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3. Resistance earthed
systems
Resistance grounding has been used in three-
phase industrial applications for many years and
it resolves many of the problems associated with
solidly grounded and ungrounded systems.
Resistance Grounding Systems limits the phase-
to-ground fault currents.
The main reasons for limiting the phase to
ground fault current by resistance grounding
are:
1.To reduce burning and melting effects in
faulted electrical equipment like
switchgear, transformers, cables, and
rotating machines.
2.To reduce mechanical stresses in
circuits/Equipments carrying fault
currents.
3.To reduce electrical-shock hazards to
personnel caused by stray ground fault.
4.To reduce the arc blast or flash hazard.
5.To reduce the momentary line-voltage dip.
6.To secure control of the transient over-
voltages while at the same time.
7.To improve the detection of the earth fault
in a power system.
Grounding Resistors are generally connected
between ground and neutral of transformers,
generators and grounding transformers to limit
maximum fault current as per Ohms Law to a
value which will not damage the equipment in
the power system and allow sufficient flow of fault
current to detect and operate Earth protective
relays to clear the fault. Although it is possible to
limit fault currents with high resistance Neutral
grounding Resistors, earth short circuit currents
can be extremely reduced.
As a result of this fact, protection devices may
not sense the fault.
Therefore, it is the most common application to
limit single phase fault currents with low
resistance Neutral Grounding Resistors to
approximately rated current of transformer and /
or generator.
In addition, limiting fault currents to
predetermined maximum values permits the
designer to selectively coordinate the operation
of protective devices, which minimizes system
disruption and allows for quick location of the
fault.
There are two categories of resistance
grounding:
1.Low resistance Grounding
2.High resistance Grounding
Ground fault current flowing through either type
of resistor when a single phase faults to ground
will increase the phase-to-ground voltage of the
remaining two phases. As a result,conductor
insulation and surge arrestor ratings must be
based on line-to-line voltage. This temporary
increase in phase-to-ground voltage should also
be considered when selecting two and three pole
breakers installed on resistance grounded low
voltage systems.
The increase in phase-to-ground voltage
associated with ground fault currents also
precludes the connection of line-to-neutral loads
directly to the system. If line-to neutral loads
(such as 277V lighting) are present, they must be
served by a solidly grounded system. This can be
achieved with an isolation transformer that has a
three-phase delta primary and a three-phase,
four-wire, wye secondary.
Resistor neutral earthing
Neither of these grounding systems (low or high
resistance) reduces arc-flash hazards associated
with phase-to-phase faults, but both systems
significantly reduce or essentially eliminate the
arc-flash hazards associated with phase-to-
ground faults. Both types of grounding systems
limit mechanical stresses and reduce thermal
damage to electrical equipment, circuits, and
apparatus carrying faulted current.
The difference between Low Resistance
Grounding and High Resistance Grounding is a
matter of perception and, therefore, is not well
defined. Generally speaking high-resistance
grounding refers to a system in which the NGR
let-through current is less than 50 to 100 A.Low
resistance grounding indicates that NGR current
would be above 100 A.
A better distinction between the two levels might
be alarm only and tripping. An alarm-only system
continues to operate with a single ground fault on
the system for an unspecified amount of time. In
a tripping system a ground fault is automatically
removed by protective relaying and circuit
interrupting devices. Alarm-only systems usually
limit NGR current to 10 A or less.
Rating of The Neutral grounding resistor:
1.Voltage: Line-to-neutral voltage of the
system to which it is connected.
2.Initial Current: The initial current which
will flow through the resistor with rated
voltage applied.
3.Time: The “on time” for which the resistor
can operate without exceeding the
allowable temperature rise.
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A. Low Resistance Grounded
Low Resistance Grounding is used for large
electrical systems where there is a high
investment in capital equipment or prolonged
loss of service of equipment has a significant
economic impact and it is not commonly used in
low voltage systems because the limited ground
fault current is too low to reliably operate breaker
trip units or fuses. This makes system selectivity
hard to achieve. Moreover, low resistance
grounded systems are not suitable for 4-wire
loads and hence have not been used in
commercial market applications.
A resistor is connected from the system neutral
point to ground and generally sized to permit
only 200A to 1200 amps of ground fault current
to flow. Enough current must flow such that
protective devices can detect the faulted circuit
and trip it off-line but not so much current as to
create major damage at the fault point.
Low resistance grounded
Since the grounding impedance is in the form of
resistance, any transient over voltages are
quickly damped out and the whole transient
overvoltage phenomena is no longer applicable.
Although theoretically possible to be applied in
low voltage systems (e.g. 480V),significant
amount of the system voltage dropped across the
grounding resistor, there is not enough voltage
across the arc forcing current to flow, for the fault
to be reliably detected.
For this reason low resistance grounding is
not used for low voltage systems (under 1000
volts line to-line).
Advantages
1.Limits phase-to-ground currents to 200-
400A.
2.Reduces arcing current and, to some
extent, limits arc-flash hazards associated
with phase-to-ground arcing current
conditions only.
3.May limit the mechanical damage and
thermal damage to shorted transformer
and rotating machinery windings.
Disadvantages:
1.Does not prevent operation of over current
devices.
2.Does not require a ground fault detection
system.
3.May be utilized on medium or high voltage
systems.
4.Conductor insulation and surge arrestors
must be rated based on the line to-line
voltage. Phase-to-neutral loads must be
served through an isolation transformer.
5.Used: Up to 400 amps for 10 sec are
commonly found on medium voltage
systems.
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B. High Resistance Grounded
High resistance grounding is almost identical to
low resistance grounding except that the ground
fault current magnitude is typically limited to 10
amperes or less. High resistance grounding
accomplishes two things.
The first is that the ground fault current
magnitude is sufficiently low enough
such that no appreciable damage is done at the
fault point. This means that the faulted circuit
need not be tripped off-line when the fault first
occurs. Means that once a fault does occur, we
do not know where the fault is located. In this
respect, it performs just like an ungrounded
system.
The second point is it can control the transient
overvoltage phenomenon present on
ungrounded systems if engineered properly.
Under earth fault conditions, the resistance must
dominate over the system charging capacitance
but not to the point of permitting excessive
current to flow and thereby excluding continuous
operation.
High resistance grounded
High Resistance Grounding (HRG) systems limit
the fault current when one phase of the system
shorts or arcs to ground, but at lower levels than
low resistance systems.
In the event that a ground fault condition exists,
the HRG typically limits the current to 5-10A.
HRG’s are continuous current rated, so the
description of a particular unit does not include a
time rating. Unlike NGR’s, ground fault current
flowing through a HRG is usually not of
significant magnitude to result in the operation of
an over current device. Since the ground fault
current is not interrupted, a ground fault detection
system must be installed.
These systems include a bypass contactor
tapped across a portion of the resistor that pulses
(periodically opens and closes). When the
contactor is open, ground fault current flows
through the entire resistor. When the contactor is
closed a portion of the resistor is bypassed
resulting in slightly lower resistance and slightly
higher ground fault current.
To avoid transient over-voltages, an HRG
resistor must be sized so that the amount of
ground fault current the unit will allow to flow
exceeds the electrical system’s charging current.
As a rule of thumb, charging current is estimated
at 1A per 2000KVA of system capacity for low
voltage systems and 2A per 2000KVA of system
capacity at 4.16kV.
These estimated charging currents increase if
surge suppressors are present. Each set of
suppressors installed on a low voltage system
results in approximately 0.5A of additional
charging current and each set of suppressors
installed on a 4.16kV system adds 1.5A of
additional charging current.
A system with 3000KVA of capacity at 480 volts
would have an estimated charging current of
1.5A.Add one set of surge suppressors and the
total charging current increases by 0.5A to 2.0A.
A standard 5A resistor could be used on this
system. Most resistor manufacturers publish
detailed estimation tables that can be used to
more closely estimate an electrical system’s
charging current.
Advantages
1.Enables high impedance fault detection in
systems with weak capacitive connection
to earth
2.Some phase-to-earth faults are self-
cleared.
3.The neutral point resistance can be
chosen to limit the possible over voltage
transients to 2.5 times the fundamental
frequency maximum voltage.
4.Limits phase-to-ground currents to 5-10A.
5.Reduces arcing current and essentially
eliminates arc-flash hazards associated
with phase-to-ground arcing current
conditions only.
6.Will eliminate the mechanical damage and
may limit thermal damage to shorted
transformer and rotating machinery
windings.
7.Prevents operation of over current devices
until the fault can be located (when only
one phase faults to ground).
8.May be utilized on low voltage systems or
medium voltage systems up to 5kV. IEEE
Standard 141-1993 states that “high
resistance grounding should be restricted
to 5kV class or lower systems with
charging currents of about 5.5A or less
and should not be attempted on 15kV
systems, unless proper grounding relaying
is employed”.
9.Conductor insulation and surge arrestors
must be rated based on the line to-line
voltage. Phase-to-neutral loads must be
served through an isolation transformer.
Disadvantages
1.Generates extensive earth fault currents
when combined with strong or moderate
capacitive connection to earth Cost
involved.
2.Requires a ground fault detection system
to notify the facility engineer that a ground
fault condition has occurred.
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4. Resonant earthed system
Adding inductive reactance from the system
neutral point to ground is an easy method of
limiting the available ground fault from something
near the maximum 3 phase short circuit capacity
(thousands of amperes) to a relatively low value
(200 to 800 amperes).
To limit the reactive part of the earth fault current
in a power system a neutral point reactor can be
connected between the transformer neutral and
the station earthing system.
A system in which at least one of the neutrals is
connected to earth through an
1.Inductive reactance.
2.Petersen coil / Arc Suppression Coil /
Earth Fault Neutralizer.
The current generated by the reactance during
an earth fault approximately compensates the
capacitive component of the single phase earth
fault current, is called a resonant earthed system.
The system is hardly ever exactly tuned, i.e. the
reactive current does not exactly equal the
capacitive earth fault current of the system.
A system in which the inductive current is slightly
larger than the capacitive earth fault current is
over compensated. A system in which the
induced earth fault current is slightly smaller than
the capacitive earth fault current is under
compensated.
Resonant neutral earthing
However, experience indicated that this inductive
reactance to ground resonates with the system
shunt capacitance to ground under arcing ground
fault conditions and creates very high transient
over voltages on the system. To control the
transient over voltages, the design must permit at
least 60% of the 3 phase short circuit current to
flow underground fault conditions.
Example – A 6000 amp grounding reactor for a
system having 10,000 amps 3 phase short circuit
capacity available. Due to the high magnitude of
ground fault current required to control transient
over voltages, inductance grounding is rarely
used within industry.
Petersen Coils
A Petersen Coil is connected between the neutral
point of the system and earth, and is rated so
that the capacitive current in the earth fault is
compensated by an inductive current passed
by the Petersen Coil. A small residual current
will remain, but this is so small that any arc
between the faulted phase and earth will not be
maintained and the fault will extinguish. Minor
earth faults such as a broken pin insulator, could
be held on the system without the supply being
interrupted. Transient faults would not result in
supply interruptions.
Although the standard ‘Peterson coil’ does not
compensate the entire earth fault current in a
network due to the presence of resistive losses in
the lines and coil, it is now possible to apply
‘residual current compensation’ by injecting an
additional 180° out of phase current into the
neutral via the Peterson coil. The fault current is
thereby reduced to practically zero. Such
systems are known as ‘Resonant earthing with
residual compensation’, and can be considered
as a special case of reactive earthing.
Resonant earthing can reduce EPR to a safe
level. This is because the Petersen coil can often
effectively act as a high impedance NER, which
will substantially reduce any earth fault currents,
and hence also any corresponding EPR hazards
(e.g. touch voltages, step voltages and
transferred voltages, including any EPR hazards
impressed onto nearby telecommunication
networks).
Advantages
1.Small reactive earth fault current
independent of the phase to earth
capacitance of the system.
2.Enables high impedance fault detection.
Disadvantages
1.Risk of extensive active earth fault losses.
2.High costs associated.
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5. Earthing Transformers
For cases where there is no neutral point
available for Neutral Earthing (e.g. for a delta
winding), an earthing transformer may be used to
provide a return path for single phase fault
currents.
Earthing transformers
In such cases the impedance of the earthing
transformer may be sufficient to act as effective
earthing impedance. Additional impedance can
be added in series if required. A special ‘zig-zag’
transformer is sometimes used for earthing delta
windings to provide a low zero-sequence
impedance and high positive and negative
sequence impedance to fault currents.
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Conclusion
Resistance Grounding Systems have many
advantages over solidly grounded systems
including arc-flash hazard reduction, limiting
mechanical and thermal damage associated with
faults, and controlling transient over voltages.
High resistance grounding systems may also be
employed to maintain service continuity and
assist with locating the source of a fault.
When designing a system with resistors, the
design/consulting engineer must consider the
specific requirements for conductor insulation
ratings, surge arrestor ratings, breaker single-
pole duty ratings, and method of serving phase-
to-neutral loads.
Comparison of Neutral
Earthing System
Condition Un grounded Solid Low
Grounded Gro
Immunity to Worse Good Go
Transient Over
voltages
73% Increase in Poor Best Go
Voltage Stress
Under Line-to-
Ground Fault
Condition
Equipment Protected Worse Poor Be
Safety to Personnel Worse Better Go
Service Reliability Worse Good Be
Maintenance Cost Worse Good Be
Ease of Locating Worse Good Be
First Ground Fault
Permits Designer to Not Possible Good Be
CoordinateProtective
Devices
Reduction in Worse Better Go
Frequency of Faults
Lighting Arrestor Ungroundedneutral Grounded- Un
type neutraltype typ
Current for phase-to Less than 1% Varies, 5 to
ground fault in may be
percent ofthree- 100% or
phase fault current greater
