Lecture 5: Atmospheric General Circulation
JS JP
Hadley Cell Ferrel Cell Polar Cell
(driven by eddies)
L H L H
Basic Structures and Dynamics
General Circulation in the Troposphere
General Circulation in the Stratosphere
Wind-Driven Ocean Circulation
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Prof. Jin-
Jin-Yi Yu
Single-Cell Model:
Explains Why There are Tropical Easterlies
Without Earth Rotation With Earth Rotation
Coriolis Force
(Figures from Understanding Weather & Climate and The Earth System) ESS55
Prof. Jin-
Jin-Yi Yu
Breakdown of the Single Cell Î Three-Cell Model
Absolute angular momentum at Equator = Absolute angular momentum at 60°N
The observed zonal velocity at the equatoru is ueq = -5 m/sec.
Therefore, the total velocity at the equator is U=rotational velocity (U0 + uEq)
The zonal wind velocity at 60°N (u60N) can be determined by the following:
(U0 + uEq) * a * Cos(0°) = (U60N + u60N) * a * Cos(60°)
(Ω*a*Cos0° - 5) * a * Cos0° = (Ω*a*Cos60° + u60N) * a * Cos(60°)
u60N = 687 m/sec !!!!
This high wind speed is not
observed!
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Prof. Jin-
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Properties of the Three Cells
thermally indirect circulation
thermally direct circulation
JS JP
Hadley Cell Ferrel Cell Polar Cell
(driven by eddies)
L H L H
Equator 30° 60° Pole
(warmer) (warm) (cold) (colder)
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Atmospheric Circulation: Zonal-mean Views
Single-Cell Model Three-Cell Model
(Figures from Understanding Weather & Climate and The Earth System)
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The Three Cells
ITCZ
Subtropical midlatitude
High Weather system
(Figures from Understanding Weather & Climate and The Earth System) ESS55
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Thermally Direct/Indirect Cells
Thermally Direct Cells (Hadley and Polar Cells)
Both cells have their rising branches over warm
temperature zones and sinking braches over the cold
temperature zone. Both cells directly convert thermal
energy to kinetic energy.
Thermally Indirect Cell (Ferrel Cell)
This cell rises over cold temperature zone and sinks over
warm temperature zone. The cell is not driven by thermal
forcing but driven by eddy (weather systems) forcing.
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Prof. Jin-
Jin-Yi Yu
(from The Earth System)
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Prof. Jin-
Jin-Yi Yu
Is the Three-Cell Model Realistic?
Yes and No!
(Due to sea-land contrast and topography)
Yes: the three-cell model explains reasonably well the
surface wind distribution in the atmosphere.
No: the three-cell model can not explain the circulation
pattern in the upper troposphere. (planetary wave motions
are important here.)
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Prof. Jin-
Jin-Yi Yu
Semi-Permanent Pressure Cells
The Aleutian, Icelandic, and Tibetan lows
– The oceanic (continental) lows achieve maximum strength during
winter (summer) months
– The summertime Tibetan low is important to the east-Asia
monsoon
Siberian, Hawaiian, and Bermuda-Azores highs
– The oceanic (continental) highs achieve maximum strength during
summer (winter) months
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January
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July
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Prof. Jin-
Jin-Yi Yu
Sinking Branches and Deserts
(from Weather & Climate)
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Prof. Jin-
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Global Distribution of Deserts
(from Global Physical Climatology)
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Prof. Jin-
Jin-Yi Yu
Upper Tropospheric Circulation
Only the Hadley Cell can be
identified in the lower latitude
part of the circulation.
Circulation in most other
latitudes are dominated by
westerlies with wave patterns.
Dominated by large-scale
waver patterns (wave number 3
in the Northern hemisphere).
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(from Weather & Climate) Prof. Jin-
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Subtropical and Polar Jet Streams
Subtropical Jet
Located at the higher-latitude end of the
Hadley Cell. The jet obtain its
maximum wind speed (westerly) due the
conservation of angular momentum.
Polar Jet
Located at the thermal boundary
between the tropical warm air and the
polar cold air. The jet obtain its
maximum wind speed (westerly) due the
latitudinal thermal gradient (thermal
wind relation).
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Prof. Jin-
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(from Atmospheric Circulation Systems)
Thermal Wind Relation
(from Weather & Climate)
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Prof. Jin-
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Thermal Wind Equation
∂U/∂z ∝ - ∂T/∂y
The vertical shear of zonal wind is related
to the latitudinal gradient of temperature.
Jet streams usually are formed above
baroclinic zone (such as the polar front).
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Prof. Jin-
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Jet Streams Near the Western US
Pineapple Express
Both the polar and subtropical jet
streams can affect weather and climate
in the western US (such as California).
El Nino can affect western US
climate by changing the locations and
strengths of these two jet streams.
(from Riehl (1962), Palmen and Newton (1969))
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Parameters Determining
Mid-latitude Weather
Temperature differences between the
equator and poles
The rate of rotation of the Earth.
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Rotating Annulus Experiment
Cooling
Outside
Heating
Inside
(from “Is The Temperature Rising?”) ESS55
Prof. Jin-
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New Understanding of Cyclone after WWII
Carl Rossby mathematically
expressed relationships
between mid-latitude
cyclones and the upper air
during WWII.
Mid-latitude cyclones are a
large-scale waves (now
called Rossby waves) that
grow from the “baroclinic”
instabiloity associated with
Carl Gustav Rossby (1898-1957) the north-south temperature
differences in middle
latitudes.
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Polar Front Theory
Bjerknes, the founder of the
Bergen school of meteorology,
developed polar front theory
during WWI to describe the
formation, growth, and
dissipation of mid-latitude
cyclones.
Vilhelm Bjerknes (1862-1951) ESS55
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El Nino and Southern Oscillation
Jacob Bjerknes was the first one to
recognizes that El Nino is not just an
oceanic phenomenon (in his 1969
paper).
In stead, he hypothesized that the
warm waters of El Nino and the
pressure seasaw of Walker’s Southern
Oscillation are part and parcel of the
same phenomenon: the ENSO.
Bjerknes’s hypothesis of coupled Jacob Bjerknes
atmosphere-ocean instability laid the
foundation for ENSO research. ESS55
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Walker Circulation and Ocean Temperature
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East-West Circulation
(from Flohn (1971))
The east-west circulation in the atmosphere is related to
the sea/land distribution on the Earth.
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Prof. Jin-
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Prof. Jin-
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Walker Circulation and Ocean
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1997-98 El Nino
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Scales of Motions in the Atmosphere
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Prof. Jin-
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Monsoon: Sea/Land-Related Circulation
Monsoon (Arabic “season”)
Monsoon is a climate feature that is characterized by the
seasonal reversal in surface winds.
The very different heat capacity of land and ocean
surface is the key mechanism that produces monsoons.
During summer seasons, land surface heats up faster than
Courtesy of Kevin G. Cannariato the ocean. Low pressure center is established over land
while high pressure center is established over oceans.
Winds blow from ocean to land and bring large amounts of
water vapor to produce heavy precipitation over land: A
rainy season.
During winters, land surface cools down fast and sets up
a high pressure center. Winds blow from land to ocean: a
dry season.
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How Many Monsoons Worldwide?
North America Monsoon Asian Monsoon
Australian
Monsoon
South America Monsoon Africa Monsoon
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(figure from Weather & Climate) Prof. Jin-
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Seasonal Cycle of Rainfall
(from IRI)
Indian
Monsoon
Australian
Monsoon
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Temperatures in Stratosphere
Northern Winter Northern Summer
mesosphere
stratosphere
(from Dynamic Meteorology) ESS55
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Ozone Distribution
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Stratosphere: Circulation and Temperature
Zonal Wind Temperature
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Circulation in Stratosphere
Northern Winter Northern Summer
(from Dynamic Meteorology) ESS55
Prof. Jin-
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Zonal-Mean Circulation in the Stratosphere
mesosphere
stratosphere
winter
summer
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Ozone Production and Destruction
(from The Earth System)
Photodissociation
(or photolysis)
visible light destroy O3 permanently ESS55
Prof. Jin-
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Sudden Warming
Every other year or so the
normal winter pattern of a
cold polar stratosphere with
a westerly vortex is
interrupted in the middle
winter.
The polar vortex can
completely disappear for a
period of a few weeks.
During the sudden
warming period, the
stratospheric temperatures
can rise as much as 40°K in
a few days!
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Prof. Jin-
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Antarctic Ozone Hole
Mean Total Ozone Over Antarctic in October The decrease in ozone near the
South Pole is most striking
near the spring time (October).
During the rest of the year,
ozone levels have remained
close to normal in the region.
(from The Earth System)
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The 1997 Ozone Hole
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Why No Ozone Hole in Artic?
(from WMO Report 2003)
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Prof. Jin-
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Polar Stratospheric Clouds (PSCs)
In winter the polar stratosphere is so
cold (-80°C or below) that certain
trace atmospheric constituents can
condense.
These clouds are called “polar
stratospheric clouds” (PSCs).
The particles that form typically
consist of a mixture of water and
nitric acid (HNO3).
The PSCs alter the chemistry of the
lower stratosphere in two ways:
(1) by coupling between the odd
nitrogen and chlorine cycles
(Sweden, January 2000; from NASA website) (2) by providing surfaces on which
heterogeneous reactions can occur.
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Prof. Jin-
Jin-Yi Yu
Ozone Hole Depletion
Long Antarctic winter (May through September)
Î The stratosphere is cold enough to form PSCs
Î PSCs deplete odd nitrogen (NO)
Î Help convert unreactive forms of chlorine (ClONO2 and HCl) into
more reactive forms (such as Cl2).
Î The reactive chlorine remains bound to the surface of clouds particles.
Î Sunlight returns in springtime (September)
Î The sunlight releases reactive chlorine from the particle surface.
Î The chlorine destroy ozone in October.
Î Ozone hole appears.
Î At the end of winter, the polar vortex breaks down.
Î Allow fresh ozone and odd nitrogen to be brought in from low
latitudes.
Î The ozone hole recovers (disappears) until next October.
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Prof. Jin-
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Winds and Surface Currents
Polar Cell
Ferrel Cell
Hadley Cell
(Figure from The Earth System)
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Prof. Jin-
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Basic Ocean Structures
Warm up by sunlight!
Upper Ocean (~100 m)
Shallow, warm upper layer where light is
abundant and where most marine life can be found.
Deep Ocean
Cold, dark, deep ocean where plenty supplies of
nutrients and carbon exist.
No sunlight! ESS55
Prof. Jin-
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Global Surface Currents
(from Climate System Modeling) ESS55
Prof. Jin-
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Six Great Current Circuits in the World Ocean
5 of them are geostrophic gyres:
North Pacific Gyre
South Pacific Gyre
North Atlantic Gyre
South Atlantic Gyre
Indian Ocean Gyre
The 6th and the largest current:
Antarctic Circumpolr Current
(also called West Wind Drift)
(Figure from Oceanography by Tom Garrison)
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Prof. Jin-
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Characteristics of the Gyres
(Figure from Oceanography by Tom Garrison) Currents are in geostropic balance
Each gyre includes 4 current components:
two boundary currents: western and eastern
two transverse currents: easteward and westward
Western boundary current (jet stream of ocean)
the fast, deep, and narrow current moves warm
water polarward (transport ~50 Sv or greater)
Eastern boundary current
the slow, shallow, and broad current moves cold
water equatorward (transport ~ 10-15 Sv)
Trade wind-driven current
the moderately shallow and broad westward
current (transport ~ 30 Sv)
Westerly-driven current
the wider and slower (than the trade wind-driven
Volume transport unit: current) eastward current
1 sv = 1 Sverdrup = 1 million m3/sec
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(the Amazon river has a transport of ~0.17 Sv) Prof. Jin-
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Major Current Names
Western Boundary Current Trade Wind-Driven Current
Gulf Stream (in the North Atlantic) North Equatorial Current
Kuroshio Current (in the North Pacific) South Equatorial Current
Brazil Current (in the South Atlantic)
Eastern Australian Current (in the South Pacific)
Agulhas Current (in the Indian Ocean)
Eastern Boundary Current Westerly-Driven Current
Canary Current (in the North Atlantic) North Atlantic Current (in the North Atlantic)
California Current (in the North Pacific) North Pacific Current (in the North Pacific)
Benguela Current (in the South Atlantic)
Peru Current (in the South Pacific)
Western Australian Current (in the Indian Ocean)
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Surface Current – Geostrophic Gyre
Mixed Layer
Currents controlled by frictional force + Coriolis force
Æ wind-driven circulation
Æ Ekman transport (horizontal direction)
Æ convergence/divergence
Æ downwelling/upwelling at the bottom of mixed layer
Thermocline
downwelling/upwelling in the mixed layer
Æ pressure gradient force + Coriolis force
Æ geostrophic current
Æ Sverdrup transport (horizontal)
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Step 1: Surface Winds
(Figure from Oceanography by Tom Garrison)
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Winds and Surface Currents
Polar Cell
Ferrel Cell
Hadley Cell
(Figure from The Earth System)
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Step 2: Ekman Layer
(frictional force + Coriolis Force)
(Figure from Oceanography by Tom Garrison)
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Ekman Spiral – A Result of Coriolis Force
(Figure from The Earth System) ESS55
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Ekman Transport
(Figure from The Earth System)
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Prof. Jin-
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Step 3: Geostrophic Current
(Pressure Gradient Force + Corioils Foce)
NASA-TOPEX
Observations of
Sea-Level Hight
(from Oceanography by Tom Garrison)
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Thermohaline Circulation
Thermo Î temperature
Haline Î salinity
Density-Driven Circulation
Cold and salty waters go down
Warm and fresh waters go up
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Thermohaline Conveyor Belt
Typical speed for deep ocean current:
0.03-0.06 km/hour.
Antarctic Bottom Water takes some 250-
1000 years to travel to North Atlantic and
Pacific.
(Figure from Oceanography by Tom Garrison)
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Prof. Jin-
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It Takes ~1000 Years for Deep
Ocean Waters to Travel
Around…
If we date a water parcel from the time that it
leaves the surface and sink into the deep ocean
Î Then the youngest water is in the deep north
Atlantic, and the oldest water is in the deep
northern Pacific, where its age is estimated to be
1000 year.
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Prof. Jin-
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The Most Unpolluted Waters are..
the waters in the deep northern Pacific.
The man-released CFC and the chemical tritium
and C14, which were released through atmospheric
atomic bomb test in the 1950s and 1960s, entered
the deep ocean in the northern Atlantic and are
still moving southward slowly.
Those pollutions just cross the equator in the
Atlantic Î They have not reached the deep
northern Pacific yet!!
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Prof. Jin-
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Global Warming and Thermohaline Circulation
If the warming is slow
The salinity is high enough to still produce a thermohaline
circulation
ÎThe circulation will transfer the heat to deep ocean
ÎThe warming in the atmosphere will be deferred.
If the warming is fast
Surface ocean becomes so warm (low water density)
ÎNo more thermohalione circulation
ÎThe rate of global warming in the atmosphere will increase.
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Prof. Jin-
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