Signassure Services (India) Ltd
25-01-18
Cooling Tower [Link]
COOLING TOWER DESIGN
Signassure Services (India) Ltd
25-01-18
Cooling Tower [Link]
COOLING TOWER DESIGN
Notes and Codes and Standards
8
Signassure Services (India) Ltd
Cooling Tower [Link]
COOLING TOWER DESIGN
Notes and Codes and Standards
The codes which govern the sizing and testing of CT define ambient wet-bulb temp as that which is measured at a
distance of 50 to 100 feet upwind of the tower, at an elevation approximately 5 feet above its base, without intervening
heat sources.
Accordingly, one can see that an upwind heat source beyond those limitations could cause a CT to experience wet-bulb
temp somewhat higher than would be anticipated from published data.
Once having decided the correct design wet-bulb temp, the specifier must be clear as to whether the CT manufacturer is
to treat it as an ambient wet-bulb or an entering wet-bulb in the actual design of the tower.
The basis for thermal desgin of any evaporative type CT is the wet-bulb Temp (WBT) of the air actually entering the
tower.
If the design WBT is specified to be ambient, then reputable CT manufacturers will adjust that temp upward, in varying
degrees, to compensate for any potential recirculation.
If the design WBT is specified to be entering, then the CT manufacturer will make no adjustment of that temp in his
design, & the WBT at the time of test will be the avg of multiple readings taken at the tower air inlets.
The entering WBT is nearly always used as the specification in order to avoid any deviation at the time CT is tested.
If the actual WBT is higher than anticipated by design, then warmer than desired avg water temp will result.
Conversely, if the actual wet-bulb is lower than expected, then the Owner will probably have purchased a CT larger than
he needs.
Signassure Services (India) Ltd
25-01-18
Cooling Tower [Link]
COOLING TOWER DESIGN
Types and their characteristics
1 Mechanical draft towers are divided into Forced draft and induced draft towers.
2 Forced draft- on which the fan is located in the ambient air stream entering the tower, & the air is
blown through.
3 Induced draft- wherein a fan located in the exiting air stream draws air through the tower.
4 Forced draft are characterized by-
a High air entrance velocities and low exit velocities.
b They are extremely susceptible to recirculation & are therefore considered to have less performance
stability than the induced draft.
c Located in the cold entering ambient air stream, forced draft fans can become subject to severe icing
(with resultant imbalance) when moving air laden with either natural or recirculated moisture.
d Usually are equipped with centrifugal blower type fans which, although requiring considerably more
horsepower than propeller type fans, have the advantage of being able to operate against the high
static pressures associated with ductwork.
e Therefore, they can either be installed indoors (space permitting), or within a specially designed
enclosure that provides significant separation between intake and discharge locations to minimize
recirculation.
5 Induced draft
a Have an air discharge velocity of from 3 to 4 times higher than their air entrance velocity, eith the
entrance velocity approx that of a 5 mph wind.
b Therefore, there is little or no tendency for a reduced pressure zone to be created at the air inlets by
the action of the fan alone.
c The potential for recirculation on an induced draft tower is not self-initiating and, therefore, can be
more easily quantified purely on the basis of ambient wind conditions.
d Location of the fan within the warm air streams provides excellent pretection against the formation of
ice on the mechanical components.
e Widespread acceptance of induced draft towers is evidenced by their existence on installations as
small as 15 gpm & as large as 700,000 gpm.
6 Towers are characterized based on the Air flow as well.
7 Counterflow towers
a Air moves vertically upward through the fill, counter to the downward fall of water.
b Bcoz of the need for extended intake and discharge plenums; the use of high-pressure spray systems;
& the typically higher air pressure losses, some of the smaller counterflow towers are physically
higher; require more pump head; & utilize more fan power than their crossflow counterparts.
c In larger counterflow towers, however, the use of low pressure, gravity related distribution systems,
plus the availability of generous intake areas and plenum spaces for air management, is tending to
equalize, or even reverse, this situation.
d The enclosed nature of a counterflow tower also restricts exposure of the water to direct sunlight,
thereby retarding the growth of algae.
8 Crossflow towers
a Have a fill configuratio through which the air flows horizontally, across the downward fall of water.
b Water to be cooled is delivered to hot water inlet basins located atop the fill areas, & is distributed to
the fill by gravity through metering orifices in the floor of those basins.
c Thisremoves the need for a pressure-spray distribution system, & places the resultant gravity system
in full view for ease of maintenance.
d By the proper utilization of flow control valves, routine cleaning & maintenance of a crossflow tower's
distribution system can be accomplished sectionally, while the tower continuous to operate.
e Are also sub-classified by the number of fill "banks"& air inlets that are served by each fan.
f Double-flow tower, the fan is inducing air through two inlets & across 2 banks of fill
g Single-flow tower having only one air inlet and one fill bank, the remaining three sides of the tower
being cased.
h Single-flow towers are customarily used in locations where an unrestricted air path to the tower is
available from only one direction.
i They are also useful in areas having a dependable prevailing wind direction, where consistent process
temperatures are critical.
j The tower can be sited with the air inlet facing the prevailing wind, & any potential for recirculation is
negated by the downwind side of the tower being a cased face.
9 Spray-fill towers
a Have no HT (fill) surface, depending only upon the water break-up afforded by the distribution system
to promote maximum water-to-air contact. Removing the fill can make the towers spray-fill one.
b The use of such towers is normally limited to those processes where higher water temperature are
permissible.
c They are also utilized in those situations where excessive contaminants or solids in the circulating
water would jeopardize a normal HT surface.
10 Towers are also characterized by construction, viz, Field-erected, Factory-assembled towers
11 Towers are characterized by shape, viz, Rectilinear and Round Mechanical draft towers
12 Octagonal Mechanical Draft (OMD) also fall into the general classification of "round"towers. Such
towers can handle enormous heat loads with considerably less site area impact than that required by
multiple rectilinear towers. In addition to which, they are significantly less affected by recirculation.
13 Towers are characterized by the method of HT: All the cooling towers described are evaporative type
towers, in that they derive their primary cooling effect from the evaporation that takes place when air &
water are brought into direct conatct.
14 At the other end of the spectrum is the Dry tower where, by full utilization of dry surface coil sections,
no direct contact ( & no evaporation) occurs between air & water. Hence the water is cooled totally by
sensible HT.
Factors govern the operation of cooling tower:
i The dry-bulb and wet-bulb temperatures of air
ii Temperature of warm water
iii The efficiency of contact between air and water in terms of volumetric mass transfer coefficient ( k ay /
iv )Contact time between air and water
v The uniformity of the distribution of the phases within the tower
vi Air pressure drop vii. Desired temperature of cooled water
Signassure Services (India) Ltd
25-01-18
Cooling Tower [Link]
COOLING TOWER DESIGN
Performance influencing factors
1 Wet-Bulb Temperature
a The same amount of enthalpy exchange (cooling effect) would have taken place had the air
entered the tower at a temp of 65°F and 100% RH which, by definition is a 65°F "wet-bulb"temp.
For this reason, the primary basis for thermal design of any evaporative type cooling tower is the
wet bulb temp of the air entering the tower.
b In pt of fact, design air conditions for the example problem would not have been given to a cooling
tower designer as "78F at a 50% RH". Rather, instructions would have been to design for a "65F
wet bulb temp".
c Only if there was a requirement to know the exact amt of evaporation, or if the selection were for
something other than a normal mechanical draft cooling tower, would there have been a need to
know the design dry-bulb temp of the air, or its RH.
d The codes which govern the sizing and testing of CT define ambient wet-bulb temp as that which is
measured at a distance of 50 to 100 feet upwind of the tower, at an elevation approximately 5 feet
above its base, without intervening heat sources.
e Accordingly, one can see that an upwind heat source beyond those limitations could cause a CT to
experience wet-bulb temp somewhat higher than would be anticipated from published data.
f Once having decided the correct design wet-bulb temp, the specifier must be clear as to whether
the CT manufacturer is to treat it as an ambient wet-bulb or an entering wet-bulb in the actual
design of the tower.
g The basis for thermal desgin of any evaporative type CT is the wet-bulb Temp (WBT) of the air
actually entering the tower.
h If the design WBT is specified to be ambient, then reputable CT manufacturers will adjust that temp
upward, in varying degrees, to compensate for any potential recirculation.
i If the design WBT is specified to be entering, then the CT manufacturer will make no adjustment of
that temp in his design, & the WBT at the time of test will be the avg of multiple readings taken at
the tower air inlets.
j The entering WBT is nearly always used as the specification in order to avoid any deviation at the
time CT is tested.
k If the actual WBT is higher than anticipated by design, then warmer than desired avg water temp
will result.
Conversely, if the actual wet-bulb is lower than expected, then the Owner will probably have
purchased a CT larger than he needs.
2 Dry-Bulb and/ or Relative Humidity
a It is also required where there is a need to know the absolute rate of evaporation at design
conditions for any type tower.
3 Heat Load
a The size & cost of CT is proportional to the heat load.
4 GPM, Range and Approach
Heat load = gpm x 8.33 x 60 x R = Btu/hr
gpm = Circulating water rate in gallons per minute
8.33 = Pounds per gallon of water at a typical temp.
R = "Range"= Difference between hot water temp entering & cold water temp leaving tower, °F
85°F Hot water to tower
Cooling Range
70°F Cold water from tower
Approach
65°F Wet-bulb temperature
a The combination of range and gpm is fixed by the heat load.
The combination of approach is fixed by the size and efficiency of the cooling tower.
b Increased efficiency will measurably improve (decrease) approach.
c Decreasing approch curve is beginning its asymptotic movement toward zero approach. For this
reason, it is not customary in the CT industry to guarantee any approach of less than 5°F not bcoz
towres are unable to produce them but bcoz any errors in measurementr become very significant
when performance is calculated at the design point.
d Heat load dissipation can be accomplished with almost infinite combinations of flow rates & ranges.
However, a relatively narrow band of possible combinations is dictated by hydraulic limitations &/ or
temp-efficient levels of the process being served.
5 Interference
a Local heat sources upwind of the CT can elevate the wet-bulb temp of the air entering the tower,
thereby affecting its performance.
b One such heat source might be a previously installed CT on site, or in the immediate vicinity,
wherein a portion of the saturated effluent of an upwind tower contaminates the ambinet of the
downwind tower.
c It would be wise to select a design wet-bulb temp at least 3 degrees highe than local conditions
would otherwise indicate.
6 Recirculation
a The entering wet-bulb temp is affected by some portion of the saturated air leaving the CT eing
induced back into the tower inlets.
b The potential for recirculation is primarily related to wind force & direction, with recirculation tending
to increase as wind velocity increases.
c For that reason, accepted codes under which CT are tested for thermal performance limit wind
velosity during the test to 10 mph (16kmph).
d Although wind is the primary cause of recirculation, several other aspects of CT design &
orientation play important parts in its reduction & control:
i Tower Shape:When flowing wind encounters as obstruction of any sort, the normal path of the wind
is disrupted & a reduced-pressure zone or "wake"forms on downwind side of that obstruction. Quite
naturally. The wind will try to fill this void by means of the shortest possible route.
If the obstruction is tall & narrow, the wind easily compensates by flowing around the vertical sides.
However, if the structire opposing the wind is long & relatively low, the quickest path for pressure
equalization is over the top- & downward.
ii Orientation with prevailing wind:
iii Air discharge velocity: At any given atm condn, the velocity at which the discharge plume from a
tower will rise depends upon the KE imparted by the fan, the effluent energy (decrease in density)
imparted to the effluent plume by the tower heat load, both of which are changed to PE by virtue of
ultimate elevation of the plume.
For an induced draft tower operating under calm condns, with a vertically rising plume, entering &
leaving wet-bulb temperature can be considered to be equal.
Signassure Services (India) Ltd
25-01-18
Cooling Tower [Link]
COOLING TOWER DESIGN
1 Wet bulb temperature
a When evaporation occurs: If the vapor pressure of water is higher than the partial pressure of water vapor in
the ambient air, evaporation occurs. The latent heat for evaporation will be supplied by (i) surrounding air & (ii)
water drop itself.
Now, consider a drop of water at the tip of thin wire. As temp of water drop decreases with time, vapor
pressure decreases causing a reduction in partial pressure driving force. Temp driving force for heat transfer
from ambient air to water increases. If sufficient time is allowed, a steady state temp will be attained by drop.
This is WBT.
Factors that ave influence on WBT
i Dry bulb temp of air TG
ii Humidity
iii Air velocity
iv Shape of the thermometer bulb
b The combination of a dry-bulb & wet-bulb thermometer is called a "psychrometer".
c Adiabatic saturation temp & WBT are nearly equal for air-water system.
Signassure Services (India) Ltd
25-01-18
Cooling Tower [Link]
Thumb Rules
Sr Approach to Cooling Packet
No. wet bulb range (°F) height (ft)
temp (°F) (TL2-TL1)
(TL1-Tas)
1 15-20 25-35 15-20
2 10-15 23-35 25-30
3 5-10 25-35 35-40
Signassure Services (India) Ltd
25-01-18
Cooling Tower [Link]
General DesignConsiderations
A Components of A Cooling Tower
1 Structural Components
a Cold water basin: functions as collecting cold water following its transit of the tower and acting as the towers
primary foundation.
b Tower framework: most commonly used materials for the framework of field-erected towers are fiberglass,
wood, and concrete, with steel utilized infrequently to conform to a local building code, or to satisfy a specific
preference.
c Water distribution system: Lines might be buried to minimize problem of thrust loading, thermal expansion and
freezing; or elevated to minimize cost of installation and repair. In either case, the risers to the tower inlet must
be externally supported, independent of the tower structure and piping.
