Kinesiology Exam Review Only

Unit 1:
Anatomy: The structure and organization of the body and its organs. Greek origin: Anatome-
“dissection”

Physiology: The function of the body and its organs

Exercise physiology: How the body responds and adapts to stress caused by exercise

Anatomical Position: Standing erect, arms on side, palms faced forward, feet flat, slightly out

Anatomical Planes (imaginary surface that divides the structure):

a) Frontal/Coronal: divides front and back

b) Medial/Sagittal: divides right and left
c) Horizontal/Transverse: divides up and down

Axes of Rotations (imaginary point of rotation to describe movement):

a) Antero-Posterior/Sagittal: Runs front to back, adduction/abduction movements

b) Medio-lateral/Horizontal: Runs side to side, flexion/extension movements
c) Vertical/Longitudinal: Runs up to down, rotation movements

Relative Position and Direction

Lateral/Medial
Proximal/Distal (Proximal-close to trunk of body) (Distal-Farther from trunk of body)
Anterior/Posterior
Superior/Inferior
Deep/Superficial
Plantar/Dorsum

Movement Terminology

Flexion/Extension Ulnar/Radial deviation

Abduction/Adduction Downward/Upward rotation
Internal/External Rotation Circumduction
Supination/Pronation Retraction/Protraction
Elevation/Pronation Inversion/Eversion
Opposition/Reposition Skeletal System
Plantar/Dorsi Flexion
 Skeletal-Greek-“dried up”
  Living and non-living components
 206 bones
 14% of our body mass

Functions:
 Supports tissues and provides a frame for our body
 Protects organs
 Reservoir of minerals
 Produces Red & white blood cells and platelets
 Provides the levers where muscles pull to produce movement

Divisions of the Skeleton

Axial – runs on longitudinal axis, has the skull, vertebral column, thoracic cage
Appendicular- upper and lower extremities, major role in movement

Pelvic girdle: ilium and femur

Shoulder girdle: scapula, humerus, clavicle

5 Different types of bones

Long Bones (Tubular shell with cavity in the middle): humerus, femur
Short Bones (No bone marrow cavity): Carsals, tarsals
Flat bones (flat & thin, easy for muscle attachment): scapula, ilium
Irregular Bones (Specialized shape & function): vertebral bones
Sesamoid bones (small bones embedded within a tendon/joint capsule to reduce
friction): Patella, pisiform

Anatomy of the Long bone:

Oseteoblasts: Reforming bone cells (deposits osteoid into bone matrix to build up cortical
bone)
Osteocytes: Mature bone cells
Osteoclasts: Break down/reabsorbing bone cells (secrete acids and enzymes to dissolve Ca)

Homeostatis of Bone: Without the osteoblasts and osteoclasts working together, proper bone
formation and remodelling will be out of order (can cause osteoporosis)

Periosteum: fibrous, cellular. Support sheath that covers the length of the bone but not
the ends. Allows for ligaments and tendons to attach to the bone
Diaphysis: Shaft/central part of bone
Medullary Cavity: Contains red marrow (active, where blood cell formation occurs) and
yellow marrow (mature, fatty tissue that can’t reproduce anymore)
Epiphysis: Ends of the bones. Makes contact with adjacent bones
 Articular Cartilage: Covers the epiphysis. Smooth surface that makes contact with
adjacent bones
Nutrient Artery: Supplies O2 to bone

Cancellous bone: spongy, interwoven beams of bone, filled with marrow.

A small force over a long period of time will cause the bone to strain and break.
Compact bone: dense bone that forms in the walls of the diaphysis. Provides structure.
A large force over a short period of time will cause the bone to strain and break.

Bone Growth:

Factors: growth hormone, thyroid hormone, sex hormones, proper nutrition, physical activity

Epiphyseal plate: growth region that allows for bone growth to continue
Epiphyseal line: appears when bone growth stops. The maturity of the epiphyseal plate.

Wolf’s Law: “Bones will grow/remodel in response to the forces/demands placed on them”
Meaning: When bones are subjected to regular loads, they will become more dense and
mineralized but with inactivity, it will cause a decrease in bone weight and strength. (Bed rest)

Bone Fractures:

Fracture: When a bone cracks/breaks due to extreme load/impact/stress

Simple/Incomplete Fracture (no separation of bone into parts, detectable):

Hairline: only extends to the outer layer of bone

Greenstick: Only occurs on one side of the bone

Compound/Complete Fracture (open/closed and usually damages the surrounding soft tissue):

Comminuted: broken into 2+ fragments

Spiral: twisting type shape
Avulsion: Detached from point of insertion by a tendon/ligament
Impacted: Driven into the inside of the bone or into another bone

Connective Tissues:

Fascia: tissue that supports,covers & separate all muscle groups.

Ligament: band of fibrous tissue connecting bone/cartilage to each other
Tendon: Tough fibrous/inelastic bands that anchors muscles to bone. Allows action of muscle to
transfer to the joint
Tendonitis: Inflammation of the tendons
Vascularity: amount of blood supplied to the tissue
Type of Joints:

Fibrous Joint: bound together by connective tissue allowing no movement

Cartilaginous Joint: body of one bone to connect to the body of another. Some movement.
Synovial joints: Most movable joints.

Ball & Socket

Saddle Joint
Ellipsoid Joint
Gliding Joint
Hinge Joint
Pivot Joint
Condyloid Joint

Characteristics:

Articulating cartilage: located at the ends of where the bones interconnect, smooth contact
surface for bone to move on and absorbs friction
Joint Capsule: fibrous structure consisting of the synovial membrane and fibrous capsule.
Synovial allows nutrients to pass through; fibrous keeps the synovial fluid from leaving
Joint Cavity: located between 2 bony articulating surfaces. Filled with synovial fluid (a lubricant)
Bursae: small, flattened fluid sac found at friction point of tendon/ligament/bone

Muscular System

Functions:

Shape
Posture
Movement
Function of Vital Organs
Communication
Support & Protect Organs
Maintenance of Body Temperature

Types of Muscle:
Skeletal Muscle:
 Striated
 Connected directly to skeletal
  Pulls on bone for movement
 Produces heat
Voluntary control: Somatic nervous system

Smooth Muscle:
 No striations
 Found in walls of hollow organs (stomach, intestines, blood vessels)
 Involuntary Control: Automatic Nervous System

Cardiac Muscle:
 Striated
 Forms the heart wall
 Allows synchronous contractions (aka it is ongoing and when one contracts, they all
contract)
 Involuntary: Automatic Nervous System

Static vs. Dynamic Contractions

Static: Not visible, muscle force is equal to load, rarely used in sports (wrestling, gymnastics)
Dynamic: Visible, muscle force changes when load moves

Three types of Muscle Contractions

Isometric: Not visible @ joint (static), no change in length of muscle

Concentric: Visible @ joint (dynamic), muscle length SHORTENS
Eccentric: Visible @ joint (dynamic), muscle length LENGTHENS

4 Strength Techniques

Isometric Exercise: weight room, gym (plank, arm holds)

Not visible
Purpose: Increase strength at 1 joint angle
Limit: only increases @ 1 joint angle

Isotonic Exercise: weight room (dumbbells, push-ups)

Controlled concentric/eccentric
Uneven force through range of motion
Purpose: affordable muscle strength/endurance gain
Limits: Force changes through range of motion
Isokinetic Exercise: rehab
Muscular contractions @ constant speed
High resistance at all joint angles causing max strengthening
Purpose: Rehab & research
 Limits: EXPENSIVE

Plyometric Exercise: large areas (jump squats, burpies)

High speed concentric contractions performed repeatedly from a stretched position
Purpose: strength gain, trains fast twitch fibres and increases in foot speed/agility
Limit: Can cause injuries. Only for professionals

Anatomy of Skeletal Muscle

Epimysin: Becomes one with the tendon (outer layer)

Sarcolemma: Contains cytoplasm of fibre (muscle cell)
Endomysium: Surrounds muscle fibre (inner layer)
Myofibril: groups of myofilaments (muscle cell)
Perimysium: groups of muscle fibres (central layer)
Myofilaments: Actin and Myosin (muscle cell)
Actin-thin filament 6:1 ratio
Myosin-thick filament

As you increase your muscle size, the skeletal muscle also increases in size.
Dark and light regions of a sarcomere are caused by the thickness and myosin absorbs light

Sarcomere (smallest): Structure and organization of a muscle. Allows the muscle to contract.
H-zone: will get smaller when contracted
A-Band, I-Band: will stay the same

Neuromuscular System: link between nervous & muscle system

A) Motor neuron: Conducts electricity signals from motor neuron -> muscle and initiates
muscle contractions
B) Neuromuscular Junction: Junction between motor neuron & muscle tissue.
C) Motor Unit: 1 motor neuron + muscle fibres.
Smallest contractile unit controlled by Central nervous system
Can have different recruitment thresholds (All or none principle)

Precise/fine movements (eye muscle): small motor unit, low threshold

Gross Movement (Quads): large motor unit, high threshold

*Larger the signal, more motor units are recruited which will result to more force

Nervous System: Gathers info from inside/outside and interprets to make a response
Antagonist Pairs of Muscles

Agonist: muscle primarily responsible for movement of a body part

Antagonist: muscle that lengthens when the agonist is contracting
Origin: point where muscle attaches to the axial skeleton
Insertion: Point where muscle attaches to the bone that is moved the most

Ex: Elbow flexion Wrist Flexion

Agonist: Biceps brachii Agonist: Flexor Carpi radialis
Antagonist: Triceps brachii Antagonist: Extensor carpi radialis

Shoulder Abduction Dorsi Flexion

Agonist: Deltoid Agonist: Tibialis Anterior
Antagonist: Latissimus dorsi Antagonist: Gastrocnemius

Medial Shoulder rotation Trunk Flexion

Agonist: Pectoralis major Agonist: Rectus Abdominis
Antagonist: Infraspinatus Antagonist: Erector spinae group

Knee Extension Hip Flexion

Agonist: Quadriceps Agonist: Illiopsoas
Antagonist: Hamstrings Antagonist: Gluteus Maximus

Sliding Filament Theory

Tropomyosin: strand like protein wrapped around actin filament, blocking myosin binding sites
Troponin: Looks like a pacman, sits on top of tropomyosin. Ca2+
Apoptosis: natural loss of fast-twitch fibres in resulting to the death of muscle cells with aging
Sarcopenia: natural process of muscle loss due to age and disuse (can be avoided by activity)

1. Brain releases nerve impulse to initiate movement down spinal cord

2. Nerve impulse travels down to neuron to the neuromuscular junction (axon terminal)
3. Axon terminal releases neurotransmitter acetycholine
4. Acetylcholine crosses the synaptic cleft and binds to receptors on the sarcolemma
5. Sarcolemma becomes depolarized
6. Action potential is transported to the interior of the muscle via the transverse tubules
7. Sarcoplasmic reticulum release Ca2+ ions
8. Calcium binds onto troponin
9. Tropomyosin slides, revealing myosin binding sites on actin
10. ATP attaches to the head of myosin
11. Myosin attaches to actin
12. ATP splits into ADP, Pi and energy
13. Power stoke occurs, causing Actin to slide over myosin
Proprioception:
 Feedback regarding where our limbs are in space
 Allows us to maintain our posture and balance
 Sensory organs in the muscles, tendons and joints
  Feedback regarding state of muscle contractions

Type 1) Golgi Tendon Organs

 Located in series within the tendon
 Sense changes in muscle tension when stretched
 Protects muscles/joints from damage
 May interfere with development of strength/power

Type 1) Muscle Spindles

 Located parallel to muscle fibres
 Sense changes in muscle length
 Maintains muscle tension/contraction to regulate posture and balance

EFFECTs of Resistance/Chronic Training

Hypertrophy: muscle diameter will increase with training causing increase in muscle
strength
Increased intra-muscular coordination: Increase in muscle strength means can recruit
more motor units at the same time and has a better signal from the brain
Increased capillary density (blood supply): Better supply of nutrients and removal of
waste
Increased Muscle proteins: More actin and myosin filaments, more power strokes with
force
Increased fuel storage capacity: Better storage of glycogen, ATP, phosphocreatine
Better fuel efficiency: increased mitochondrion density

Benefits: Skinnier, decrease risk of disease, longer life, improved body postures, self-esteem

Bad effects:
Hyperplasia: Fibre splitting. More common in females.
Hypoglycemia: When you work out in the morning, you don’t have any energy
Atrophy: Decrease in muscle fibre diameter without training (bed rest)

Energy Systems:

Energy Equation: Energy storage = Energy intake- Energy output

Zone Diet: 40-30-30 (carb, fat, protein) for athletes

Metabolism: All the chemical reactions in the body that occur in the production of energy to do
work (digestion, think, muscle work, etc)
Bioenergetic Conversion: Process by which the body converts the energy found in carbs,
proteins & fats into a usable form; Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP)

ATP: universal form of “free energy” for cellular processes. The energy currency for a cell.

Equation:

ATP + H2O <-> ADP + Pi + ENERGY

 High demand
 Not a storage form of energy
 Used to transfer energy where needed
 Used up quickly

Resynthesis Equation:

ADP + Pi + ENERGY <-> ATP

Catabolism: cellular breakdown of food (organic molecules)

Production of ATP and Metabolic pathways:

See Notes

Lactic Acid: by-product created when energy demands of exercise can no longer be met by only
aerobic systems. Causes onset of blood lactate accumulation

Nutrition
 Provides energy for vital functions
 Promotes proper growth and development
 Prevents chronic diseases
 Helps us perform and look our best

Nutrient: chemical substance obtained from food that provides the body with energy allowing
growth and repair to occur

Essential nutrient: substances our body cannot make itself. Must be consumed through diet

Macronutrients: Need large amounts of

Carb - 4 cal/g Protein- 4 cal/g Fat- 9 cal/g

Carbohydrates:
 Used first in ATP production
 Comes from sugar, grain, starch, fibre
Monosaccharides (Simple carbs): Glucose, fructose, galactose (GFG)
Dissacharide: Sucrose, lactose, maltose
Polysaccharides (complex carbs): starch (plants), glycogen (animals)

Glycemic Index: Ranking of carbs in order of their effect to the blood sugar levels

Low GI: Small changes in blood insulin, healthy (fruits, veges, milk)
High GI: Large changes in blood insulin, unhealthy (sugary food)

Proteins:
 Made up of amino acids
 Needed to grow and repair all body tissues
 Needed in hormones, enzymes and immune system
Complete Protein: contains all 20 AA (meat, eggs)
Incomplete Protein: contains only 1+ AA (protein in veges)

Fats:
 Used for energy storage, insulation, protection, hormone production, etc
(BAD) Saturated Fats: comes from animal and has high levels of low-density
lipoprotein (raises cholesterol)
(GOOD) Polyunsaturated fats: comes from plants and has high levels of high-
density lipoprotein (lowers cholesterol)

Micronutrients: only need small amounts (vitamins and minerals)

Vitamins: regulates chemical reactions
Minerals: carries our vital bodily functions

WATER
 Essential for life
 Assists with carrying nutrients, digestion, excretion

Food Labels

What’s on it? The serving size, nutrition facts box, and the % daily value

Who’s exempt? Fresh fruits, veges, raw food, granola bars

TRAINING

Training: to make the human body more efficient

Variables:
 Individual (genetics, motivation, etc)
 Goals
 Sport/activity
 Level of competition
 Training methods

FITT PRINCIPLE

Frequency: regularity is important

How many times/week

Intensity: how hard to train?

% ___ (VOz max, HR max, reps max)

Type: What exercises?

Goal?

Time: Duration of training session

(Start with 20-60 min)

Volume of training = Frequency x Time

Training Principles

Overload principle: human body being subjected to a greater stress than what it is used to so
all the muscles can adapt allowing the body to perform better and more efficiently

Principle of Progression: Absolute effect will occur if the athlete is subjected to greater
overloads over time so the person can adapt to a certain level of training to take the increased
stresses to effect a performance improvement

Specificity Principle: Training methods need to be specific towards a goal. The loads placed on
the body need to mimic the sport as closely as possible

Principle of Individual Differences: Each person has a different physical and psychological
make-up. Different people need different training

Reversibility Principle: When a muscle is not used for a long time, the training effect will
disappear causing atrophy. Can be caused by lack of motivation, injuries, other commitments

Diminishing Returns Principle: If someone who had no/little fitness and strength trained over a
short period of time, they would have a great increase in their level of fitness. Someone who
has a high level of fitness training over a short period of time would have little increases to their
level of fitness

Training Methods

Periodization: Breakdown of overall training into distinct training periods to maximize the
performance at peak times (ex: athletes train for years so they are at their peak of the game
during the Olympics or World Championships).

Concurrent training: Training multiple energy systems by performing different types of

trainings simultaneously

Interval training: To maximize all energy systems (ex: 5 minute hard work out, 1 minute break)

Fartlek Training: Alternating intense bursts of effort with recovery periods. (Ex: You are jogging
on flat land but sprinting on hills)

Resistance training: Weight lifting to improve muscle mass gain and strength. (Ex: starting with
5 reps, 10 reps, 15 reps, 10 reps, 5 reps)

Plyometrics: Form of resistance training by stretching. Shortening exercise to stretch then

shorten the muscles through exercise.

Burn-out and over-training: Situation where you find yourself after long periods of training and
competition

GROWTH AND DEVELOPEMENT

Growth: increase in size of body tissue, organs and systems that follow an orderly sequence

Development: Permanent changes that occur to a person as their potential unfolds. Achieves
new abilities, qualities, and characteristics.

4 Components to Human Development (PCMS)

Physical Development: Orderly and sequential changes in our anatomy
Cognitive Development: Increased ability to interpret and process information. Changes
in the emotion capacity. Develops self-awareness and self-concept
Motor/Skill Development: Combination of cognitive & physical. Wide range of tasks
Social Development: Ability to make and maintain relationships
Types of ages: (CDS)

Chronological: measured in years, days, months

Skeletal: maturity of skeleton and degree of ossification
Developmental: expressed through the ability to perform certain tasks
Human Morphology: (EME)

Endomorph: “more fat”

Mesomorph: “more stocky, muscled”
Ectomorph: “Skinnier”

Factors affecting Physical growth: (HHNPAS)

 Hormonal activity
 Heredity
 Nutrition
 Physical activity
 Sociocultural factors

Growth rates for different body parts

Cephalocaudal sequence: head, trunk, extremities

Proximodistal sequence: movements that are closer to the centre of the body
develop first

ACRONYMS FOR GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT UNIT

PCMS CaA
P: TCPA RIFEE
C: SPOCOFO Kr + KP
M: RRFS->GSS VVKBK
S: SISPR FBRSA
RCM
CDS SPES
EME PSR
HHNPAS ABNIE (coaches)
IPS FLF (Levers)
MH-SB-LM

See the rest in notes

Cardiovascular & respiratory: see notes