lordwn, “llimotemperature Fluctuatio!)s,’] JOW,

.kfe~eod.j 6, 197 (1948J.
596 METEOROLOGICAL ECHOES [sm. 7.3

7“3. The Approximate Magnitude of Rain Echoes on the Drop Theory.

The cross section per unit volume n is defined in Sec. 7“1 in terms of the
distribution of the scatterers in radar cross section. If the scatterers con-
sist of spherical water drops, differences in cross section are due solely to
differences in radii, and q may be given in terms of the distribution of the

.
number of drops per unit volume according to their radii:

~=
! o
m(a) da. (11)

When the circumference of the drops is very small compared with A,

then the scattering is entirely dipole in character; that is, only the first term
in the multipole expansion for the scattered intensity need be retained (cj.
Sec. 61). The dimensions of raindrops are usually small enough to satisfy
this condition; but as will be seen in Sec. 7“6, the higher-order scattering
cannot always be entirely neglected, especially at the shorter wavelengths.
However, here it is desired only to establish the order of magnitude of the
scattering, and for this purpose it seems sufficient to consider dipole
scattering alone, at least for the longer wavelengths.
Under these conditions the cross section for a drop of radius a is given by

“(a)““”’(9WYJ (12)

where e is the dielectric constant. In the micro\\-ave region s is very large

compared \vith unity; thus the last factor in Eq. (12) can be replaced by 1.
The cross section per unit volume is then given by

(13)

As only a rough value of q is desired, it will also be assumed that only

drops of a single radius a are present. Since the total number of drops per
unit volume ~Vtimes the volume of each drop,4 7CS,’3,is numerically equal to
the mass of water per unit volume W, the formula for q can now be written

(14)

where W is expressed, as is conventional, in grams per cubic meter, X and

ii in centimeters. The radius ii used in Eq. (14), it should be emphasizcdj
corresponds to a much larger radius than the median of the drop-size distri-
bution, as the cross section varies as the sixth power of the radius and the
larger drops are proportionately more important.1 Actually no data
I Equation (14) follows rigorously from Eq. (13) if Z3 is defined as the mean sixth
power of the radius divided by the mean cubed of the radius. A more detailed discus-
sion of drop-size distributions and the calculation of q from Eqs. (11) and (13) is given
in Sees. 76 and 77.
SEC. 7.3) APPROXIMATE MAGNITUDE OF RAIN ECHOES 597

for W and ii are available for the precipitation from which echoes have
been measured. The comparison of the experimentally determined
intensities and the expected values will therefore be carried out bv
first assuming a reaso~able value for W. Using the observed valu~s
of q the corresponding magnitudes of d will then be calculated from
Eq. (14). It will be shown that the drop radii thus arrived at are reason-
able.
The intensities of a number of precipitation echoes have been measured
using the same radar systems and electrical technique for averaging the
received Dower that have been described in Sec. 6.9. The cross sections
per unit volume q of several summer thunderstorms and cloudbursts at a
wavelength of 9.2 cm were found to lie between – 60 and – 70 db, with
– 65 db being an average figure. (It will be remembered that q expressed
in db’s is referred to a level of one reciprocal meter. ) ‘Because the indica-
tions are that the rate of rainfall in all cases was in excess of 1 in. /hr, it
seems reasonable to assign W a value of 1 g/m8. With the figure of – 65 db
for the calculated radius, ii is 0.18 cm, which is not out of line with accepted
values for very heavy rain.
In one instance the cross section per unit volume for 9.2 cm for general
precipitation accompanying a “northeaster” was about – 85 db with a var-
iation of ~ 7 db. The rate of precipitation was a little less than 0.1 in. /hr
(light to moderate rain according to Humphreys’ classification) for which
a value of W about 0,1 g/m3 is usually quoted. The corresponding figure
for 5 is 0,08 cm, a result that again seems quite reasonable, as drop radii up
to 0.15 cm are reported in the literature for light rains.
Some rough measurements of the intensity of cchocs from tropical
showers have been reported,l using an airborne system on A = 3.2 cm,
ASD-1. Thus, as a typical example, the “peak echo” from a shower
5 miles away was measured to be 85 db below 1 watt, The fluctuations of
precipitation echoes are such that there is a finite probability of receiving
any echo no matter how high. Hence the term “peak echo” is somewhat
ambiguous, and the relation between this figure and the average power
~, cannot be stated with any degree of certainty (cj. the similar discussion’
for sea echo, Sec. 6.10). However, it is probable that the difference is
about 5 db, plus or minus a few db’s, so that the quoted figure for “peak
echo” corresponds to P, = —90 db. With the constants of the system
usually quoted, the calculated value of q is —56 db. Assuming then that
W = 1 g/m3, the drop radius found from Eq, (14) is then ii = 0.08 cm.
The result is certainly reasonable; in fact it looks somewhat smaller than
might be expected. It should be remembered, ho\vever, that the absolute
calibration of the system was extremely crude, and this could well account,
for the apparent discrepancy.
1 A, E. Bent, ‘ ‘13chces from Tropical Itain on X-band Airborne Radar, ” RL Report
No. 728, June 15, 1945,
598 METEOROLOGICAL ECHOES [SEC. 74

Direct attempts at verifying the wavelength dependence predicted by

the Rayleigh law have been made by simultaneous measurements of ~ on
9.2 and 3.2 cm using the radar systems described in Sec. 6“9. (The abso-
lute values of q quoted in the first part of the present section were obtained
from this experiment.) The expected ratio of the cross section per unit
volume for the two frequencies is +18 db. Actually, the measured ratio
for thunderstorms and cloudbursts averaged between +12 and +15 db.
Of this difference several db’s may be attributable to inaccurate calibration
of the svstems, but it is not believed that the entire difference could be
account~d for in this manner. It had been thought that the remainder of
the difference results from the beginning of the breakdown of the Rayleigh
law at the larger drop sizes and the shorter wavelengths. Recent rigorous
calculations show, however, that the cross section at 3 cm is actually
above the Rayleigh law for drops smaller than 0.9 cm in diameter. We
are therefore without an explanation for this discrepancy.
In any case the differences between the experimental and predicted
ratios should not be unduly stressed. Even at worst the figures correspond
to a wavelength dependence of X-3. This is sufficiently close to k-’ as
predicted by the Rayleigh law to favor decisively the drop theory over some
other nonfrequency sensitive mechanism such as ions or refractive index
fluctuations. These mechanisms were proposed at a time when accurate
measurements of v were impossible and it was incorrectly believed that the
drop theory was qualitatively inadequate to explain the magnitude of the
echoes. Other consequences of these mechanisms are examined in detail
in Sec. 7“4, where it is shown that their contributions to the echo are
negligible.
7.4. Possible Alternative Theories to Scattering by Drops.’—Several
theories have been proposed to account for meteorological echoes that do
not involve scattering from drops. Some of these theories will be analyzed
in this section, and it will be shown that they predict echo intensities far
below what is observed or computed from the drop theory.
It has been pointed out that raindrops become electrically charged in
the process of formation and that consequently there exists in space a ‘
neutralizing cloud of ions. Under the influence of the incident electric
field these ions will oscillate and in so doing will reradiate energy in all
directions, some of which will be received by the radar. A quantitative
expression for this energy is easy to calculate by considering the ion as a
dipole performing forced oscillations in the incident field. If ILe+’”’
represents the incident electric field at the ion, then the equation of motion
of the ion ia

(15)

1This section is based on an unpublished memorandum bv .4. .J. F. Swgert,

SEC. 74] POSSIBLE ALTERNATIVE THEORIES 599

neglecting damping forces (about which very little can be said quantita-
tively). Theamplitude of the forced oscillation of theionis then given by

two
*O = —.
(16)
ti2VL

The Poynting vector for the field radiated in the direction of the radar
by an oscillating dipole of moment p = ex,e+t”’ is given byl

(17)

where ft is the distance between the ion and the radar. The power received
by the radar is then

r,=%= ‘e’E0)2(;k2
2(4~)’’m’c%oli2°
(18)

The amplitude of the incident field E, is related to the incident Poynting

vector and to the (peak) transmitted power by

(19)

By means of Eq. (19), EOin Eq. (18) can be expressed in terms of the trans-
mitted power, and after some simplification the formula for the received
power reduces to

(20)

By comparison with the standard formula for the power received by the
radar it is clear that the radar cross section of each ion is

2.
u = 4;
1
(H e’

come’ ‘
(21)

That is, the cross section per ion is of the order of the classic electron radius
squared (assuming one electronic charge per ion). If the ions radiate inco-
herently, then the cross section per unit volume q is just

(22)

where Q is the total charge per unit volume. According to a figure quoted
in Humphreys2 the charge per unit volume in a rainstorm rarely exceeds

L J. A. Stratton, Electrwrrzugnetic Theory, McGraw-Hill,New York, 1941,pp. 435 and

284.
2 W. J. Humphreys, Phyw”cs of the Air, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1940. More recent
data by R, Gunn, Phys. Reti., 71, 181 (1!947), would seem to indicate that the frcc-
ch~rge density even in a thunderstorm is not much more than 10–6 coulomb/m3.,
600 METEOROLOGICAL ECHOES [SEC, 74

2X 10-3 coulomb/m3. If the Ions are then assumed to be all electrons,

the value of qturns out to be –140db above 1 meter. This figure is far
belo~v the experimentally measured values of –60 to –85 db quoted in
the preceding section.
It does not seem possible to introduce modifications into this theory that
would increase the expected cross section substantially. On the contrary
most of the factors neglected in the preceding discussion would tend to
decrease the cross section, as, for example, theprcsenccof damping forcm.
If the ions wereof atomic mass rathcrthan ckwtrons, wwouldseemrn ore
plausible, the cross section \vould be rcdumd by a factor of at least
4x1 OS. Some increase in the cross sertion would be expected if all the
ions released by one raindrop in its formation stayed sufficiently close
together to radiate coherently, The total cross section per unit volumeis
then obtained by multiplying Eq. (21) hy nz,V, Tvhere n is the number of
ions per raindrop and ,17is the number of drops per unit \’olume, As Q is
n.k’e, this results in increasing q by a factor of n, \\-hich \vould ha~re to bc
excessively large in order to bring thr cro~s section up to obsrrvablc levels.
Finally should be pointed out that the predicted cross section of Eq.
it
(22) is independent of ,vavelength, \vhichisinviolcnt contradictionwith
experiment. Scattering from atmosphcrir ions is thus completely inadr-
quat,e to explain meteorological echoes. (Scatterin~ l)Y ions does enter in
such cases as the echo from an exploding shell, !vhere the charge density is
much greater, )
Ashasbeen mcntionedin Sec. 72,ithaso ftenbeens uggestedt hatthe
meteorological echoes occasionally observed under conditions apparently
excluding the presence of precipitation are cau.~ed by scattering from inho-
mogeneitiesin thcatmosphmir dielectric constant, There are two possible
techniques that can be used to invmtigate the magnitude of the echoes
arising from such inhomogeneities. One can obtain the appropriate solu-
tions of the wave equation for a medium in \vhich the velocity of propaga-
tion varies with position in space and then calculate the Poynting vector
hack in the direction of the radar. Alternatively one can go back to the
microscopic source of the index of refraction, the polarization of the gas
molecules under the influence of the incident electric field. Each of these
molecules will then radiate like a dipole, and the radiated energy received
by the radar from the assembly of illuminated molecules can then be calcu-
lated. Itisthis latter method }vhich\rill be follo~\-ed,astheframe~orkfor
dealing with scattering from large aggregations of scatterers has already
been set up.
A strictly uniform and stationary distribution of molecules will not
exhibit back scattering, for the distribution of the phases of the scatterers
will be the same as for points uniformly distributed along the incident wave
train, and the scattered radiation will therefore interfere destructively
except in the forward direction. Thus a perfect crystal or a uniform
 SEC. 74] POSSIBLE ALTERA’ATIVE THEORIES 601

medium such as glass transmits light without scattering. Scattering will

occur only when there are deviations from uniformity. Such deviations
canarisein two ways. Evenif thetime average of thedistribution isuni-
form, at any given instant the density of scatterers wi]l exhibit statistical
fluctuations about the average. These statistical density fluctuations
result in a net amount of energy being scattered which is proportional to the
number ofscatterers andwhirh is therefore designated as the “incoherent”
scattering. It is just this type of mechanism which has been discussed in
connection with thescattering byraincfrops andwhich in the case of visiblv
light and air molecules gives rise to the blue of the sky, It is highly un-
likely that the analogous molecular scattering at microwaves could be
observed with detection sensitivities that can be visualized at present, as
the scattering per molecule is so small.
Inaddition scattering wilIalso occur if thetime-average distribution is
not uniform,l as in the case of atmospheric inhomogeneities, The
scattering in this case is coherent; that is, it depends upon the square
of the number of scatterers present. Now, the space variation of particle
density giving rise to the scattering can be real or can be a fictitious vw-ia-
tion due to the pulsed nature of the incident field. Presumably this latter
effect could result in a certain amount of coherent scattering from even a
uniform distribution of raindrops, The calculation of the scattering by
atmospheric inhomogeneities of the index of refraction and of the coherent
scattering from raindrops therefore belongs to the same problem and can be
treated together. Appendix B presents a treatment of the problem due to
A. J. F. Siegert that is applicable to both cases. It is there shown [Eq.
(B. 17)] that the radar cross section for the coherent scattering is
4miR
—— z
Uc = Iplz m ii(R)e ‘dR, (23)
i/ o I

where lp]2/47r is the cross section per scatterer and ii(R) is the time average
of the number of scatterers per unit distance. In terms of the density of
molecules p(R) this can be written

(24)
IJ I

the volume integration to be carried over the volume illuminated by the

radar beam. LTnderthe influence of the incident field the gas molecule acts
like a radiating dipole with p given by’

(25)

, ,,T)me ~verage~, means over ~ time long compared with the time between mOlecular
collisions.
2 C~, Stratton, 10C.m“f.
602 METEOROLOGICAL ECHOES [SEC, 74

Thequantity aappearingin Eq. (25) isthemolecular polarizability which

in a gas is related to the index of refraction n by the formula

pa = Co(nz — 1) = 2E0(n — 1), (26)

asnisvery close to unity. Substituting Eqs. (25) and(26) into Eq. (24),
the cross section can be written

4riR

01/
12T4
~c=. — (n – l)e ‘ all”. (27)
7rA

This expression may be put in a frequently useful form by performing an

integration by parts:
4miR
—— 4riR ~
—— ‘d(n – 1) e-4~dR
m (n – l)e A dR=~. (n —l)e A + ~.
/ o 0 47rz / o dR

The first term here al~vays vanishes, if for no other reason than that the
pulsed nature of the radiation makes (n – 1) effectively zero at the origin
and at infinity. Hence Eq. (27) can also be written as

127r* d(n–l)e-~dv’
‘C=G (Hh 1/ dR
(28)

Perhaps the simplest type of inhomogeneity that might be considered is

a uniform gradient of the index, starting at a distance R from the radar,
ending at R + AR, and extending over an area A perpendicular to the
direction of the radar beam. The resulting cross section is [cf. Eq. (A.19)]

“c=:
[d(n=
‘)rsin’(w (29)

It is seen that the maximum cross section is independent of wavelength.

Information on the magnitude of the inhomogeneities existing in the atmos-
phere is very scanty, chiefly because sufficiently accurate and rapid meteor-
ological instruments are not available. In the investigation mentioned in
Sec. 6.14 the largest observed gradient of the index of refraction was
2X 10–7/m. Such a gradient would provide a radar cross section of
10–%n2 (sufficient to account for some of the “atmospheric” echoes men-
tioned in Sec. 7“2) if it extended over an area 150 yd on a side. Although
at first sight this figure may seem reasonable, it is actually entirely too
large an area to be practicable. Our model requires that all portions of the
volume of inhomogeneity start and stop at the same distance from the
radar, as if we were dealing with the reflection from a plane sheet normal
to the radar beam. This condition cannot be met in actuality with an area
whose dimensions are so large compared with the wavelength. Instead it
is likely that the area must be broken up into a number of small patches.
SEC. 74] POSSIBLE ALTERNATIVE THEORIES 603

Within each patch the radiators scatter coherently, but the patches must
be considered as radiating incoherently relative to each other for the
time-average echo.’ From Eq. (29) the time-average cross section is then

(30)

with A the normal area illuminated by the beam and A ~ the projected area
of a “coherent” patch. Clearly any reasonable guess for such a patch area
would result in a cross section many powers of 10 smaller than would be
apparently given by Eq. (29).
Note added in proof: The recent work of J. R. Gerhardt and W, E. Gordon, “Micro-
temperature Fluctuations, ” Jour. Meteoml., 5, 197 (1948) hss revealed an atmospheric
microstructure finer than that used in the illustrations above, but the qualitative
conclusions remain the same.

A thoroughgoing treatment of the echo arising from atmospheric inho-

mogeneities would require considering the index of refraction as a random
function of space and time with characteristic frequency spectra and then
applying the statistical methods of Sec. 6.19 to the evaluation from the
cross section as given by Eq. (27).2 To consider a simpler method, let us
suppose that the inhomogeneities consist of irregularly spaced “clouds” of
molecules, such that in each cloud the distribution of the index of refrac-
tion is
– :, (z,+u~+z~)
(n – ~) = nle , (31)

the origin being at the center of the inhornogeneity and a being a measure of
the size of the cloud. The cross section per inhornogeneity may be easily
evaluated from Eq. (27) and turns out to be

(32)

The separate inhomogeneities scatter incoherently with respect to each

other, and their contributions to the total cross section are therefore simply
additive. Hence the cross section per unit volume is

where N is the number of inhomogeneities per unit volume. We are cer-

tainly overestimating the magnitude of the scattering if we take the inho-

1 The time average now being over a time long compared with that required for the
inhomogeneities to move A/2 with respect to each other.
2 For recent applications of such techniques see a series of reports by N. G. Parke,
“Microwaves in an Irregular Atmosphere,” under Air Force Contract No. AF 19(122) 91;
also H. G. Booker and W. E. Gordon, Prac. IRE, 38, 401 (1950).
604 .klETEOROWGICAL ECHOES [SEC. 7.5

mogeneities to be spaced a distance 2a apart, and on this basis the cross

section per unit volume is

(33)

From the data presented in Sec. 6.14 one can estimate a value for a around
40 yd. At a wavelength of 10 cm the value of q would then be about
~f X 10– I.7X106 It may well be argued, however, that the inhomogeneities
present are much smaller in size than present meteorological instruments
can detect. The maximum value of ~ [Eq. (33)] occurs for a value of a very
close to k/4. Even then, for a wavelength of 10 cm, a value of v as large
as 100 db below 1 m would require fluctuations in n of 10–5 within the space
of 1 in.
The conclusion one is led to by all these examples seems inescapable:
Inhomogeneities in the index of refraction will not reflect an appreciable
radar signal in the microwave region unless the fluctuations in the index
are more fine grained and larger in magnitude than \re have reason to
expect at present. It cannot be too strongly emphasized that further prog-
ress in this field depends vitally on investigations into the microstructure
of the atmosphere, a field at present practically untouched.
7“6 Modifications of the Drop Theory. —Early measurements of the
intensities of precipitation echoes were of a semiquantitative nature and
often quite inaccurate Many of them, however, seemed to indicate
that the echo was much larger than could be accounted for by reasonable
figures for drop size and concentration. The more accurate (though still
relatively crude) measurements detailed in Sec. 7,2 have now dispelled
such doubts, At the time, a number of modifications of the picture of
incoherent scattering from drops were proposed, all tending to increase
the magnitude of the echo.
Some of them can be disposed of quickly. Thus it was suggested that
there were aerodynamic forces present between two falling raindrops
tending to draw them together. If the forces were sufficiently strong,
the two drops might come close enough so that they radiated coherently.
Without going into the magnitude of the forces involved, it is clear that
at best such a violation of the statistical independence of the drop positions
would increase the amplitude of scattering by a factor of 2 and the in-
tensity by a factor of 4. With present techniques, such a factor lies
within the uncertainties of measurement. Again, it was suggested that
aerodynamic and electrical forces might distort the raindrop from a
spherical shape. However, any reasonable distortion, that is, short of
producing an ellipsoid whose major axis corresponds to the length of a
resonant dipole, would change the scattering by only a small factor, and
it is only orders of magnitude that would be significant practically. In
any case, such distortions are negligible, as it has been shown to a high
SEC. 7.5] MODIFICATIONS OF THE DROP THEORY 605

degree of accuracy that the intensity of meteorological echoes is

independent of the direction of polarization of the incident radar wave
(cf. Vol. 1 of this series, Sec. 3“10).
Requiring more attention is the suggestion that the scattering is
not entirely incoherent, but that part is coherent. This is an especially
attractive hypothesis, as incoherent scattering is proportional only to
the number of scatterers, but coherent scattering is proportional to the
square of the number, thus providing the possibility of an enormous
increase in echo. The relative proportion of incoherent and coherent
back scattering from an assembly of particles has already been discussed
in Sec. 7.4 in connection with the echoes from index of refraction gradients
and examined in detail in Appendix B. One has only to change the
name of the scatterers from gas molecules to raindrops. It was pointed
out in Sec. 74 that a perfectly uniform spatial distribution of like par-
ticles would not scatter backivard, for the distribution of phases of the
individual scattered amplitudes \vould then be uniform, and the total
sum would cancel to zero. An echo will be obtained only if there is
some inhomogeneity in the distribution, some lack of uniformity. Thus
even a distribution that in the average is uniform will deviate instan-
taneously from the average if the scatterers are moving independently,
resulting in a net scattered amplitude at any given instant. This in-
stantaneous amplitude will vary with time over large limits and \vill
average’ to zero. There will, however, be a time-average scattered
intensity different from zero, proportional to the number of scatterers,
hence representing the incoherent scattering.
In addition to this source of nonuniformity the time-average dis-
tribution itself might be nonuniform, either because of actual inhomo-
geneities in the spatial distribution of the raindrops or because of the
pulsed nature of the radar which causes the amplitude of the incident
field to vary rapidly in space at any given instant. This latter source is
likely to cause the larger effect, as a pulse rise time of 0.1 psec (16 yd) is
not uncommon and much shorter rise times are technically possible.z On
the other hand it seems highly unlikely that the edges of a cloud of rain-
drops would be as sharply defined. We therefore confine our attention
to the apparent inhomogeneities caused by the rise and fall times of the
radar pulse.
The scattering from such time-average nonuniformities is propor-
tional to the square of the number of scatterers involved and therefore
represents a coherent contribution [cf. Appendix B, Eq. (B.7)]. Clearly
the “sharper” the pulse the larger will be the magnitude of the effect.

I Time average heredenotesaveragingover a timelong comparedwiththat required

for a scattererto move A/4.
2It should be pointed out that it is the dimensionsof the receivedpulse in the i-f
section of the receiver that are important, not those of the transmitted pulse.
606 METEOROLOGICAL ECHOES IsEC. 75

In fact, for a pulse \vith discontinuous sides the coherent scattering can
be of the same order of magnitude as the incoherent scattering or larger.
This is, however, an unrealistic picture of a pulse, and a less artificial
model might be a trapezoidal pulse, i.e., one \vith a flat top and uniformly
sloping sides. It is showm in Appendix B [Eq. (B.21)] that the ratio of
the coherent to incoherent scattering ~~it,hsuch a pulse is always less
than
(34)

where b is the pulse length betivccm 50 pm cent points in amplitude,

a is the \vidth of the sloping sides of the pulse, and N is the total number
of scatterers in the beam, given by

(auniform clo~ldof lil<escatterers isassumed for simplicity). InEq. (35)

n is the density of wattercrs, R the range and 8 and o the beamwidths
of the radar.
The factor (ah)’ in Eq. (34) arisw simply from the proportion of
scatterers in the sloping portions of the pulse length to the total number
and is thus a geometrical factor. On the other hand the term involving
Xi’2z-a is of great physical importance; it tells us that the “unit” in terms
of \vhich \ve are to measure the dimensions of the inhomogeneity is
x/27r, Stated otherwise, coherent contribution will be the larger the
sharper the pulse edges are in relation to A/27r. Suppose one were
deliberately to design a radar to obtain the maximum coherent scatter-
ing. Itwouldhave a short, fast-rising pulse and at thesame time operate
on the longest wavelength feasible and have a broad beam so as to include
a large number of scatterers, These last properties are not usually
associated with short pulses and consequent high resolution in range.
A practicable microwave system approaching these characteristics might
have the following specifications:

A = 10 cm,
a~b = 1,
a = 0.1 psec = 16mj
e = @ = 0.1 radians.

A figure of 2000 drops per cubic meter is reasonable for a thunderstorm,

and under these conditions and at a range of 50 miles the maximum
possible ratio of coherent to incoherent scattering is about
Uc
– =0.16,
a,

which is undetectable, For more normal radar specifications and

especially at shorter wavelengths, the ratio would be even smaller.
SEc.7.5] MODIFICATIONS OF THE DROP THEORY 607

Furthermore, a trapezoidal pulse is still not a good picture of an actual

pulse, as it is discontinuous in slope. A real pulse will be continuous in
all derivatives. One would expect therefore that a pulse made up of
error integral curves, in which all derivatives are continuous, would be
closer to actuality. The differentiated pulse would then consist of two
Gauss error curves (with opposite signs). If these curves are written in
the form of
zR,
Ae “
where A is a constant determined by normalization, then the ratio of
coherent to incoherent scattering [Eq. (B .23)] turns out to be always
less than

(36)

where b has the same significance as in Eq. (34). The quantity a is

roughly the distance in which the pulse rises from 0.03 to 97 per cent
of maximum power. Equation (36) depends upon the quantities in-
“volved in roughly the same fashion as in the previous case, but the mag-
nitude clearly is much smaller. Using the foregoing figures, 2~a;’k = 108
and the coherent scattering on this basis is completely negligible.
With actual pulses the coherent scattering probably lies between the
two models used, and it is likely to be closer to the second one. In any
case it seems certain that the effect is completely unimportant \vith
present and foreseeable techniques for short pulses and \\ideband receivers. ]

THE INTENSITY OF METEOROLOGICAL ECHOES

BY HER~ER’r GOLDSTEHS

The preceding sections have presented the e\-idcmcc upon which is

based the belief that meteorological echoes arise as incoherent scattering
from raindrops or other condensed forms of \vater. In the course of the
discussion an approximate formula, valid for small drops, was given for
the magnitude of the scattering cross section per unit volume to be
expected on this hypothesis [Eq. (7.14)]. We ha\’e now to S11OWhow
the accurate cross section for any drop size is to be calculated, a task
requiring knowledge of both the radar cross section of a single drop as
a function of radius and the drop-size distribution. Obtaining the first
is almost entirely a problem in electromagnetic theory and can be carrid
out to any desired degree of accuracy. The second, however, requires
purely meteorological measurements that are extremely difficult to make
and for which no meariingful values are at present available. Hence,
accurate calculation of the echo to be expected from a precipitai ion area
LNote added in proof: This problem has also been comslclercd by C. Doml~ [Proc.
Carob, Phil. 5’oc,, 43, 587 (1947)], and similar ccmclusions were reached.
608 METEOROLOGICAL ECHOES [SEC. 7.6

must at the present time remain an academic problem. We shall, how-

ever, outline the procedure to be followed when more reliable drop-size
distributions are obtained in the future.
Section 7“6 reviews briefly the defining formulas for the cross section
per unit volume and discusses the factors entering into it besides the
drop-size distribution. In particular, methods of computing the cross
section for a single drop are described in detail. In the following sec-
tion (7.7) the difficulties attendant upon meaningful measurements of
the drop-size distribution are discussed briefly. Finally, in Sec. 7.8 an
indication is given of the method of calculating the echo from precipita-
tion other than liquid water such as snow, ice crystals, and hailstones.
7.6. The Radar Cross Section of Single Drops.—In Sec. 7“ 1 it was
shown that the average echo, at a given range, from a “cloud” of water
drops was proportional, among other things, to the volume of the cloud
illuminated by the beam and to a cross section per unit volume q defined
by Eq. (6):
m .
~= m(u) du = u(a]n(a) da. (37)
/o \ 0

Here u(a) is the radar cross section for a drop of radius a, and n(a) da
gives the number of drops. .per unit volume with radius between a and
a + da. The rigorous procedure for obtaining u(a) has already been
outlined in Sec. 6.1. Briefly, one sets up approximate solutions of the
wave equation to represent the incident field and the induced field inside
and outside the spherical drop. The conditions that must then be met
in order to satisfy the boundary conditions serve to fix the coefficients
in the expansion of the scattered wave in spherical harmonics. One can
then compute the Poynting vector of the wave scattered back in the
direction of the radar and obtain the following cross section:
.
a(a) —
_ 1
raz -2 12 (– l)”(2n + l)(a~ – b;) 2. (38)
P
n=l

Here the quantities a: are coefficients of the terms in the expansion of

the scattered field arising from the induced magnetic dipole, quadruple,
etc., and b; refers to the corresponding electric multipole terms. Explicit
formulas for these coefficients have been given in Sec. 6.1, Eq. (6”18) :

ib) [%P3’n(~cP) 1’– .in(WP) [P.L(P) 1’

a; = – M’)(p) [ncpjn(n,p) ]’ – jn(n,p) [phA’) (p)]’;
(39)
b;=–
‘~~n(n.~l [J?l.(P) 1’– ~n(P) [~cP~7z(~cP) 1’
n%(n,P) [Phf$z)(P) 1’– hi2) (P) [n,pjn(n,p) ]’”

The quantity p is 2ra/A; n, is the complex index of refraction of the water;

jn and h~’) are the spherical Bessel function and the spherical Hankel
SEC. 7.6] THE RADAR CROSS SECTION OF SINGLE DROPS 609

function of the second kind, respectively. The primes indicate differen-

tiation with respect to the argument.
The complex index of refraction of water required in Eq. (39) has been
measured accurately over a wide range of temperatures and in the wave-
length region from 1.25 to 10 cm. A summary of these measurements,
based on a critical survey by Saxton, is given in detail in Sec. 8.6. The
results agree sufficiently well with the Debye theory of anomalous dis-
persion of polar liquidsl that the theory may be used with confidence to
extrapolate to shorter wavelengths.
The complicated expressions [Eqs. (38) and (39)] can be simplified
considerably if the approximation is made that p and ln,pl are very much
less than unity, that is, that we are dealing with drops small compared
with the wavelength. The Bessel and Hankel functions in Eq. (39) can
then be expanded in ascending powers of their arguments. It turns out
that for finite conductivity, the first term in the expansion of the co-
efficient b;, corresponding to the electric 2n-pole, is of the order of
~zn+I whereas the first term for the magnetic 2n-pole is P*”+ 3. Hence, if
in expanding the coefficients a: and bg we neglect all terms in pGor higher,
then the only nonvanishing terms in Eq. (38) correspond to electric dipole,
quadruple, and magnetic dipole oscillations. The expansions of these
coefficients through terms in p5 are, from page 451,

ai = ~ (E, — l)p5, (40)

(41)

b;=-
15 “( )
—
EC—-l
2EC + 3 ‘5”
(42)

These formulas suffice to expand u correctly up to terms in ps, and such

expansions have been given by Ryde2 and L. Goldstein3 in terms of the
real and imaginary parts of the index of refraction or dielectric constant.
The results will not be given here as they are very complicated, and may
1Cf. P. Debye, Polar- Molecrdes, Chemical Catalog Co., New York, 1929, Sec. 8.1
and Chap. V.
2 J. W. Ryde, “Echo Intensities and Attenuation Due to Clouds, Rain, Hail, Sand
and Dust Storms at Centimetre Wavelengths, ” GEC Report No. 7831, October 1941.
There are a number of algebraic mistakes in Appendix 1 of this paper which are corrected
in GEC Report No. 8516, Aug. 3, 1944, by J. W. Ryde and D. Ryde,
j L. Goldstein, “Absorption and Scattering of Microwaves by the Atmosphere, ”
Columbia University Division of War Research Propagation Group, Report No. WPG-I 1,
New York, .May 1945; also, a chapter in Radzo Waoe Propagation, Academic Press,
New York, 1949,
610 METEOROLOGICAL ECHOES [SEC. 7.6

be obtained from Eqs. (38) and (40) to (42) by straightforward, albeit

tedious, algebra.
A further approximation of the coefficients a; and b; yields a simple
result having an important physical interpretation. Suppose the drops
are so small that only the first nonvanishing power in p can be neglected.
In this approximation only the electric dipole term k retained:

b~=– ——
()
2iEc–1
3 E,+2~3’
(43)

and the cross section becomes, from page 452,

4
u(a) = 4ra*
( )1 ~
EC—12
—
E, +2”
(44)

This is the famous Rayleigh scattering formula, used previously in

Sec. 7.3, and is the dominant term in the scattering from raindrops
throughout most of the microwave region. It is completely adequate for
computing the echo from very small drops such as those encountered in
clouds and fog.
Rigorously speaking, the cross section, as given by the Rayleigh
approximation, depends upon wavelength not only because of the 1/Ad
factor but also because of the wavelength dependence of ~,. Practically,
however, this latter effect is very small. Thus at 18°C, e, varies from
78.5 – i 12.3 for k = 10 cm to 34.2 – i 35.9 at A = 1.24 cm. The
EC—12
corresponding variation ~ is from 0.9286 to 0.9206! Clearly as
long as the magnitude of Ccis large we may safely replace the quantity
in absolute signs in Eq. (44) by unity.
The procedure for obtaining the rigorous cross section is straight-
forward, though it rapidly becomes involved. The first step is to put
the coefficients a; and b; in a slightly different form by introducing
variations of the spherical Bessel functions defined by
S.(Z) = Zjn[z),
c.(z) = Znn(z),
En(z) = Zh$y(z).
The coefficients [Eq. (39) ~ can then be written
s. (p) 1
s;(p) s;(p) – K
~; =
E:(p) E=(P) _ ~
E~(P’) n,
Sri(p) Sn(nCp)
AS;(p) s;(p) – “ S;(n,p)
ti=— —
E;(p) E.(p) ~~n(WP) ‘
E:(p) – ‘c S;(ncp)
SEC.76] THE RADAR CROSS SECTION OF SINGLE DROPS 611

where the prime denotes differentiation with respect to the argument.

The advantage of this formulation is that theargument~of the functions
are complex only in the combination

~ = Is’n(rzcp)
SJ(n,p)’

and all the other functions may be obtained from well-known tables.
Unfortunately tables of the spherical Bessel functions of complex argument
involved are not available, and in effect one must construct them for the
region of interest. The remainder of the calculation then consists in
separating the real and imaginary parts of the coefficients, a process without
complications though extremely tedious.
Calculations of this nature have been earned out both in England and
in this country, In England J. W. Rydeand hiscollaborators have made
extensive computations, but unfortunately only a preliminary report is
available at present.’ Thecoefficlents a~andbfi have also been calculated
bythe Applied Mathematics Group at theNationalB ureauof Standardsz
using Saxton’s data for index of refraction. From these results F. T.
Haddock has computed the radar cross section as a function of drop
size and wavelength from 3.0 cm to 0.3 cm. Some of the values for the
cross section obtained in this manner are reproduced in Table 7“1 by the
kind permission of Mr. Haddock. The cross sections are presented
in the form of the ratio u/ra2 for the three wavelengths 3.0 cm, 1.25 cm,
and 0.3 cm, and for a range of the parameter p from 0.15 to 3.0.
An examination of these results for values of p equal to 1.0 and smaller
reveals an unexpected phenomenon. With the example of the infinitely
conducting sphere in mind (cf. Fig. 6.1), it might be thought that the
first deviations from the Rayleigh law would be to lower the values of
the cross section. Indeed, the three-term expansion represented by Eqs.
(4042) predicts that at 3.0 cm the cross section should be 0.8 db below
the Rayleigh value at P = 0.20, and 6.2 db smaller at p = 0.52. The
rigorously calculated cross sections given in Table 7“1 show that on the
contrary the deviations are such as to increase the value of u above that
given by the Rayleigh law for P <0.90 at the wavelengths of 3.0 cm and
1.25 cm. This behavior is strikingly illustrated in Fig. 71, where the
ratio of the correct cross section to that predicted by the Rayleigh law is
plotted for X = 3.0 and 1.25 cm. It is seen that the cross sec-
against P

tion at 3 cm is at times more than twice as large as that predicted by the

Rayleigh law! The physics underlying this phenomenon is not very

I Jour. ZEE, 11A, 93, 101 (1946), and also a chapter in .Meteorological Factors in
Radio-Waue Propagation, The Physical Society, London, 1946.
z Cf. Tables oj Scattering Functions for Spherical Particles, Applied Mathematics
Series, No. 4, National Bureau Of Standafds, Febr~ary 1949.
612 METEOROWGICAL ECHOES [SEC.7.6

TABLE 7.1.—CROI3E SECTIONS FOR RAINDROPS OF VARIOUS SIZES AND WAVELENGTHS

o /ra2
D
A = 3.Ocm ~ = 1.25 cm X = 0.3 cm P k = 0.3 cm

0.150 1.6 X 10-3 1.8 x 10-a 1.6 X 10-~ 1 30 o 9830

0.200 4 8 X 10-’ 5.7 X1 O-’ 5.3 x 10-’ 1.4 0.5820
0 250 00114 0.0137 0.013 1.5 0 2669
0.300 0.0251 0.0298 0.0275 1.6 009360
0 350 0.0801 0.0620 0.0509 1.7 0 08659
0400 0 205 0.126 0.0874 1.8 0.2227
0.450 0.357 0.237 0.143 19 0.4426
0.500 0512 0.395 0.223 20 0.6705
0.550 0 6635 0.6017 0.3364 21 0 8444
0.600 0.8417 0.8458 0.4902 2,2 09219
0.650 1 077 1.123 0.6911 2.3 0.8876
0.700 1 383 1.417 0.9348 24 0 7575
0.750 1.748 1.716 1.208 25 0 5713
0.800 2 103 1.994 1 523 26 0 3803
0.850 2,367 2.229 1.710 27 0.2388
0.900 2 507 2.394 1.875 28 0 1792
0.950 2.545 2.482 1 957 2.9 0 2082
1.00 2 524 2 486 1.956 30 0.3098
1.10 1.755
1.20 1.398

I
—

2.0

1.5

1.0

0.5

n
-o 0.25 0.50 0.75 1.0 1.25
P+

FIG. 7. 1.—The ratio of the back scattering cross section of a raindrop to the cross section
predicted by Eq. (44), with p = 2ua/X and with the expression involving e, equal to 0.93.
(Adapted from calculations by F. T. Haddock.)
SEC. 7.6] THE RADAR CROSS SECTION OF SINGLE DROPS 613

clear.’ Presumably the values of the index of refraction are such that
the series expansion converges very slowly even for values of P around
0.5 or less, and the behavior is the result of contributions from many
orders of multiples.
A drop diameter of 0.5 cm, the largest usually encountered, corre-
sponds to p = 0.52 at a wavelength of 3.0 cm. Since a deviation of a
few db is not greatly significant in the present stage of the radar art,
the data of Fig. 71 show that the Rayleigh law is a good approximation
for all raindrops at h = 3.0 cm. It can certainly be used with safety at
larger wavelengths. Even for a wavelength of 1.25 cm the Rayleigh law
remains valid for all but the largest drops, and should be sufficient for
order-of-magnitude calculations.
Eventually, as p increases, the cross sections do drop below the Ray-
leigh prediction, exhibiting oscillations characteristic of the various
resonances of the spherical drop, as would be expected. The qualitative
picture is therefore closely similar to that for the infinitely conducting
sphere, as depicted in Fig. 6.1. One would not expect complete quan-
titative agreement, of course. For one thing, the slopes of the Rayleigh
law portions are different because of the presence of the added magnetic
dipole term when the conductivity is infinite. Also, the resonance maxima
and minima for the waterdrop tend to oscillate about lower average
values as compared to the metal sphere. Nevertheless, the agreement
between the two sets of curves is remarkably good. The positions of the
maxima and minima’ agree almost exactly, as might be expected since
these positions are dictated mainly by the geometrical conditions for
resonance. If the wavelengths and drop sizes are such that the Rayleigh
law is no longer valid, and if errors of a few db may be tolerated, then
the results for the infinitely conducting sphere provide a satisfactory
“universal curve” on which to base calculations for the return from rain-
drops. Such a curve, joined on properly to the Rayleigh law for large x
and small p, should be quite adequate for the task of predicting q meas-
ured experimentally for drop-size distributions.
It should be pointed out at this time that there are other factors
affecting the echo magnitude, besides drop cross section and size dis-
tributions, which may introduce appreciable uncertainties. Thus, at
wavelengths around 1.25 cm the echo \vill be attenuated appreciably by
water vapor and by rain areas in the atmospheric region between the
the radar and the target. These, of course, affect the echo from all
targets at this \~avelength. More peculiar to precipitation echoes is an
effect that may be termed “self-absorption” (in analogy to the correspond-
ing spectroscopic phenomenon)- attenuation by the target itself.
LThere is little question about the accuracy of the calculations; Ryde’s graphs,
obtained quite independently, appear to present the same phenomenon.
614 METEOROLOGICAL ECHOES [SEC. 76

Following Ryde,’ we may consider this effect by first treating a some-

what indeatized example. Let the radar set transmit a square pulse
starting at the time t = O and ending at the time t = T. The radar
pulse length in space is then b = Tc/2. Suppose the target be a uniform
precipitation area starting at a range Ro. The radar echo measured at
a range R, that is, at a time 2R/c, will include contributions from a strip
R – b to R in range. For the case of zero attenuation the received
power at time 2R/c is proportional to
R
P, a 7(X) dx,
/ R-b
where
q(z) = o, x<Ra
= q, a constant x > RO.
Hence the variation with range will be
P, a ~(R – R,), R< Ro+b,

Pr cc qb, R> RO+b.

The radar echo from a sharp-edged cloud (neglecting coherent radiation)

thus would appear to have a sloping edge on the radar indicator, for a
distance of a pulse length. If now we introduce a uniform attenuation,
the received power would be proportional to
R
P, a e-2-@-RoJ q(x) dz.
/ R–b

With the same uniform drop distribution in the cloud the power received
by the radar varies in range as

p, ~ ~e–m(R–lto~ sinh [cc(R – R,)]

R< Ro+b,
cl

– !AI(R– R,–;) sinh

— ~b ,
P, a qe R> Ro+b,
a

The echo will still appear to have a doping front edge, rising to a maximum
of (qb e–”b sinh ab)/cA and then decreasing uniformly with a logarithmic
attenuation of 2a. The point to be observed is that the echo is attenuated
in even the first pulse length, so that choosing only the closest parts of a
precipitation echo may not be sufficient to eliminate the effects
of attenuation.
Consideration of some reasonable figures, however, shows that the
effect is not likely to be troublesome. The maximum reduction within
the first pulse length is by a factor (e-”’ sinh ab)/ab. At A = 3 cm, the
longest wavelength at which attenuation is likely to be significant,
~Lot. cit.
SEC. 77] DROP-SIZE DISTRIBUTION 615

measured values of a range up to 2.5 db/km for a rtiinfall of 4 in.,/hr

(heaviest tropical sho\ver). With a pulse length of 1 psec the reduction
in the first pulse length is 0.4 db, which is negligible. In practice the
attenuation even through a mile of rainfall characterized as heavy (1 in. /hr)
is not noticeable.
With shorter wavelengths the self-absorption may be much more
pronounced. Thus at k = 1.25 cm, a 1 Mec pulse, and a value of a of
19 db/km, which has been reported for rainfall of 4 in. /hr, the reduction
in the first pulse is 2.6 db and the echo drops rapidly with increasing
penetration into the rain. Although the effect ~vill be proportionately
smaller when the rains are not as heavy as in this example, the possibility
of attenuation self-absorption should be kept in mind at such short
wavelengths.
It is fortunate that the self-absorption is rarely important for it would
be difficult to know just what the attenuation is. Theoretically there
is no simple relation between the attenuation a and the cross section
per unit volume q, The attenuation is to a large extent an absorption
effect and is not very sensitive to the drop-size distribution. The back-
scattering, on the other hand, does depend in a drastic fashion on slight
accidental features of the drop-size distribution. N“or does there seem
to be a feasible method for simultaneously measuring the attenuation
along with the radar echo. Conceivably it could be done by investi-
gating the pulse-length dependence of the echo [which should vary with
(sinh ab)/a]. Closer examination shows, however, that the effect is not
sufficiently striking to provide accurate results even if special measuring
techniques were used.
7“7. Drop-size Distribution.-To obtain the cross section per unit
volume from a given region of precipitation, one must know, among other
factors, the distribution of the drops in size. As the dominant term
in the cross section is proportional to a6, the very large drops, even though
few in number, account for a large proportion of the scattering. Slight
changes in end of the distribution will therefore cause a dis-
the high
proportionate change in the echo power, though hardly affecting the
median drop diameter or total rainfall. It is therefore necessary to know
the drop-size distribution to great accuracy to obtain even correct order
of magnitude estimates of the scattering. It is believed that the dis-
tributions so far obtained are neither accurate nor meaningful enough to
satisfy these conditions.
Three methods have been used in the past to obtain drop sizes: The
photographic, the filter paper or blotter, and the flour method. The
first, involving photography of the drops as they fall or after they are
collected, has been frequently used for fog and cloud droplets, very
rarely for raindrops. In the second method an absorbent material
such as filter paper or large blotter is dusted with a dry but water-
616 METEOROLOGICAL ECHOES [SEC. 77

soluble organic dye and is then exposed for a measured interval in the
rain. At each point where adrophas struck the paper, a colored circular
area appears whose diameter is a unique function of the original drop
diameter (w long as the drops are not so large that “splashing” is serious),
Calibration is obtained by using drops of known size (usually measured
by weighing a definite number of drops obtained from capillary tubes
with known pressures). The third method, devised by Laws and Parsons,l
is in reality a variant of the second in which the filter paper is replaced
by a pan of dry sifted flour. A drop striking the flour forms a small ball
of dough, which may be hardened by drying and then examined at leisure.
Again, the relation between ball and drop diameter is found by separate
calibration.
These three methods suffer from a number of common disadvantages:
1. Calibration errors, particularly in the filter paper and flour methods
are quite appreciable. Thus one investigator using the filter paper
method estimated calibration accuracy of around + 10 per cent.z
2. In all the methods the diameter of each drop must be mea,wred
individually and recorded by the observer. As a result the labor
involved in measuring a large sample is prohibitive. Hence the
measurements so far reported have been made with samples far
too small to provide sufficient statistical accuracy. For the same
reason the number of samples measured has been small so that no
information is yet available as to the reproducibility of the dis-
tributions or on possible correlations with more conveniently
observable met eorological parameters.
3. Perhaps the most important disadvantage is that the measure-
ments do not supply the number of drops per unit volume of the
target region with diameters in a given interval but rather the
number of drops in that interval striking the ground per unit time.
From a knowledge of the terminal velocities of the drops one can
indeed convert this information into drop-size distributions in
the volume immediately above the ground. The relation between
drop diameter and terminal velocity must be obtained empirically,
and the several measurements that have been made do not agree
very closely.3 Fortunately all the results agree in that the velocity
is practically uniform for the large drops that are of interest here,
so that the uncertainties in the actual terminal velocity are not

1 J. O. Laws and O. A. Parsons,Trans. Am. Geophys. Union, p. 452 (1943).

2G. T. Rado, “Measurement of the Attenuation of K-band Waves by Rain, ” RL
Report No. 603, March 7, 1945. This report contains a detailed discussion of the pre-
cautions neceasary to minimize systematic errors.
~For the figures given by A. C. Best see Table S. 10. Other values will be found in
Laws, TramJ Am. Geophys. Union, p. 70g (1941), where references to earlier work
are given.
SEC. 7.7] DROP-SIZE DISTRIBUTION 617

very important. (This does not preclude the possibility that

strong up or down drafts may cause great changes in the apparent
terminal velocity. There is considerable evidence that strong
vertical drafts are not common.)

Even if one can obtain the correct distribution just above the ground,
it is doubtful that such a distribution reflects faithfully the situation in
the target region, which is usually far above the ground, It is obvious
that processes of evaporation and condensation may cause considerable
changes in the diameter of a given drop in its long journey to the ground.
Indeed radar observations with sharp beams often reveal considerable
vertical structure in the precipitation regions (see Sec. 7.14). To be
meaningful, drop-size distributions must be obtained at the location from
which the echo arises and at the time when the radar observations are
made.
It therefore does not seem worth while to reproduce here any of the
detailed distributions given in the literature. A general idea of the
shape of the distributions can be obtained from the results of Laws and
Parsons’ shown in Table 8.12 below. It must be emphasized again that
caution must be used in basing any general conclusions on so restricted
a sampling of rain distributions.
A method that appears to obviate many of the objections raised above
is at present under development at the Weather Radar Project being
conducted now (1949) by the Meteorology Department of the Massa-
chusetts Institute of Technology for the U.S. Army Signal Corps.
Bri,eflyj the raindrops interrupt a narrow beam of light focused on a
photoelectric cell, the characteristics of the resulting pulse depending
upon the drop diameter. The pulses will be automatically sorted into
ten or more channels depending on drop diameter and will be counted
electrically. Thus, the number of drops in a given interval will appear
as a reading on a counter in the appropriate channel. This device, dubbed
“Disdrometer,” is mounted on an airplane, with the direction of the light
beam normal to the line of flight. As the forward velocity will therefore
be much greater than the downward velocity of the drops, uncertainties
in the terminal-velocity relation are unimportant. The counters of the
various channels are photographed at the same time that measurements
of the radar echo intensity are made of the immediate vicinity of the
plane. Schemes have been carefully worked out to ensure exact syn-
chronization of the measurements in both time and space. Other meteoro-
logical quantities such as total water content will be measured at the
same time.
A project of this kind requires elaborate and painstaking preparation.
once smoothly under way, however, it should provide rapidly much

1LOc. cit.References to earlier measurements will be found in this paper,

618 METEOROLOGICAL ECHOES [SEC. 78

meaningful data with which to test quantitatively the theory presented

here. In addition, it should be possible to investigate extensively
empirical correlation between echo intensities and meteorological
quantities that may be conveniently measured. Itmight thus be possible
to devise procedures either for estimating echo intensities from easily avail-
able data or for using measured intensities to furnish information about
the characteristics of the precipitation involved.1
7“8. Echoes from Solid Precipitation. -Liquid drops are not the only
form in which condensed water may appear in the atmosphere; it may
also appear as ice crystals, hailstones, snow, etc. These solid forms are
of great importance meteorologically. At least one theory of the forma-
tionof rain requires the prior presence of ice crystals. In one respect the
calculation of the echo to be expected from solid precipitation forms is
simpler than for raindrops, as the imaginary part of the index of refraction
is almost completely negligible for ice (cf. Table 8“16). Absorption effects
can then be neglected and the dielectric constant treated as real, with the
value q = 3.06 from 0° to —50°C. On the other hand we are no longer
dealing with simple spherical shapes; the corresponding boundary value
problem for the actual shapes (needles, plates, etc.) becomes complicated
and has not yet been developed fully. As in the case of raindrops, we
are indebted to J. W. Ryde and his collaborators for almost all of the
calculations made thus far of the echoes from solid precipitation forms.
Ice Crystals.—Crystals of ice, such as are to be found in clouds, have
very complicated geometries. Fortunately, however, their dimensions
are always very small compared with the wavelength so that only the
electric dipole excitation is of importance. To a first approximation
this is purely a volume phenomenon independent of the shape of the
scatterer. In effect, the radar beam cannot “see” the shape of an object
much smaller than the wavelength. We can thus take over in this case
the Rayleigh formula given previously [(Eq. 714)] with slight modifica-
tions because of the density of ice being slightly different from unity:

(45)

where W is the mass of ice per cubic meter in grams, m is the average
mass of a single crystal in grams, P is the density, and K is a dimensionless
factor, of the order of unity, arising from the deviation from spherical
shape. Thequantity depending uponthe dielectric constant canno longer
be replaced by unity; because of the decreased dielectric constant com-

lCf. H.R. Byers et al., “The Use of Radar in Determiningthe Amount of Rak
Falliig over a Small Area,” Tram. Am, Geophys. Crnion, 29, 187 (1948).
ZJ. W. Ryde, “Echo Intensities and Attenuation Due to Clouds, Bnh, Hail. Sand
and Dust Storms at Centimetre Wavelengths, ” General Electric Co., Ltd., Report No.
7S31, Oct. 13, 1941; also unpublished memorandum.
SEC, 7.8] ECHOES FROM SOLID PRECIPITATION 619

pared with liquid water it is here much smaller, about 0.165. Con-
sequently the echo from a cloud of ice crystals will always be considerably
less than from a cloud of rain droplets of the same size and concentration.
As ice crystals are always smaller than usual raindrops, it is to be expected
that the echo from ice crystals will be negligible except in unusual cir-
cumstances. Substituting in the appropriate values of E and p (0.916 for
ice), Eq. (45) can be written
Wm
7/ = 0.022~ K In-l. (46)

Hailstones.—Deviations from spherical shape are not important for

hailstones; on the other hand they frequently have dimensions comparable
with the wavelength. It is therefore necessary to use the rigorous series
expansion [Eqs. (38) and (39)], evaluating as many terms as needed to
obtain the desired accuracy. This has been done by Ryde, who has
computed the echo per unit volume from a storm of uniform hailstones.
In this case q is equal to no, where n is the number of stones per unit
volume and a the radar cross section of each stone. One can also express
T as

rl=; P, (47)

where p is the precipitation rate, the mass striking the ground per unit
area in unit time, v the terminal velocity and m the mass of each stone.
Ryde has given a table, reproduced in Table 7.2, of q/p (with p given as
an equivalent liquid precipitation rate in millimeters per hour) for various
stone diameters and wavelengths. The values of the terminal velocity
used were obtained by extrapolation from raindrop data. It will be
noticed that ~/p exhibits maxima and minima for k = 1 cm, indicating

TABLE 7.2.—CROSS SECTION PER UNIT VOLUME FOR HAILSTORMS’

Y m–l per mm per hr.

Stone P,
diameter, cm
A=lOcm A=3cm L=lcm

01 6.75 X 10-’3 67.73 X 10-” 7.57 x 10-9

0.2 3.32 X 10-’Z 3.31 x 10-’0 258 x 10-’
03 7.93 1.01 x 10-’ 4.94
0.4 1.69 X 10-11 1.69 3.53
0.5 289 331 0.69
0.75 523 7.11 2.23
1.0 1.42 X 10-’0 9.15 635
1.5 305 1.15 x 10-’
2.0 5.s5 4.96 X 10-’

* After Ryde.
620 METEOROLOGICAL ECHOES [SEC. 78

the presence of resonance peaks as in the case of perfectly conducting

spheres. In general, Ryde finds that hailstorms maybe expected to give
considerably less echo than a rainstorm of the same precipitation rate
with drop distributions such as given by Laws and Parsons.
SnowJCrystals.—The individual crystals of snow are usually hexagonal
plates with diameters ranging from 0.5 to 3 mm. For the smaller snow
crystals Eq. (45) or (46) would be used, but larger crystals would require a
more rigorous formula, complicated hereby theplatelike shape of the scat-
terers. Rydehas compared theecho from a snowstormof uniform crystal
size with that from a rainstorm of equivalent precipitation rate, again using
Laws’ and Parsons’ drop-size distributions. He comes to the conclusion
that for snow crystals weighing between 1 and 2 mg the echoes from the two
storms would be about the same. This is in rough agreement with the
observations by J. S. Marshall et al., mentioned in Sec. 7“2.
Snow often occurs in more complex forms; individual snow crystals
aggregate to form flakes. Such flakes can attain dimensions comparable
to the wavelength, 2 cm in diameter or larger, and their complicated shape
makes a rigorous computation extremely difficult. A somewhat similar
phenomenon is thought to occur with ice crystals in one of the stages lead-
ing to the formation of raindrops; that is, aggregates of many ice crystals
are formed. Here the dimensions are still small compared with the wave-
length, and two equivalent procedures may be used to approximate the
echo. Ryde assumes a spherical shape for the aggregate and computes
the echo from Eq. (45) and in substituting the density p dielectric constant
e takes into account the air spaces between the tryst als. Effectively this
means using a sphere whose volume is that of the sum of crystals compos-
ing the aggregate. Alternatively one can say that the N crystals forming
the cluster are so close to each other, compared with the wavelength, that
they radiate coherently and the total echo is N2 that of a single crystal.
That this view is equivalent to the one used by Ryde is seen from the fact
that for electric dipole excitation the cross section is proportional to the
square of the total volume, or N2 times the volume squared of each crystal.
A cloud of ice crystal aggregates should therefore have an echo several
orders of magnitude larger than the same cloud of dispersed ice crystals.
If these crystals melted to form raindrops, the echo would further increase,
chiefly because of the increase in the dielectric constant. In the process of
melting, the clusters still have a terminal velocity characteristic of the ice
crystal aggregates. As they fall, however, they attain rapidly the much
larger terminal velocity of raindrops. As a consequence the concentration
of drops decreases and with it the intensity of the echo. Thus one might
expect to find a maximum in the echo intensity roughly at the freezing level
where the falling clusters of ice crystals begin to melt. Such “bright
bands” at the freezing isotherm have indeed been observed by several
groups (see Sec. 7“14, for example).
SEC. 7.9] IDENTIFYING CHARACTERISTICS 621

Finally it should be mentioned that suspended solid matter other than

water could conceivably give rise to an echo. Sandstorms, dust clouds,
and smoke should also scatter electromagnetic radiation. Here the particle
sizes areso small compared with the wavelength that the Rayleigh formula
[Eq. (45) or equivalent] maybe used with complete confidence. The diam-
eters of sand particles are comparable to those of raindrops, and appreciable
echoes may be expected from sandstorms. As pointed out by Ryde, how-
ever, the particles in a true sandstorm rarely rise above 6 ft. Dust parti-
cles, on the other hand, are usually much finer. According to W. F.
Gibbsjl to remain suspended in the air for appreciable times, dust particles
must be 10 microns or less in diameter. For a given mass concentration
the Rayleigh formula predicts that the echo varies as the volume, or cube
of the dimensions, of each scatterer, The echo from the fine particles of
dust should therefore be extremely small. Thus for the extreme case,
quoted by Rydej of grain elevator dust with a concentration of 1 kg/m3
and particle diameter 15 microns the value of q at 10 cm is about 10–2zm–1:
It is just conceivable that the echo from dust storms could be detected at
sufficiently short wavelengths (as short as 1 cm). The situation is even less
favorable for smoke particles, whose average diameter is about 1 micron,
with mass concentrations usually less than 1 g/m3. Under such conditions,
even at a wavelength of 1 cm, ~ is not bigger than 10–12m–1. Such calcula-
tions tend to make one highly skeptical about reports of echoes from
“smoke.”

GENERAL PROPERTIES OF PRECIPITATION ECHOES

BY DONALD E. KERR AND ARTHUR E. BENT

The preceding sections have discussed evidence in favor of the hypothe-

sis that most meteorological echoes arise from precipitation in either liquid
or solid form. We shall now present observational information that not
only lends further support to this reasoning but summarizes the general
properties of these echoes and their relation to known meteorological facts.
Assuming acceptance of the hypothesis, we shall employ the term precipi-
tation echoes, which is now in general use by workers in the field.z
7“9. Identifying Characteristics.-When precipitation echoes are ob-
served on radar systems, they are likely to be mingled with the other echoes
(from land targets, ships, aircraft, etc.) from which they must be distin-
guished. The ease with which precipitation echoes can be distinguished
1Cloudsand Smokes, London, 1936.
2 From the historical point of view, it is of interest to point out that when these
echoes were first observed in the early days of microwave radar, they were dubbed
“cloud echoes. ” This is an unfortunate choice of terminology, as it conveys the wrong
impression to uninitiated radar personnel. It appam to be losing ground Z.S fuller
knowledge of the phenomenon is disseminated. There still remain the “angel” echoes,
however, which may sometimez be correctly represented by the earlier term.
622 METEOROLOGICAL ECHOES [SEC. 79

from others varies widely and depends upon numerous factors within the
radar system and without. There areseveral characteristics of precipita-
tionechoes that aidinvarying degrees in identifying them. These charac-
teristics are discussed briefly below and are illustrated by examples in later
sections.
Motion.—In general, precipitation echoes show horizontal motion’
characteristic of the local air currents surrounding the rainstorm causing the
echoes. Speeds up to 100 mph have been observed on occasion, and at
the other extreme the rain at times appears to be practically stationary for
appreciable intervals. On numerous occasions radar echo-velocity meas-
urements have been found to agree with upper-air wind-velocity measure-
ments made by other means and \vith surface observations of the motion of
rainstorms. Valuable meteorological information concerning winds aloft
in overcmt weather and the time of arrival of precipitation at a given point
may often be obtained by purely radar means. The characteristic motion
is usually of considerable aid in distinguishing precipitation echo from
echoes from fixed land targets.
A Mude.-Precipitation echoes have been received from areas at levels
indicated to be from close to the ground up to 40,000 ft. (The maximum
altitude hasprobably been exaggerated bythebeam\vidth, but at most this
error is a few thousand feet. ) Many precipitation echoes are seen on sys-
tems with the beam directed horizontally, but in most cases echo amplitude
is increased by elevating the beam above the horizon. When an echo is
received from an area indicated to be above the surface, precipitation is
suggested unless the size is such as to involve confusion with aircraft.
Experience with airborne radar shows that the elevation test is not of much
advantage at ranges beyond 25 to 30 miles. At close range, ho\veverj sur-
face targets m-e lost upon elevation of the antenna beam but precipitation
echoes remain. Precipitation echoes have been observed with the beam de-
pressed below thehorizon byreflection from near-by water or ice surfaces.
Distance.-Because of the vertical development of the phenomena
involved, precipitation echoes maybe observed at large ranges. Thunder-
storms have been seen atdistances upto250 miles. Echoes thus appear on
ground-based systems at distances far beyond normal land signals. (Echoes
from distant land targets are at times seen as a result of atmospheric refrac-
tion, but the appearance of an echo at great range usually suggests a pre-
cipitation echo.)
Size.—The size of these echoes as observed on radar systems varies
within wide limits. In general, precipitation echoes are distinguished by
the large size of the echo area w compared with usual targets. Whole
quadrants of the PPI may be filled with echo in extreme cases, even when
using sweeps of 50 miles or more. Where the size of the echo area is great,
1Verticalmotions are discuseed at a later point.
sm. 79] IDENTIFYING CHARACTERISTICS 623

it is easy to distinguish from other types, but cases are observed where it is
small and the possibilityy of confusion is greater. This is particularly true
when using the long sweeps that make it impossible to examine the radial
extent of the echo in detail.
The shape of precipitation echoes is also quite variable, normally being
irregular. The smaller echoes, such as those of high amplitude received
from thunderstorms and heavy showers, may be of a circular or oval shape
with fairly even boundaries. The weaker echoes, such as those usually
received from precipitation associated with stratiform-type clouds, are of
irregular shape with indistinct boundaries where the amplitude of the echo
merges into the noise level. Shape of precipitation echoes changes with
time, sometimes very rapidly.
Average Intensity .—The preceding sections have indicated the echo
intensities to be expected from various types of precipitation. In practical
cases the intensity may vary from an indefinitely small lower limit to
magnitudes sufficiently strong to obliterate strong echoes from near-by land
targets.’
Rapid Fluctuations of Intensity.—It was shown in Chap. 6 that precipi-
tation echoes fluctuate in intensity in a manner best described by a fre-
quency spectrum. Visual observation of the radar indicator is not suited
to obtaining information on frequency spectra, but under proper circum-
stances it can lead to positive identification of precipitation echoes on the
basis of their fluctuations in intensity. The PPI and B-type indicators are
not suited to observation of fluctuations, but the expanded A-scope is the
ideal instrument for this purpose.z The outstanding property of precipita-
tion echoes viewed on an A-scope is the rapid dancing or fluttering of the
echo, extending over a range interval of a few hundred yards to miles in
some cases. The effect is frequently described by saying that it is “fuzzy,”
“furry,” or lacelike in structure, depending upon the details of the indicator
and nature of the storm. If the echo is very weak, it often appears as a
small “bump” in the thermal noise normally present \vith the gain control
well advanced.
Figure 72 shows a photograph of precipitation echoes on an A-..cope
with a 10 mile sweep. As this is a time exposure, it represents the super-
position of the echoes from many pulses, each echo different from all the
others. The detail visible to the eye upon direct observation of the indica-
tor is thus lost, but enough of the general appearance is preserved to suggest
the actual fuzzy appearance, This echo is to be contrasted to echoes from

LAssuming special anticlutter circuit arrangements are not employed to reduce the
effective intensity of the precipitation echoes. Such circuits are outside the scope of
this volume.
“’We Msume familiarity with the properties of ra(iar indicators. Sce Vol. 22 of this
series.
624 METEOROWGICAL ECHOES [SEC. 7.9

most fixed targets, which, with proper adjustment of the gain control, break
the baseline of the indicator trace cleanly, giving aseriesof sharp, discrete
spikes that also fluctuate but in general tend to retain their identity to a far
greater extent than do the components of precipitation echo.
If the-rain area is small or if
the sweep length is many miles,
the fine detail of the echo is not
visible. The most satisfactory indi-
cator for identification and visual
study oj precipitation echoes is the
expanded which allows a
A-scope,
small range interval of 2000 to 4000
yd at any distance to be spread
across the entire indicator. Figure
7”3 shows precipitation echo (not
the same storm as in Fig. 7“2) on
an expanded 4000-yd sweep. The
improvement in detail over Fig. 72
is obvious. The lacy structure of the echo can be observed fairly clearly,
but the detail is still in no way comparable to that observable visually.
This detail, revealed on such an indicator, is the best means of identifica-
tion of precipitation echoes; in fact, we know of no instance in which
examination of an echo of unknown
origin in the foregoing manner has
failed to make possible a definite
decision as to whether or not the
echo originated from precipit ation. 1
Unfortunately relatively few radar
systems are equipped with this
type of indicator.
Br-ightness.-The PPI presen-
tation is controlled by limiting
circuits that operate to cut off
signals of extreme amplitude so
that echoes above a certain level
appear on the scope as of equal
brilliance. Precipitation echoes
may easily be above limiting levels.
Some, pa~ticularly those from light to moderate general rain, have a faint,
cloud like appearance that is very typical. This appearance might also
I A possibleexceptionis sea echo, which on an A-scope may be indistinguishable
from precipitation echo. In this case auxiliary information from other indicators and
from operations snch as varying antenna tilt may be nccmsary to permit positive
identification.
SEC. 7 10] CONFUSION AND MASKING OF OTHER ECHOES 625

be described as foggy or transparent. Brightness is largely a matter of

adjustment of receiver gain and limiting circuits and hence must be used
with caution for purposes of identification.
Strati@ation.—Many precipitation areas show a layer structure when
viewed from below. This is most typical of situations of general rain. As
many as four reflecting layers have been observed at one time. These
layers are often of wide horizontal extent. There is much variation in the
characteristics of these layers, which are discussed more fully at a later
point.
7s10. Confusion and Masking of Other Echoes.—A practical problem
often confronting radar operatom is that of positive identification of a new
echo in a very short time and without recourse to special indicators, sys-
tem adjustments, or operating procedure. Under some circumstances,
general operating experience and familiarity with the characteristics
described in the preceding section are sufficient, but there are times when
this is not true. For instance, fixed radar systems operating in temperate
latitudes show thunderstorms and widespread precipitation areas as large
bright masses on PPI or B indicators, and even a casual glance at the indi-
cator reveals the origin of the echo. (Examples are shown in Sees. 711 to
7.13.) By contrast, however, airborne radar in the tropics continually
encounters small isolated thundershowers that are frequently very deceiv-
ing. They may be much less than a mile in diameter, appear to have fairly
sharply defined boundaries; and when viewed on an indicator having a
sweep length of more than about 15 miles, they are easily mistaken for
isolated land masses or ships. Even if an expanded A-scope were available,
there would seldom be an opportunity in high-speed aircraft to stop the
antenna, align it accurately, and examine each echo in detail. 1 This prob-
lem will probably be reduced to a minor annoyance as operator training
and experience improve and as circuit developments become available that
permit anticlutter action at the flip of a switch.
In Sec. 6“17 it was pointed out that all scattering elements within
a volume determined by the radar beamwidth and the pulse length contrib-
ute to the echo. At large distances this volume may become very large
because of the effect of the finite beamwidth, and consequently precipita-
tion echoes may interfere with echoes from other targets at the same range
but in a slightly different direction from the radar. This undesirable effect
may be reduced by decreasing beamwidth and pulse length and by employ-
ing certain types of anticlutter circuits. These matters will not be dis-
cussed here, however.

1Some radar systems have expanded PPI or B-scopes that can often be very effective
for thk purpose and are much easier to use than the A-scope. The rapid fluctuation
of the echo cannot be observed, but the hazy appearance and irregular shape are usually
fairly satisfactory symptoms.
626 METEOROWGICAL ECHOES [SEC. 7.11

Figure 7.4 shows an example of the type of masking effect that maybe
encountered with airborne radar. The precipitation echo, easily identified
by its irregular, diffuse appearance, obliterates a large fraction of the land-
scape echoes normally visible. The degree of seriousness of this masking
phenomenon depends very much upon the details of the situation. The

Fm. 7.4.—A PPI photograph from a 1,25-cm airborne radar system operating at an
altitude of 3000 ft near a thunderstorm over a citv. Full-scale ranxe is 10 miles. The
landscape targets, faint because the receiver gain has been reduced ~o improve contrast,
are heavily masked by the thunderstorm echoes. The masking effect wouId be even more
marked with a higher gain control setting.

quantity of most interest in this connection is the excess of echo strength

that a desired echo must have in order to be detected or tracked in the
midst of precipitation echo. This is a complicated matter, depending upon
numerous factors both within and without the radar system. The reader
is referred to Chap. 11 in Vol. 24 for a discussion of threshold signals in
clutter.

PRECIPITATIONECHO PROPERTIES AND METEOROLOGICALSTRUCTURE

BY DONALD E. KERR AND ARTHVR E. BENT

7“11. Classhication of Echo Types.—For purposes of description, mete-

orological conditions that result in radar echoes may be divided broadly
into two groups, those in which precipitation is localized and those in which
SEC.7-12] THUNDERSTORMS 627

precipitation is widespread.1 The first group includes precipitation in

unstable air masses and frontal systems where the airis completely or con-
ditionally unstable, whereas the second group includes precipitation in sta-
ble air masses and in frontal systems in which the air participating in the
upglide movement is stable.
The first group includes thunderstorms, showers, and what are termed
for convenience in classification as active convective situations. This last
subdivision is necessary to include cases of radar echoes from precipitation
in cumulus mngestus and some other cloud types, where precipitation is
present in the cloud but does not reach the ground. (Cases have been
described in Sec. 7“2.) Thunderstorms and showers of the tropics are a
typical example of precipitation in unstable air masses. The cold-front
thunderstorm or shower is a typical illustration of precipitation in frontal
systems in which the air is completely or conditionally unstable.
The second group includes widespread rains such as those resulting from
the mechanical lifting of stable air over mountain ranges or from the up-
glide movement in a warm front.
This classification is convenient for purposes of description, but many
variations and combinations occur. Type cases are used here for purposes
of illustration, but in practice such large variations in degree occur that
identification is not always easy. The same problems are encountered in
radar observation of precipitation that exist in conventional meteorological
observation and forecasting. Often echoes are observed that do not fit
well into this simplified classification. This is another indication of the
variability of meteorological phenomena and calls for experience and skill
in interpretation.
7“12. Thunderstorms.-Figure 7.5 shows a typical isolated convective
thunderstorm of a hot summer afternoon in middle latitudes. The small,
sharply defined echoes in the first 15 miles are from fixed land targets in the
vicinity of Boston. The three bright, hazy echoes are from a well-
developed thundershower at about azimuth 200”, a heavy shower at about
azimuth 130° that is probably either an early or late stage of a thunder-
shower, and a smaller and much less well-develoDed shower at azimuth 70°.
Examination on the A-scope showed extremeiy strong echoes from the
shower at 200° and weaker echoes from the other two.
The development of the large shower is further revealed by the study
of its vertical structure shown in Figs. 7“6 and 7”7. In obtaining Fig. ?.6 an
expanded elevation indicator (EEI) was used to scan the shower in the ver-
tical plane at a fixed azimuth of 190°. By means of a 10/1 synchro drive
the vertical angle scale is expanded by a factor of 10. Appreciable echo is
obtained from elevation angles of —10° to +32°. Because of the beam-

1 A. E. Bent, “Radar Echoes from Atmospheric Phenomena, ” RL Report No. 173,

March 13, 1943; “Radar Detection of Precipitation,” ,JOUT.Meteor-ot., 2, 78 (1946).
628 METEOROLOGICAL ECHOES [SEC.712

FIG. 7,5.—A PPI photograph of a typical summer-afternoon convective thunderstorm

in middl e latitudes, as seen on a 10-cm radar system at the Radiation Laboratory on July
14, 1942 Range marks 5 miles, pulse length l~sec, beamwidth6°. Zero azimuth (north)
is at the top of the figure.

Fm. 76.-Photograph of an EEI showing the echo from the thundershower of Fig. 7.5
at an az imuth of 190°. The angular scale indicates ten times the true angle of elevation,
with the black horizontal line indicating the true horizontal. Five-mile r~ge mar~.
 Slw. 712] THUNDERSTORMS 629

0 5 10 15 20 25
Range m milas
FIG. 77. —Rouglireplotof the EEI presentation of Fig.,76in rectangular coordinatesin
the vertical phme, showing the vertical development of the thundershower of Fig. 7..5 at
an aaimuth of 190°. As no correction has been made for the berunwidth, the true echoing
region is somewhat smafler than this replot indicates.

Fro. 7 8.—Photograph of the PPI of a high-power IO-cm radar system in Florida, shc
ing intense summer thunderstorms, In this cage a special feedback circuit is operating
suppress all but the most intense echoes from the centers of the columns of precipitati[
Full-scale range is 150 miles,
 630 MET&OROLOGICAL ECHOES [SEC. 712

width of about 6“ the echo region is actually somewhat smaller than indi-
cated by the EEI. If the echoing region is replotted from the EEI in
rectangular coordinates, it appears as shown in Fig. 7.7,1
Figure 7.8 shows a PPI photograph of a strong convective thunderstorm
in Florida, where such storms are a predominant feature of the summer
climate. In this case special circuits have been arranged to give a high

Fm. 79.-A line of thunderstorms in a cold front as shown on the PPI of B 3.2-cm
radar system at the Radiation Laboratory on July 22, 1943. Beam width is 1,5”, Pulse length
1 @ec; and the range marks are 20 miles apart.

degree of suppression of the rapidly fluctuating precipitation echo, with the.

result that only the most intense echoes from the centers of the columns of
precipitation are visible.z No echoes from fixed land targets are visible in
this photograph because the set is operating at a low altitude over flat ter-
rain and the horizon range is only a few miles.3

1 The EEI presentation is not very useful in practice because of the tediousness of
translating from polar to rectangular coordinates. The rsnge-height indicator (RHI)
is preferable (see Sec. 7 14 for RHI photographs).
2 Without this circuit in operation the precipitation echoes were much more intense
and widespread. Unfortunately %-e have no comparable photographs showing the
echoes without the circuit in operation.
3Further study is being made of thunderstorm structure by radar means; for example,
~:~ H. R, Bvers and R, R, Braham, [‘Thunderstorm stru~tiire and Circulation, ” Jour.
Meteorot. 6, 71 (1948).
SEC. 7 12] THUNDERSTORMS 631

The arrangement of thunderstorms along the line of a cold front results

in heavy precipitation and radar echoes having a similar appearance on the
indicator. The long straight line of echoes is so characteristic that it is
usually readily identified. (Occasionally intense precipitation areas may
happen to be arranged in an elongated form that has a superficial similarity
to the cold-front thunderstorm echo. Known meteorological conditions

‘m. 7. 10.—Cold-front storms on the PPI of a 3.2-cm radar sj-stem at the R adiaf ;ion
mat ory on June 29, 1943. Beamwidth is 1.5°, pulse length 1 psec; and range m arks are
tiles apart.

at the time often give a clue as to what might reasonably be expected,

however.) As much variation exists in radar cold-front echoes as would be
expected (from a meteorological point of view) in the precipitation itself.
Many cold fronts, of course, do not have thunderstorms at all.
Figure 7”9 shows the typical line of thunderstorms accompanying an
advancing cold front. A series of similar photographs revealed rapid
movement of the front for a time, followed by an almost complete halt.
While the front was moving, the echoes did not change appreciably in size
or intensity, but when the front stopped, the echoes became stronger and
covered a larger area.
Figure 7“10 shows another cold front at closer range. In thk case it is
not known definitely that the echoes shown came from a thunderstorm,
although it appears probable. Vertical scanning revealed echoes at 18,000
632 METEOROLOGICAL ECHOES [SEC. 713

ft, they were very strong, and light thunder was heard near the echo area.
This isacase in which positive differentiation between cold-front showers
and thunderstorms could not be made without further information,
although there was no doubt about existence of the cold front, as it was
confirmed by other observations.
7“13. Other Forrnsof Localized Precipitation. Showersin UnstableAir
Masses.—These are the typical showers of hot summer afternoons in ter-

n(a) (b)
FIG. 7.11.—Instability showers on the PPI of a 10-cm radar system at the Radiation
Laboratory on Oct. 30, 1943. Range marks4n auticalnliles apart, pulse length 0.8 gsec,
and beamwidth2°. (a) Made at2:05 P.M.; (b) made at2:10 P.M. North isatthe top of
the picture.

perate latitudes or in the tropics. (There are also many other types of
instability showers. ) An example was shown in Fig. 7.5, in which two
showers were found near a fully developed thunderstorm. In that case the
difference between the thunderstorm and the showers appeared to be
largely a matter of degree of development (the dividing line is not sharply
defined). The appearance on the PPI frequently supplies insufficient
information to permit estimation of the intensity of the storm, and exami-
nation of the vertical extent by vertical scanning is necessary.
Another example of afternoon showers that is interesting because of its
odd configuration and short duration is shown in Fig. 7.11. Meteorological
observations from Blue Hill Observatory showed the showers to be highly

1 The viciuity of the observatory is shown by the intense. oval-shaped echo about 9
miles south of the radar.
SEC. 7.14] WIDESPREAD PRECIPITATION 633

localized and of brief duration, concluding with a row of towering cumulus

clouds to the east of the echo region.
Showers in Frontal Systems with Complete or Conditional Instability.—
Cold-front showers are an excellent example of this type of precipitation.
The resulting echoes have the linear grouping characteristic of a cold front.
As indicated earlier, both cold-front showers and thundershowers are likely
to have a similar appearance on the PPI, and vertical scanning is often of
considerable aid in deducing the structure of the precipitation source.

7.1 Z.—Cold-front showers on the PPI of a 10.cm radar system at the Radiation Lat )Ora-
tory on Dec. 2, 1942. Range marks are 10 miles apart; beamwidth 2°.

Flgure 7.12 shows echoes from precipitation identified as showers forming

part of a cold front that appeared from the west, moved across the field of
the PPI, and disappeared to the southeast. The heavy shower at the
center passed over the laboratory.
7“14. Widespread Precipitation.-By definition this group of echoes
includes those from precipitation in stable air masses and frontal systems
where the air participating in the upglide movement is stable. A typical
example is the lifting of air in the upglide of a warm frent. The classifica-
tion cannot always be strictly maintained, as instability often plays a part
in the cases considered here. From the radar point of view the principal
distinction is in the widespread nature of the precipitation as contrasted to
the extremely localized extent of precipitation in thunderstorms and
showers resulting from convection.
The rate of rainfall of this type may vary through wide limits, and the
amplitude of the radar echo shows corresponding variation. In general,
however, the amplitude of the echoes is at a lower level than is found with
convective showers and thunderstorms, resulting in a faint, foggy appear-
ance on intensity-modulated indicators.
The area from which the echoes is received is variable but is characteris-
tically large in contrast to that of the echoes already considered. More or
less complete coverage of the PPI on a 50-mile sweep is not uncommon.
Echo areaa maybe continuous or broken up into irregular shapes. Bound-
634 METEOROLOGICAL ECHOES [SEC. 714

aries of areas are irregular and taper gradually in intensity to the noise
level. Figure 713 shows typical echo from this type of precipitation,
which was associated with the warm sector of a low-pressure system.
In some cases the rate of rainfall may be relatively steady over a large
area; but if convective instability occurs, this relative uniformity tends to
be interrupted by areas of alternately heavy and light rainfall, resulting in
roughly corresponding variations in echo intensity. The nearly uniform

FIG, 7.13.-Echo from widespread rain =sociated with thewarm sector ofa low-pressure
system on Dec. 1, 1942, as viewed on a IO-cm radar system at the Radiation Laboratory.
Horizontal beamwidth about 0.8°, pulse length 1 @see, range markers spaced lo miles. This
photograph illustrates very well the hazy, nearly “transparent” appearance of precipitation
echoes.

echo over a wide area in Fig. 7“13 suggests lack of appreciable convective
instability.
Layer-type Echoes.’—One of the most interesting properties of the
echoes observed under conditions of widespread precipitation is pronounced
stratification. Sometimes well-defined, nearly continuous horizontal
layers are indicated for a considerable distance, whereas at other times mul-
tiple layers or “clumps” of limited extent are observed, often accompanied
by considerable motion or buildup and decay of the echoes.
If a radar with a PPI is pointed directly upward at an echoing layer
and the antenna and indicator yoke continue to rotate the echo appears as
a circular ring. Figure 7.14 shows an example of a layer-type echo observed
in this manner with warm tropical air overrunning cold surface air. The
boundary between the air masses was esiimated from Weather Bureau
information to be at about 10,000 ft, and the freezing isotherm at about
8,000 ft. If the antenna is tilted downward, the diameter of the ring
increases in the expected manner with angle, con fmn.ing the existence of a

1 A. E. Bent, “Radar Echoes from Precipitation Layera, ” RL Report No. 689, Aug.
20, 1945.
SEC. 7.14] WIDESPREAD PRECIPITATION 635

layer.1 As many as four layers have been observed simultaneously for

limited periods at heights between ~ and 6 miles.
The explanation of the origin and behavior of these layers in terms of
meteorological structure has not been found. Some property—large drop-
size or high drop concentration or both—causes ~ (the radar cross section
per unit volume) of the precipitation in a limited region to exceed greatly
that of surrounding regions. The
observation of vertical motion
coupled with the possibility of strong
updrafts has led to suggestions that
updrafts hold large drops suspended.
Another plausible suggestion was
outlined in Sec. 78. It appears that
obtaining the correct explanation
for these echoes is likely to bring to
light much new knowledge of the
physical processes of precipitation.
The best indicator thus far avail-
able for observing the vertical struc-
ture of precipitation echoes is the
FIG. ?14.—Photograph of the PPI
range-height indicator (RHI), which showing the typical ringlike structure ob-
presents across section intheverti- tained when the antenna is pointed directly
upward at a horizontal layer. Pulse length
cal plane at a fixed azimuth, with is 1 ,usec, and wavelength 3.2 cm. This
independently adjustable magnifica- layer is about 2000ft thick and 2 miles high
at the top.
tion on the horizontal and vertical
range scales. The RHIisparticularly useful when thestratification isnot
limited to a single well-developed layer, as in Fig. 7“14, but occurs in
broken patches or in curved or warped surfaces. Figure 7.15 shows an
RHI photograph of later developments of thesituation of Fig.7”14. The
three photographs are part of a series showing extrernelyrapid changes in
density and shape in periods as short as 1 min. The antenna was pointed
at a fixed azimuth slightly south of west. The surface wind while the
pictures were being made was northeast, about 20 mph, and the winds at
10,000 ft were estimated by the Weather Bureau to be from the southwest.
The local rate of rainfall was about 0.04 in./hr. The radial velocity of
parts of the echoing areas of the bottom photograph was about 60 mph.
The amount of information available in a detailed study of the kind
suggested by these photographs is enormous, and it presents both a
challenge and a vaiuable research tool to the meteorologist which, it is to
be hoped, will be explored fully in the near future.’
1Antennaside lobes must be reducedto a very low,level if observation of layer
echoesare to be frse from confuzion.
~For a summaryof later work, coneultthe seriesof reportenow Ming iszuedby
the Departmentof Meteorology,M~achusettz Instituteof Technology (Army Con-
tract w-36-039-sc-3m3s).
 636 METEOROLOGICAL ECHOES [SEC. 7.1.5

FIG. 7 .15.—RHI photograph of the meteorological structure about 2 hr aftcx that of

Fig. 714, using the ssme radar system. The time of making each photograph is indicated
on the rig)It. A5-mile range mark shows faintly,

7.15. Cyclotic Stonsof Tropical Oti~.-Tropical stems, tith their

associated heavy precipitation in characteristic patterns, make ideal sub-
jects for radar study.’ They are known as hurricanes or typhoons, depend-
ing primarily upon their origin. We present here a limited sample of the
currently available information on these storms.
1The term “characteristic” is perhaps anticipatory, as not enough different storms
of this typehave been studied thus far to predict what patternsMS characteristic,or
typisal.
1 SEC, 7.15] CYCLONIC STORMAS OF TROPICAL ORIGIN 637

Hurricanes.-The hurricane of Sept. 14-15, 1944 passed close to Cam-

bridge, Mass., where it was observed on a number of radar systems. Rain
began in the Boston area some time before the approach of the severe part
of the storm, resulting in the usual echoes associated with widespread pre-
cipitation. The center of the storm passed near Boston at about midnight
on Sept. 14.
Figure 7,16 shows the general heavy rain associated with the forward
gradient of the storm about 3 hr before the center arrived. During the

Fm. 7. 16.—Echoes from the hurricane of Sept. 14-15, 1944, observed on a high-power
10-cm radar system at the Radiation Laboratory, at 2 11S hours, EST. The “bands” of
precipitation were characteristic of the echoes before arrival of the oenter of the storm.

hour centered around the time when thk picture was taken, about half an
inch of rain fell, Successive pictures made later clearly showed the
approach of the central part of the storm until midnight, when no further
rain waa seen to the south.
The most curious feature of these echoes waa the “bands” of precipita-
tion that advanced northward in a nearly straight line toward Boston prior
to the arrival of the center of the storm. They were correlated with the
arrival of bursts of excessively heavy rainfall at the radar location. Shortly
after Fig. 7.16 was made, the storm was scanned in the vertical plane on an
EEI, which revealed a thin layer (as in Fig. 7.14) at a height of about 9000
ft. (The duration of this layer is not known.)
The early stages of the hurricane were also observed by the 3-cm radar
at Provincetown, Mass. (see map in Fig. 4.1). Figure 7’17 shows a PPI
photograph of the intense localized precipitation preceding the storm. The
individual echoing area appear to fall in the classification of Sec. 7.13, but
collectively they form part of a system of clearly recognizable bands of pre-
cipitation.
638 METEOROLOGICAL ECHOES [SEC. 715

To summarize the radar information secured in this one case: The maxi-
mumrange onthegeneral precipitation associated with the forward quad-
rant of this storm was of the order of 60 to 80 miles; the approach of the
clear central eye of the storm was tracked in from about 25 miles; there were
concentrated bands of precipitation extending from east to west, moving
north; in the general rain ahead of the central part of the storm there were

FIQ. 7,17.—Localized precipitation preceding the hurricane of Sept. 14-16, 1944, ss

seen on the PPI of a 3-cm radar system at Provincetown, Mass., at 1015 hours, EST, Sept.
14. ThesmaU echo aremare part oflarger ``band' 'structures characteristic of this hurricane.
Bearmvidth 2°, pulse length 1 psec, lo-mile range marks. The white line points north.

many small scattered areas of intense precipitation; after the eye of the
storm had approached sufficiently close, no rain could be observed in the
southerly quadrants; and in the early part of the storm there was a well-
defined echoing layer at abotit 9000 ft at one time.
An excellent detailed radar study of this hurricane was made by Army
Air Forces units as it passed through Florida and New Jersey. High-pow-
ered radar systems were employed in a number of caaes, and their much
greater coverage revealed that the “bands” described above were part of a
large circulation system that rotated about the center of the storm as it
traveled northward.1 By the time the storm reached Boston, much of the

1Unfortunately we do not have the details available. The complete radar rscord
is worth serious study by anyone interestedin hurricama.
SEC.7.15] CYCWNIC STORMS OF TROPZCAL ORIGIN 889

“band” structure had been destroyed, but it is still su5ciently recognizable

in Fig. 716 that there can be Iittle doubt that it is the same phenomenon
that was prominent farther south.
Typhoons.-On Dec. 18, 1944, a typhoon was observed by radar east of
the Philippine Islands by a U. S. Naval vessel.1 A PPI photograph of a
high-powered lo-cm system is shown in Fig. 7“18. The approach at long

FIG. 7 lS.—Typhoon near the Philippine Islands in December 1944, as observed on the
PPI of a U. S. Navy 10-cm ship radar.

range was foilowed by standard meteorological techniques. The storm

was tracked for about 3 hr by radar at a range of about 30 miles while the
ship followed a course roughly parallel to the storm track. In the photo-
graph the center was 35 miles distant from the ship, bearing 010° true.
Motion of the storm was toward the northwest. Note that the distribution
of heavy precipitation is clearly shown. The clear central eye of the storm
1G. F. Koscoe, “Highlights of the December 1944 Typhoon Including Photograph
Radar Observations,” Fleet Weather Central Paper No. 10, Feb. 10, 1945.
640 METEOROLOGICAL ECHOES [SEC.7.15

is readily observed, surrounded by an inner heavy circular rain area.

Lying farther from the center and separated from the outer edge of the
inner rain area by a relatively clear space is found a crescent+haped precipi-
tation area.
The distribution of precipitation observed by radar around thi8 storm
was not in agreement with expected maximum rainfall in the right front
quadrant, and the meteorologists who observed this case concluded that
although maximum convergence may have occurred in the right semicircle,
it was largely dissipated in accelerating the air stream and thus produced
relatively little rising air and precipitation. The clear space between the
inner and outer rain areas was explained by a large vertical eddy cell built
up over the left quadrant of the storm, the descending currents of which
produced the clear sector through compressional heating. Although the
explanations in this particular case are speculative, they suggest future
applications in meteorological research.
 CHAPTER 8

ATMOSPHERIC ATTENUATION
BY J. H. VAN VLECK, E. M. PURCELL,AND HERBERT GOLDSTEIN

THE RELATION BETWEEN ABSORPTION AND DISPERSION

BY J. H. VAN VLECK

In studying the propagation of microwaves through the atmosphere one

is interested both in the absorption and in the dispersion, that is, how the
index of refraction varies with frequency. A very general relation exists
between the refractive index and the absorption coefficient that enables one
to determine the absorption if the dependence of the refractive index on the
frequency is known throughout the spectrum from v = O to v = a. Vice
versa, the refraction can be computed (apart from an additive constant
Em) if the absorption is known for all wavelengths. In other words, assump-
tions cannot be made regarding how the refractive index varies with fre-
quency without implications as to the amount of absorption. This fact
has a bearing on the theory of nonstandard refraction. For instance,
various investigators have noted that a variation of 1 per cent in the
refractive index between A = 1 and A = 10 cm would lead to interesting
differences in the trapping or duct phenomena at the two wavelengths.
Such a variation, however, would necessarily lead to an unreasonably
high absorption, in contradiction with experiment.
8“1. Properties of the Complex Dielectric Constant.~The general re-
lations between the refractive index and the absorption arise out of a
correlation of these two quantities, respectively, with the real and imagi-
nary parts of a complex dielectric constant. The relations in question
were first noted by Kramers in 1927.2 Analogous relations between the
real and imaginary parts of the impedance rather than of the dielectric
constant have been well known in circuit theory since about 1932.3 The

1The material in section 8.1 is condensed from J. H. Van Vleck, RL Report No. 735,
May 28, 1945.
z H. A. Kramers, Atti tong. intern. fisici, Como, 2, 545 (1927). One of the relations
is also implicitly contained in slightly earlier papers by R. de L. Kronig, Jour. Optical
5’oc. Am., 12, 547 (1926), and by H. Kallman and H. Mark, Ann. Physik, 82, 585
(1927).
3 Cf. Y. W. Lee, Jour. Math. Phys., 11, 83 (1932); also O. Brune, ibid., 10, 191
(1931); C. M. Gewertz, ibid., 12, 91 (1933); W. Kigenhuis and F. L. Stumpers, Ph@ccz,
8, 289 (1941); E. A. Guillemin, Circuit Theory Lectures Nos. 11 and 14, M.I.T,
641
642 ATMOSPHERIC ATTENUATION [SEC. 8.1

proof is practically identical in the two cases and isclosely related to

what the mathematicians call the “Hilbert transform. ”
If the complex dielectric constant e = e, – ie, is known, then the refrac-
tive index n and absorption 7 in decibels per kilometer can immediately be
calculated, for

(1)

provided n2 – 1 is small compared with unity.

The general relations between absorption and refraction are most simply
expressed in terms of c], ez rather than of n, 7 and are

(2)

(3)

where E(V)and Em mean, respective y, the dielectric constant for frequent y v

and for infinite frequency. By means of Eq. (2), we compute cl if we know
S2for all V; conversely Eq. (3) determines E2if we know EI. The integrals in
Eqs. (2) and (3) diverge at the resonance singularity v = v’ if taken liter-
ally, and here we are to use the so-called Cauchy principal value, defined by

/ o ‘h(l”-’’d+hdvd)’)
“’dv’
It would be well to stress the generality of the relations Eqs. (2) and
(3), They require only that the complex dielectric constant e(v) be an
analytic function of v throughout the lower half of the complex plane for v
and that C(—v) be the conjugate of g(v) along the real axis in this plane.
These conditions are really no assumptions at all, for they are necessarily
fulfilled by virtue of the fact that the polarization of a particle cannot
antecede the arrival of the disturbing electric field that produces it. The
validity of Eqs, (2) and (3) is general and quite irrespective of the model,
which can be either classical or a uantum-mechanical.
The “particle” or structural unit can be an atom, electron, molecule,
water drop, ice crystal, or anything else provided only that a considerable
number of them be included in a volume unit whose dimensions are small
compared with the path length.
The proof of the relations Eqs, (2) and (3) will be sketched only briefly. The validity
of the law of cause and effcct, requires that E(u) have no singularityics in the lower half
of the complex v-plane, as it can be shown that otherwise the response to a pulsed
wave would antecede arrival of the latter. Hence by the residue theorem, one has

[.(”’) – %] ~,, = ~
J “’—v
(4)
SEC.81] PROPER TIES OF COMPLIIX DIELECTRIC CONSTANT 643

if thepath of integrationisaclo-wd ciuvefomwdbyaninfinitez eticircleinthe lower

halfplaneandthereal axis,exceptthatthe singularityat~ = v’isavoided byreplacing
a smallsegmentof the real axis by a semicircleof radius~with originat v = v’. If .3
be made to approachzero, the contribution of thii small semicircle ta the left side of
Eq. (4) iS ~ k (P) – %1. The contributionof the infinitearc is zero, and the linear
portionof the contourinvolvesthe samepath as impliedby the Cauchyprincipalvalue.
By virtue of these various observationsand the furtherfact t~t g,(v’) = Cl( – ~’),
*(V’) = - e2( - J), Eqs. (2) and (3) follow from Eq. (4). There are two relations,
Eqs. (2) and (3), becausein the complexequation (4), the real and imaginarypsrte of
the left-handside must vanish separately.
From Eqs. (2) and (3) it follows that any observable change in refractive
index in the microwave region would imply a fantastically high absorption.
For estimating orders of magnitude it will suffice to amume that el falls off
linearly from v = O to v = v, and is constant thereafter. Let us suppose
that q – 1 is one-tenth of 1 per cent lower for k, = c/vi = 1 cm than the
value 0.000558 for ~ = m. This change is probably far too small to have
any importance for trapping or duct phenomena. On evaluation of the
integral it is found that the absorption would be at least 0.5 db/km for
all wavelendhs shorter than about 2 cm. This attenuation would be so
high as to ~ause a great deal of difficulty and lead to contradiction with
experiment. Thus we can safely conclude that for all jrequenzies in the
microwave region, the static value oj the dielectric constant can be used without
appreciable error.
In actual materials, El varies with v in a more complicated way than in
the linear fashion assumed in the preceding paragraph in order to estimate
orders of magnitude. We may distinguish between two cases, viz., the
nonresonant and the resonant. In the first of these the real part of the
dielectric constant decreases monotonically as the frequency is increased
from zero to infinity, The standard theory of nonresonant absorption is
that of Debye in classical theory and transcribed into quantum mechanics
by Kronig and Gorter.i It assumes a molecule whose free rotations are
resisted by a viscous force and leads to the formula

(5)

where Av is the line-breadth constant and co — emhae the significance

4rNP2
(6)
‘“–’w= 3kT’

in terms of the dipole moment p of the molecule and the number N of mole-
cules per unit volume. The refraction and absorption predicted by Eq. (5)

1 P. Debye, Polar Molecuks, ChemicaJCatalog Co., New York, 1929, Chap. 5;

C. J. Gorterand R. de L. Kronig, Physics, 3, 1009 (1936); R. de L. Kronig, ibid., 6,
65 (1938),
644 ATMOSPHERIC ATTENUATION [SEC.81

are shown in Fig. 8“1.1 The absorption implied by a given change eo — e

in dielectric constant is of the same order of magnitude as in the example
discussed in the preceding paragraph.
If the absorption is of the resonant rather than nonresonant type, there
is still no escape from the conclusion that to avoid fantastically large absorp-
tion, the refraction must be appreciably constant over the microwave

1.50 3.0

r
1.25 - 2.5

1.00 ‘ \ 2.0
‘\
W8
, wI8
- 0.75 \
1.5
& w0
5 \
\
\
x
0.50 1.0 A-
\
I
\
0.25 \ 0.5
\
\
\
o / =- . 0
-6 -4 -2 0 +2 +4 +6
‘n(t)
FIG. 8 1.—Dependence of nonresonant refraction and absorption on frequency. The
curves are based on the theOrs Of Dchye. The dashed and sOlid curves relate tO the refrac-
tion and absorptlou. The notation v, k, is used for Au, c,’ Av respectively.

domain. With a resonant frequency uO,the quantum-mechanical formula

for the complex dielectric constant is

E— 1=
(7)

1 In many tests it is customary to plot the absorption per wavelength rather than
the absorption per fixed unit length. The absorption curve then, because of an e~ ti-a
factor k, shows a maximum at a particular frequency rather than increasing monot-
onically with frequency as in Fig, 81.
SEC. 81] PROPERTIES OF COMPLEX DIELECTRIC CONSTANT S45

where A ia a dimensionless constant. In Eq. (7), the line-broadening is

supposed due to collisions, and throughout the chapter we neglect the
influences of the Doppler effect or of radiation damping, aa their effects in
the microwave region are negligible. In case the line-breadth constant Av
is small compared with the resonance frequency, by far the most important
part of the absorption and dispersion is that in the immediate vicinity of
the resonance center. In this region, the formulw for q and e~ become
substantially
(8)

and

‘z–~
_ Avo
[ AV’+(V–
AV
1
VO)’”
(9)

These formulas show the situatjon to be different from the nonresonant

case, where c1decreased monotonically with increasing Y. The maximum
——— 4
+0,50 I
,/ \
\
//
+0.25 1 - 3
//’
~o
L Uo 2
~ a I
u- /-

\ /’
-0.25 1
\ /

\~ .’
\. ./ - —
-0,50 ~ o
-6 -4 -2 0 +2 +4 +6 +8
V-v.
V.

FIG. S.Z.—Dependence of renonant absorption a,)d refraction on frequency in the vicinity

of renonance.

and minimum values of SI — 1, viz., + A tIo/4Av, are achieved at

v = VOT Av. As VO>> Av, the difference Ae = A vo/2Av between these
extremes is much larger than e- — eo which by Eq. (7) equals A. The sit-
uation in the immediate vicinity of the absorption line is sketched in Fig. 82,
The maximum value of the absorption (assuming v,>> Av) is achieved at
v = VOand by Eqs. (1) and (9) is 0.434(2m) X Ae X 10E(l/Ao) where ~0 = C/VO.
Thus if there is a resonant line that changes the value of n’ – 1 for air by
1 part in 1000 (that is, As = 5.8X 10–7), the absorption at the center of the
line will amount to 1.6/k. db/km. Again an appreciable change in the
refraction cannot occur without being manifest in absorption.
646 A TMOSPH3JRIC ATTENUATION [SEC, S.1

Sections 8.2 and 8“3 treat the atmospheric attenuation by lines in 02 and
HZO located at about 1 cm and 1.35 cm respectively. These resonances are
of importance from the standpoint of absorption, but from the preceding
formulas the concomitant changes in refraction are found to be inconse-
quential; namely, ‘the two extremes of the kink in the values of nz – 1
which is caused by the 0.2absorption near ~ cm should differ from each other
by only about I part in 300. This estimate may be too large because the
absorption by oxygen is complicated by the fine structure from molecular
rotation and so cannot be treated w a single line. In the case of the water-
vapor line at 1.35 cm, the absorption is much weaker than that for 0s and
to about one part in several thou-
gives a change in n z _ 1 amounting only

sand, too small an effect to have any appreciable bearing on nonstandard

refraction. In heavy rains, the absorption arises more from drops than
from uncondensed vapor; it is then essentially nonresonant in character
and of a type to be studied in Sec. 8.7. In extreme torrential rains, occur-
ring mostly in the tropics, the attenuation in the l-cm region can be as large
as several decibels per kilometer, and then nz — 1 might differ from the
static value by one part in a few hundred, but such behavior will be rela-
tively rare.

THEORY OF ABSORPTION BY UNCONDENSED GASES ‘

BY J. H. lrAN lrLECK

The absorption of microwaves in the atmosphere arises from both free

molecules and suspended solid particles, that is, dust grains and especially
the water drops condensed in fogs or rains, The present section is con-
cerned only with the molecular absorption. The influence of particles will
be treated in Sec. 8“7. The attenuation brought about by the gaseous and
particle mechanisms enters additively; in other words, the decay that we
now compute is always present as a “background” superposed on any
effects produced by particles. (The size of the two effects will be
compared in Sec. 8.7. ) When it rains, they are often of the same.
rough order of magnitude. In a noncondensed atmosphere the ingredients
that absorb microwaves are (1) oxygen, which has a magnetic interaction
with the incident radiation because the 02 molecule is normally in a para-
magnetic 32 state, and (2) water vapor, which contributes because of the
electric polarity of the HZO molecule. In both cases, there are certain fre-
quency regions where the absorption is abnormally large because of reso-
nance. In the case of oxygen, this region occurs at wavelengths in the vicin-
ity of ~ cm (and also ~ cm), and at the peak of the resonance the absorption
is over 15 db/km. In the case of water, the resonance center is at 1.35 cm,
1The material in Sees. .8,2 and 8,3 was for the most part given in RL Reports Nos.
175 and 664, which present a more complete discussion. Further improvements in
numerical values found here are given by J. H. Van Week, Phys. %w., 71, 413.ff (1947).
SEC. 81] ABSORPTIOIV BY UNCONDENSED GASES 647

but with a much weaker absorption. Naturally the amount of absorption

depends on the humidity—at saturation at 200C the absorption at maxi-
mum resonance amounts to about 0.4 db/km—enough to have some bear-
ing on radar performance over long path lengths.
The following tables give a bird’s-eye view of the absorption due to the
two causes,

TABLE8.1.—THEORETICAL
VALUES
OFATMOWH~RIC
ABWRPTION
BY OXYGEN

A, ‘Y, i, k, -r,
cm db/km cm db~km cm db/km
— .—— — -———-
100 0.0014 1.00 0.014 0.465 5.0
30 0.0050 0.667 0.077 0.435 0..51
10 0.0066 0.588 0.32 0.400 0.19
3 0.0072 o.55d 1.99 0.200 0.03
1.5 0.0089 0.50 14 I

TABLE 82.-THEORETICAL VALUES OF THE RATIO OF ATMOSPHERIC ABSfJRFTION BY

WATER \TAPt)R TO NUMBER OF GRAMS OF HiO PER (21,BIc Jl[: r!:B

x, Y/P, x, -t/P, k, YIP,

cm db/km per g per n]3 cm dh/km per g per mz cm db /k m per g per m~

10 0.000025 1.43 0.015 1.0 0.0059

3 0.00039 1.35 0.020 0.667 0.0041
2 0,0016 1.25 0.018 0.5 0.0058
1.5 0011 1.11 0.009 0.3 0.014

The entries in Table 8 1 give the decay constant ~ in decibels per kilometer
from the absorption by oxygen. In other words, besides the decrease due
to the inverse square law, the intensity of the beam diminishes at the rate
10-OiTt, where 1 is the effective path length in kilometers.
The absorption by water vapor is, of course, directly proportional to
the vapor content in Table S.2, and consequently we give the absorption
divided by the density p of water vapor in grams per cubic meter. For
temperate latitudes (20°C) in summer, there are on the average about 7.5 g
of water per cubic meter. On the other hand, at saturation at 20°C,
sea level, the value is p = 17 g/m3. Under tropical conditions the content
can be even higher.
The calculations for the preceding table are made on the assumption
that the air traversed is at 76-cm pressure and 20”C. When waves are
being used at a substantial altitude, allowance must be made for the fact
that the quotient of density by temperature, to which absorption is pro-
portional, diminishes at high altitudes. Approximate allowance for this
fact can be made in the case of oxygen by taking the effective path length 1
648 ATMOSPHERIC ATTENUATION [SEC. 8.2

‘“w’ -%9 .
where 10is the actual path length and h, h’ are,

respectively, the elevation of the initial and terminal points in kilometers.

In considering the effect of water, allowance must be made for the variation
of the fractional vapor content of the atmosphere with altitude, and an
appropriate mean density must be used. The corrections to be made be-
cause the temperature may not be 20”C are relatively unimportant except,
of course, for the influence on the amount of water vapor. The absorption
by oxygen is roughly proportional to 1/T2 as long as the pressure is constant.
The temperature corrections for water will be discussed more fully in
Sec. 8“3.
At wavelengths less than about 1 mm, the absorption by water vapor is
so high as to make such wavelengths useless for transmission except over
exceedingly short distances. This statement does not apply, of course, if
the wavelength is reduced indefinitely. Obviously, for instance, the
atmosphere is not opaque in the optical region—otherwise we could not
live. The opening up of the atmosphere to transmission, however, occurs
only when the frequency becomes high compared with the rotational fre-
quencies of the water molecule, and then we are in the infrared rather than
in the very short microwave region.1 Values of the absorption in the
millimeter region will be given in Sec. 8“3, Fig. 8“7.
8.2. Oxygen.-To have appreciable absorption, it is necessary that the
incident frequency not differ too much from an atomic or molecular reso-
nance frequency, which by quantum theory is proportional to the difference
between two molecular energy levels. Even the shortest microwave is very
long by ordinary optical standards; hence appreciable absorption is to be
expected only if there are closely spaced energy levels between which transi-
tions are permitted by the selection rules of quantum mechanics. The
nitrogen and oxygen molecules, which are the important constituents of
dry air, are both nonpolar or, in other words, devoid of a permanent electric
moment active in the infrared or microwave region. As a result, only per-
mitted transitions in electric dipole radiation connect different electronic
states and give rise to absorption in the visible or ultraviolet rather than
the microwave region.
It must not, however, be overlooked that the oxygen molecule is
paramagnetic or, in other words, has a permanent magnetic moment
and can consequently absorb microwaves. Absorption is usually thought
of as arising only from electric dipoles, but it can arise from magnetic
polarity also, as Maxwell’s equations are symmetric in E and H. At first
sight, it might appear that any effect of this kind would be negligible, for
molecular magnetic moments are much smaller than electric ones, cor-
responding to the fact that one Bohr magneton is about & of a Debye
1For a calculation of the absorption by water vapor in the infrared, see W. M.
Ekuser, Aatrophys. Jour., 87, 497 (1938).
SEC. %2] OXYGEN 649

unit of electric polarity. Actually, however, the resulting attenuation

is not negligible, because of the great path lengths in the atmosphere and
because there is resonance to the energy intervals in the oxygen triplets
if the incident wavelength is about ~ cm. The magnetic moment has
diagonal matrix elements also involving no energy change and hence zero
frequency; or in classical language, there exists a constant term in its
Fourier expansion. A corresponding term is not found for electric
dipoles. A completely undisturbed constant moment does not give
absorption; but when allowance is made for interruption by collisions,
the constant or diagonal elements are capable of absorbing energy and
give rise to a feeble attenuation in the conventional microwave region,
From band spectra the oxygen

a
1.976cm- I
molecule is knowm to be in a 32 \
ground state and to carry a mag- J=9

netic dipole moment of 2 Bohr

K=9
magnetons (spin quantum number
S = 1; gyromagnetic ratio g = 2), J=8
This magnetic moment interacts J=1O
\

a
with the “end-over-end” rotation 2.021cm-1
1.949cm:1
of the oxygen molecule to form
J=7
what is sometimes called a “rho-
type triplet. ‘“ If K be the rota- K=7
tional quantum number exclusive
of spin, then K is compounded J=6
J=8
vectorially with the spin S to yield
‘2.045cm-1
a resultant inner or rotational
FIG. S3,-Spin triplets in the molecular
quantum J for the molecule, which spectrum of oxygen.
can take on the values J = K – 1,
K and K + 1. The illustration in Fig. 8“3 is not to scale, as the spacing
between the different rotational states K is large compared with the inter-
vals within the triplet and involves energy intervals appropriate to the in-
frared rather than the microwave region. Because the oxygen nucleus
is devoid of spin, the Pauli exclusion principle allows K to take on only
odd values, but K can range from 1 to ~, and only the rotational states
7, 9 are shown in Fig. 8.3. The components J = K – 1 and J = K + 1
nearly coincide and differ from J = K by intervals that depend on K
but which, with one exception, are about 2 cm-l, corresponding to a
wavelength of ~ cm. The one exception is furnished by the components
J = O, 1 of K = 1 for which the separation is approximately 4 cm-’,
implying absorption in the vicinity of ~ cm. At first sight it might seem
that the small separation of J = K – 1 and J = K + 1 gives us just what
we want for a low-frequency resonance, of the order A = 10 cm, in the
1For a detailed discussion of this triplet and further references,sse R. Schlapp,
Phys. lb.. 61, 343 (1937).
650 ATMOSPHERIC ATTEIV UATION [SEC. 82

conventional rather than the very short microwave region. This is not
really the case, however, as there are no matrix elements of the magnetic
moment vector connecting J = K – 1 with J = K + 1, because of the
selection rule that J cannot change by more than one unit.
The general quantum-mechanical formula for the absorption co-
efficient -y for microwaves of frequency v is

(lo)

Here p,j is the matrix element of the dipole moment connecting two
stationary states i, j, of energy l?,, E, respectively; V,j is the frequency
of the corresponding spectral line, given by the Bohr frequency condition
hvtj = Ei – E,; and N is the number of molecules per cubic centimeter.
The frequency of the incident radiation is denoted by V. The factor
10qog,,e is inserted in order that the absorption be expressed in decibels
per kilometer. The factor ,f(v,,, v) is the so-called “structure factor”
determining the shape of the absorption line and is given by the expression

Av
J-(v,j, .) = +, ~,j _ :; + *“2+ (11)
[t (v,j + v)’ + Au’ 1 ‘

Near resonance, Eq. (11) is practically identical with

(12)

Equation (12) is the form of structure factor commonly given in the

li~erature and is adequate for most purposes, especially in the optical
region. This approximation, however, is not adequate in all applications
in microwaves, as ~veshall sometimes be interested in cases where (Vfj — V)
and even Av may be of the same order of magnitude as v. It is then
necessary to use the more refined formula’ of Eq. (11). For the
theory underlying Eq. (11), which involves inclusion of a term omitted
in the standard Lorentz theory of collision broadening, the reader is
referred to a paper by Van Vleck and Weisskopf. 1 The constant Av is
the so-called line-breadth constant. It is proportional to the number of
collisions per unit time but cannot be calculated theoretically, as the
collision cross sect ion is not known. Uncertainty as to the value of AV
hae been the greatest stumbling block in the theoretical calculation of
absorption. This point will be discussed more fully later, but it can be
mentioned here that the microwave measurements themselves have
cent ributed a great deal of information on the magnitude of AV. In fact,

I J. H. l’an Vleck and V. Weisskopf, Rev. Mod. Phys., 17, 227 (1945).
SEC. 8.2] OXYGEN 651

from a theoretical standpoint, one of the interesting features of micro-

wave absorption is that it covers a region where AV may be comparable
to V, and the distinction between Eqs. (11) and (12) consequently cease
to be trivial. In other words, questions of line profile can be studied to
greater advantage in the microwave than in the optical region.
As hv,j = E, – E, = – hv~,, we have ~(v,j, P) = – j(v,,, P) and the
contribution of a typical term i, j in Eq. (10) to the absorption is positive
or negative (induced emission) according as the energy of the state i is
greater or less than that of j. To any given term i,j in the double sum in
Eq. (10) there is also a corresponding term j,i whose contribution is of
opposite sign and which would cancel the effect of i,j completely were it
not for the difference in the Boltzmann factors for the states z and j. How-
ever, in case the frequencies Pij are small compared with k!f’/h,. this
difficulty of nearly compensating terms may be avoided by using the
approximation

(13)

which shows that the positive and negative terms nearly cancel
if hvij << lcT. Use of the simplification (13) is fully warranted in the
present calculation on oxygen, as the width of the rho-type triplet is
only about ~ of kT/h. When Eq. (13) is employed, Eq. (10) becomes

The advantage of using Eq. (14) rather than Eq. (10) is that all the terms
of the numerator of Eq. (14) are positive.
In the present specific application to oxygen, the index i (or j) signifies
a trio of quantum numbers J, K, M, (or J’, K’, M’), where we have
J = K – 1, K, K + 1 as previously explained, and where M is the
equatorial quantum number associated with the space quantization of J.
Various simplifications are possible, however. In the first place, the
energy does not depend on M and only slightly on J; hence, in the Boltz-
mann factom, but not, of course, in the frequency differences u~jwe can
take E(K, J) = EK. The matrix elements P(KJJI; K’J’M’) of the mag-
netic moment are of the type K’ = K, J’ = J, J — 1, J + 1. Con=
quently it is found that Eq. (14) can be written

~ [G~+dt+ + GKA- + F(v)AO]e ‘r ~15)

47r3vN K
‘Y = lfP(logiO e) ~
~ 3(2K + 1) e% -
K
652 ATMOSPHERIC ATTENUATION [SEC. ~ 2

Here we have used the abbreviations

vK* = I v(KK; KK ~ 1)1,

The intensity formulas of quantum mechanics’ appropriate to the type of

vector addition involved in a rho-type triplet (Hund’s Case b) show that

41YK(2K + 3),
&_ = 4~2(K + 1)(2K – 1),
P%+ =
K+l K
(16)
~:. = 8P’(K2 + K + 1)(2K + 1),
If(K + 1) }

where ~ is the Bohr magnet on eh/4~mc.

The third member of Eq. (15), that is, the term with factor F(v), repre-
sents the nonresonant part of the absorption from the diagonal matrix
elements that are the quantum-mechanical equivalent of a constant term
in the Fourier expansion. Without appreciable error the approximation
P20 = 8132(2K + 1) can be made in Eq. (16), as most rotational states
have K >>1. Then the sum cancels from numerator and denominator
in the third member of Eq. (15); consequently the nonresonant part of
the absorption is given by the very simple formula

64T2L32N V’ AV 0.34v2 Av
7NR = 10’(lOg,Oe) — — (17)
9clcT V=+ AV2= V2+ AV2‘

This expression has precisely the same structure as the well-known classical
formula of Debye for absorption at radio frequencies in dielectric liquids,
which is obtained by substituting Eqs. (5) and (6) in Eq. (1). The
square of the dipole moment in this connection is 8~/3 = g’S(S + 1) ~/3,
where g is the Land6 factor and S is the spin quantum number; the
factor ~ appears because one-third of the total mean square moment is of
the diagonal variety, the other two-thirds being consumed by the non-
diagonal type J’ = ..T + 1.

1Cf. E. U. Condon and G. H. Short,ley, Theory of Atomic Spectra, Cambridge,

London, 1935, p. 66, or J. H. Van Vleck, Electric and Magnetti Susceptibilities, Oxford,
New York, 1932,p. 167, Eq. (SS).
 SEC. 8.2] OXYGEN 653

The nonresonant effect represents the most important part of the

absorption when the incident wavelength is very long compared with
the resonance wavelength ~ cm but nevertheless does not give enough
absorption to be important for most practical purposes, as can be seen
from theentries in Table 8.1 for~ ~ 3 cm, The distinction between the
resonant and nonresonant absorption is, in a certain sense, a purely
artificial one, as the diagonal part of the absorption is merely a special
case of the general resonant variety in which the resonance frequency
happens to be zero. Prior to the revision, already mentioned, of the
Lorentz theory, the diagonal and nondiagonal contributions to the absorp-
tionhad to be treated indifferent ways, astheonetype did not properly
reduce to the other when the resonant frequency was set equal to zero,
or in other words,, the general formula for absorption with an arbitrary
absorption frequency did not include the Debye-Kronig expression as a
special case. However, we now have a unified theory in which this
difficulty is avoided.
The first and second members of Eq. (15) give the contribution of
the nondiagonal elements to the absorption, which is particularly im-
portant in the vicinity of A = ~ cm. This resonant absorption is not
given by so simple an expression as Eq. (17). In the Bokzmann factors
we can take W~ = BK(K + 1) with B = 1.44 cm–l with the result
that at 293°K we have
Ex
~–m = ~()-o.m301K(K+l).

Because of the exclusion principles only odd value of K are involved in

the summation. Without appreciable error, the sum in the denominator
can be replaced by the integral

- Ke .BK,fkT dK – ~:.
3
/ o

On the other hand, the first and second members of the numerator must
be summed in detail, and it is necessary to know the energy levels fairly
accurately. Here the values shown in Table 8“3 have been adopted.
They are based largely on the spectroscopic measurements of Dieke and
BabcockJl except that (1) the value of vK_ for K = 1 cannot be observed
directly and is obtained from a theoretical formula of Schlapp’ and (2)

] G. H. Dieke and H. D. Babcock, Pmt. Nat. A cad. SC+., 19, 670 (1927). Recently
an improved determination of the triplet intervals hez been made. (H. D. Babcock
and L. Herzberg, Astrophys. Jour., 108, 167 (1948). ] The new values of these inter-
vals were not available at the time this chapter wiM written and differ only very slightly
from those given in Table 8.3. Hence, use of the revised intervals would not affect
the calculated absorption appreciably except at very low pressures, where the con-
tribution of the individual resonance lines become resolved.
~ R. Schlapp, lot. cit.
6.54 .4TMOSPHERIf’ A TTE,VU.4 TION [SEC.82

in some cases the measured values have been smoothed out where they
seem likely to be unreliable.
TABLE 8,3,—INTERVALS IN THE OXYGEN TRIPLETS

vK– UK+
K
c c

1 3.962 1.872 15 1,877 cm-’ 2,10 cm-l

3 2,084 1.950 17 1.864 2.12
5 2.011 1.981 19 1.838 2.14
7 1,976 2,021 21 1.815 2.16
9 1.949 2.045 23 1.81 2.18
11 L80
x-k (
1.919
13 1.899 \– 0,01 X (K – 25) } w

In regions well removed from the absorption band (that is, for x >1 or
< + cm), one can make the centroid approximation of considering all
the frequency denominators to be the same and use the approximate
formula

,=034(;)[(2_:):+( +y+(2+:)~+(:) *“ ,

In comparing the theory with experiment, one must first of all select
+

()~’++
c ()1 2’

some value of AV. No direct measurements on the line breadth Av are

possible in the infrared spectrum, since oxygen is electrically nonpolar.
By extrapolating from CO and other gases, Van Vleck originally (in 1942)
considered 0.1 cm–l as the most reasonable choice for Av/c, but the sub-
sequent experimental work of Beringer, who measured the absorption of
microwaves in a waveguide filled with oxygen, shows that 0.1 cm–l is
definitely too high a value for Av/c and that Av/c is probably between
the limits 0.02 and 0.05 cm–’. This conclusion is in agreement with the
fact that improved infrared technique practically always seems to indicate
that the conventional values of Av/c are too large. Besides Beringer’s
experiments, which will be discussed in Sec. 8.4, we have the measure-
ments on the absorption of 02 made by Mueller,l who determined how
1G. E. Mueller, BTL Report No. MM44-16&150, July 3, 1944; also Proc. IRE,
34, 181 P (1946). iVOteaddedin proof. During the printing of the present volume
further determinations of the absorption of oxygen by tmnsmiesion measurement in
wave guide have been made. See M. W. P. Strandberg, C. Y. Meng, and J. G. Inger-
soll, Phys. Rev., 76, 1524 (1949).
SEC.82] OXYGEN 655

much the transmission of air over a long path deviated from the inverse
square law at a wavelength of 0.625 cm. At this wavelength, practically
all the absorption is due to the oxygen in the air. Mueller concludes
that Av/c must be less than 0.09 db/km. As the theoretical value
of Av/c at 0.625 cm is 6.5 (Av/c), Mueller’s measurements seem to demand
that the line-breadth constant Av/c not exceed O.O14 cm–l. which is lower
than the range of values yielded by Beringer’s investigations. Mueller’s
experiment requires extreme precision. The value 0.09 db/km cor-
responds to a reduction of only 0.8 per cent in the transmitted signal over
the quarter-mile path that he used. Mueller informs the author that
it is allowable to raise his upper limit to 0.13 db/km. This corresponds
to a line breadth 0.02 cm-l, the lowest value of Av/c, which seems reason-
able in the light of Beringer’s experiments, although a sharp definition of
his least admissible AY/c is not possible. In addition, by the radiometer
method to be described in Sec. 8.5, measurements have been made on
the total absorption by oxygen in the earth’s atmospheric layer.1 The
wavelengths (1, 1~, 1~ cm) employed in these experiments are so far from
resonance that the effect is weak and hard to determine with precision.
The indications are that the best fit is obtained if Av/c is of the order
of 0.02 cm-l. In the combined light of the Beringer, Mueller,z and Dicke
data, 0.02 cm-’ is perhaps the most reasonable value for Av/c and is that
used for Table 8.1.
The values of the computed absorption by the oxygen of the atmosphere
are shown in Fig. 8.4 as a function of wavelength. The various varieties
of points in Fig. 8‘4 give Beringer’s experimental points. The measure-
ments on pure or 50 per cent Oz are reduced to “air equivalent” by assum-
ing that at given total pressure the absorption is directly proportional
to the concentration of oxygen. This procedure appears legitimate,
since Beringer’s data show the collision cross section to be substantially
the same for Oz – Nj and 02 – Oz impacts. Figure 8.4 shows clearly
that the early choice Av/c = 0.1 cm-l for the line breadth does not fit
the data well and that Beringer’s measurements probably fix Av/c between
the limits 0.02 and 0.05 cm–l.
The wobbles in the curve for Av/c = 0.02 cm-’ are explained by the fact
that at certain wavelengths there is an extremely close resonance to a
particular rotational transition. This effect does not show up at 0.05 or
0.1 cm-’, as the lines are so broad that they overlap, whereas at 0,02 one
has an incipient resolution of the contributions of the different rotational
states. By working with low pressures and well-stabilized frequencies, it
should ultimately be possible to resolve this fine structure. In fact, micro-

1 R. H. Dicke, R. Beringer, R. L. Kyhl, and A. B. Vane, Phys. Rev., 70, 340 (1946).
z Measurements similar to those of Mueller have also been made by H. R. L. Lament
[Prwc. Phws. L$OC., 61, 562 (1948)!.
656 A TM08PHERIC ATTENUATION [SEC. 8.3

wave spectroscopy should ultimately prove the method par excellence of

accurately determining the low energy levels of molecules as well as of
line profiles. Beringer’s measurements already include some data at low
pressures, but the scatter of the individual runs is considerable. The
theoretical curves for the absorption as a function of total pressure, with
attempts to correlate with Beringer’s data, are uublished elsewhere. 1

20
——— O.lOcm-l
AV
— —— 0.05cm-1 <
10 –c { 0.02cm-]
8
6I
~lExpeJrr);tal(O he O b.
A50%02 \,\
D20%02 \

.= 1 I A
I 1 I
\\\’\~,
\ \ 1\
I \
g 0.8 / J~
3 0.6 /.l \ 1
,/ d \
g 0.4
<
< /
,“ ./ \
0.2 ,.’
/
/
0.1 ‘ / /
0.08 / / I
0.06 / /
I
0.04 / ‘
W-1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0 2.2 2.4 2.6cm-]

h70.75 0.700.650.60 0.55 0.50 0.45 0.40cm

Fro. 8.4.—Atmospheric attenuation by oxygen as a function of wavelength. Tbe
measurements, when made on other than 20~0 Q, are reduced to “a]r equivalent values”
by assuming that at given total pressure the absorption is proportional to the partial pressure
of oxygen.

8“3. Uncondensed Water Vapor.’—Actually, of course, the atmosphere

is never completely dry, and we should therefore consider the absorption
by water vapor in addition to that by oxygen. It is essential that the
states of the water molecule be treated quantum-mechanically, for the
precise spacing of the rotational energy levels cannot be deduced classi-
cally. The polarity to be considered is no~velectric rather than magnetic,
of course. The important fact to note is that there is no absorption of
the nonresonant type, or, in the language of quantum mechanirs, the
electric moment matrix of the molecule contains no diagonal elements.
This situation is the result of the selection rules connecting transitions

1See RL Reports Nos. 175 and 664, wb]rh pwsent a more complete dlscussim;
also J. H. Van Week, Phyy. Reu., 71, 413 (1!)47).
z See also J. H. lran Ylwli, Phw. Rev., 71, 42.5[1947).
SEC.8.3] UNCONDENSED WATER VAPOR 657

between theenergy levels of different syrumetrytypw.” It can be shown

by group theory or otherwise that the rotational energy levefs of the
water molecule are of four different symmetry types, which are usually
designated as ++, ––, –+, and +–. The selection rules permit
the rotational quantum number J to change only by not more than one
unit and allow ++ to combine only with –– and –+ to combine only
with +—. Nonresonant absorption would require diagonal matrix

TABLE 84-LOWROTATIONAL ENEEGYLEVELSOFH,O hlomcwmsmc!r’

E E E
J7
% hc G

++00 o ++ 4, 488.19 ++ 5., 416.00

–+4$ 488.19 +– 5.3 399.44
+– 1, 42.36 ––4, 383.93 –– 5_, 326.541
––1, 37.14 +–4, 382.47 – + 5., 325.27
–+ 1-, 23.76 ++ 4, 315.70
–+ 4-, 300.33 ++ 6, 1045.14
++2, 136.15 –– J_, 275.23 –+6, 1045.14
–+2, 134.88 +– 4.,7 224.71 ––64 888.74
––2” 95.19 ++ 4-, 221.94 +–6, 888.70
+– 2-, 79.47 ++6, 757.72
++ 2.2 70.08 +–5, 742.18 –+6, 756.78
––5, 742.18 ––60 661.54
+–3, 285.46 –+5, 610.34 +– 6_, 649.03
––3, 285.26 ++ 5, 610.16 ++ 6_, 602.71
–+3, 212.12 +– 5, 508.80 – + 6_3 552.94
++30 206.35 ––5” 503.90 –– 6-4 542.74
+– 3%, 173.38 – + 5-, 446.39 +– 6-s 447.17
–– 3_, 142.30 + + 6., 446.66
– + 3., 136.74

elements and so would demand that ++ combine with ++, etc. ; this is
not allowed. (The corresponding selection rule for the magnetic dipole
moment of oxygen is that + combines with + and — with —; con-
sequently, there was a nonresonant absorption in Ot which at very long
wavelengths was more important than the resonant, ) To have an
appreciable contribution to the absorption it is necessary, therefore, that
there besomesmall resonance frequencies, or, in other words, two closely
spaced combining energy levels. Table 8.4 shows the energy levels of
the water molecule, according to Dennison,l up to those of total rotational
quantum number6. The subscript ~specifies a second quantum number
whose details need not be described here.
Thetable shows that there aremany closely spaced energy levels. For
instance, the energy difference between the states 33 and 32 is such as to
correspond to an absorption maximum at a wavelength of 5 cm. Com-
lD. M, Dennison, Rw. Mod. Phys,, 12, 189 (1940).
658 ATMOSPHERIC ATTENUATION [SEC. 8.3

bination of these two levels is not allowed by the selection rules, however;
this is also true, with one exception, for all the small intervals in the
table. The exception is the pair 5–1, 6–s, which can combine. According
to the table, the corresponding absorption maximum is at v,/c = 0.78 cm–l
or A = 1.28 cm. Unlike the situation in the optical region, however,
where the wavelength is a quantity known with great accuracy, the wave-
length of the transition in question is not determined with much accuracy
from the infrared data. The trouble is, of course, that small differences
between relatively large quantities (the excitation energies above the
very lowest state) can be determined only if the energy levels themselves
are known with extreme accuracy. According to an earlier table of
energy levels by Randall, Dennison, Ginsburg, and Weber,l the estimated
wavelength of the line in question is 1.46 cm. The difference 0.18 between
this value and Dennison’s estimate 1.28 is probably comparable to the
error inherent in trying to work out the levels from the infrared data;
for one thing, it is commensurate with the breadth of the line, as we
shall see later. After the development of microwaves and radar had
aroused interest in knowing the wavelengths of absorption resonances
accurately, measurements of the absorption of water vapor as a function
of frequency in the vicinity of 1 cm were made at Columbia Radiation
Laboratory by a method to be described in Sec. 8.5; the wavelength
of the transition 5–1, – 6_s was found to be 1.344 cm.z
The intensity and breadth of the line must also be known. The
intensity can be calculated from the known dimensions of the water
molecule and from the quantum mechanics of the unsymmetrical top.
The so-called “line strength” (square of the dipole moment summed over
the various Zeeman components and hence inclusive of the statistical
weight) is found to be 0.17 (1.84 X 10–18)2in esu. The line-breadth con-
stant Av has steadily diminished as time has progressed and the measure-
ments have become more accurate. Early infrared work indicated that
Au/c was in the vicinity of 0.3 cm–]. In view of the importance of this
quantity for microwave physics, improved measurements3 of the breadth
of water-vapor lines were made in the infrared laboratory at the Uni-
versity of Michigan. These experiments gave the resmlt Av/c = 0.17 and
later 0.11 cm–l. The breadth of the line can be measured far more
accurately, however, with microwave than with infrared technique,
inasmuch as in the microwave region the breadth is comparable to the

I H. M. Randall, D. M. Dennison, N. Ginsburg, and L. R. Weber, Phys. Rev., 52,

160 (1937).
t More recent work places this line at 1.3481 cm. See C. H. Townes and F. R.
Merritt, Ph~s. Reu., 70, 558 (1946).
s A. Adel, NDRC Report No. 14—320, University of Michigan, Oct. 10, 1944, and
especially the supplement thereto. His “half breadth” is the same as twice our quan-
tity Av/c.
 sEC.83] UNCONDENSED WATER VAPOR 659

frequency of the line itself. The recent microwave measurements at

Columbia Radiation Laboratory (see %. 8“5 and Fig. 8.5) yield the
shape of the line in detail and indicate that for low densities of water
vapor, the best choice of the parameter Av/c is 0.087 cm–l. The agree-
ment with the Michigan data is within the latter’s limit of error, which is
estimated to be 0.02 cm–l. In the calculation of the values of the ab-

0.05

0.04

0.03

~
P

0.02

0.01

I
0
0.3 0.4 0.5 0,6 0.7 0.8 0.9
L
1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1,4
I/k in cm-l

Fm. S.5,—Theoretical and experimental results on attenuation by water vapor in the

1– cm region at a temperature of 45°C. The lower curve gives theoretical values based on
Av/c = 0.0S7 cm-’. The upper curve represents measurements made at the Columbia
Radiation Laboratory. The units used are: -y m decibels per kilometer, X in cm, and p in
grams per cubic meter.

sorption shown in Fig. 8.5, the round value Av/c = 0.1 cm–l will be used
as a sort of mean of the Columbia and Michigan determinations. An
interesting result of the Columbia experiments is that at atmospheric
pressure the line breadth Av/c depends somewhat on the partial pressure
of the water vapor. Forinstancej at a content of 50 g/m3 (which could
be obtained without condensation in the Columbia experiments because
a temperature of 318 °K was used) the value of Av/c is about 0.107, instead
of 0.087 cm-’. The dependence on the HZO vapor pressure is such as to
indicate that HZO — HZO collisions have about five times as great a cross
660 ATMOSPHERIC ATTENUATION [sm. 83

section as the HZO – OzorHzO –N,. This observation isanother illus-

tration of the wealth of information on collision broadening furnished by
microwave spectroscopy. In applications to radar, the value of Av/c ob-
tained by extrapolation to zero vapor pressure can be employed without
appreciable error, as at ordinary temperatures theatmosphere is saturated
at comparatively low densities (about 20 g/ins). In Fig. 8.5 the experi-
mental values of the absorption are those per gram of water per cubic
meter but extrapolated to zero vapor pressure so as to make the collision
effects entirely those of water with air rather than with other water
molecules,
The formula for the absorption in decibels per kilometer from the
5-, – 6-, line in water vapor at T = 293°K is

where pis the number of grams of water per cubic meter and A is in centi-
meter. Equation (18) is essentially a special case of Eq. (14), with
the moment now electric rather than magnetic, of course. As we are
dealing with only one line, there is only one pair of terms [combinations
i,j and ~,iin the summation over i,jin the numerator of Eq. (14)]. The I
calculation of the summation in the denominator involves the evaluation
of the partition function which, in arriving at Eq. (18), has been I
computed numerically by summing over the various stationary states. {
If we set Au/c = 0.1 cm–’, we obtain the values of the absorption I
given in Table 8.5.

TABLE 8.5.—ATTENUATION FIKIIVI THE LINE OF W.kTER VAPOR AT x = 1.35 CM, IN

DB/KM PER G OF HQ{M3

A, cm y’lp 1’ i, cm -f/p 1 A, cm Y/P

10 0.0000133 1.43 0.0147 I 10 - 0.0047

3.0 0.000256 1.35 0.0193 0.667 0.00150
2.0 0.00136 1.25 0.0168 1 0.5 0.00107
1.5 0.0101 1.11 0.0082 I 0.33 0.00085

Besides the absorption from the 5_, – 6-, transition, the absorption
from the other lines should be taken into consideration. To evaluate
their effect it is necessary to know the line strengths of the various tran-
sitions. These have been obtained from some theoretical calculation of
King, Hairier, and Cross’ for the lines of low rotational quantum number,

I G. W. King, R. IW.Hairier,and P. C. Cross, Phys. Rev., 71, 433 (1947).

 SEC.8.3] UNCONDENSED WATER VAPOR 661

which are the most important ones, and by rough approximation for the
higher levels. The resulting formula is

o.o12p $
-y= (19)
~2 “

The corresponding values of the absorption are given in Table 8.6 on the
assumption that AP/c = 0.1 cm–l.

TABLE 8.6.—ATTENUATION FROM LINES IJF WATER VAPOR OTHEII THAN THAT
AT 1.35 CM IN DB/KM PER G OF HZO/M8

A, cm YIP A, cm 7/P A, cm ‘?/P

10 0.000012 1.35 0.00064 0.667 0.0026

3 0.00013 1.25 0.00074 0.5 0.0047
2 0.00029 1.0 0.0012 0.3 0.013
1.5 0.00052

Comparison of Tables 8“5 and 8“6 shows that in the ordinary micro-
wave region, the absorption from resonance with the 5_l - 64 line far
overshadows the combined effect of all the other lines.
The absorption maximum in the vicinity of x = 1.33 cm from
resonance with the 5–1 — 6–s line is confirmed in measurements made at
the Columbia Radiation Laboratory by a technique to be described in
Sec. 85. The maximum absorption is somewhat larger than that given
by theory, amounting at 1.35 cm to O.O3 db/km per g of H20 per cubic
meter instead of the theoretical value 0.0199, Instead of graphing the
absorption itself, it is more instructive to graph the absorption multiplied
by the square of the wavelength, as then the contribution of the non-
resonant lines given by Eq. (19) becomes merely an additive constant
independent of frequency. The comparison of the experimental curve
with the theoretical one based on Av/c = 0.087 is shown in Fig. 8.5.1
The theoretical curve can be brought into fairly good agreement with
the experimental one by raising the former by a constant amount. This

1The ordinates used in drawing the theoretical curve are about 10 per cent lower
than the corresponding values in the tables. This change is to allow for the fact that
in order to obtain higher vapor pressures, the experiments at the Columbia Radiation
Laboratory were made at a temperature of 318°K rather than at room temperature.
It can be shown that theoretically,
for given vapor density, the absorption from the
—..”
line at 1.33 cm should be proportional to e- (1 /T2) in the vicinity of resonance,
whereas the residual absorption in Eq. (19) should be proportional to 1/Z’~4. These
corrections allow for the fact that at constant total pressure the line-breadth constant
AUshould be proportional to l/T~’J, The value Aw/c = 0,087 used in drawing Fig. 8.5
applies tO 3180. The corresponding value at 2930 is 0.091 cm-1.
662 ATMOSPHERIC ATTENUATION [SEC. 8.3

corresponds to assuming empirically a nonresonant absorption about

four or five times the theoretical value. The explanation of this anomaly
may possibly be that different lines have different line-breadth constants.
This might be the case, for instance, if, because of resonance effects in
energy exchange, the most potent collisions arethose inwhich the colliding
molecules merely exchange rotational states and hence both have nearly
the same Boltzmann factors, inasmuch as the energy transfer is small
compared with lcT. Then molecules in the populous states have larger
line breadths than those in less occupied ones, as they are more likely to
collide with molecules of comparable energy. Thus the effective Au/c
to be used in Eq. (19) might be larger than that involved in Eq. (18),
the important lines that contribute to Eq. (19) involving more heavily
populated states than the pair involved in the resonant absorption (18).
It is doubtful, however, if the line-breadth constant varies enough from
line to line to alter the calculated nonresonant absorption by a factor
4 or 5. Existing experimental evidence on line widths in general indicates
that the variation with rotational quantum number is not this large.
More likely the reason that the observed nonresonant or background
absorption is so much larger than that computed is that the calculation
utilizes the Lorentz theory of line-broadening, which assumes that the
collisions are of very short duration. This assumption works well in the
center of a line, but on theoretical grounds may be expected to fail in the
wings. In the wing region a more appropriate theory is probably the
statistical one of Margenau and others. Hence, it may well be that the
infrared absorption lines tail off less rapidly than one would expect on
thti basis of the Lorentz structure factor (11). The background absorp-
tion” contributed by the infrared lines in the microwave region would then
be greater than th~t yielded by the theory which was uti~zed in drawing
Fig. 8.5.
In any case, the agreement between theory and experiment is good
when it is considered that the measurements are made on absolute in-
tensities, without any adjustable constant except, to a certain extent, .
the line-breadth parameter Av/c. Absolute intensities in the infrared
region have often been in error experimentally by a factor 10 or so, whereas
the disagreement between theory and experiment as to the magnitude
of the height of the resonance peak in Fig. 8.5 amounts to only a few
per cent. The size of the theoretical matrix element for the 5-1 – 6.-,
transition may be in error by about a fraction of a per cent, as a result of
not allowing for centrifugal expansion. This correction is not one of
consequence, however,
Figure 8.6 summarizes the results by showing the absorption by both
oxygen and water as a function of the reciprocal of the wavelength. In
order to have a basis of comparison, it is assumed that 1 per cent of the
SEC. 83] UNCONDENSED WATER VAPOR 663

molecules in the atmosphere are HZO, corresponding to a content of 7.5g

of H7,0 per cubic meter. In a temperate climate this is approximately
the amount of water in an average day. When there is saturation, the
content can be two or three times higher and even greater in the tropics,
Figure 86 shows that oxygen has a resonance near $ cm, which has not
as yet been investigated experimentally, as well as that at + cm, w’hich
has been studied in detail. The resonance at + cm is explained by the

8 10cm-l
I [ I I I I I I I I J
A=lo 4 2 1.5 1,00.80.6 0.4 0.20.15 O.lcm
Fm. 8.6.—Theoretical values of atmospheric attenuation by oxygen and uncondensed
water vapor at sea level for a temperature of 200C. The solid curve gives the attenuation
by water in an atmosphere containing 1 per cent water molecules (p = 7.5g/m3) for
Av/c = O,lOcm-l. Thedmhed curve istheattenuation byoxygen for Av/c = 0.02 cm-1.

fact that one of the doublets for K = 1 is radically different from that
forother rotational states (cj. Table 8.3).
Figure 8.7 gives the extension of Fig. 8“6 to the millimeter region,
where the effect of oxygen is negligible compared with that of HZO and is
consequently omitted. In Fig. 8.7 it is assumed that the line breadtb
Au/c is 0.11 cm–l) the value indicated by the University of Michigan data.
If, actually, the line breadth varies from line to line, the absorption may
be larger than indicated by Fig. 8.7. This figure then loses quantitative
significance but at least shows where the important resonances are located.
It is to be emphasized that in drawing Fig. 8.7, Eq. (19) cannot be used,
664 ATMOSPHERIC ATTENUATION [SEC. 83

400 r

r
200 L

100
80 - I

60

40 I

P
~ 20 ~ 1 \ /
<
n / /
; 10 I
c I I [
g 8 -
~6 I /
~
47 / -
2

2 I \

/ \b ,/~
0.: /
0.6 I

/
l/h”i4 6 8 10 12 14 16 cm-l
I I I I I I
A= O.250.20 0.16 0,12 0.10 0.09 0,08 0.07 cm
Fro-. &7.—Theoretical values of atmospheric attenuation by uncondensed water vapor
in the millimeter region for a temperature of 20”C. The curve is for an atmosphere con-
taining 1 percent water molemdes (p = 7.5 g/mJ) for Au/c = 0.11 cm–l.

as one is too close to resonance with many of the lines to permit the
assumptions ~<<~~j basic to Eq. (19). It will be noted that there are
some very strong resonances in the millimeter region-notably the line
at 0.164 cm.

MEASUREMENT OF ATMOSPHERIC ABSORPTION

BY E. M. PURCELL

The theory of absorption of microwave energy by oxygen and by water

vapor has been outlined in the preceding sections. It permits prediction
of the attenuation in decibels per kilometer path length at any frequency,
providing certain parametem in the theoretical formulas are known. The
quantities required are the frequencies of the spectral lines responsible
for the absorption and the collision widths of the lines under the prevailing
conditions. The information derived from previous spectroscopic obser-
vations was neither suffi~ie~tly complete nor sufficiently accurate for the
 f$Ec. 8.4] DIRECT MEASUREME.VT OF ABSORPTION BY OXYGEN 663

present purpose. Moreover, until recently few direct measurements of

microwave absorption had been made, and even in the optical and in-
frared region the opportunity for a direct comparison of theory and
experiment as to the absolute intensity of an absorption line has been
rare. For these reasons and because of the urgent need for quantitative
information on the water-vapor and oxygen effects, direct measurements
of microwave absorption have been undertaken by a number of methods,
some of which will be described in this section.
The experiments are difficult because the absorption effects with
which one is concerned are extremely weak, being in most cases measured
in tenths or even hundredths of a decibel per kilometer. Consequently
either one must work with very long paths, handicapped by field condi-
tions and uncertain knowledge of conditions along the path; or if one
uses a short “laboratory” path, he must employ a technique of the utmost
refinement for measuring a small effect with precision.
8“4. Direct Measurement of Absorption by Oxygen.-The absorption
by oxygen in the neighborhood of 0.5-cm wavelength was determined
by measuring the attenuation in an oxygen-filled waveguide some 6 m
long.’ The attenuation was compared with that of the same waveguide
evacuated, and the difference, corrected for the effect of the refractive
index of the gas upon the guide wavelength and hence upon the guide
attenuation, was ascribed to the oxygen absorption. The attenuation
produced by the resistance of the waveguide walls was many times larger
than the attenuation caused by the gas. Also, at the time of the ex-
periments, no O.5-cm oscillator was in existence, and the measurements
had to be carried out using the low power available as the second harmonic
from a crystal rectifier driven at 1 cm. The general scheme of measure-
ment is shown in Fig. 8“8.
Most of the apparatus appearing in the block diagram is associated
with the 1000-cps modulation that was applied to the signal to facilitate
amplification after detection. In the absence of gas the 1000-cps com-
ponent of the detector output was balanced out, the introduction of gas
then producing an unbalance signal. The waveguide was provided with
gastight nonrefiecting windows, and the system could be flushed or
evacuated quickly. Methods of this type have the important advantage
that the composition and pressure of the small amount of gas required
can be easily controlled. The attenuation was measured as a function
of wavelength and total gas pressure for various mixtures of oxygen and
nitrogen, as well as for pure oxygen. A comparison of the experimental
data with the theory is shown in Fig. 8“4. The interpretation of the
‘E. R. Beringer, “The Absorption of One-half Centimeter Electromagnetic Waves
in Oxygen,” RL Report No. 664, Jan. 26, 1945.
1Ibid.
666 ATMOSPHERIC ATTENUATION [SEC. 85

experimental results is complicated because the absorption arises not

from a single line but from many closely spaced lines that are incom-
pletely resolved at the gas pressures used. The absorption cross section
per oxygen molecule, in mixtures of oxygen and nitrogen, was found to
depend on the total gas pressure only. This important observation

I 1 kc/see
oscillator
Phase
shifter
Crystal Absorption 1 kc/seeampll.
frequency path fier with decade Lock-in
IT multiplier : detector gain control amplifier

Eizl To ~mplifiers
mo:;~:;

0.180” X0.086” ID

Fr

FIG. S, S.—Arrangement of apparatus for the direct measurement of absorption by oxygen.

illustrates the advantage of the laboratory type of experiment in which

the parameters can be varied systematically.
8-5. Measurements of Water-vapor Absorption.-The measurement
of the attenuation by water vapor in the I.O-to 1.5-cm range is still more
difficult because the absorption is even smaller. It will be recalled that
the attenuation anticipated is only a few tenths of decibel per kilometer,
even at high absolute humidities. The attenuation in silver waveguide,
at 1.25 cm, is, by comparison, some 500 db/km. Thus in a length of
waveguide in which the resistive attenuation is not prohibitively high,
the additional attenuation from water vapor may amount to a few
thousandths of a decibel. If the water is introduced at high density as
supersaturated steam, this disadvantage can be lessened. Such experi-
ments have been performed, using a small resonant ,cavity rather than a
SEC. $5] .14.E’.4SUREMEA’TS OF WATER-VAPOR ABSORPTION 667

waveguide.1 The conditions prevailing, however, were far from the con-
ditions in the normal atmosphere—in particular the collision width is de-
termined by H2.O – H20 collisions rather than HZO – 02 and H20 – N2
collisions—and the application of the result to microwave propagation is
not direct.
The measurement of the attenuation under conditions typical of the
atmosphere can be carried out in several ways if one is provided with a
long path over which the attenuation from other effects is not too large.
Three methods, vastly dhlerent in conception and technique, will be
described.
The first method, though the least accurate, can from the point of
view of microwave propagation be said to be the most direct, as it con-
sists of determining the effect of atmospheric attenuation upon a radar
signal.
Radar Methods.—An airborne radar set on a wavelength
.. of 1.25 cm was
furnished with means for introducing at will a fixed known amount of atten-
_____ .__ —_. .._____./-__ .___= *__.. ———
R, ~-- _-–-—–
----
Target /-:---- – - F2-
i __ :=- ---

,---

Fr~. 89.—Use of a standard target for the measurement of attenuation in the atmosphere

uat,ion (approximately 20 db) in the receiving system. A radar target of

large and constant cross section was provided in the form of a corner reflec-
tor constructed with great attention to accuracy and solidity. The reflec-
tor was mounted on a site free from other conspicuous targets and was
observed by the radar, which was flown back and forth on a course extend-
ing radially from the target (see Fig. 8.9). The maximum range on this
target was determined in repeated flights, both with and without the addi-
tional attenuation in the radar receiver. If these ranges are RI and RZ
respectively, it is easy to show that the one-way atmospheric attenuation a
averaged over the path is
A R2
–2 – 2010g’O (-)R, db,h, (20)
~=
(R, – R,)

where A is the value, in decibels, of the fixed attenuator inserted in the

receiving channel. This conclusion is justified only if the signal comes
entirely from the target, with no reflections from other surfaces, and if all
‘ J, A. %xton, “Dielectric Constant and Absorption Coefficient of Water Vapor for
Radiation of Wavelength of 1.6 cm (Frequency 18,800 Me/see),” RRBS No, 17, Apr.
22, 1944; also a chapter in Metaorolo@”ca.1 Factors in Radio-wave Propagation, The
Physical Society, London, 1946.
668 ATMOSPHERIC ATTENUATION [SEC. 8.5

other parameters affecting signal strength and signal discernibility are held
constant. The radar-wise reader will at once think of the numerous pre-
cautions that are necessary (cf. Chaps. 4, 5, and 6). The nature of the
target site and of the intervening terrain had to be considered, and the set
itself was maintained in laboratory condition and provided with power
monitors and special test instruments.
The absolute humidity over the path was obtained from soundings
made either by radiosonde at a neighboring meteorological station or by
means of a psychrometer in the plane itself (see Sees. 327 and 3“29). The
attenuation measured includes the effect of oxygen, of course, as well as
water vapor, but the latter was much the larger effect at this wavelength.
In the hands of skilled observers the method gave convincingly consistent
results which proved to be in satisfactory agreement with the values
obtained later by the other methods to be described.
Microwave Radiometer.—A method that had no counterpart in previous
r-f or microwave measurements was b~ed on the microwave radiometer.1
This device is in effect an extremely sensitive radiation thermometer, sensi-
tive to thermal radiation in the microwave range and within a band of fre-
quencies defined by the pass band of the microwave receiver which is the
central part of the apparatus. By an ingenious automatic comparison
scheme, very small changes in the noise input to this receiver are meamred
accurately; and if the receiver input is connected to a microwave antenna,
the effective noise temperature of the antenna can be measured. This
“antenna temperature” is determined by the amount of thermal radiation
received by the antenna and hence by the temperature of any radiating
medium toward which the antenna is directed. Because of the basic con-
nection at any frequency between absorption and emissivity, if such an
antenna is directed upward, the thermal radiation incident upon it will be
that originating in the atmosphere itself, to the extent that the atmosphere
is an absorbing medium; otherwise it will have come from some region out-
side the atmosphere. The following more precise statement is easily
derived: If the atmosphere be assumed isothermal at absolute temperature
T., if the effective radiation temperature of space beyond the atmosphere
is T,, and if the total absorption coefficient of the atmosphere is X, the
radiation temperature of the antenna will be

T, = X!f’= + (1 – X)T,. (21)

Now x will depend on the length of path through the atmosphere and,
for a horizontally homogeneous atmosphere, will thus depend in a calculable
way upon the secant of the angle o which this path makes with the vertical
(see Fig. 8.10). Measurements of T, at two values of 13will suffice to deter-
mine x and T, if T. is known. The analysis is complicated, of course, if
I R. H. Dicke, “The Measurement of Thermal Radiation at Microwave Frequen-
cies,” RL Report No. 787, Aug. 22, 1945.
 SEC. 85] MEASUREMENTS OF WATER-VAPOR ABSORPTION 669

T. varies with height, as it does, but the principle is the same. Actually
measurements were made over a series of values of 0 from @ to 60°, and
the expected variation of T, with 9 wm accurately verified.
The temperature T, is of considerable interest. If the radiation tem-
perature of space were nearly the same as T., the determination of x would,
of course, be difficult. It was found, however, that T,, at 1 cm, is at most a
few degrees Kelvin. In addition to facilitating the determination of x, we
thus have the interesting information that the radiation coming from outer
space in the l-cm range is extremely small, in contrast to effects observed at
much lower frequencies. Incidentally
the experiment demonstrates the I
transparency of the ionosphere at
microwave freque”ncies.
It would, of course, have been
possible, in determining x, to use the
sun as a hot source rather than using
the rest of space as a cold source. But
the latter method is actually far su-
perior, as it allows a series of measure-
ments of temperature as a function of FIG. 8 10.—Radiometer arrangement to
measure atmospheric absorption.
angle to be repeated in a short time,
at any time, and in any azimuth plane.
The value of x, once determined, has to be correlated with the absolute
humidity, measured at various heights in the atmosphere. In an extensive
series of measurements in Florida the humidity information was obtained
from radiosondes and occasionally from aircraft soundings (see Sees. 327
and 3.29). These soundings and the allowances that had to be made for
the variation with pressure and temperature of the water-vapor absorption
are the principal sources of uncertainty in the final results. The radiometer
measurement itself is capable of remarkable precision, temperature differ-
ences being measured with a sensitivity of a few tenths of a degree centi-
grade. It is to be expected that the method can be applied to measure the
oxygen absorption, a csse that is largely free from the above-mentioned
difficulties. It should be possible to obtain an accurate measure of the
absorption in the wings of the oxygen line. It is perhaps well to point out
that conditions in the microwave region are highly favorable for this type
of measurement because of the ideal cold source provided by space and
because neither x nor (1 – x) is very small, for the magnitudes of attenua-
tion of interest.
Nonresonant Echo Box.—A third method was developed and applied to
the water-vapor problem at the Columbia Radiation Laboratory.l This
method makes use of a long path also, but the path is obtained by multi-
LW. E. Lamb, Jr., Phys. Reu., 70, 308 (1946); G. E. Becker and S. H. Autlerj ibid.
70, 300 (1946).
 670 ATMOSPHERIC A2’TEN UA TION [SEC, 85

ple reflections within a large copper-lined chamber, and the atmosphere

traversed is therefore controllable. On the other hand the ratio of the
power lost in the walls to that absorbed in the gas is reduced over the value
typical of a waveguide method by a factor that is roughly h/d, where d is
the length of one side of the chamber. In the Columbia experiments this
factor is of the order of 10–3. Thus the disadvantages of both the wave-
guide methods and the free-space methods are to a large extent avoided,
It had often been suggested that attenuation could be measured using such
an echo chamber by determining the rate of decay of energy in the chamber
after initial excitation. (This suggests some similar experiments in acous-
tics.) The success of the Columbia method, however, can be traced to cer-
tain important new techniques.
The Columbia “box” was a cube approximately 2.5 m on a side. Such
a large resonator displays an enormous number of resonance modes, which
in general overlap in frequency owing to the broadening of the resonances
by the wall losses. The object is to excite a large number of these modes
by a short pulse of microwave energy and then to measure the rate of sub-
sequent decay of energy; the energy density averaged over many modes
should decrease, after removal of the excitation according to a time factor
e-~’. The quantity ~ should depend both on the losses in the wall and on
the attenuation in the gas within the chamber. A determination of -ywith
the gas present and absent would enable the attenuation in the gas, in deci-
bels per kilometer, to be inferred. A direct determination of ~, however,
is fraught with serious difficulties. Even though a large number of modes
are excited, the observed decay does not follow a simple exponential curve
but oscillates violently and irregularly above and below it, owing to the
interference of the different modes at the location of any single pickup
probe. This difficulty was avoided by measuring instead a quantity pro-
portional to the time average of the energy density at a point in the cham-
ber averaged in turn over many such points. This was done by distributing
through the chamber chains of thermocouples, whose “hot” junction had
been coated with material absorbent at microwave frequencies. All ther-
mocouples were connected in series, the total voltage developed being meas-
ured using a potentiometer and a sensitive galvanometers. The chamber
was excited by a pulsed magnetron at a convenient repetition rate. During
each pulse the microwave energy in the box increases rapidly to some maxi-
mum value and is subsequently dissipated, at a much slower rate, in the
walls and in any other absorbing medium within the box, The rate of
dissipation is determined by the Q of the box, as in the case of a simple
resonant circuit. It is not hard to see that the thermocouple voltage e, ob-
served is then related to Q by an as yet unknown factor of proportion-
ality which will, however, remain constant as long as the intensity of excita-
tion remains constant. In other words e, = lcQ, where Q is defined in the
usual way aa u times the ratio of energy stored to power dissipated. The
SEC. %6] PHENOMENOLOGY OF ATTENUATION 671

relative changes in Q produced by the introduction of an absorbing gas can

thus be determined, but this determination alone does not suffice to give
the attenuation in absolute terms; additional information is needed from
which the Q of the chamber can be found, that is, from which k can be
determined. This additional information was obtained by introducing a
known loss in the form of a window in one wall. The chamber was so
large that it was possible to have a window that was at once small compared
to the extent of the wall but large compared with x; in this case it was
assumed and verified by experiment that the power lost through such a
window is just proportional to its area, and therefore it can be taken to be
equal simply to the total power incident on this area from all directions.
This allows the chamber to be “calibrated.” The absolute humidity was
determined by wetdry bulb readings and was controllable over a wide
range,
Using a series of specially constructed magnetrons, the Columbia group
extended their measurements over the range 0.75 to 1.7 cm. The results,
shown in Fig. 8.5, undoubtedly represent the most accurate measurements
to date on the water-vapor line at 1.3 cm. The usefulness of the method, in
general, is limited mainly by the requirement of a high-power pulsed source,
a rather large quantity of the gas to be investigated, and the restriction on
the temperatures and pressures that the chamber can withstand.

ATTENUATION BY CONDENSED WATER

BY HERBERT GOLDSTEIN

8“6. Phenomenology of Attenuation by Precipitation.— In passing

through regions containing precipitation, whether in liquid or solid form,
microwave radiation will be attenuated through two mechanisms: (1)
energy will be scattered out of the beam; (2) energy will be absorbed
and converted into heat. The total energy removed from the beam per
unit time by a single particle, say a spherical drop of radius a, is given by

W = SQ(a,A), (22)

where S is the magnitude of the incident Poynting vector and Q(a,k) is a

quantity called the total cross section of the drop (cj, Sec. 6.1 and Stratton’).
The total cross section can be interpreted as the sum of a scattering cross
section Q, and an absorption cross section Q.. From Eq. (22) the decrease
in S in passing through a layer of precipitation cI1in thickness is

– dS’ = ,’S dl mn(a) Q(a)k) da, (23)

/o
where n(a) da gives the number of drops per unit volume (cubic meter) with

1J. A. Stratton, EZectromugnetic Theory, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1941, p. 569,

672 ATMOSPHERIC ATTENUATION [SEC.8.6

radius a in range da.’ Equation. (23) can be integrated immediately,

leading to the attenuation formula
-fa dl
S=SOe , (24)

where
m
a’= n(a) Q(a,A) da. (25)
/o
In Eq. (25) and elsewhere in the following sections, n is given in number
per cubic meter, Q in square centimeters, and a in centimeters. It is
therefore more convenient to give the attenuation in terms of a quantity 7
in units of decibels per kilometer, related to a by

y = 434cl db/km. (26)

Common experience indicates that precipitation is never uniform over

an extended region. Detailed experiments, described in Sec. 89, have
revealed large differences in rainfall at points only a few hundred feet apart.
In general, therefore, n(a) and hence a and ~ are functions of the distance 1
along the path. Only in exceptional conditions of uniform precipitation
is it allowable to write the exponent in Eq. (24) simply as —al.
It is seen that the attenuation can be calculated rigorously only if the
drop-size distribution is known. The techniques for determining this
distribution are at present crude and cumbersome (Sec. 77), and the
published data are open to question. As a result both of the marked
spatial nonuniformity of the precipitation and of the difficulty in measuring
the drop-size distribution, it is clear that exact calculations of attenuation
to be expected for any given practical path are not feasible. Although
the purely electromagnetic side of the theory is adequately known, the
necessary meteorological data would be prohibitively detailed.
It would therefore be highly desirable to relate the attenuation to some
meteorological parameter more conveniently measurable than the drop-size
distribution. When the drops are very small, as they are in clouds and fog,
it turns out that the attenuation is directly proportional to the total water
content per unit volume, independent of drop-size distribution. For with
small drops, the scattering cross section is proportional to

(27)

1 Although this equation and subsequent discussion are specifically for drops, it is
obvious that the same general formulas hold for other precipitation forms such as ice,
snow, etc., with a as a generalized parameter of the particle dimensions.
2 All attenuations given here are for “one-way” transmission.
SE. 86] PHENOMENOLOGY OF ATTENUATION 673

that is, Rayleigh scattering. The absorption cross section on the other
hand is proportional to
Q. ~ AZ 2= 3. (28)
() A
For sufficiently small drops, therefore, the attenuation is caused ahnost
entirely by absorption and is directly proportional to a3, or the total volume
of the drops, per unit volume of the atmosphere. These conditiom~ cer-
tainly hold for clouds or fogs at all wavelengths considered here. Even
for raindrops this conclusion is valid for all wavelengths above the micro-
wave region and to some extent for wavelengths of a few centimeters.
However, the water content per unit volume is still not a conveniently
measurable parameter of precipitation. In fact the only such parameter
is the rate of precipitation, that is, the volume of water reaching the ground
per unit time. It has become customary to assume a linear relation
between attenuation and precipitation rate and to report the attenuation
in decibels per kilometer per millimeter per hour. This practice is to some
extent supported by experimental results (see Sec. 8.9). It should be em-
phsxized, though, that a priori there is no theoretical reason for expecting
a linear relation between the two quantities. This is clearly shown by com-
paring Eq. (25) with the expression for the total precipitation rate

p = 15.1 mn(a) v(a) a3 da, (29)

/o
where o(a) is the terminal velocity of the drops in meters per second and p is
in millimeters per hour. In general a is not necessarily proportional to p.
Unless a given precipitation rate corresponds always to a definite drop-size
distribution and vice versa, a is not even a single-valued function of p. All
that can be said is that the results should cover a region in the a-p plane.
It has been pointed out by L. Goldstein’ that it is occasionally possible
to delimit the region of the a-p plane covered by the results. Let us define
a function
Q(a,A)
g(a~A) = 151 ~(a) Q3” (30)

At constant wavelength g is a function of drop size only and at most wave-

lengths has clearly defined maximum and minimum values, gZ(A) and g,(~)

.
respectively, within the drop-size range involved. Then
m

or
15,1g,
!
o
n(a) v(u) a3 da < a < 15.lgz
/
0
n(a) o(a) a3 da, (31)

glp < ff < 92P. (32)

1L. Goldstein, “Absorption and Scattering of Microwaves by the Atmosphere, ”
Wave Propagation Group, Columbia University Division of War Research, Report No.
WPG-11, May 1945.
674 ATMOSPHERIC ATTENUATION [SEC. %7

That is, for given wavelength, the values of a should lie in the a-p plane
in the region bounded by two straight lines a = g,p and a = gzp. Theo-
retical values of gl and gz for a number of wavelengths will be given in
Sec. 8“7. It turns out that at 1.25 and 3 cm, g varies little over the region
of drop radius expected to cover the largest number of drops, thus explain-
ing in part the frequently observed linear dependence of a on p.
8.7. Calculation of Attenuation by Water Drops.—The fundamental
calculation of the scattering and alxorption of electromagnetic waves by a
dielectric sphere is due to Mie’. In Sec. 6.1 the method of calculation and
the most important results have been outlined briefly, following the presen-
tation by Stratton. Extensive calculations of attenuation, based on Mie’s
results, have been carried out by Ryde and R yde. z Almost all the quan-
titative data presented in this section have been taken from their report.
The total cross section has been given in Sec. 6.1 as3’4

(33)

where A is the free-space wavelength and a; and ~ are given by Eq. (6”18)
in Sec. 61.
To evaluate these expressions, the complex index of refraction of the
water must be known for microwave frequencies. This quantity n, may
be given in terms of the real part of the index of refraction n and the imagi-
nary part nx by
n, = n(l – ix), (34)

or in terms of the complex dielectric constant

nz = E< = E, — &r. (35)
c

The real and imaginary parts of n, and e, are related by

c1 = ?12(1 — X2), Et = 2nzx, (36)

The values used by Ryde and Ryde are those given by Saxton, s who com-

‘ G. Me, Ann. Physik, 25, 377 (1908).

z J. W. Ryde and D. Ryde, “Attenuation of Centimetre and Ililhmetre waves by
Rain, Hail, Fogs and Clouds, ” GEC Report No, 8670, hlay 1945. See also the earlier
reports GEC No. 7831, October 1941 (J. W. Ryde), and GEC No. 8516, August 1944
(Ryde and Ryde), where less accurate values of the refractive index were used,
j Also J. A. Stratton, Electromagnetic Theory, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1941, p.
569, Eq. (29), as corrected by L. Goldstein, op. cit.
4Note added in proof: Since the foregoing material was written, the total cross section
has also been computed at the National Bureau of Standards. See Tables of Scattering
Functions for SpheTical Particles, .kpplied Mathematics Series, No. 4, Jan. 25, 1949.
5 See papers by J. A. Saxton and ,1. A. Lane in Meteorological Factor-s in Radio-waue
Propagation, The Physical Srmety, London, 1946.
Ssa. 8.7] CALCULATION OF ATTENUATION BY WATER DROPS 675

breed his measurements in the neighborhood of 1 cm with the results of

previous investigators at longer wavelengths. It was found that the data
could be well fitted by curves plotted from the Debye formula [~. Eq.
(8.5)]:
~c_Eo-e
---T&+ E.,
(37)
1+~

where co, SW,and Ah are constants adjusted to fit the experimental points.
Table 8.7 lists the index of refraction obtained from these curves for
several wavelengths and for the temperature range from 0° to 40”C. The
constants to be used in the Debye formula are presented in Table 8.8.
These curves represent the experimental data in the region from 1 to 10 cm
so well that it is believed that they may be used for extrapolation into the
millimeter region.

TABLE 8.7. —CCIMPLEX lNIJEX OF REFRACTION OF WATER*

k = 1.24 cm A = 3.2cm A=lOcm

T, ‘C I
n fix
1 ‘x
71 nx

L
o 4.68 2.73 7~0 I 2.89 8.99 1.47
10 5.74 2.92 8.00 2.33 9.02 0.90
18 6.4 2.s 8.30 1.90 8.9 0.69
20 6.53 2.77 8.33 ~ 1.72 8.88 0.63
30 7.10 2.48 8.39 1.31 8.71 0.45
40 7.47 2.11 8,35 I 1.02 8.33 0.36

* Ryde and Ryde, after Saxton.

TABLE 8.8.—CONSTANTS FOR THE DEBYE FORMULA*

T, “C co & AA, cm

o 88 5.5 3.59
10 84 5.5 2.24
18 81 5..5 1.66
20 80 5.,5 1.53
30 76.4 5.5 0.112
40 73 5.5 1 0.0859

* Ryde and Ryde, after Saxtom

The complicated expressions for the coefficients in Eq. (33) admit of

some simplification if the circumference of the drop is small compared with
the wavelength. The coefficients ~. maybe identified formally with excita-
tion of ektt~ic dipole, quadruple, and higher-order multipole oscillations,
and in a similar manner the a; can be identified with magnetic dipole, quad-
676 ATMOSPHERIC ATTENUATION [SEC 8.7

rupole, and higher-order oscillations. When the dimensions of the drop are
small compared with the exciting wavelength, it is reasonable to expect
that the higher multipole oscillations will be only feebly excited. As a first
approximation it therefore seems reasonable to neglect all coefficients except
b; and b; (electric dipole and quadruple respectively) and aj for the mag-
netic dipole. Furthermore, the Bessel functions appearing in these coeffi-
cients have as argument either P( = 2ra/A) or n.p. As it has been assumed
that p is small compared with unity, these Bessel functions maybe expanded
in ascending powers ● of p. If terms in p’ or higher are neglected, the resulta-
nt expression for Q is

Q = # P’(CI + CZP’ + C3P3), p <<1, (38)

where
6E2
C1 = (S, + 2)2 + E;’

e, 3(7s? + 4E, – 20 + 7e;) +

c’== [ [(~, + 2)2 + Ei]z (2s,+:2+4s; +’1 )

4 (E, – 1)2(E,+ 2)2 + C1[2(E, – 1)(E, + 2) – 9] + E;,

c3=–
3 [(E, + 2)2 + E;]’

It will be noticed that both c1 and C2vanish if S2 = O, indicating that

these terms are caused essentially by absorption. On the other hand if
ez = O, C3 reduces to the familiar Rayleigh scattering form,
4 (EI – 1)2
C3= ~ (E, + 2)2”
(39)

For water E’ is not zero; in fact it is the same order of magnitude as c,.
Hence for sufficiently small p the absorption term c1 must predominate and
Q is given simply by

Q = ~ c, a’ = 4.093 ~ c,, (40)

where M is the mass of condensed water per unit volume of air, in grams per
cubic meter, and A, as always in these sections, is in centimeters. From
Eq. (40) and with the above values of index of refraction at 18”C, Ryde and
Ryde have computed the attenuation Y, for M = 1 g~m’. Some of the
results are given in Table 8“9.
Empirically it is found that in the region from A = 0.5 cm to k = 10
cm c I varies as 1/A and that ~ can be written as

-y= ‘+ db/km (41)

to an accuracy of 5 per cent.

 SEC. 8.7] CALCULATION OF ATTENUATION BY WATER DROPS 677

TABLS 8 .9.—ATTENUATIONBY SMALLDROPLETSOF W ATEB FOR A TEMPEEATOEE

OF 18”C*

A, cm y/df, db/km per g per m~

0.2 7.14
0.5 1.65
0.7 0.876
1.0 0.438
1.25 0.2811
2.0 0.112
3.0 0.050
5.0 0.0178
10.0 0.004.5

* After Ryde and Ryde,

Table 8.9 and Eq. (41) are based on the values of the refractive index at
18”C. The correction for other temperatures is not always negligible, as is
indicated by Table 8.10, which lists the correction factor C#Jl( T) defined
such that
CI(~) = 1$,(T) CI(18”).

TABLE 8 10.—CORRECTION FACT{JR o,(T) H)R COEFFICIENT c,*

~oo(; !
A, rm O“c IO”c 18°C 20°c 40”C
— . —
0.5 1.59 1,20 1.0 0.95 0.73 — 0.59
1.25 1,93 1.29 1.0 0.95 0.73 0.57
3.2 1,98 1.30 1.0 0.95 0.70 0.56
10.0 120, 1.25 1.0 0.95 0.67 0.59

* After Ryde wd kyde.

It is seen that from 0° to 40”C the attenuation decreases by more than a

factor of 3. This large temperature effect is caused by the large change of
the line width (Ak in the Debye formula) with temperature, which affects
chiefly the absorption m When terms other than c1 enter into the attenua-
tion, the temperature effect is not nearly so great.
The approximation of the attenuation solely by the absorption term
c1 of the electric dipole contribution is valid only for very small drop radii.
Although the upper bound on p for which the approximation is valid is not
easy to determine, the formulas certainly hold for fog and for clouds in
which the droplets are extremely small, with diameters of the order of 0.001
to 0.005 cm, Tables 8.9 and 810 and Eqs, (40) and (41) may safely be
used in these cases. It should be mentioned that a value of M = I g/m3
represents about the maximum water content of fogs, with the possible
exception of heavy sea fogs. In most cases M is much less than 1. Ryde
 678 ATMOSPHERIC ATTENUATION [SEC. 8.7

and Ryde give an empirical relation between an average ~ and optical

visibility in the fog:
% = 1660D -’”48,

where D is the optical visibility in feet and ~ is such that in 95 per cent of
the cases M lies between *M and 2M. Such a relation may Drove helDful “.

when more definite info~ation on M is lacking.

0.45 r

0.40

0.35

0.30
E
~ 0.275/
u 0.25
.s
0.25 ~

-0.225

- 0.20Q
0.15

0.175
‘0.10 -0.150

0.05

(1
-0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 2 46 8 10
} in cm

Fm. 811 .—Theoretical values of attenuation by raindrops for various drop radii, expres+e~
in decibels per kilometer per drop per cubic meter. (From Ryde and Rude.)

For droplets larger than those encountered in fog or clouds, the c, term
fails to be a good approximation to the attenuation. The whole three-term
expansion [Eq. (38)] fails to hold for p >0.1. Hence for drop sizes such as
encountered in actual rain it is necessary to return to the original expression
for Q [Eq, (33)] and use the rigorous form of the coefficients. Ryde and
Ryde have developed a computation scheme for evaluating the real and
imaginary parts of the coefficients that is discussed briefly in Sec. 7.6. For
a 1 per cent accuracy it is stated that terms up to n = 10 must be retained
for P=6andup ton= 15 forp= 10.
The results of these laborious computations are summarized in Table
8’11, where Q(a,k) is listed for X from 0.3 to 10 cm and a from 0.025 to 0.325
cm. Actually what is listed is 434 times Q so that the table gives the atten-
SEC. 8.7] CA LC’ULA TION OF ATTENUATION BY WATER DROPS 679

uation in decibels per kilometer per drop per cubic meter. The data are
also presented in Fig. 8.11. Although the attenuation for all drop radii
rises sharply with increasing frequency at longer wavelengths, the behav-
ior is quite different for wavelengths of 1.0 cm and shorter. For the
largerdrop radii the attenuation curves even exhibit maxima in the neigh-
borhood of k = 0.8 cm, with decreasing attenuation for shorter wavelengths,
This variation indicates the great degree to which the simple I/A’ depend-
ence for clouds and fog fails to hold with the larger raindrops.

TABLE 8, 11. — ATTENUATION IN DECIBELS PER KILOMETER PER DROP PER CUBIC METER
AT A TEMPERATURE OF 18”C*

\’ \ An, 434 Q(a,h)

a.m \\l 0.3 i 04 ~ 0.5 0.6 1.0 1,25 3.0 3.2 10.0
— —
0.025 8.34’10-4 5.s010-” 3.46’10-4 1.74’ 10-’ 5.62.10-’ 2.71.10-’ 4.21.10-’ 3.55’10-’ 2 M 10-’
0.050 9.02.10-s 6.8010-3 4.67’lo-# 310’10-3 1.W1O-3 6.25.10–4 5.05’10-5 4.77.10-5 2.5310-’
0.075 2.18’10-’ 2.12.107 2.0410-’ 1.8$10-2 6,91 4.1910-3 4.1610-4 3.2410-4 9.39
O.lm 4.07 4.03 3.97 3.85 2.7610-’ 1.3710-2 2.2110-3 1.70.10-3 2.49.10-”
0.125 6.35 6.31 6.22 6.15 5.53 4.00 6.98 5.75 5.61
0.150 8.60 8.87 8.81 8.79 8,50 7.60 1.5610-’ 1.4010-’ 1.13.10-4
0.175 1.18’10-’ 1.19.10-’ 1.2110-’ 1.22’10-’ 1.21’10-’ 1.15’10-’ 2.76 2,54 2.09
0.200 1.52 1.53 1,56 1.57 1,58 1.55 4.35 3.98 3.65
0.225 1.90 1,92 1.94 1.95 1.98 1.95 6.35 5.75 6.10
o.2m 2.26 2.32 2,35 2.39 2.42 2.38 8.68 7,94 9.76
0,275 2.68 2,77 2.85 2.91 2,94 2.84 1.131(P 1.05.10-’ 1.51 .10-’
0.300 3.07 3.22 3.37 3.48 3.53 3.30 1,43 1.38 2.24
0.325 3.46 3.75 3.97 4.15 4.20 3.89 1.74 1.73 3.16
* After Ryde and RYde.

The results given in Table 8“11 or Fig. 8“11 are still not in a very useful
form. To facilitate comparisons with the usual type of experimental
results definite statements must be made about the drop velocities and size
distributions. Table 8“12 gives the terminal velocity relation obtained by
Best,] as quoted by Ryde and Ryde. The values differ somewhat from

TABLE8.12.—RAINDRoP
TEII~INAL
VELOCITV*

Radius, cm Velocity, m/see Radius, cm Velocity, m/aec

0.025 2.1 0.175 8.35

0.05 3.9 0.020 8.70
0.075 5.3 0.225 9.0
0.10 6.4 0.25 9.2
0.125 7.3 0.275 9.35
0.15 7.9 0.30 9.5
0.325 9.6
* After Beat.
I A. C. Beat, “Water in the Atmosphere, ” Part I of the Interim REport of the Ultra
,Short Wave Panel Working Committee, July 18, 1944.
680 ATMOSPHERIC ATTENUATION [SEC.87

the figures given by Humphreys,l which are not so extensive. By dividing

the attenuation per drop by the terminal velocity one can obtain the func-
tion g defined by Eq. (30) and set upper and lower bounds on the attenua-
tion, as explained in Sec. S.6. Table 813 lists these bounds, in decibels per
kilometer per millimeter per hour at 18°C as obtained from Ryde and
Ryde’s data for two ranges of drop sizes. Also listed are the radii corre-
sponding to these bounds. The concept of such limits is most useful only
when the function g possesses well-defined extrema in the region of drop

TABLE 8 13.—I-P,ER .WJLI LOWER

LIMITSON.\TTEWATtO?J.
IN’DECIBELS
PER
I<ILOMETER PER 311 LLIMETER PER HourLAT18°C

Ff,r all rains }i ith drop mdii Ior sll rains !vith drop radii
A, cm 0.02.5 cm < a S 0.32.5 cm 0.075 rm S a < 0,25 cm

434*, a,, cm 434@ a2, rm 43417, al, cm 434q, 02, cm

—.
10.0 0.000254 0.10 0.000635 0.325 0.000254 0,10 0000450 0.25
3.0 0.00687 0.05 0.041.5 0.20 0.0123 0.075 0.0415 0,20
1.25 0.0550 0.025 0.188 0.15 0.124 0.075 0.188 ().15
1.0 0.0845 0.32.5 0.285 0.10 0.112 0.25 0.285 0.10
0.6 0.0835 0.325 0.547 0.075 0110 0.25 0.547 0.075
0.5 0.0798 0.325 0.108 0.25 0.604 0.075
0.3 0.0695 0.325 0.104 0.25 0.645 0.075

radii of interest. For wavelengths shorter than 0.6 cm, however, g appears
to increase monotonically as the drop radius decreases, and therefore no
upper bound has been listed. Also, for many wa~-elengths the lower
bound corresponds to the extremely large drop radii which occur only infre-
quently in actual rains, In the second part of the table the bounds have
been recalculated for a more restricted range of drop radius, from 0.075 to
0.25 cm, which probably includes most of the drops found in heavier rains
(see Table 814). It is noteworthy that with this range, at a wavelength
of 1,25 cm the upper and lower bounds are quite close together. At this
wavelength the attenuation should therefore be substantially independent
of drop-size distribution, at least for heavier rains. To a somewhat lesser
extent the same behavior is to be expected at 3.0 and 10 cm.
The lack of sensitivity of the attenuation at these wavelengths to the
drop size is fortunate, as reliable and extensive information on drop-size
distributions is not available at present. What is generally conceded to
be the best data so far have been obtained by Laws and Parsons.’ The
results are experimentally obtained, not in the form of the distribution
n(a), but as a related distribution m(a), the fraction of the total volume of
1W. J. Humphreys, Physics of the Air, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1940.
z J. O. Laws and D. A. Parsom, “The Relation of Drop Size to Intensity,” Trawa.
Am. Geophgs. Union, p. 452, (1943).
SEC. 8.7] CALCULA TIOiV OF ATTEN UA TIO.V BY WATER DROPS 681

tvater striking the ground due to drops of radius a. The two distributions
are connected by
47ra3
n(a) ~ u(a) da
_ 15.ln(a)L(a) da
m(a) da = — (42)
P’
= n(u) 4~~ v(a) da
/0

from Eq. (29), With the definition of g as given in Eq. (30) it is seen that
the attenuation can be calculated as
m
-y = 434p m(a)g(a,i) da, db/km. (43)
/o

Table 814 presents some of the m(a) distributions obtained by Laws and
Parsons, as quoted by Ryde and Ryde. The interval of radius da is 0.025
cm except for the lowest interval, which extends from 0.0 to 0.037.5 cm.
In all other cases the a listed in the table is the mid-point of the interval.
It appears from the data that the mean drop radius increases with the
total rate of precipitation, at least for the group of rains measmred by Laws
and Parsons. In the light of the behavior of the function g(a,~) as obtained
from Table 8.9 one can therefore predict that the attenuation per millimeter
per hour for 3 cm and less would be greater for lighter rains than for heavy
rains.
From these distributions and the cross section Q(a,X) or the derived
function g(a,~), the total attenuation may be computed. (In practice the

TABLE 8.14.—FRACTION OF TOTAL VOLUME REACHING ~ROUN~ CONTRIBUTE~

BY DROPS OF VARIOUS SIZES*
(Drop radius interval, da = 0.025 cm)
I
p, mm/hJ 0.25 1.25 2.5 12.5 25 50
I I I I I ‘m i ‘w

a, cm m(a) da

0.025 0.28 0.11 0.07 0,03 0.02 0.01 0.01 0.01

0.050 0.50 0.37 0. 2s 0.12 0.08 0.05 0.04 0.04
0.075 0.18 0.31 0.33 0.25 0.1s 0.12 0.09 0.07
0.100 0.03 0.14 0.19 0.25 0.24 0.20 0.14 0,12
0.125 0.01 0.05 0.08 0.17 0.20 0.21 0.17 0.14
0.150 0.02 0.03 0.10 0.13 0.16 0.18 0.18
0.175 0.01 0.01 0.04 0.08 0.11 0.15 0.16
0.200 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.07 0.09 0.12
0.225 . 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.06 0.08
0.250 0.01 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04
0.275 0.01 0.01 0.02 0.02
0.304) 0.01 0.01 0.01
0.325 - - - - - 0.01 0.01
—-
● After IJ.SWSand Piuamm.
 . . m
co
IN

0
Attenuation in dblkm (one Way) co

0
0!
—

0
m

7
N
UT

m w
0

I 1 I I I 1111 I I I I I 11[1 I I I I I 111!

Su w
N

w
-4
SEC. 8.7] CALCULATION OF ATTENUATION BY WATER DROPS 683

When the attenuation is plotted against rate of precipitation at constant

wavelength, it is found that smooth curves can be accurately drawn through
the data. These curves are shown in Figure ~“13. The considerations
given above have indicated that such a behavior is to be expected for wave-
lengths from 1.0 to 3.0 cm; for the other wavelengths it must be considered
to some extent as fortuitous. The curves of Fig. 8“13 indicate that it is
reasonable to interpolate between the values of Table 8”15 to obtain figures

Rate of precipitation in mm/hr

FIG. 8. 13.—Thcmretical values of attenuation as a function of rate of precipitation using
raindrop distributions of Laws and Parsons. (From Rude and R~de.)

for other rates of precipitation. In Fig. 8.12 the solid lines are curves of
the attenuation vs. wavelength for precipitation rates of 0.25, 1, 4, and 16
mm/hr. On Hurnphreys’ classification these correspond respectively to
drizzle, light rain, moderate rain, and heavy rain. The dashed lines in the
same figure represent the attenuation for clouds and fog as given by Eq.
(41) for water contents of 0.032, 0.32 an 2.3 g/m3 respectively. It is seen
that the attenuation due to a heavy sea fog exceeds that due to moderate
rain, but it must be remembered that although the drops are much larger
in the rain, the total water content of the heavy fog greatly exceeds that of
the rain, and to a first approximation the attenuation depends only on
water content.
For wavelengths from 3.2 to 1.0 cm the attenuation is roughly propor-
tional to the rate of precipitation. At shorter wavelengths the slope of the

1w. J. HumPhmys,Op.cit.
684 ATMOSPHERIC ATTENUATION [SEC. 87

curve is not constant but decreases asprecipitation rate increases for light
rains, as was predicted above. Even at wavelengths of 1.25 and 1.0 cm
this deviation from linearity is present for rains less than 2.5 mm/hr,
although it is not apparent on Figure 8”13 because of the scale. Table 8.16
lists the slopes of the straight-line approximation for wavelengths from 1.0
to 3.2 cm, along with the accuracy to which they represent the data of
Table 8.15 above 2.5 mm/hr.

TABLE 8.]6,—SLOPE OF APPROXIMATE LINEAR RELATION BETWEEN ATTENUATION

AND PRECIPITATION RATE AT 18°C
(For the rains of Table 8.14 above 2.5 mm/hr)

Wavelength, cm Slope, db/km per mm per hr

1.0 0.2W + 0.008

1.25 0.150 * 0.007
3.0 0.028 A 0.005
3.2 0.024 t 0,004

It must be emphasized again that Tables 815 and 8.16 and Figs. 8.12
and 8.13 apply only to the rains whose drop-size distributions are given in
Table 8.14. How representative these distributions are cannot be said
until much more extensive data are available. Nevertheless, certain gen-
eral qualitative conclusions seem warranted. For any applications thus far
proposed, the attenuation by rain at wavekmgths oj about 10 cm and above is
completely unimportant.
For wavelengths down to about 3 cm rain attenuation is seldom likely
to be serious, except possibly in cases of the heaviest tropical downpours.
It should be kept in mind in considering rain attenuation that although the
rate of rainfall at a given location may be high for a brief period, it must be
high at one time over a considerable distance in order to be important.
For this reason brief intense showem are less significant than very large
areas of fairly steady rain; fortunately in the latter case the rainfall inten-
sity is usually much lower than in the brief, violent shower. According to
Humphreys’ classification a precipitation rate of 40 mm/hr represents
“excessive rain. ” At 3.2 cm a shower of this intensity and 1 mile in diame-
ter would attenuate the radar echo from a target behind it by about 3 db.
Although this decrease might be visible on the PPI for a weak signal (that is,
one that does not saturate the video amplifiers) it would not affect the
appearance of strong echoes from ships or land.
Clearly the degree of applicability of the preceding remarks depends
upon the wavelength under consideration. The irregular nature of rain-
fall is such that a mere statement of attenuation in terms of rate of rainfall
is likely to give little information about the actual attenuation over an
SEC. 8.8] CALCULATION OF A TTEN UA TION BY PRECIPITA TION 685

extended path; consequently the use of such figures should be tempered

by experience.
In the region below about 3 cm the importance of rain attenuation
increases rapidly with decreasing wavelength, until at wavelengthsoj about
l+ cm or less the attenuation even from moderate rain jar exceeds that jrom
uncondensed In this case even small rainfall areas
water vapor or oxygen.
may be of considerable importance if they contain intense precipitation (a
not unlikely situation).
It is tempting to try to estimate the relative frequencies and geographi-
cal distribution of rains sufficiently heavy to be important for various wave-
lengths, and in fact some noteworthy attempts have been made by several
investigators. The existing climatological data are entirely too sparse and
lacking in detail for the conclusions to be considered very significant, how-
ever, and consequently they will not be considered here.
It should be pointed out that other effects of rain have frequently been
attributed by uncritical observers to attenuation by absorption and scatter-
ing, particularly in connection with radar. One of the most frequent situ-
ations arises when a thin film of water forms over a radome housing an
antenna or over a window of a supposedly weatherproof antenna feed
device. Even at wavelengths of 10 cm or more the water film not only
may absorb a considerable fraction of the energy incident upon it but may
provide a serious mismatch for the transmission system, with the usual
attendant undesirable consequences. A second phenomenon often incor-
rectly ascribed to rain attenuation is the apparent shadow immediately
behind rain areas, as seen on PPI or B-scopes. Such shadows can, of course,
be caused by attenuation, but they are more often likely to be caused by
receiver saturation or various types of incorrect circuit adjustments. A
third phenomenon is the masking of radar echoes by echoes from the rain
at or near the target—something that sounds obvious but is not always so
obvious on the radar indicator.
The calculation of attenuation has so far been for a temperature of 18”C.
Ryde and Ryde have investigated the temperature dependence in the form
of a multiplication factor ~(Z’) which corrects the values given for 18°C.
Table 8.17 lists o(T) for several rains and for temperatures from 0° to 40”C.
For wavelengths of 1.25 cm and less, which are the only ones of importance,
it is seen that the effect of temperature is quite small, less than 20 per cent
over the entire range, and can usually be neglected.
8s8. Calculation of Attenuation by Precipitation in Solid Form.-The
refractive index of ice has been measured by Dunsmuir and Lambl between
wavelengths of 3 and 9 cm. Within these limits it appears that the real
and imaginary parts of the index of refraction are independent of wave-
length. It therefore seems reasonable to assume that the same values hold
‘R. Dunsmuirand J. Lamb, “The DielectricPropertiesof Iee at Wavelengthsof
3 and 9 cm,” ManchesterUniversityReport No. 61, March 1945.
686 ATMOSPHERIC ATTENUATION [SEC. &8

TABLE 8.17. —TEMPER.ATURE-COBRECTIONF.ACTOR #(T)*

Correction factor .$(2’)

Precipitation
A, cm
rate, mm/hr
O“c 10”C 18°C 30”C 40”C

0.25 0.5 0.85 0.95 1.0 1.02 0.99

1.25 0.95 1,0 1.0 0.90 0.81
3.2 1.21 1.10 1,0 0.79 0.55
10,0 2.01 1.40 1.0 0.70 0.59

2.5 0.5 0.87 0.95 1.0 1.03 1.01

1.25 0.85 0.99 1.0 0.92 0.80
3.2 0.82 1.01 1.0 0.82 0.64
10.0 2.02 1.40 1.0 0.70 0.59

12.5 0.5 0.90 0.96 1.0 1.02 1.00

1.25 0.83 0.96 1.0 0.93 0.81
3.2 0,64 0.88 1.0 0.90 0.70
10.0 2.03 1.40 1.0 0.70 0.59

50 0.5 0.94 0.98 1.0 1.01 1.00

1.25 0.84 0.95 1.0 0.95 0.83
3.2 0.62 0.87 1,0 0.99 0.81
10,0 2.01 1,40 1.0 0.70 0.58

150 0.5 0.96 0.98 1.0 1.01 1:00

1.25 0.86 0.96 1,0 0.97 0.87
3.2 0.66 0.88 1.0 1.03 0.89
10.0 2,00 1,40 1.0 0.70 0.58
*After Ryde and Ryde.

foreven shorter wavelengths. Table 8.18 lists rzand nxforseveraltem-

peratures, as given by Ryde and Ryde. 1 The most noteworthy difference
between the properties of water in liquid or solid form is the smallness of the
absorption in the latter case. Besides greatly facilitating the calculations,
the small value of nX means that the attenuation for very small particle
size will be small compared with the attenuation from droplets of equal
water content.
Tmmz 8.18.—REFRACTIVE
INDEXOFICE FOR A = 3.0 to A = 9.0 cbf*

T, “C n nx

o 1.75 0.00105
– 10° 1.75 0.0002S5
–30” 1.75 0.000145
– 50’ 1.75 0.00011o
* R+ and Ryde, from Dunsm& and Lamb.
1 The values differ slightly,but not significantly,from the figuresgiven by E. L.
Younker,“DielectricPropertiesof Waterand Ice,” RL Repoti No. 644 December1~.
 SEC.88] CALCULATION OF ATTEN UATION B Y PRECIPITA TION 687

Calculations for the attenuation by spherical hailstones can be carried

out analogously to the case of drops, though with considerably more ease, as
nx is small. It turns out that the three-term expansion [Eq. (38)] is valid
up to p = 0.5, above which the more exact series must be used. Table 8.19
is a condensation of a similar table by Ryde and Ryde giving Q(a,X), or
rather 434Q(a,A), the attenuation in decibek per kilometer for a concentra-
I tion of one hailstone per cubic meter, at O“C. Ryde and Ryde also give the
terminal velocity relation as obtained by interpolation from Humphreys
and calculate the function g(a,X). Except for wavelengths in the milli-
meter region the attenuation by dry hailstones is small compared with that
from rains of equivalent water content or precipitation rate.

TABLE &19.—ATTENWMTONBY DRY HAILSTONES ATO°C,DB/KMPERSTONE PER M?

434Q(a,)i)
a, cm
k = 0.5 cm X = 1.25cm A = 3.2cm X=lOcm

0.025 3.75.10-’ 2.81.10-7 7.43.10-8 2. 29.10-U

0.050 3.16.10-’ 7.57.10-’ 7.15.10-7 1.85.10-7
0.10 1.41 .10-2 4.00,10-’ 1.37.10-6 1.57.10+
0.15 8.91 3.31.1O-* 1.19.10-4 5.99
0.20 1.79.10-1 2.53.10+ 6.15 1.80.10-K
0.25 2.63 9.55 2.27 .10-’ 4.64
0.375 4.07 6.31.10-1 2.63.10-2 3.2A1O-’
0.50 4,08 1.59.100 1.59.10-’ 1.67.10-’
0.75 2.69 1.18.10° 1.7010-~
1.00 3.98 9.77
1.50 14.5 1.10.100
2.06 ... 17.9 5.37

For ice and snow particles that are not spherical it is no longer possible
to use the Mie formulas. Although the calculations have been extended to
ellipsoidal particles,’ tbe computations are extremely complicated. How-
ever, when the size of the particles is very small compared with the wave
length, it is found that the attenuation again reduces to a term proportional
to the volume of the particles similar to the c, term for spheres [cj. Eq. (38)].
For spherical ice crystals, where X2 terms maybe neglected, c1 reduces to

12n’
c1 = x (n, + 2),” (44)

Similarly, for long needles

(45)

1See F. Moglich, Ann. Ph@, 83, 609 (lg27), where rcfmt>nces to the earlier li@ra-
ture are given.
688 ATMOSPHERIC ATTENUATION [SEC. %9

and for flat plates

C* =x*; 2++. (46)

()

With the values of n and x from Table 8.18 the attenuation y can be easily
calculated. The resultant formulas are summarized in Table 8.20, where
M is the water content in grams per cubic meter. A comparison with Eq.
(41) for drops indicates that at O“C and for x about 1 cm the attenuation
by ice clouds is two magnitudes smaller than the attenuation from a cloud
of liquid droplets with the same water content. At —40”C the attenuation
is still less. It seems safe to conclude that the attenuation by ice crystals
can almost always be neglected, as M rarely goes above 0.5 g/m3.
TABLE 820.-ATTENUATION BY ICE CRYSTAL CLOITM*

Attenuation y, db/km
Type of particle c1
?’ = –40°c I ‘T= CI”C
I —_
Spheres . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.43 o.00044.t4/A o.oo35.lf /k
Needles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.o2 I 0.00062.w/A o.oo50M/A
Disks. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.86 I 0.0008i.W/X o.ooioM/h
* Aftsr Ryde and Ryde.

Although detailed calculations of the attenuation by dry snow are faced

with obvious difficulties, it seems reasonable that it should be less than that
for hailstones of comparable dimensions and that because of the small value
of x, it would be less than the attenuation by rains of equal precipitation
rates.
8s9. Measurements of Attenuation by Rain. -In 1935 Wolff and LinderL
attempted to measure the attenuation of 9-cm waves over a 2-mile path.
Although measurements were made at precipitation rates up to 75 mm/hr,
no detectable attenuation could be observed. It ~vas concluded that the
attenuation at 9 cm must be less than 8 X 10–4 db/km per mm per hrj which
is consistent with the prediction of Table 8.9. The first positive rneasUre-
ments were obtained by the Clarendon Laboratory group at Oxford early
in 1942, for a wavelength of about 1 cm.~ Some time later the Bell Tele-
phone Laboratories published the results of similar measurements at 1.09
and 3,2 cm.3 Subsequently, work has been done at 0.6 cm, also by Bell
LI. Wolff and E. G, Lindcr, “Transmission of 9 cm Electromagnetic Waves, ” Br~d-
cast News, 18 10, (1935), reprinted in Radio at Ultra-hiqh Frequencies, RCA Institutes
Technical Press, 1940.
1 M. G. Adam, R. A. Hull and C, Hurst, Con~mitt~,e on Valve Ikvclopment, C’laren-
don Laboratory, .Vfisc. 3, .June 1942.
3 S. D. Robertson, BTL \femoranduln No. M 1142-160-87, Aug. 1, 1942; A. P. King
and S. D. Robertson, ibid., No. lfXf42-160-93, A\Lg. 26, 1942; S, D. Robertson, ibid, NIO.
MM43-160-2, Jan. 5, 1943. Also S. D. Itobcrtson, “The Effect of Rain upon the Propa-
gation of Waves in the 1 and 3 cm Region, ” Proc. IRE, 34, 178 P (1946).
SW, 89] MEASUREMENTS OF ATTENUATION BY RAIN 689

Laboratories,’ and at 1.25 cm by the Radiation Laboratoryz and by the

Naval Electronics Laboratory. ~ Alf the experiments used the same basic
procedure. A simple transmitter amd receiver were setup at opposite ends
of a short path. Changes in signal strength were usually measured by
comparison with a calibrated attenuator in the r-f line of the receiver,
although the recorded output appeared in the form of a crystal, a-f amplifier,
or bolometer output. In all cases rates of precipitation were measured
simultaneously with one or more rain gauges, Sometimes the rate of rain-
fall was measured by a funnel and graduate read by an observer, a method
that is accurate only for high precipitation rates; at other times commercial
recording rain gauges were used. In several of the experiments measure-
ments were also made of the raindrop radii by the “filter paper” method
(cf. Sec. 7.7). However, in no case were significant distributions obtained,
and no use was made of the results. Table .%21 summarizes the experi-
mental details of each investigation.
The possible sources of err~r are roughly the same for each experiment.
Generally speaking the purely electrical measurements were adequately
accurate with the possible exception of the pioneer Clarendon work. The
greatest uncertainties arose in the meteorological measurements. Most
important of these was the question of nonuniformity in the spatial distribu-
tion of the rain intensity. Wherever several rain gauges were used, there
was considerable evidence of nonuniform rainfall even over distances of
several hundred meters, and there is every reason to believe similar condi-
tions held for all the paths. The BTL measurements minimized this source
of error by using a short path, while in the NRSL investigation rain gauges
were spaced 220 m apart. It seems likely that even closer spacings would
be helpful. (By the same token there must inevitably be considerable
uncertainty whenever the measurements or theory are used to predict the
attenuation for a specific radar or transmission application. The rainfall
will never be uniform along any practical path, and hence it will be possible
to calculate only the order of magnitude of the attenuation to be expected.)
Another source of error is the method of measuring the rates of precipita-
tion. Rado4 has discussed the accuracies of the various types of gauges and
has pointed out that none of the gauges is designed specificdy for
measuring high rates of rainfall. Two gauges placed close together occa-
sionally differ by as much as 20 per cent, apparently as a result of aerody-
namic effects of local updrafts.
! G. E. Mueller, “Propagation of K/2 Band Waves, ” BTL Memorandum No.
MM44-160-150, July 3, 1944, Also, G, E. Lfuellcr, “Propagation of 6-millimeter
Waves,” I%oc. IRE, 34, 181 P (1946).
2 G. T. Rado, “Measurements of the .4ttenuatinn of K-ban d,” RL Report No. 603,
Mar. 7, 1945.
3 L. J. Anderson, J. P. Day, C. H, Freres, J. B. Smyth, A, P. D. Stokes, and L, G.
Trolese, “K-band Attenuation Due to Raiufall,” NRSL Report No. WP-20, June 1945;
and Proc. IRE, 36, 351 (1947).
4G. T. Rado, op. cit.
 a
rD
o

TABLE 8.21.—DETAILs OF ATTENUATION EXPERIMENTS

Path Vo. Oi Lange of

Organiza- h, crI Type of transmitter Type of receiver length, rain Type of rain gauges rainfall,
tion m auget mm/hr

(larcndon 0.96 Square-wave modulatsd ldystror Crystal and galvanometers 2000 1 Dine’s tilting syphon 0-20

BTL 1.09 C-w klystron Superheterodyne and cali- 380 1 Funnel and graduate 0-1oo
3.20 brated output meter \ = 1.09)
270
i = 3.20)

BTL 0.62 Square-wave modulated klystror Crystal and audio amplifier 380 1 Funnel and graduate 0-1oo
and second-harmonic crysta
generator

RL 1.25 Pulsed magnetron Bolometer and audio 4000 3 Several types of record- 0-30
amplifier ing gauges

NEL 1.25 A-f modulated klystron Superhctcrodyne and a-f 1950 9 Four funnel and graduate o-so
(NRSL,) amplifier five tipping bucket
SEC.89] MEASUREMENTS OF ATTENUATION BY RAIN 691

Precautions must also be taken to keep the rain out of the transmitting
or receiving r-f line. Usually this was done by placing large enough shel-
ters over the transmitter and receiver. In the Radiation Laboratory inves-
tigation the more positive step was taken of blowing a stream of hot air out
through the feed of the two antennas.
Other possible, though not important, sources of error are reflections
from ground or other objects and lack of time synchronism between the
records of attenuation and rain intensit y.
The experimental points obtained in each investigation when plotted
on the ~-p plane usually show considerable random scatter. Although
this behavior is to be expected in any case on fundamental theoretical

TABLE%22.-SUMMARY
or ATTENUATION
MEASIJREMENTS

I I Attenuation, db~lrn per nun psr br

Organization A, cm
Upper bound Lower bound I Average
I

BTL. ., . . . . . . . . . . 3.2 0.090 0.012 0.019

_.l_-
AL . . . . . . . . . . .. .... ; 1.25 0.40 0.09 0.17
NRSL . . . . . . . . .. .... 1.25 0.34 0.23 0.25
BTL . . . . . . . . . .. . . .,~ 1,09 0.27 0.15 0.18
Clarendon . . . . .. ..... 0.96 0.25 0.10 0.15
BTL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.62 0.37 0.27 0.31

grounds, some of the scatter arises from lack of uniformity of the rainfall
over the path. Thus in the NEL (NRSL) experiment, where enough gauges
were used to provide an adequate picture of the rainfall distribution, the
scatter of the points is quite small. For some of the points the rainfall was
substantially uniform over the path, and for the others the records could be
analysed using the points already obtained.
Table 8“22 summarizes the results of the measurements by listing the
slope of the “average” straight line best fitting the experimental data, along
with the bounds that include most of the points. These figures are to be
compared wit h the theoretical bounds listed in Table 8.13 and the approxi-
mate linear relations given in Table 8.16. For the higher wavelengths the
experimental upper bounds exceed the theoretical limit, but the large range
of values measured in most cases indicates that the difference is caused by
experimental uncertainty. The average values, in all but one case, lie well
within the theoretical limits, with the Clarendon figure appearing to be
slightly low. The one exception is the NEL result, where even the lowest
experimental bound exceeds the theoretical maximum. It is difficult to
see what may be the source of the discrepancy, as in many respects the
work seems to be the most careful of the entire group. The suggestion put
forward by the authors, that the theoretical assumption of incoherent scat-
692 ATMOSPHERIC ATTENUATION [SEC.8.9

tering is incorrect, is not at all tenable. A good deal of the attenuation

is caused by absorption, and here there can be no question of coherence or
incoherence as the absorption must be proportional to the number of drops
without regard to their distribution. With the scattering portion of the
attenuation the same considerations hold as for back scattering from rain.
In Sec. 7.5 it was shown that the coherent portion of the scattering is com-
pletely negligible unless the concentration of drops changes rapidly over a

TABLE8.23.-COMPARISON
OFEXPERIMENTAL
AND THEORETICAL ATTENUATION
(k = 0.6 cm)

Attenuation, db/km
p, mm/br
BTL Ryde and Ryde
I

10 3.7 3.8
m 7,4 7,0
30 10.6 10.0
40 13.6 12.7
50 16.0 15.4
70 20.4 20.0
100 26.5 27.0

strip about one wavelength wide. It seems highly unlikely that the bound-
ary of the rain could be so sharply defined. It would appear much more
likely that the origin of the difference is to be found on the meteorological
side of the experiment, perhaps in the terminal velocity relation, or in the
dielectric constant of the water.
The measurements at 0.62 cm by Bell Telephone Laboratories show
very little scatter and clearly exhibit the increased slope for low precipita-
tion rates. Their average curve is in very good agreement with the curve
calculated by Ryde and Ryde for the rains given in Table 8.14 as shown by
Table 8.23, where these two curves are compared. The close agreement is
perhaps to some extent fortuitous, considering the uncertainties on both
sides, but is nevertheless satisfying.
 APPENDIX A

APPLICATION OF THE LORENTZ RECIPROCITY THEOREM

TO SCATTERING
BY DONALD E. KERR

There are in current use several reciprocity theorems, all of which are
often loosely referred to as “the” reciprocity theorem. We apply here
the version developed by H. A. Lorentz.i
We begin with a purely formal manipulation of Maxwell’s equations.
Let us assume that by some as yet unspecified meaw two different dis-
tributions of electromagnetic fields can be established in the region of
interest. We denote these field distributions by the subscripts 1 and 2
on the corresponding field vectors. Each set of field vectors, zssumed
to vary harmonically in time with angular frequency co, satisfies the
Maxwell equations2
v x H = (a + Lx)E, (1)

vxE=–iu~. (2)

By forming the four following scalar products and employing Eqs. (1)
and (2) one finds easily that

HZ. VXEI– EIOVXHZ–(HI. V xEZ– E* SVXH,)=O, (3)

which may be recognized as

V.(E, XH2– E2XH,) =0. (4)

By the divergence theorem, the integral of the divergence of a vector

throughout a volume is equal to the integral of the normal component
of the vector over a surface enclosing the volume; hence,

n.(Elx Hj– Ez)(Hl)cLS=O, (5)

\s
where n is the outward normal to the surface S enclosing the region of
interest. This is the Lorentz reciprocity theorem.
It should be pointed out that Eq. (5) is a purely formal relation
between the two sets of field vectors. The vector product E X H might
tempt one to seek to interpret it as a Poynting vector, but it has no such
simple meaning. Here E and H are, in general, threedimensional vectors
and are complex as well.
1Arnst. Ak. van Wekmschappen, 4, 176 (1895-96).
%Regions containing batteries or generatore are excluded.
693
694 APPENDIX

We now define the meaning of the subscripts, with reference to Fig. Al.
The fields E, and H, are those obtained m“th the target removed and with a
driving voltage VI from the radar transmitter across the transmission
linel in the plane AA’. The fields E, and Hz are those with the kmget
in place and with the radar transmitter in operation, delivering the same VI
that it delit!ered in the absenw of the target.z It should be observed that

Tra~;~ission

pl*& b

Antenna
system
FIG. A. 1.—Schematic representation of radar system and target in free space. The
radar system is enclosed by a perfectly conducting shield and the transmission line and
antenna surfaces also have infinite conductivity. The plane AA’ in the transmission line
is the plane across which the transmitted and received voltages are mesaured.

both fields 1 and 2 are total fields. They both satisfy Maxwell’s equa-
tions; field 2 satisfies the boundary conditions on the several surfaces
that form S, and field 1 satisfies the boundary conditions on all the sur-
faces except the target. Using these two fields, we now proceed to derive
relations between them and the power radiated by the transmitter and
the echo power from the target.
We now apply 13q. (5), integrating over an outer surface at infinity,
the target, the outer surfaces of the radar and antenna system, the inner
metal surfaces down to the plane AA’, and fina~ly over the plane AA’
inside the transmission line.
The triple scalar product in Eq. (5) can be written

n. ExH=H. nxE=– E .nx H; (6)

thus only the field components tangential to the surface S contribute to

the integral. The integral vanishes on all parts of the radar shielding, ”
transmission line, and antenna system as a result of the fact that
nxEl=nx Ez=O.
It can be shown that the integration of Eq. (5) over the surface at
infinity vanishes, but the details will not be given here.3
The remaining surfaces are the plane AA’ and the surface of
the target. In the transmission line the fields and the current and

] A coaxial line is shown, but the results to be derived are valid for any nonradiating
transmission system.
2 It is a.wumed that the impedances terminating the transmission line on both ends
are matched to its real characteristic impedance, ZO and that the echo signal doss not
disturb the impedance match.
a See J. A. Stratton, Elechomagnetic Theory, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1941, p. 487.
 LORENTZ RECIPROCITY THEOREM 695

voltage are related by

E,= ~, H* = &,
b
(7)
rln -
() a

where r and 1#1are the usual cylindrical coordinates in the line, a and b
are the inner and outer radii of the line, and V and 1 are the line voltage
and current. If Eq. (7) is substituted into Eq. (5), we have’

n . (El x H2 — Ez x Hl) dfl = VIZZ — VZI,. (8)

/ AA’
This expression may be simplified further. If the positive direction for
current is along the positive z-axis, and if we recall that impedances are
matched on both ends to ZO,

With the target in place the total voltage V, at AA’ is the sum of V, and
the echo voltage v. The total line current 12 consists of the sum of the
original 11, flowing to the right in Fig. A. 1 under the influence of VI)
and the echo current — v/ZO, negative because it flows to the left under
the influence of v. Hence
T“*= v, + v,

~2=v1–v
Zo ‘
and
v,
(9)
“12– ‘*Z1= – 2V
z“
Employing Eqs. (9), and (8) in Eq. (5), we have

Vlv = ~
n.(Elx Hz– Ez)(Hl)dS. (lo)
Z02T /
This expression may be transformed to include the transmitted power
and the echo power if we employ the fact that the average power flow
in either direction in the line is given by a formula of the type P = VV/2Z0.
If we now multiply Eq. (10) by its complex conjugate, and if in con-
formity with earlier notation we denote the transmitted power PI by P,
and the received power Pz by P,, Eq. (10) becomes
~=~~
, n.(Elx Hz– EzXHl)dS2. (11)
4P, II2 T

‘ Equation (8) holds in ita present form for c-w radar but is zero for pulsed operation.
We shall not introduce the additional complexity required to establish the results for
the pnlm case.
696 APPENDIX

We restrict the analysis from here on to that for a large perfectly con-
ducting target having radii of curvature greater than about one wave-
length (a “smooth” target in the sense of Sec. 6.3). For such a target
the second term of the integrand of Eq. (11) becomes

n. EZx H1=Hl. nxE1= O

because of the infinite conductivity,

The first term of the integrand may be obtained from Eqs, (6.53) and
(654) of Sec. 6.3 which yield, in the present case,

H, = 2[HI – (no H,)n]. (12)

The integrand of Eq. (11) then becomes

n.[E, xHl —(n. Hl)Elx n].

The triple scalar product in the second term is

n. Elxn=E, .nxn=O;

thus for this case the integral reduces to a simple expression in terms
of the incident fields. We now impose the customary restriction that the
distance from radar to target is sufficiently large that the surfaces of
constant phase in the incident wavefronts are substantially plane, and
we assume propagation along the z-axis; after some manipulation the
integrand then becomes
11
n. Elx H1=n. Elx(iZx EJ ;=ti(E1. EJ(n. i,),

where q~ = 1207rohms, the intrinsic impedance of free space.

As in Sec. 63, we replace n o iZCM by dA, the projection of dS of the
target on to the zy-plane, at right angles to the direction of propagation
of the incident wave. Introducing these modifications, Eq. (11) becomes

(13)

Most radar systems in use at the present time employ antenna systems
that radiate essentially linearly polarized waves in the direction of maxi-
mum transmission; and in general, data on target cross sections relate to
that part of the echo energy which is linearly polarized in the same direction
as is the radiated wave. The effects of other types of polarization may
be examined by the present analysis, however. For example, if the
antenna radiates an elliptically polarized wave, we may represent it by

E, = E,e-”z [i= + ivge-’fi], (14)

where g is a real scalar quantity and B is the time phase between the
 LORENTZ RECIPROCITY THEOREM 697

two field components at right angles in space. The accompanying

magnetic field is
H, = $e-’” [–i=ge-’~ + iv]. (15)

The Poynting vector giving the incident average power flow is

~~ = ~ Re(E, x H;) = ~ (1 + g’). , (16)

Using Eq, (14), the integrand of Eq. (13) becomesl

El . E, = E; (1 + g’e-”~) e-’’”. (17)

Using Eqs. (16) and (17) and manipulating the complex quantities,
we find that Eq. (13) becomes

4g2 sin2d
P, = # (x:)’ 1 – e-’’” dA 2. (18)
1 [ (1 + 92)211/

This equation may be recast in a familiar form if one recalls that the
Poynting vector at a distance h! in the direction of maximum trans-
mission from an antenna of gain G isz

s;= g.

With this modification and slight rearrangement Eq. (18) now becomes
the radar transmission equation
G2~2
P,
-P, = (49r)’R’
— [ 1 – 4g’sin’”l(w-1’k”o
(1 + g~)z ’19)
The two brackets contain the factor heretofore called the back-scattering
cross section u, but now modified in a way to emphasize its meaning in
relation to polarization and antenna properties. The polarization effect
is given by the factor in the first brackets, and the second bracketed
quantity may be recognized as the cross section given by Eq. (6.56) in
Sec. 6“3 for linear polarization and a smooth target.
For the case of linear polarization 8 = O, and Eq. (19) reduces to the
simple form discussed in Sec. 6.3. For circular polarization, however,
g = 1, B = ~ 7r/2, and Eq. (19) predicts that the echo power is zero.3
] The earfierremarkabout the E X H productsnot being interpretablese Poynting
vectorsiz well illustratedby the El . E, of Eq. (17) whichdevelopedfrom them. It is
a complex numberhaving no direct connectionwith averageenergy flow ae it stands.
~ The gain must be defied appropriately for elliptical polarization. It is the ratio
of S given by Eq, (16) to S at the came diztance from an isotropic antenna radiating the
same power ae the antenna system under investigation.
$Apparently this fact hzz been generally known for zeveral yeare, but the present
author iz not aware of its origin. It fit came to his attention in P. D. Crout and F. E.
Bothwell, “A Theoretical Treatment of Radar Target Return,” RL Report No. 719.
698 APPENDIX

The skeptical reader is invited to consider again the system shown in

Fig. Al, with particular regard to the antenna system. Let the trans-
mission system be split into two branches on the right of AA’. Each
branch leads to an antenna that radiates a linearly polarized wave, but
the antennas are oriented so that their polarizations are at right angles.
The antennas are identical and are supplied with equal amounts of power,
but the line from the branch to one antenna is x/4 longer than the other
line. This combination of antennas produces, at large distances, a
circularly polarized wave described by Eq. (14), in which g = 1 and
B = ~/2. The Z- and v-components of the wave incident upon the target
are scattered independently and in an identical manner (by the smooth
target) and upon return to the antenna system are received independently
by the same antenna that transmitted them. Because of the additional
A/4 in one side of the transmission line, the total excess phase delay in
this side is m for the two-way journey. The two signals at AA’ are equal
in magnitude and are in phase opposition, hence zero total signal,l To
say it another way, the reflection from the target changes a right-circularly
polarized wave radiated by the antenna system into a left-circularly polar-
ized wave to which the antenna system will not respond.
The foregoing result emphasizes the fact that the earlier definition
of a in terms of the incident and back-scattered Poynting vectors, namely,

s“
“ = 4TR’
F’
is useful only for linear polarization of the incident wave and the com-
ponent of the back-scattered wave that is similarly polarized. In the
case discussed above the back-scattered Poynting vector is certainly not
zero, although the reciprocal relation between transmitting and receiving
properties of the antenna system causes it to appear to be zero.
The reciprocity theorem is well known in antenna theory, where
it is useful for deriving general properties of antenna and transmission
systems.z In assuming a smooth target we have deliberately chosen a
situation that emphasizes the antenna properties. The general case in
which the target or the transmission path depolarizes the incident wave
will not be treated here. The present development has been given
primarily to bring to light some of the fundamentals underlying the con-
cept of radar cross section.

I This would not occur if the echo signal were measured in either branch of the
antenna feed line. The conventional arrangement, however, is to detect tbe echo in
the tranemkaion line at some location corresponding to AA’.
~ See Vol. 12 of this series, or Frank and Von Miws, Die D&mid rmd Z@rraL
gfeiehuWen der Meekanik und Phyeik, Bd. 2, Viewcg, 1935, pp. 953-963; also John R.
Carson, i3eU System Tech. Jour., 3,393 (1924); 9, 325 (1930); Pmt. IRE, 17,925 (1929);
J. C. Slater, Microwave Transmission, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1942, p. 251; S. A.
%helkunoff, Etiwnnqneiie Waves, Van Nostrand, New York, 1943, p. 477.
 APPENDIX B

COHERENT AND INCOHERENT SCATTERING FROM

ASSEMBLIES OF SCATTERERS
BY A. J. F. SIEGERT AND HERBERT GOLDSTEIN

It will be assumed for simplicity that all the scattering particles

return a signal of equal magnitude. The assumption is not a necessary
one, but the introduction of a distribution in the magnitude of the scatter-
ing would only complicate the mathematics without affecting the con-
clusions. Let the distance of a convenient reference point on a given
scat terer, denoted by “center of the scatterer, ” from the radar be r.
No matter what the nature of the scatterer is, the scattered amplitude
will be proportional to the incident field amplitude and inversely pro-
portional to the distance r. Hence the scattered field at the receiver
due to one scatterer can be represented as

(1)

where Eo(r) is the incident field amplitude and p is a constant of pro-

portionality, by assumption the same for all the scatterers. The total
scattered amplitude from all the scatterem is then
.
‘~ ~-4.t(,/A) &,
B= -&on(T) , (2)
/
where n(r) dr is the number of scatterers with centers lying between
r and r + dr. In the case of pulsed transmission the incident field
EO(r) not only will vary with r as I/r but will also exhibit the character-
istic pulse shape. It is convenient, however, to treat the incident field
as a continuous wave and lump the effects of the pulse shape in with the
spatial variation of the density of scatterers by assuming a fictitious
distribution of the scatterers corresponding to the pulse shape. Further,
the variation of r over the distance of the pulse length is usually small so
that Eq. (2) can be approximated to a high degree of accuracy by

(3)

where R is some appropriately defined range, say, to the center of the

pulse. The scattered Poynting vector at the receiver will then be
m
_* (,-/)
~. = IP12 % nine dr dr’, (4)
//
o

Actually the distribution of scatterers is rarely static; the matterem are

moving, and the number of scatterem present in any given vohnne
changes with time. The distribution function should therefore more
699
700 APPENDIX

properly be written n(r,t). As a consequence, the scattered signal will

vary with time; we shall be concerned, however, with the time average
of the signal:
.
S,(R) –+(,–,’)
~ = Id’ ~ //o
n(r,t)n(r’, t) e dr dr’, (5)

the bar denoting a time average. The incident Poynting vector is given
in terms of the radar characteristics byl

}vhile the average received power is connected with ~ by

E.T. Em’
Hence the received power is

where the radar cross section u is given by

m
_:(, -,l)
u = lp*j
H o
n(rjt) n(r-’, t) e dr dr’. (6)

It is instructive to break u up into terms by writing

n(r,t) n(r’,t) = Z(r) Z(r’) + [n(r,t) n(r’,t) – fi(r-) E(r’)],

where R(T) is the time average of the distribution function. The cross

.
section can now be written
4rir *

IJ
——
u = Ip’1 ii(r) e k dr
o
_y(, –,/)
+ Ip’1
H [n(r,t) n(r’,t) – Z(r) fi(r’)] e dr dr’ (7)

The first term will obviously be proportional to the square of the total
number of scatterers; it is therefore the “coherent” part of the scattering;
that is, the individual amplitudes rather than intensities are added
together. We shall show that this term vanishes if fi(r) is constant.
The nature of the second term is more clearly shown by observing that

n(r,t) n(r’,t) – ii(r) Fi(r’) = [n(r,t) – Z(r)] [n(r’,t) – ii(r’)]. (8)

Thus this term arises solely from the fluctuations in the density of the
scatterers about the time average distribution. With a purely static
1For simplicitywe aawme free-space transmiwion.
 COHERENT vs. INCOHERENT SCATTERING 701

distribution this contribution must vanish, leaving only the first term.
Note that for r = r‘ the right-hand side of Eq. (8) is just the mean square
fluctuation of density, and it has been shown in many places that for
independent scatterers this mean square fluctuation is just fi(r).1
In general a time average such as is involved in the second term in a
can be obtained as follows. Let it be required to find
m .
n(r,t) n(r’,t) F’(r’) dr’ = n(r,t) rz(r’,t) F’(r’) dr’, (9)
/ o / 0

where l’(r) is any function of r alone (independent of time). In the

course of time the assembly of scatterers will pass through an infinity
of configurations, each configuration being specified by saying that
scatterer number 1 is at T1,scatterer number 2 is at rz, and so on, The
time average involved in Eq. (9) can be thought of as an average over
all configurations obtained by multiplying the integrand by the prob-
abilityy for a given configurateion W (TI, ra . . . r-~) (that is, the relative
frequency of the configuration) and integrating over all configurations.
The density function n(r,t) can be expressed in terms of the specification
of the given configuration by using the well-known Dirac 8 function,z
For a configuration in which the centers of the N scatterers are located
at rl, rz, . rfl, the number of such centers located between r and r + AT is
h’
J+Ar
n(r,t) Ar = ?L(T;TI,T2,
“ . . rN) AT =
M
1=-1
,
8(s – r,) ds; (lo)

that is, each position rl has a unit contribution to the number involved,
providing r~ lies inside the region, zero otherwise. From the properties
of the 8 function it then follows that
N
m m

/o
F’(T’) n(r’)t) dr’ =
I 0
F(?”) ~(r’,r, . . ~ rN) dr’ =
2
k=l
F’(r,). (11)

The time average required in Eq. (9) can now be expressed as a con-
figuration average:
.
Ar n(r,t) n(~’,t) F(r’) dr’ =

. . \o
N
ri-Ar
N

Ho
. . .
0
W(TI ~ . . TM) drl , . . drN
N
1=1
r
a(s – i-t) da
z
m-l
F(rm). (12)

I Cf. the derivation given in a similar connection in M. Born, Optik, Springer, Berlin.
1933, p. 374.
~See, for example H. Margenau and G. M. Murphy, The Mathematics of Ph@cs
and Chemistrg, Van Nostrand, New York, p. 325.
702 APPENDIX

We now introduce the assumption that scatterers are independent,

at least in the sense that the presence of the kth scatterer in any given
interval does not prejudice the presence of other scat terers.1 This
assumption naturally requires that the distance bet ween scatterers be
large compared to their dimensions, a necessary condition that is usually
amply satisfied. With this assumption the probability of any con-
figuration T1. . . rN is just the product of the individual probabilities of
finding a given scatterer at a given position;

where W(rt) drt is the probability of finding the Icth scatterer in the
interval between rk and r~ + dr~, and is given simply by

W(r) dr = ‘$ dr. (13)

Equation (12) thus can be written as

For values of the index k not equal to 1 or m the integrations over rt can
be performed immediately and lead to unity, for the integrand in each
case consists solely of n(r~)/N. For the remaining terms we must dis-
tinguish between the cases 1 = m and 1 # m. In the former case the
integrations over r~ can be carried out immediately for all k except
k = 1, whereas in the latter case two integrations are left: k = 1, and k = m:

By carrying out the integral over ri this reduces to

first

1It is exactly thig assumption which determines the “Gaussian” nature of the
statisticswe use.
 COHERENT V% INCOHERENT SCATTERING 703

Each temn in the summation over 1 and m is identical; hence the sums
reduce to N times each term, or
r+Ar m

! r
?i(s)F(s) d-s+
\ o
if dr’ ~’+A’E(S)
J,
d..

Finally we can let Ar ~ O so that the integral over s becomes just the
integrand times Ar:

Ar n(r,t)n(r’,t) F(r’) dr’ = Ar E(r)F(r) +

\ [ Lmn’r’)E@)F@’)dr’l”
Hence it follows that
m

1/[
o
n(r,t)n(r’,t) – E(r)fi(r’)
1 F(r’)G(r) dr dr’ =
/0
M7i(r)F’(r)G(r) dr. (16)

Applying this result to u [Eq. (7)] with F(r’) = eq”~”l\ and (1(r) = e+”~’li

we obtain
4mir 2

‘J = 1P*I
/ o
m E(r) dr + [pzl
II 0
rn R(r)e ~dr. (17)

The first term is just NIP21, the cross section per scatterer times the
number of scatterers, and therefore represents the usual incoherent
scattering, and the second term, as has been remarked, represents the
coherent scattering.
The integral involved in the coherent scattering obviously vanishes
if ;(r) is essentially constant, for it represents the average of E(r) over
an oscillatory function, which by itself averages to zero. Clearly the
magnitude of the coherent scattering will depend upon how much the
density function ;(r) varies over a period of the oscillatory function,
that is, in a distance x. Thus, qualitatively it can already be seen that
the magnitude of the coherent scattering will depend upon the gradient
of the density of particles. In fact, because the density of particles can
be taken to be zero at the origin and infinity, one can integrate by parts
and obtain such a dependence explicitly,

(18)

As an example of these results let us calculate the coherent scattering

from a uniform density gradient extending over a distance Ar less than
the pulse length. (It will be assumed that the edges of the pulse have
sufficiently gradual “sides” that they do not contribute to the coherent
scattering. ) We then have
+ A?

‘c= p’2(Mw/;e-’:’r
704 APPENDIX

or

(19)

Thus the maximum signal k already obtained when the gradient extends
over a strip no wider than k/27r.
It has already been pointed out that the effect of pulsed transmission
is the same as if there were a corresponding pulselike spatial distribution
of scatterers, so that a certain amount of coherent scattering can be
expected because of the fictitious gradient of n corresponding to the

Time ~

FIG. B. 1.—Trapezoidal pulse.

puke edges. Suppose the pulse sides sloped uniformly for a dist ante a
as in Fig. B.1. The slope of n is related to the total number of particles
N by
dE N
F=id
where b is a pulse length defined as the distance between the points
where n is 50 per cent of its maximum value. Then we have

and the cross section for coherent scattering is

“c= ““(:
)(:1[’cos(?)sint+)l
’20)
The ratio of coherent to incoherent scattering is then

“
0, KM(+) (21)

Even such a trapezoidal pulse is not a faithful reproduction of an

actual pulse, as it possesses discontinuities in the first derivative &/dr.
It can be seen from a comparison of Eqs, (17) and (18) that a discon-
tinuity in d7i/dr produces the same sort of effect as a discontinuity in 7i
 COHERENT V.. INCOHERENT SCA TTERZNG

itself, although diminished by a factor proportional to ~. Such dia-

705
I
continuities are artificial. A realistic model of a pufse should be smooth
in all its derivatives. A convenient form satisfying this characteristic
is a puke formed by an error integral curve reflected about R, as shown
in Fig. B.2.

‘(r) -4=1”=

dii(r)
T=

FIG. B2.-Error-integral pulse.

For sufficiently sharp pulses,

3=-++(+I’) ‘<R)
&
“+[”++w
F“–ba ‘>R ’22)
with b again approximately the pulse width between the half-density
points. Providing b >> a we can write

“& -* , ,,= :[:+(’-:) - ,-%(’+~)]/+”e-% e-%dr.

/ ~ &e -m

From Eqs. (18) and (17) the coherent scattering cross section is then
given by

The integration is easily effected bv completing the square in the exponent,

and the final result is

“=N2’’’2(*in2(Y) e)%-%
706 APPENDIX

The ratio of the coherent to incoherent scattering then has an upper

bound given by
&al
%$N-&2e-~ (!23)
ai ()

In comparison with a trapezoidal pulse of approximately the same

“sharpness” it is seen that the smooth pulse haa a much smaller coherent
scattering.

i
 Name Index

A Boltzmarm, L., 190

Bondi, H., 501
Abbott, F. R., 361, 428 Booker, H. G., 175, 318, 370-373, 603
Adam, M. G., 688
Born, M., 4, 451, 701
Adamson,G. P., 592
Bernstein, R., 190
Adel,A., 658
Bothwell, F. E., 697
Alexander,F. E. S., 265, 370
Braaten, A. M., 341
Ament,S., 177,476
Braham, R. R., 630
Anderson,J. A., 533
Bremmer, H., 22, 402, 404
Anderson,L. J., 285, 316, 328, 329, 334,
Brissman, D. N., 292
341, 361, 382, 428, 689
Brooke, N., 419
Anderson,P. A., 226, 283, 284, 286, 335,
Broxon, J. W,, 190
341, 532
Brune, O., 641
Arakawa,201
Brunt, D., 198, 211, 259
Archer-Thompson,H., 419
Burgoyne, R. H., 223, 226, 249, 300
Ashby, R. M., 540, 576
Burke, C. J., 228
Atkinson,J. R., 363
Burrows, C. R., 40, 41, 53, 112, 125, 336,
Austin,L. W., 2 374, 398
Autler,S. H., 669
Byers, H. R., 181, 255, 618, 630
B c
Babcock, H. D., 653 Carleen, J. F., 468
Baker,B. B., 4 Carroll, T. J,, 341, 432
Baldwin,M. W., Jr., 593 Carson, John R., 698
Bales,P. D.. 562 Carter, R. H. A., 9
Baltzer,O. J., 475, 501 Chandreskhar, S,, 553
Barber,N. F., 486 Coales, J. R,, 545
Barker,C. B., 406 Cockroft, A. L., 491, 501
Barker,C. L., 283 Condon, E. U., 652
Barlow,E., 557, 561 Cooper, R. I. B., 543, 546, 562
Barr, 476 Copson, E. T., 4
Bateman,R., 341, 432 Corcoran, N., 540, 541
Bauchman,R. W., 226, 374 Cornish, V., 486, 488
Becker,G. E., 669 Counter, V. A., 475
Becker,J. A., 272 Cowan, E. W., 490, 501
Beecbing,G. H., 540, 541 Coxhead, A. B,, 593
Bent, ArthurE., 5’97,621-640 Craig, Richard A,, 194-198, 22&264, 265,
Bergmann,P. G.. 533 266-271, 346
Beringer,R., 655, 656, 665 Crain, C. M., 191
Best, A. C., 616, 679 Crawford, A. B., 336, 339, 374, 386, 388,
Bethe,H. A., 465 532, 595
Bigelow,H. B., 486, 490 Cross, P. C., 660
Binnian,W., 226, 374 Crout, P. D., 697
Blow, P. B., 476, 546 Curran, J. E., 480
707
708 NAME INDEX

D G

Dane, F. P., 316 Gachter, K., 13, 191

Davies, H., 491, 501 Gamow, G., 71
Day, J. P., 316, 342, 350, 689 Garrett, G. A., 502, 512
Debye, P., 13, 189, 609, 643 Gerdel, R. W., 268
Decino, A., 336 Gerhardt, J. R., 378, 385, 595, 603
Dennison, D. M., 657, 658 Gewertz, C. M., 641
Dicke, R. H., 655, 668 Gibbs, W. F., 621
Dieke, G. H., 653 Gall, J. R., 98, 113, 136
Doble, S. M., 290 Gilman, G. W,, 593
Dodson, H. W., 98, 113, 136 Ginnings, D. C., 188
Domb, C., 98, 113, 125, 607 Ginsburg, N., 658
Dunmore, F. W., 284 Gold, T., 419, 501, 579
Dunsmuir, R., 685, 686 Goldstein, Herbert, 419421, 434, 445,
Durkee, A. L., 341 481-621, 671-692, 699-706
Goldskin, L., 451, 609, 673, 674
E Goldstein, S., 208
Gordon, W. E., 272, 318, 387, 389, 594,
Eccles, W. H., 2 595, 603
Eckerdey, T. L., 71, 151, 519 Gordy, W. O., 475
Edmondson, W. T., 486, 490 Gorter, C. J., 643
Elsasser, W M., 271, 272, 346, 648 Goudsrnit, S. A., 468, 554
Erode, F., 458 Gould, W. B., 593
Emmons, Gardner, 230, 236, 248 Gray, M. C., 112, 125
Englund, C. R,, 336, 339, 374 Green, C. B., 272
Engstrom, J. A., 378 Guillemin, E. .4., 641
Eon, L. G., 592 Gunn, R., 599
Eyres, N., 175

H
F

Fairhank, J. D., 501 Haddock, F. T., 611, 612

Fairbank, W. ilf., 475, 501 Haeff, A. V,, 471
Ferrcll, E. B., 53, 336, 374 Hairier, R. M., 660
Feshbach, H., 519 Hamlin, E. W., 389, 390
Fishback, William T., 112-140, 373-385, Harrison, L. P., 183
396, 421444 Hartree, D. R., 175, 177
Fitzsimmons, K. E., 283, 335 Harwood, Margaret, 564
Flemmg, J. A., 2 Hatcher, R. W., 341
Fletcher, J, 0., 593 Haurwitz, B., 232, 255, 271, 279, 346
Ford, L. H., 398, 434 Hayes, W. A., 363
Frank, N. H., 417 Heaviside, O., 2
Frank, P., 6’38 Hector, L. G., 190
Freehafer, J. E., 1-3, 9-22, 41-112, 174- Hershberger, W, D., 9
180 Her. berg, L,, 653
Freres, C. H., 689 Hibbert, J, J., 512
Friend, A. W., 13, 339, 593, 594 Helter, N. J., 490
Friis, H. T., 31, 593 Hontgast, J., 533
Fry, T. C., 550 Hopkins, M., 545
Furry, Wendell H., 71, 140-174 Howard, B. E., 98, 113, 136
 NAME INDEX 709

Hewlett, J., 175 L

Hoyle, F., 328, 412, 419
Hudspeth, E. L., 468, 475 Lack, D., 368, 595
Hrdl, Roes A., 339, 342 LaGrone, A. H., 389
Hull, R. A., 688 Lamb, H., 346
Humphreys, W, J., 599, 680, 68.3, 684 Lamb, J., 685, 686
Hunt, L. E., 336 Lamb, W. E., Jr., 669
Hurst, C., 688 Lament, H. R. L., 429, 655
lIutner, R. A., 113, 137, 440 Landolt, H., 190
Lane, J. A., 674
I Langille, R. C., 592
LltWS, J. O., 616, 617, 620, 680, 681, 683
Lawson, J. L., 540, 543, 576
Ingersoll, J. G., 654
Ingham, J., 363
Lee, Y. w., 641
Lettau, H., 208, 214
Inglefield, S., 290
Lewis, W. D., 31
Linder, E. G., 688
J
Linford, L. B., 470, 471
Lorentz, H. A., 693
Jacques, R, B., 472 Lukes, George D., 199
Jahnke, E., 458 Lyman, E, M., 512
James, R. W., 363
Jarkowski, H., 323 M
Jeffreys, H., 486
Jenkins, F. A,, 4, 417 McDonald, A. W., 476
Jordan, A. R., 190 MacFarlane, G. G., 177, 412, 501, 519
Josephson, V., 470 Maclusky, G, S. R., 501
McPetrie, J. S., 323
K Mandeville, C. E., 468
Marconi, G., 1
Kallman, H., 641 hfarcus, P. M., 467, 468
Katz, Isadore, 198-199, 202-207, 264–265, }Iargenau, H., 701
272, 295, 336 Mark, H., 641
Katzin, M., 226, 374, 476, 478 Marshall, J. S., 592, 620
Kempton, A. E., 367 hfartin, F. W., 540, 576
Kennelly, A. E., 2 Mealey, K. L., 502, 512
Kerr, Donald E,, 3-8, 22-41, 328-353, }Iegaw, E. C. S., 323, 325-327, 342, 373
361-373, 385-430, 445481, 621-640, Meng, C. Y., 654
693-698 kIerritt, F. R., 26, 658
Kessler, 31..468 Jliddleton, W. E. K., 182, 272, 280
Kigenhuis, kV., 641 iVlie, G., 674, 687
King, A. P., 538, 688 Miller, J. C. P., 95
King, G. W., 66o hfimno, H, R., 3
Knowles, F. F,, 592 Minnaert, M., 533
Kock, W. E., 386 Mitchell, IL M., 295, 336
Keller, L. R., 543, 546 Moglich, F., 687
Koscoe, G. F., 639 Montgomery, R. B., 181-189, 20&202,
Kramers, H. A., 641 208-223, 226, 230, 231, 249, 268.292,
Kronig, R. de L., 641, 643 300
Kuhn, T., 480 Moree, P. M., 457, 460
Kuiper, G. P., 572, 573 Mueller, G. E., 654, 655, 689
Kyhl, R. L., 655 Mumford, W. W., 336, 339, 374
710 NAME INDEX

Munk, W. H., 486 s

Murphy, G. M., 701
Stinger, R., 13, 191
N Saxton, J. A., 610, 667, 674, 675
Schelkunoff, S. A., 28, 31, 698
Namias, J., 260 Schelleng, J. C., 53, 336, 374
Nash, J. P., 373 $chiff, L. I., 519, 554
Neelands, L. J., 295, 336 Schlapp, R., 649, 653
Nicholson, J. W., 411 Schultz, H. L., 190
Nicholson, P., 175 Schuster, A., 411
Noetherj F., 3 Scott, J. M. C., 533
Norton, K. A., 40, 112, 350, 416 Seay, P. A., 272
~ Sharplezs, W. M., 386, 388, 432.532
Sherwoo& E. M., 427, 433
Shortley, G. H., 652
O’Brien, M. P., 486, 487
Sicinski, L., 323
Oliver, R., 398, 434
Siegert, A. J. F., 519, 556, 574, 598, 699-
Omberg, A. C., 416
706
Osborne, N. S., 188
Sinclair, G., 472
P Slater, J. C., 417, 698
Smith, R, A,, 491, 501
Palmer, W’, Jf., 592 Smith-Rosa, R. L., 325, 341, 347
Parke, N. G., 318, 603 Smyth, J. B., 315, 334, 346, 350, 361, 428,
Parker. F. D., 113 689
Parsons, O. A;, 616,617,620,680,681, 6S3 Sollfrey, W., 557
Pearcey, T., 175, 178, 179, 316, 334 Sommerfeld, A., 3, 40
Pearson, G. L,, 272 Southworth, G. C., 538
Pekeris, C. L., 12, 111, 175, 177, 180, 317, Spencer, R. C., 466, 468
374, 378, 385 Spilhaus, A. F., 278
Petterssen, S., 263 Starnecki, B. J., 312, 323.327
Pryce, M. H. L., 51, 98, 113, 125, 412 Steiger, 0,, 13, 191
Purcell, E. M., 468, 664-671 Stephenson, S. T., 283, 285, 329, 335
Stickland, A. C., 325, 341
R Stimson, H. F., 188
Stokes, A. P D., 285, 329, 689
Rado, G. T., 616, 689
Straiton, A. W., 385, 390, 398, 532
Ramsay, J. A., 367, 476, 546
Stranathan, J. D., 13, 191
Rarospeck, G. D., 378
Strandberg, .M. W. P., 654
Randall, H. M., 658
Stratton, J. A., 4, 61, 396, 445, 454 455,
Rayleigh, Lord, 519, 553
599, 601, 671, 674, 694
Renwick, W., 501
Stumpers, F. L., 641
Revelle, R., 361, 428
Sutro, 480
Rlblet, H. J., 406
Sverdrup, H. U., 212, 219, 486
Rice, S. O., 412, 553, 559
Robertson, S. D., 538, 688
T
Rodgers, R. A., 592
Rossby, C.-G., 214, 218 Tangl, K., 190
Rubenstein, P. J., 34, 112, 189-193, 294- Terman, F. E., 398
322, 341, 354-361, 385-395, 421, 430, Tibbler, L. G., 592
457 Tolbert, C. W., 398
Ryde, D., 609, 674-683, 685+8S, 692 Tomlin, M., 316
Ryde, J. W., 609, 611, 613, 614, 618-620, Tovmes, C. H., 26, 658
t37&683, 68$-688, 692 Tregidga, A. C., 191
 NAME INDEX 711

Trevor, B., 9 Weber, L. R., 658

Troleee, L. G., 334, 342, 346, 350, 361, 689 Weiss, P. R., 468
Weisskopf. V., 650
u Westwater, F. L., 326, 363
Wexler, R., 595
White, H. E., 4, 417
Uhlenbeck, G. E,, 553, 557, 558
Wkkizer, G. S., 341
Ursell, F., 486
Wilkes, M. V., 476, 546
Williams, D., 470
v Willis, F. H., 593
Wolff , 1,, 688
van der Pol, B., 22, 402, 404 Wood, R. W., 533
Van Vleck, J. H., 189, 641WM4 Woodcock, A. H., 269, 533
Vane, A. B., 655 Woodcock, W., 470
Varley, G. C., 369 Woodward, A. M W., 95
von Miees, R., 698 Woodward, P. M., 95

w Y

Walkinshaw, W., 480 Younker, E. L,, 686

Walz, F. C., 190
Wang, Ming Chen, 553, 558 z
Waterman, A. T,, Jr., 387
Watson, A. G. D., 429 Zahn, C, P., 191
Watson, G. N., 3, 22 Zenneck, J., 2, 3
 Subject Index

A Airy integral, 95, 149, 150

asymptotic expansion of, 150
“.%ngels,” 593–595
.4bsorption, atmospheric, by oxygen, 26,
Angle, of arrival, affecting radar echoes,
646-656, 663
532
by water vapor, 26, 646, 647, 656–664
measurements of, 386-391
dielectric, 24, 676-67S
by ray theory, 391
nonresonant, 643, 652-653
of penetration, 17
by particles, 23, 67&678 Antenna gain, definition of, 28-29
relation of, to index of refraction, 641 – Antenna pattern, cosecant-squared, 38
646 symmetrical, 38
resonant, 644, 646, 653 Antenna pattern function, 27-31, 116,
Absorption coef6cient, 24, 647, 650 437440, 482, 589, 629
for oxygen, 647, 651+56, 663 definition of, 27
measurements of, 654-656, 665 Antenna pattern symmetry in pattern-
theory of, 648-656 propagation factor, 38
for water vapor, measurements of, 659, Antennas, metal-lens, 386
66&671 Anticyclone, Pacific, 262
theory of, 65&664 subtropical, 261
Addltivity rule, 190 Anticyclonic conditions, 347
Adiabatic lapse rate, 194 Antigua, B.W.I., 226
Adiabatic process, 186, 193 experimentin, 374
ADRDE-CAEE, 479-481 Anti-Stokes lines, 73
Advection fog, 230 for Eckerslev modes. 84
AeromeWorographs, 347 Assembly of random scatterers, 551, 554
Aeropsychrograph, 272, 297, 298 average echo frem, 589-591, 699-700
coherence of scattering from, 601, 699–706
on PBY aircraft, 276
frequency sensitivity of echo from, 529
Aerapsychrograph housing, 274, 275
theory of fluctuation f~om, 553
Air, dry, density of, 292
Asymptotic expansion of Airy integral, 150
homogeneous, 193, 207
Asymptotic representations of solution of
molecular weight of, 292
wave equation, 70, 75-77, 92–95, 98,
specific heat of, 293
101, 105, 110
unstable, modification of, 226
Atmospheric absorption (see Absorption,
warm, over cold water, 237–250
atmospheric)
probable modification processes for,
Atmospheric inhomogeneities, as cause of
249-250
echo fluctuations, 53 1–535
Air Defense Research and Development meteorological evidence for, 267–271,
Establishment (ADRDE), 175, 479- 533, 595, 603
481 as producing radar echo, 594, 600-604,
Air-mass boundary, 339 7C43,703
Aircraft echoes, azimuth variation of, 543 theory of effect on echo fluctuations,
propeller modulation of, 539-541 533-535
slow fading of, 543 wavelength dependence of resulting
Accraft psychrometer, 287, 288 transmission instability, 534
713
714 SUBJECT INDEX

Atmospheric waves, 346 Bilinear iV-profiles, examples of, 143

Attenuation, by atmospheric gases (see Birds, echoes from, 595
Absorption) Black-body radiation, beclouds, 254
by fog and clouds, 24, 682 by earth, 254
by hailstones, 25 Blue Hill, 296, 551
within meteorological echoes, 613–615 Boundary conditions, at earth’s surface,
by precipitation, measurements of. 688- 58,62-64, 111-112
692 for meteorological quantities, 201,255
by rain, connection of, with back scat- simplified, 140
tering, 615 at infinity, 71, 76
for small drops, 676-677, 682 statistical nature of, 430, 527
wavelength dependence of, 682, 684 for targets, 445, 448, 454, 456, 458, 462,
by solid precipitation, 685-688 476
Attenuation constant, in clouds or fog, for trapped modes, 78
672473, 677 Boundary error in correlation function,
for hailstones, 687 57+572
forice and snow, 687-688
Boundary friction, 221
for precipitation, 672
Boundary layer, turbulent (see Turbulent
approximate fOrmulas for, 676 boundary layer)
Iimits on, 673-674, 68o, 691 Branch cuts, 66, 109
relation of, to precipitation rate, 673.
Branch points, 66, 109
680, 683-684, 691
Brewster’s angle, 399
rigorous values for, 678-680, 682+84
Bright band from snow echoes, 620
temperature dependence of, 677, 685
British Meteorological Office, 288,289,341
for very small drops, 676+i77
for rain, anomolous values for, at 1.25
cm, 691-692
experimenta lvaluesfor, 691
c
for various rains, 682484
Attenuation function, 122
Calibration of receiver output, 564-566
for first mode, 126, 161, 16$174
Cambridge Field Station of Watson Labo-
Audio-frequency spectrometers, 562, 576
ratories, 594
Austin-Cohen formula, 2, 3
Cambridge University, 175, 177
Canadian Army Operational Research
B Group, 592
Cardigan Bay, 323
Caustic, 19,58,391,393
Back-scattering cross section, definition of, Central Radio Propagation Laboratory,
33 350
Barrier, 76 Chaff, 55o
nonstandard Iayer aa, 168 first probability distributions for echo
Beam width, affecting sea echo, 483-485, from, 571–575
491 fluctuations inechofrom,551, 572-575
Bell Telephone Laboratories, 336, 348, frequency spectra of echoes from, 572
386, 432 mean spread in velocity of, 574
Bilinear M-profile and angle of arrival, 393 voltige correlation function of, 567
comparison of, with theory and experi- Characteristic, 20
ment, 307-313 of ray, 49
fitting of, to data, 308 Characteristic curve, 200-202
Bilinear modified-index profile, analytical modification of, by varying water tem-
statement of, 142 perature, 252
 SUBJECT INDEX 715

Characteristic diagram. 184, 189, 191, Correlation function, statistical fluctua-

200-203, ‘236,300 tions in, 568, 569
Characteristic functions, 176 and velocity distribution of scatterers,
for first mode, 161 556
Characteristic values, 21, 68, 70, 71, 176 Correlations, between angle of arrival and
for bilinear N-profile, 146, 162 M-profile, 388
for first mode, 161 between one-way transmission and re-
forlarge values ofgands = + <~,171 fraction, California coast, 32S335
methods for calculating, 146 Flathead Lake, 335
fors nearly unity, 163 Irish Sea, 322–327
of trapped modes, 75 Massachusetts Bay, 301–322
Clapeyron’s equation, 183,279 overland circuits, 33&353, 341
Cloud cover, 255 (table)
Clutter echoes, definition of, 550 South Walesta Mt. Snowdon, 328
measuring techniques for, 562–571 between radar echees and M-profiles,

nature of fluctuations in, 55&553 35$361, 365-368

theory of fluctuations from, 553–562 between radar echoes and one-way
transmission, 10, 361, 367
Coherent scattering, from assemblies of
between radar echoes and precipitation,
random scatterers, 601-607, 69%706
591-592
magnitude of, from drops, 600, 605-607
between radar echoes and superrefrac-
Cold fronts, 263
tion, 363, 367–373
echoes from, 23, 630-632
Coverage, distortion of, by refraction,
Conduction (thermal), 213, 219
!+11, 366, 369, 370, 374-385, 427, 473
Conductivity (thermal), 208,209,293
and specular reflection from earth, 406
Connection formulas, 71,75
statistical properties of, 430
Conservative property, 186,200,206,207
wavelength dependence of, 409
Contour diagram, 32
Coverage diagram, 32
free-space, 30
coarse, 130, 139
Contours, of constant field strength, 130
approximate calculation Of, 13&1413
of field strength insurface duct, 178, 179
free-space, 32
Convection, 193,220, 268, 283
generalized equation for, 36
Convective mixing, 225 253,258 for plane earth, 39
Cooling, from below, 220, 228-231, 251, radar, free-space, 34
254, 300 Cross section, effective, of antenna, 31
overland, 234 of raindrops, 60tW512
over water, 232
aPProxi~te exprexions for, 60g
of initially stratified air over water, 251 tables of, 612
nocturnal (see Nocturnal cooling) pm unit area for sea echo, 483
Correlation function, in amplitude, 557, per unit volume for echoes from iens,
567-569 599
connection of, with frequency spectrum, for meteorological echoes, 590, 61 f&621
559 cusps, 393
definition of, 556
effect of steady signal on, 562 D
errors in measurement of, 569
for finite sample, 566, 568 Debye formula for dielectric constant, 609,
measurement of, 566 643, 652, 675
for nonstationary signals, 567–569 Deer Island, 296, 297
of InR, 558 Depolarization, 389, 457, 468
in power, 568 hy rough surfaces, 539
in Preeence Of noise, 559, 566 by scattering cylinder, 462
716 SUBJECT INDEX

Depth-loss, 169 Dry-adiabatic lapse rate, 194, 280

Depth-loss effect, 168, 170 Duct, 9, 14.17-22, 143
Dew point, 182, 186, 207 associated with M-inversions, 1.5
potential, 198, 200 conditions for, over water, 9, 223–226,
Dew-point hygrometer, 182, 186 228–234, 254-260
Dielectric constant, compkw,397,44S elevated, 14, 18
pmpertiesof, 641 surface (see Surface duct j
table of, 398 trapping in, 21
for water, 674 (,See also .kf-inversion)
of air, experimental information m]. 190 Duct height, 21.225, 238, 243
of earth, 111, 398 definition of, 224
general properties of, 641–646 and height of temperature inversion, 244
properties of reai and imaginary part of: ratio of, to M-deficit, 225. 241, 243
642 Duxbury, Nlass., 298
relation of, to absorption, 641–646
resonant and nonresonant, 643
of seawater, 111, 398
E
for water, 398, 609-613, 674+75
f,Seeaiso Index, of refmctinn)
Diffraction byearth’s surface, 6.34
Diffraction region,5, 6, 109 Earth, effective radius of, 6, 53, 115, 339,
Diffusion, 213, 248,252 392, 406
Diffusion theory, 175,238 Earth curvature, 40, 48, 50
Diffusivity, 209, 293 Earth-flattering method, Maxwell’s eq ua-
Diplane, 11 tions for, 51
Dipole moment, 13, 190, 451, 461, 599, Eastern Point, Gloucester, llass., 295-297
609,646,649, 650,652,658, 675,677 Echo box, nonresonant, 669–67 1
Direct ray, 5,36,37,38,99, 100, 104, 107 Eckersley modes, 71, 84
116 generalized discussion of, 85–s7
Disdr.meter, 617 phase-integral method for, 87, 151
Diurnal cycle, 253-260 Eddy diffusion, 208, 219, 232, 238, 245
Diurnal effects, 337-339, 343, 351, 368 Eddy diffusivity, 208, 211, 213, 218, 238
on California coast, 331 height distribution of, 219, 239
in Irish Sea, 321, 324 ratio of, to eddy viscosity, 211-212
in Massachusetts Bay, 321 Eddy strem, 210, 216, 218
Divergence factor, 40, W, 113-115, 137, Eddy transfer of heat and water vapor,
138, 401, 404 211, 212
Diversity effects, and avemge signal level, Eddy viscosity, 208, 210, 213, 214, 217,
306 218
frequency, 304, 306 dynamic, 210
spatial, 304, 306, 345, 420, 432 ratio of, to eddy cliffusivity, 21 1–21 z
Diversity reception, 136 Rossby’s dktribution of, 215
Dominant terms, 73, 103 Edge effects in scattering, 457, 462, 464,
Drop-size distribution, 672, 6N1-681 465
method of measuring, 61.%618 Eikonal, 41
Droplet theory of sea echo, 494, 497, 519, Ekman spiral, 213, 214
522–527 Electrolytic hygrometer, 182, 284, 286
difficulties of, 526 Ellipsoid, scattering by, 464
polarization dependence of, 523-525 Elliptic paraboloid, scattering by, 464
Drops, attenuation by, 615, 67&&35 Emagram, 188
cross sectious of, 60&G13 English Channel, 367
 SUBJECT INDEX 717

Equilibrium, neutral, 213, 223, 226, 238 Figure of merit, 135

definition of, 195 Filter-paper method for drop-size distrib-
stable, 220, 228, 234, 238 ution, 615
definition of, 196 Finite number of scatterers, fluctuations
fluctuations in, 27C-271 from, 515, 554
shear in, 234–237 First-hop length of ray, 83
unstable, 220, 225, 235, 268 First probability distribution, in ampli-
definition of, 196 tude, 554
fluctuations in, 268 for chaff echees, 571–572
Euler’s equation, 45 definition of, 514, 554
Evaporation coefficient, 224 for finite number of scatterers, 554
definition of, 219 for ground clutter, 582-583
Evaporation duct, 329, 336, 364, 374 in power, 555
Expanded elevation indicator, 627 for precipitation echo. 575
Extra-optical path, 6 in presence of secular variation, 518
for random scatterers plus steady signal,
F 560-561
for sea echo, 515–516, 579
Fading, 302, 324, 335, 339, 34o Flat-earth formulas, region of validity of,
amplitude of, 307, 336, 343, 346, 348, 121-122
350 Flathead Lake, 335
early studies of, over land, 337 Flour method for drop-size distribution,
effect of path geometry in, 343 616
on Mt. Snowdon, 328 Fluctuation frequency spectrum, as Dop-
on 1.25 cm, 312 pler beats, 516, 575
period of, 304, 35o for sea echo, 516-518, 57%581
proposed mechanisms for, over land, 339 Fluctuations, in M, 268-271
of radar echoes, 354, 363, 367 of radar echoes, from aircraft, 539-543
as random process, 31 3–3 15, 328 due to atmospheric variations, 531-
roller (see Roller fading) 535
of ship echoes, 543 from chaff, 551, 572–575
synchronism of, 307, 328, 336, 345, 346 from complex targets, 547-550
wavelength dependence of, 307, 324, experimental Wchniques for, 562–571
343, 348 origin of, 527
Federal Communications Commission, 35o from precipitation, 551
Fermat’s principle, 6, 45, 99 from ships, 543–547
Fetch, 488 from two interfering simple targeti,
Field attenuation, 30, 31 549
Field strength, constant, contours of, 130 due to varying ground reflection, 539
contours of, in surface duct, 178, 179 dne to varying water reflection, 53,&
from dipole, 21, 58 538
integral for, 95, 101 of sea echo, 486, 514–518, 551
free-space, 29 in stable equilibrium, 27W271
from k/2 doublet. 30 in unstable air, 269, 270, 375
level surfaces of, 42 in unstable equilibrium, 268
standard, definition of, 14 FOCUS, 19, 58, 391, 393
with standard refraction, 112 Fog, 230, 326
Field-strength calculation, for bilinear pro- advection, 230
file, 168 and fading, 346
sample of, in interference region, 117– vs. poor visibility and substandard
122 transmission, 324
at total horizon range, 125 Foliage, 584
718 SUBJECT INDEX

J?orccastlng of propagation conditions, 368 Grazing path, 6

Free-space range, 31,33 Geogory humidiometer, 289
forone-wa ytransmission, 32 Ground-controlled approach (GC.4) ra-
Free-space transmission, 27–34 dar, 432
Frequency dependence of sea echo, 494- Ground clutter, definition of, 551
499, 511, 524 division of, into moving and ~~tionary
Frequency sensitivity of radar targets, targets, 552, 582
529-531 first probability distributions for, 582–
Frequency spectrum, for chaff echoes, 583
572-575 fluctuations of, 551–553, 582–587
connection of, with correlation function, effect of wind speed on, 551, 584
559 frequency spectra for, 584–587
definitionof, 558 Ground reflections, effect of, on echo fluc-
dependence of, on pulse length, 579 tuations, 539
for ground clutter, 582-587
anomalous shapes of, 587
H
effect of wind speed on, 585
for sea echo, 57$582
Frequency stability of radar systems, 528 Hailstones, 25
Fresnel diffraction, 412 attenuation by, 25, 687
Fresnel equations for specular reflection, echoes from, 619
396 Hair hygrometer, 182
Fresnel intigrals, 477 Half-period zones, 413
Fresnel zones, 417 Hankel functions, modified, of order one-
on targets, 464, 468 third, 94
Frictional influence, layer of, 213, 231 Harvard University, 339
Frontal inversion, 263 Haze layers and signal fluctuations, 346
Frontal passage, 264 Heat, latent, 183
Frontal surface, 263 of vaporization of water, 188, 293
Fronts, 263, 319, 325, 331, 347 Heat capacity of air, 293
Heating from below, 193, 220, 221, 227,
228, 300, 364
G over land in daytime, 222
over tropical oceans, 222, 223
Height, natural unit of, 96
Gain of antenna, 29, 31 as function of wavelength, 123
Gamow mode, 83, 306 Height-gain effect, 10, 304, 307, 35o, 375,
Gamow phase-integral method, 151, 167 378
Grmsaian distribution of clutter echoes, Height-gain function, 22, 112, 122, 168
555 differential equation for, 145
Geometrical optics, 4, 6, 41, 50 for first mode, 128
in back scattering, 461, 465-468 of first mode for bilinear N-profile, 164
Geometrical parameters for standard pro- 166
pagation in interference regmn. 116 normalization of, 65, 78, 86, 141–142
Geostrophic wind, 213 of second mode for bilinear N-profile,
Gradients, horizontal, 267 167
of refractive modulus, 192, 198 unnormalized, 78
of temperature, 192 Height-1oss effect, 10
of vapor presmre, 192 Height measurements by radar, errors in,
vertical, 193 from refractive effects., 385, 436
Gravitational waves, 346 from specular reflection, 436
Grazing angle, 108, 114, 115 Hertz vector, 58-6o
 SUBJECT INDEX 719

H&tzian dipoles, freespace transmission Interference region, 5, 6, 113–122, 408

equation for, 32 Intermediate region, 125, 409
High-resolution appearance of sea echo, Ions, echo from, 598
491 Irish Sea experiment, 322
High wind conditions, 347 u%mlts of, summary of, 323
Homogeneous air, definition of, 193 Isobaric cooling, 186
Homogeneous layer, 221, 222, 226 Isotropic antenna, definition of, 28
Horizon, 5
Horizon ray, 17
J
Horizontal velocities of raindrops, 577
Humidiometer, 289
Humidity, 182, 206 Jordan’s lemma, 110
absolute, 182
rels tive, 182, 184, 206
K
specific, 185, 187, 188, 206
in turbulent boundary layer, 218
Humidity deficit, 224, 229 Kinematic viscosity, 208, 214, 293
definition of, 222 Kite ascents, 262
Hurricanes, 23, 63&-640 KXS trials, 327, 363
Huygens’ principle, 412, 454
Hydrostatic equilibrium, stable, 220
L
unstable, 220
Hygrometer, dew-point, 182, 186
electrolytic, 284, 286 Lag coefficient, 280
of hl L-313, 287
I for psychograph, 280-281
Laminar suhlayer, 209, 213, 219
Ice, index of refraction for, 686 Laplace integral, 88
lee-bulb thermometer, 283 Lapse rate, 193
Ice crystals, attenuation by, 687-688 adiabatic, 194
echoes from, 618 of dew point in homogeneous air, 196
Ice point, 292 dry-adiabatic, 194, 280
Incoherent scatterers, 588–591, 69%706 moist-adiabatic, 194, 27!)
Index, modified (see Modified index) saturation-adiabatic, 194
of refraction, of air, 6, 189 in subsidence, 260
atmospheric, constancy of, in micro- of vapor pressure, 196
wave region, 641, 643 of wet-bulb temperature in homogene-
dependence of, on meteorological ous air, 197
parameters, 13, 191 Latent heat, 183
for ice, 686 of vaporization of water, 188, 293
for water, 609–613, 674–676 Layer, elevated, 14
(See also Dielectric constant) (SC, also Duct, elevated)
Inhomogeneity of rain, 24, 672, 684, 689 of frictional influencer 213
Insects, echoes from, 595 outer, 214
Instability of radar systems, causing echo homogcmous, 193, 199, 231, 235
fluctuations, 527–529 nonstandard, as barrier, 75, 76, 83, 168
limits uf, 528 saturated, 207
Interference effects, as solu-ce of echo fluc- standard, 14, 235
tuations, 535–538, 543–545, 547–550 substandard (see Substandard 1ayer)
Interference pattern, 5, 3&40, 113–122, supers tandard (see S(1perstandard layer)
407410, 421–444 surface (see Surface layer)
fluctuations of, 535 Leaking modes. 22, 71, 84, 333, 378, 382
 720 ,’5fJBJECT INDEX

Length, natural unit of, as function of Mark VIaircraft psychrometer, 288,289

wavelength, 124 Massachusetts Bay, 226, 295, 296
Line of sight, 5 meteorological measuremcn ts and arI.
Line-hredth constant, 650, 654 alysis of, 297
for oxygen, 654–656 radio measurements of, 296
for water vapor, 658-664 M.I.T. Weather Radar Project, 577, 617
Line broaderring,645, 650 Jfaxwell’s equations in earth-flattening
Linear-exponential M-profile, contm]rs of method, 51
fieklstrengthfor, 178-180 hfechanictil integration by differential
Linear-exponcmtial profile 16!1, 174 analyzers, 177
Linear moditied-indcx profile,, 14–16, 87 Mechanical mixing, 238, 252
Lloyd’smirmr. 4 and tcmpcr~turc excess, 231
Lobe-switching, 436 and wind speed, 231
Lobes, 39, 40, 407-410 kfetal-lens antennas, 386
Loci of A R (s) and A 13 (s) in r,)mplex Meteor expedition, 262
plane, 158
Meteorograph, 337
Locus of maxima, 137
IIeteomlogical conditions, nonuniform,
Logarithmic distribution, 223
315, 31&319, 368
of specific hl)m]dity, 218
Meteorological constants, 292
of temperature, 223
Meteorological echoes, average echo from,
in turbulent boundary la,vcr, 215 5!3g_591
of velocity, 217
from causes other than precipitate on,
of water vapor, 223
593–595
Long-wave transmissim), proposed mecha-
and coherent scattering, 605-607
nisms for, 1
correlation of, with pre.cipltation, 591–
Lorentz reciprocity theorem (see Reci-
592
procity theorum)
cross section of, per unit volume, 590
absoll~te measurements of, 597–598
aPprOxima~ calculation of, 59&597
dcpeudenm of, on antenna srea, 591
M, fluctuations in, 268-271
011 beam width, 59o
M-deficit, 222, 229, 230, 234, 237-239,
on drop size, 596
244, 245
on pulse length, 59o
M-gradient. standmd, definition of, 14
magnitude of, from atmospheric in-
M-inversion, 14
homogeneities, 600-604
definitionofj 15
nondrop theories of, 598
elevated, 18, 223,249,261–266, 302–304,
from solid precipitation, 618
32%335, 339, 359, 361, 362. 364,
validity of Rayleigh scattering law for,
366, 372, 373, 382
598
overhanging, 304, 332
variants of drop theories of, 6M–608
and 256 Me/s transmission, 315
(See also Precipitation echoes)
shallow, 224
with subsidence, 261 Meteorological Instruments, 272
M-profile, bilinear [see Bilinear M-profile) Microwave spectrm.copy, 25
characteristic values for, 146-163 Migratory highs, 261
definition of, 14 Mithmeter waves, absorption of, by water
linear-exponential, 312 vapor, 664
power-law, 312 raindrop radar cross sections for, 612
standard, definition of, 14 Mixing, 200, 201
Manchester, University of, 175, 177 convective, 225
Mapping, method of, for obtaining char- mechanical (see Mechanical mixing)
acteristic values, 146 Mixing ratio, 185, 187, 188, 200, 206
 SUBJECT INDEX 721

ML-313 psychrometer, 287 Nocturnal radiation, 220, 232, 234, %4,

lag cdficient of, 287 359
Mede, single, in duct, 19 and elevated M-inversions, 316
Modes, elementary, 18 Nocturnal surface invemions, 339, 348
Modification, of air over water, for long Noise, detection of radar echoes in, 471
trajectories, 248-250 effect of, on first and second probability y
height of, 238, 241, 242 distributions, 559
Modification cross section, 23%241 on receiver output calibration, 565
Modified index, 12, 50, 53, 191, 192 Nonlinear receiver characteristics, effects
definition of, 12 of, on measurement accuracy, 564-
inadequacy of, over land, 352 571
Modified-index gradient, 192 Normalization, of heighfigain function,
Modified-index profile, bilinear, analytical 141-142
statement of, 142 Numerical integration of Riccati equation,
idealizations and definitions of types of, 177
14
nonlinear, 174 0
Modulus, potential, 198-200, 207
definition of, 199
Occlusions, 347
Modulus deficit, 224
Office of Chief Signal Officer, 341
deiixition of, 222
Optical path, 6
Itloist-adiabatic lapse rate, 194, 297
Optical path length, 47, 50, 99-100, 104,
hlonsoons, 371, 372
107
Lit. Snowdon, 328
Optics, geometrical (see Geometrical
Multiple moments, of cylinder, 461
optics)
of raindrops, 608–610
physical, 4, 58
of sphere, 7, 451–452
Over-water transmission, general charac-
Multiple-ray paths, 388, 390, 395
teristics of, for Massachusetts Bay,
Multiples on raindrops, 676
301-307
Overland transmission, general features of,
340
ix Overland transmission paths, 341
Oxygen, 26
absorption by, 64&656, 663
A’-inversion, definition of, 15
magnetic dipole transitions in, 649
N-profile, 14
rotational spectrum of, 649, 653–654
bilinear, characteristic values for, 162
selectlon rules for, 649-650
examples of, 143
Oxygen absorption, measurements on, 655,
National Physical Laboratory, 325, 341
656, 665-666
Natural units, advantages of, in computa-
tion, 136
Naval Research Laboratory, 226, 374, 477, P
480
Navy Electronics Laboratory, 262, 328, Paraboloid, elliptic, 464
350, 382 of revolution, 464
Navy Radio and Sound Laboratory, 328, Path length, optical (see Optical path
341 length)
Negative heights, 444 Path-length difference, 37, 108, 114, 115
Newton-Raphson method for obtaining Paths of integration, in normalization,
characteristic values, 146 141, 177
Nocturnal cooling, 221, 253-257 in K-plane, 68
Nocturnal inversion, 346, 348 in t-plane, 89
 722 SUBJECT INDEX

Pattern-propagation factor, 34, 117 Precipitation, attenuation by, 671-692

definition of, 35 as causing meteorological echms, 581-
in diffraction region, 109, 122, 141 598, 604-615, 6184521
in interference region, 38, 99, 115–117 effects of, on transmission, 339
in naturrd coordinates, 98 onset of, 339
sample calculation of, for di ffractinn Precipitation echoes, 22, 621
region, 124 band structure of, 632, 637
extending through intermediate re- confusion and masking of. 625-626
gion, 133–135 first probability distribution for, 575
simple properties of, 3&4 1 fluctuation of, 551, 575–578, 588
frequency spectra for, 57$578
Perturbation calculations, 177
fmm hurricanes and typhoons, 636-640
Phase constant of first mode, 162
identification of, 621425
Phase front measurements, 389
from layers, 634–636
Phase-integral methods, 70, 177
magnitude of, 59&598
for Eckersley modes, validity of, 87
meteorological structure of, 626
relation of, to ray tracing, 82
probability y distribution for ratio of .suc-
Phenomenolo@cal description. of attenua-
ceasive amplitudes, 578
tion by precipitation, 671–674
self-absorption of, 613
of average signal strength, from meteor-
variability in frequency spectra nf, 575,
ological echoes, 58%591
576
from sea echo, 482-486
from widespread rain, 633
Photography of A-scope for study of echo
Precipitation rate and attenuation by pre-
fluctuations, 562
cipitation. 673, 683, 691
Physical optics, 4, 58 Pressure gradient, 193
Pilot balloon observations, 298
Pressure recorders, 49o
Pip-matching, 436 Principle of similarity, 201, 232, 233, 238,
Point of reflection, 113 240, 243, 268
Point Loma, San Diego, 329 Probability distribution for ratio of ampli-
Polarization, 140 tudes, 558, 577–578
as affecting a. 33, 461, 462, 468, 471, (See ako First probability distribution;
475, 69&699 Second probability distribution)
affecting sea echo, 498, 522, 527 Propagation, nonstandard, geographical
and boundary conditions at earth’s distribution of, 369
surface, 58, 63, 111, 112, 124, 140 Propeller modulation, 539–543
circular, 697+99 Provincetow,n Standpipe, 547, 548
in scattcri ng from smooth targets, 468 Pseudoadiabatic chart, 188
effect of, on reflection coefficient, 40, Psychograph, 272
98,397401,408,423424, 427429, circuit diagram of, 277
434 lag coefficient for, 28W281
in refraction studies, 297, 337, 343, Psychograph housing for ground-based
351, 389 soundings, 283
elliptical, 69*697 Psychrometer, 182
purity in, relation of, to reflection co- aircraft, 287
efficient, 426 ML-313, 287
of radiated wave, 29 Psychometric formula, 187
Polybutylmethacrylate, 273.281 Pulse integrator, 496
Potential temperature, 194, 195, 200, 202 Pulse length affecting sea echo, 491
definition of, 194 Pulse shape, and magnitude of coherent
Power-law M-profile, 312 scattering, 605–607, 70+706
Power-1aw profiles, 174 in sea echo, 484
 SUBJECT INDEX 723

R Radar range,tree-space,33
Radar set, for measurementsof sea echo,
Race Point, Cape Cod, 295, 296, 298 495
Radar, ground-controlled approach (GCA), SCR-584,444
432 Radartransmissionequation,for elliptical
Radar crocs section, 33, 445 polarizationand smooth target,697
of aircraft, 470-472 for flahplateship model,479
method of messuremen t of, 470 free-space,33
polarization dependence of, 471-472 for sea echo, 484
table of, 472 Radiation,232, 234, 248
wavelength depndence of, 471472 nocturnal(seeNocturnalradiation)
of circular disk, 458 Radiationcooling,343
of complex targets, 469 Radiation temperature of space, used
of cvlindem, 458462 in water-vapor absorption measure-
definition of, 33 ments, 669
dependence of, on polarization, 698 RCA Laboratories, 338, 344
d~fferential, 466 Radio meteorological forecasting, 175
of flat plate, 457 Radio-optical path, definition of, 6
from fia~plate model, 476-479 Radio Research Laboratory, 480
general formula for, 455 Radiometer, microwave, 668-669
of sea echo (see Sea echo) Radiosonde, 207, 255, 272, 298, 347, 348
of ships, 472 Radiosonde ascents, 261, 348
aspect dependence of, 479 Rain, attenuation in, 673, 678-685
far-zone, 478 incorrect ideas about, 685, 691
incoherent scattering of, 479481 measurements of, 688492
near-zone, 478 wavelength dependence of. 684
polarization dependence of, 475 echoes from, 591–592
table of, 475 magnitude of, 596-598
wavelength dependence of, 475, 479 (See also -Meteorological echoes; Pre-
simplified formula for, 462 cipi tation echoes)
of small objects. 465 nonuniform spatial distribution of, 672,
of smooth target, 697 684, 689
of sphere, 450, 452453 Rain gauges, 689
statistical nature of, 470 Raindrops, attenuation constant for, 678–
per unit volume, for precipitation 685
echoes, 596 multi pole moments of, 608–6 10, 676
definition of, 590 and radar cross section, 608-613
Radar detection near surface, range de- size distributions of, 615–618, 681
pendence of, 474 terminal velocity of, 679
wavelength dependence of, 409, 474 Random processes, theory of, 553
Radar detection ranges and duct height, Random scatterers, 551, 553
358 assembly of (see Assembly of random
Radar echoes, fluctuations of (see Fluctua- scatterers)
tions, of radar echoes) plus steady signal, first and second prob-
long-range, 9, 358, 367–373 ability distributions for, 56&562
from precipitation, 22 Random-walk problem, 553
(See also Precipitation echoes) Range, natural unit of, 97
vs. range, for ships. 474 Range-height indicator, 630, 635-636
steady, examples of, 547 Ray, 4, 12, 54
Radar equation for ships, 473 characteristic of, 15, 49
Radar measurements program, Massa- curvature of, in relation to index grad].
chusetts Bay, 354 ent, 44
 724 SUBJECT INDEX

Ray, definition of, 6 Reflection coefficient, 37, 97–99, 102, 105,

differential equation for, 42–50 396
direct (see Direct ray) dependence of, on grazing angle, 401–
reflectad (see Reflected ray) 403
in surface duct, 19 of ocean, 537
tangent, 5, 6, 116 and sea echo. 418
turning point of (see Turning point, of for smooth plane, 396
ray) for smonth sea, theory of, 402-403
in waveguide, penetration of ducts in, 18 and surface roughness, 411
Ray curvature, relative, 12 for very smooth land, 432
relative to earth, 50 Reflection coefficient measurements, inter-
Ray family, 15, 47 pretation of, 429, 435
linear N-profile, 16 long-range, over land, 430
simple surface duct, 17 over sea, 421
fiy theory, 332, 391 rapid variations in, 419, 538
Ray tracing, 17, 18 short-range, over land, 433
errors of, 7, 18 over watir, 427
relation of, to phase-irr@gral methods, Refraction, atmospheric, 34
82 standard, 14, 22, 53, 95
Ray-tracing conditions, as criterion of in diffract Ion region, 122
validity of ray methods, 57 Refraction studiee by radar, 353–373
Ray-tracing formulas, 41–50 Refractive index, of air, 189
Ray-tracing methods, limitaticms of, 53-58 complex, 448
Rayleigh roughness criterion, 411, 43o, variable gradients of, 9, 192
431, 434, 539 (,See ako Index, of refraction)
Rayleigh scattering law, 23, 465 - Refractive modulus, 192, 203, 207
for cylinder, 461 aPprO~imate formula for, 203
deviations from, 598, 612 definition of, 12, 191
for flat plate, 8.465 errors of, 203
for metiorologicid echoes, 597-598, 610, gradient of, 192, 198
618 errors in, 204
for sea echo, 494 potential, 199, 201
for sphere, 7.452 approximate formula for, 205
for suspended mat tcr, 621 Residues, sum of, of field integral, 110
Received power, definition of. for pulses, Resistance coefficient, 216, 217
483 Resistance thermometer, 289
minimum useful, 32 Rlrcati equation, 147
Receiver calibrations, 564 numerical integration of, 177
Reciprocity theorem, 97, 114,468,693-698 Ripple theory of sea erho, 4!}4
Reflected ray, 5, 19, 36, 37, 38, 99, 100, Ripples, 487
101, 108, 116 Roller fading, 302, 304.306, 324, 328, 335,
variations of, 424, 539 337-343
Reflection, from earth’s surface. 5.34 Rossby distrihutlon of eddy viscosity, 215
and radar height measurements, 436 Rossby equivalent potential temperature
from elevated M-inversion, 334 diagram, 188, 2t13, 201
geometry of, from plane earth, 36 Rotational spectrum, of oxygen, 649,
ionospheric, 3 653–654
from rough terrain, 340, 351, 471 of water vapor, 656-658
specular, from terrain, 344, 391 Rough surfaces and reflection coefficient,
wavelength dependence of, 436 411, 423-425, 434
time variation and rough surface, 418 (See also Reflection coefficient)
 SUBJECT INDEX 725

Rough surfaces, and time variation of re- ,Sea echo, u“ VS. e, difficulties in measure-
fleeting properties, 434 ment of, 496, 500, 503
Roughness length, 217 errore in measurement of, 496
e- rimentw with, table of, 501
s first probability distribution of, 514
516, 579
Saddle points, 90, 92 fluctuation of, 514-518, 578
Sandstorms, echoes from, 621 dependence of, on wavelength, 517, 580
Saturated vapor, 182, 183 formula for average signal, 484, 495, 500
Saturation-adiabatic lapse rati, 194, 279 frequency spectra for, 516-518, 579–581
Saturation curves, 184 at large depression angles, 485, 490, 503–
Saturation mixing ratio, 185, 188 510, 518-519
Saturation specific humidity, 185, 188 maximum range of, vs. height, 5013503
Saturation vapor pressure, 183 methods of measuring, 496, 500
Scalar potential, diffraction region, 65 normal apWarance of, on A-scope, 492
Seaming, conical, 440 polarization affeeting, 498, 522, 527
Scanning 10ss, effect of, on u, 471 probability distribution for ratio of suc-
%attxwing, andabsorption by particles, 23 cessive amplitudes, 580
approximate formula for, 463 radar cross section of, 483
byatmoepheric irregularities, 317, 600 radar cross section per unit area, abs~
in backward direction, 455 lute values of, 499, 506
coherent (see Coherent scattering) definition of, 483
by earth’s surface (see Reflection crref- factors involved in, 485
ficient) polarization dependence of, 497-499,
by flat plate, 8 512, 522, 526
general formulator, 454 sea state dependence of, 506, 5 12–514
geometrical optics in, 465-468 variation of, over sea surface, 493
by quadric surfaces, 463 wavelength dependence of, 494499,
by sphere, 7,445 511, 524
treated by reciprocity theorem, 693-698 when meaningful, 490-493
Scattering coefficients, for cylinder, 459 radar transrniasion cqu~tion for. 484
for sphere, 448 range dependence of, 490
Scattering cross section (see Radar cross saturation of, in rough seas, 513
section) as scattering from surface waves, 519–
Scattering functions for spherical particles, 522
611 shadow effect in, 493, 522
Scintillation, 302,305, 306,324, 335, 339, slow variation of, 51 7–5 18, 578-579
350, 389 “spiky” appearance of, on k-scope, 492
SCR-584 radar set, 444 thmries of, 494, 518–527
Scripps Oceanographic Institution, 488 velocity distribution of scatterers, 517
Sea, definition of, 486 Srm-echrr studies, future progress in, 526
Sea breeze, 264-266, 370 Sca scales, 489
Seacluttcr [see Sea echo) Seasonal effects, 338, 339, 343, 345, 351,
Seaecho,u”vs. 0, 503–510, 521, 524, 525 368, 370
appearance of, on airborne system, 4SI– in Irish Sea, 324
482 in M=sachusetts Bay, 321
with high resolution, 491-492 Second probability distribution, 556
azimuth variation of, 514 in power, 557
beam width affecting, 483-485, 491 for random scatterers plus steady signal,
dependence of, on beam width and pulse 561
length, 491 Secular variation, effect of, on correlation
on range, 490 function, 567
 726 SUBJECT INDEX

Secular variation, effect of, of ground Soundings, 207

cluttm, 587 problems in execution of, 291
of seaecho, 517–518,578-581 by radioeonde, 185
Selectionrules,for oxygen,649-650 (See also Radiosonde)
for watervapor, 656-658 representation of, 206-207
Self-absorption in precipitation echoes, synthetic, 298, 300, 309
613 Space interference pattern, changes in, se
Shadoweffectin sea echo, 493, 522 cause of echo fluctuations, 535-538
Shadowregion,17 Specific heat of dry air, 188, 293
Shear,232, 234, 248, 250, 271 Speed correction, 276
in stableequilibrium,234-237 for aeropsychrograph, 277-280
Shearingstratification,235, 248, 300 measurement technique for, 280
variablesgoverning,235 wet-bulb, 279
Ship echoes,firstprobabilitydktributions Sperry Gyroscope Company, 427
for, 54S546 Spheres, scattering from, 445-453, 608-
fluctuationsof. 54>546 613
frequencyof fluctuationof, 543–544 Spherical wave in terms of cylindrical
Showers,in frontalsystems,633 waves, 61
in unstableair masses,632 Stability, importance of, in radar mesmme-
Sign conventionfor angles,38, 116 ments, 527–529
Signallevel,average,304 of radar system, as affecting echo fluctu-
over desert,350 ations, 527–529
vs. duct height,309-312 limits of, 528
for FlatheadLake, 335 Standard deviation of fluctuation from
in Irish Sea, 323 random scatterers, 555
over lard, rangeof variation in, 340, Standard pressure, 195
343, 349 Stars, twinkling of, 532-533
for nonoptical vs. optical paths, 351 Stationary phase, 103
and substandard layers, 302, 303 principle of, 99
and duct height, 306, 309–31 2 Statistical distribution of signal strength,
wavelength comparison, experimen- Massachusetts Bay, 320
tal, 31&312 Steady-t*random ratio for ground clutter,
maximum, 323, 352 582
midday, seasonal drifts in, 338 Stmpest descent, method of, 90, 98, 105,
Signal types, over land, 337, 342 106
Massachusetts Bay, 301-307 path of, 92
over water, sudden changes in, 304 Stcreophotography of sea echo, 490, 527
Similarity, principle of (see Principle of Stokes lines, 73, 77
similarity) Stokes phenomenon, 71, 72, 91
Skipeffect,359, 360, 370-371 Storm structure, 23, 623, 625, 627-640
Smoke,echoesfrom, 593, 621 Strawberry Hill Standpipe, 537-538
Sncll’slaw, 6, 15, 19, 45, 46, 391 Structure factor for microwave absorption,
Snow,attenuationby, 688 650, 662
echoesfrom. 620 Sturm differential equation, 69
Solarheating,193, 220-222, 232, 259 Subdominant terms, 73
Solarradiation,220, 254 Subsidence, 260
Sommerfeldintegral,65 Subsidence inversion, 260-262
Sonde,wired (seeWired sonde) Substandard layer, 143, 168, 301, 302,315
Sounding instruments, future require-. analytical complications of, 172
ments for, 292 definition of, 14
Sounding methods, 282 (See also Surface layer)
 SUBJECT INDEX 727

Superstandard layer, 237 Tempt, rat,ure inversion, nocturnal, 258

definition of, 15 in summer, 259
elevated, 304 in winter, 259
(See dro Surface layer) lo-per cent rule, 227, 228, 300
Surface of sea, 486-490 Tcpbigram, 188
methods of observing, 490 Tcrrninal velocity for raindrops, 616, 679
Surface current, 455, 460, 473, 476 Tcmcstrial radiation, 254
Surface duct, 14, 18, 75, 176, 304, 335, 364 Texas, University of, 389
deep, 302, 306, 308, 378 Thtwrem, fundamental, 65
formation of, over land, 352 Th(rmal ronductivit,y, 209
shallow, 302, 306, 308, 374 of ~,artb, 254–255
Surface layer, 14, 220–226, 228–234, 238– Thermal stability, etfcct of, on shear, 234
260, 348 Thermistor, 272
standard, 230, 258 temperature-resistance curve for, 273
substandard, 14, 230, 258, 303, 306 Thermocouples, 290, 323
over land, 258 Thermometric conductivity, 209, 293
and observed signal layer over water, Thunderstorms, 23, 627
316 Tidal etierts, 321, 420
and scintillations, 305 as cause of echo fluctuations, 535–539
superadiabatic, 221, 222 for extended targets, 537–538
superstandard, 14, 229, 258 for point targets, 535
Surface wave, 2, 3, 40, 66, 103, 109 Time-average signal, from meteorological
Swell, definition of, 487 echoes, 589–591
from sea echo, 482-485
T Trade-wind inversion, 375
Transitional layers, 172
T-14, experimental radar, 495 Transmission in free space, 27-34
Tangent plane, 116 Transmission equation, free-space, one-
Tangent ray, 5, 6, 116 way, 31
Target cross sections under nonstandard one-way. generalized, 35
refraction, 354, 473 radar, generalized, 35
Target properties by radar measurements, Trapped modes, 22, 71, 75, 82, 149
369 boundary condition for, 78
Targets, complex, fluctuations in echoes characteristic values of (see Character-
from, 547 istic values)
standard, 479 Trapping, criteria for, 21, 84
Techniques in measurement of echo fluctu- by elevated inversions, 332
ations, 56Z570 strong, 167
Telecommunications Research Establish- Tree-motion and radar echo fluctuation,
ment (TRE), 175 547, 552, 584
Temperature, potential (we Potential Triplets of oxygen spectrum, 649, 653, 654
temperature) Troposphere, 9
wet-bulb (see Wet-bulb temperature) Turbulence, 23, 211, 250
Temperature excess, 229, 231, 236, 237, mechanical, 221, 225, 268
245-247 and precipitation fluctuations, 577
definition of, 222 thermal, 220, 221
negative and positive, 22o Turbulence constant, universal, 216
Temperature inversion, 192, 238 Turbulence inversion, 231
elevated, 231, 330 Turbulent boundary layer, 214, 215, 217.
(See also M-inversion, elevated) 219
heightof, 24–244 logarithmic distributions in, 215
and ~-~lent, 13, 192, 259 thickness of, 218
728 .YUBJEC’T INDEX

Turning point, for mode of propagation in JYater vapor, 26

duct, 20 equation of state for, 182
of ray, 16, 17, 19, 46, 83, 100 rotational spectrum of, 656-658
Twinklingof stars, 532 selection rules for, 656+358
Twoequal scatterers as radar target, 52!3, ~~ater-vapor absorption, 312, 363, 646,
54*550 647, 656-671
Typhoons, 23, 636+i40 measurements of, 658, 661, 66&671
nonresonant part of, 662
u Water-vapor content of atmosphere, sea-
sonal variation and effect of, on
M-profile, 259
Ultra Shortwave Propagation Panel, 322
Jl”atcr-vapor lapse and M-gradient, 13, 192
U.S. Army Signal Corps, 432
WaVC equation, formal expression for, 60
U.S. Navy J31ectronics Laboratory (see
solution of, for diffraction region, 109
Navy Electronics Laboratory)
for interference region, 99
lJ.S. Weather Burea(l, 339
vector form, 59, 44,5
Units, system of, 28
Wavefmnt, 42
L’niversal gasconst:mt, 292
of clcmentar,v wave, 63
Universal turbulence constant, 216
Waves, elementary, 18
on sea, 486493
v origin of, 488
scattering from, 492, 519–527
Values, characteristic (see Characteristic WBZ radio towers, 296, 549
values) Weather Radar Project, 577, 617
Vapor pressure, 182, 187, 192, 206 \t’et-bulb depression, 187
lapse rate of, 196 coefficient of, 188
potantial, 198, 200, 202 \T’et-bulb temperature, 182, 186, 187, 200,
over sea water, 200 206
Vapor-pressure curve for seawater, 184 potential, 198, 200
Vaporization, latent heat of, 293 White caps, sea echo in presence of, 512
Variational methods, 177 tViener-Khintchine theorem, 558, 568
Vector plane wave, expansion of, in spheri- Wind, effect of, on ground-clutter fluctua-
cal vector wave functions, 447 tion, 547, 551–553, 582–584
Vector potential method for scattering Wind direction and strength of sea echo,
calculations, 455 514
Vector wave equation, 445 Wind speed, and superrefraction, 375
Viscosity, dynamic, 208 variation in, along trajectory, 251
eddy (see Eddy viscosity) Window, 550
kinematic, 208, 214, 293 in infrared region, 26
(See also Chaff)
w Whds aloft in Massachlmetts Bay, 299
Wked sonde, 269, 283, 284, 329, 348
VVar, mfront,263 ground unit of, 286
Washington State College, 226, 284, 285, housing for, 285
335, 341, 347, 348 WKB approximation, 72
Water, index of refraction for, 675 Wronskian, 58, 69, 79, 94
molecular weight of, 293
supercooled, 183 x
Watar temperature, 300, 310
meawrements of, 299 XT-2, experimental radar, 354, 495
variation of, 250-254 XT-3, experimental radar, 10.354, 495