ENGLISH HERITAGE

HERITAG E
PRACTICAL BUILDING CONSERVATION

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 This chapter begins with a brief history of roof coverings used in England, and then summarises
how roofs must work to protect the building. A general guide to their deterioration and
assessment is followed by general principles for treatment, repair and ongoing care and
maintenance. Finally, the differences between modern and traditional roofing practice are
discussed in an excursus.
The roof is often the most striking and dramatic feature of any building, particularly
if it is of some antiquity. The roof structure is also likely to be the oldest and least altered
part of a historic building which can yield important information about its age and
significance. The fact that so many historic roofs have survived for centuries is a testimony
to the design, materials and skills used on traditional roofs, even though few would fully
comply with modern practice. As well as the contribution that a historic roof makes to
an individual building, equally important are the distinctive roofscapes of tile, slate,
stone or thatch which are so vital to the unique character of many English regions,
towns and villages.
Conserving historic roof coverings is often approached in a very different way to other
elements of important fabric. This may be because so much more replacement is
undertaken as compared to walling, for example, when a considerable number of decayed
stones or bricks can be tolerated. Roofs have to be made watertight, which leaves no place
for heavily eroded coverings; otherwise, eventually the whole building will be lost.
Despite this, there is still a great deal of thoughtful work that can be done to conserve
historic roofs and the traditions behind them. Repair is still advocated, provided that a
reasonable longevity without continual maintenance can be achieved. When the time
comes to replace a roof, it is important to observe and record early detailing and replicate
it if it has performed well and conditions have not markedly changed. Although it is
tempting to use modern standards and guidance these may not be appropriate and can
introduce bland uniformity as well as dilute regional distinctiveness. Perhaps the biggest
challenge, though, is to improve the energy efficiency of roofs in ways that retain the
building’s character and significance but also ensure its longevity.

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 For the most prestigious buildings belonging to church, royalty or aristocracy, the 5
material of choice was lead and, to a lesser extent, copper. Depending on the ownership
and location of quarries or brickyards, stone, slates or tiles were also used. Oak or
chestnut shingles were also very fashionable in the 14th century and were seen as less of
a fire risk in urban areas than thatch. The London ordinance of 1212 prohibited the use
of thatch on new buildings in the capital, and suggested shingles, slates, stone or tiles as
an alternative. This regulation was gradually adopted in other towns, although not
always rigorously applied.

Although the move away from thatch and, later, shingles meant a stronger roof
structure was needed, even the heaviest stone slates were relatively common from the
16th century onwards, particularly where fissile stone could be sourced from delves
(small quarries or delphs) which outcropped near the surface.

The Industrial Revolution vastly improved transport links. The advent of the canals and
railways led to the rapid export of cheaper, lightweight Welsh slate and machine-made
tiles around the country. This led to the closure of many stone quarries and reduced
demand for handmade tiles.

Victorian terraced housing,

London. As transport links with
North Wales improved from the
mid-19th century, Welsh slate found
a ready market in new areas where
the demand was growing rapidly for
cheap materials for urban working-
and middle-class housing.

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GENERAL INTRODUCTION

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 8
HOW ROOFS WORK
PRACTICAL BUILDING CONSERVATION

A sound roof is essential for the protection of the building and its contents. It is the first defence
against the weather, its primary function being to shed rainwater and snow, and to convey the
runoff safely away from the building via weatherings and rainwater disposal systems. It must
also deal with problems caused by internally generated moisture and wind-blown snow and rain
which can occasionally enter a well-constructed roof. In addition, it must resist damage from
other environmental factors, particularly wind, and the sunlight that causes thermal movements.
The loading imposed on the roof coverings depends upon the direction of the wind, the
topography of the surrounding area, the height and configuration of the roof, and turbulence, but
the force can be considerable, particularly at the eaves, ridges and verges. Tiles are especially
susceptible to wind damage.
Today, roofs must also satisfy modern demands, such as the expectation that it should not
contribute to the spread of fire, should be an acoustic buffer and should reduce carbon dioxide
emissions by minimising heat transfer out of or into a building. The latter is a requirement
under the Building Regulations when a major renovation such as re-roofing is proposed.
However, conservation principles still apply to any work, as does the requirement to ensure that
energy efficiency measures do not have unintended consequences that could jeopardise the
longevity or performance of the building. Most traditional buildings are built from permeable
materials that are able to absorb moisture and release it freely by evaporation, both internally
and externally; this is often described as the ability of the building to ‘breathe’. Provided the
building is well maintained and adequately ventilated, the evaporation of moisture keeps
dampness in the building fabric at levels where it will not cause decay or harm human health.
Changes to this system that reduce airflow, such as the introduction of impermeable materials
or components such as membranes, need to be handled carefully to avoid damage.

Thousands of historic buildings have survived for centuries despite changing weather patterns,
dramatic storms and changes in the way buildings are used. If a roof eventually fails, water
penetration will harm and may even destroy not just the finishes and internal decoration, but
eventually the structure itself. Therefore, once a roof covering has deteriorated to the point
where patch repairs are no longer economic, it will need to be replaced. �ENVIRONMENT �BASICS
The materials used for roof coverings are resistant to deterioration and decay if laid correctly,
but regular inspection and maintenance of rainwater goods and occasional repair is nonetheless
essential. These should all follow the usual principles of conservation: that is, be the minimum
required to limit the rate of deterioration, be timely, and be carried out in a manner that does
not harm the heritage values and significance of that building.
Many materials have been used for roofing in England and have given us diverse and beautiful
roofscapes. But attractive as they are, their most important attribute is the ability to keep out
water and, in this respect, size of the roofing unit – particularly width – is most significant. Size
of the individual roofing materials and the way they overlap have most influenced how they have
been used. The wider and longer the individual units, the fewer joints are needed and, on the
whole, the lower the pitch of the roof can be.

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 AIR & MOISTURE MOVEMENT IN TRADITIONAL BUILDINGS
9
When first constructed, traditional
solid-walled buildings tended With simpler lifestyles and an absence of plumbing, less water vapour was generated
internally, while ventilation rates would have been higher, particularly when fires were lit
to be well-ventilated. Heating
and cooking by open-flued fires
added tremendously to the Ventilation
ventilation rates. Consequently, through flues
moisture levels in the indoor
air were often similar to those
outside and building materials
Radiant heat
were air-dry. Roof spaces were losses to clear
Air exfiltration night skies Roof subject to higher and
often well-ventilated too (through through joints in lower temperatures than
gaps between slates and tiles), roof coverings other parts of the building
so although wind-blown rain and Heat gains
snow might occasionally enter, the from solar
radiation
moisture would soon evaporate. Occasional penetration of
During the 20th century, the wind-driven rain and snow
Moisture transfer
situation changed substantially. to and from Wind dries
Buildings became more airtight, building fabric external
surfaces
open fires were replaced by stoves
and central heating, and there
was less emphasis on ventilation
for health. Consequently, typical
Permeable materials Ceiling acts as a barrier to moist
natural ventilation rates during act as moisture air from within the building
the heating season may well have buffers, absorbing (provided it has not been
and releasing water perforated; for example, by
fallen from perhaps five or 10 air vapour depending on openings for access and services)
changes per hour to about one. the levels of humidity

In addition, more moisture was

created internally by cooking, Ventilation
Heating
baths, showers, clothes washing Moisture transfer
and drying. The outcome has been to and from
building fabric
a tendency for indoor moisture externally
levels to increase. This in turn can
lead to problems of condensation
and decay in the roof, especially
when insulation is also added. The
consequences are discussed later Heat and air movement
dries internal surfaces
in this chapter.
Open fires draw in
Traditional solid-wall construction large quantities of air Ventilation
also absorbs moisture (from rain, Moisture
groundwater or human activity), transfer to and
from building
and releases it both externally fabric internally
and internally. The internal
Air infiltration
evaporation is not taken account through joints
of in much modern guidance; in floorboards
and, consequently, ventilation
rates recommended for modern
buildings may not be sufficient for
all traditional buildings.

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GENERAL INTRODUCTION

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 14 DESIGN OF TR ADITIONAL ROOFS
PRACTICAL BUILDING CONSERVATION

Traditional roof designs evolved largely in response to local climatic conditions and the building materials and skills
available, although they were also much influenced by local practice, regulations, wealth and fashion. Most roofs
were pitched, as the objective was to shed water away from the structure as quickly as possible. The steeper the pitch,
the more timber was needed to build the roof structure to span the space below. Most of the steepest pitched roofs
in England survive in the east where, ironically, it is driest. Plentiful oak forests and a rich tradition in timber-
framed building were significant reasons for this. In Devon and Cornwall, rainfall is much higher but there was a
lack of good quality timber. Roof pitches are shallower, so local detailing has evolved to compensate. For example,
west country straw-thatch was ‘combed’ to remove all the leaves and shoots, and fixed with all the butts pointing
downwards to speed the passage of water from the roof. In many other parts of England, it was acceptable to use
bruised straw, which retained much of the leaf and in which butts and ears of the straw were mixed up, because the
steeper pitch of the roof compensated for reduced water-shedding properties of the material. West country slating
also evolved to include detailing adapted to the local materials and climate. Slates were often very narrow, so, to
prevent water ingress, they were triple-lapped. In more exposed locations, slates were also bedded in lime mortar to
improve wind resistance and were often repaired by covering with a lime slurry coat; a temporary expedient that put
off repairs but could eventually lead to the collapse of the roof.
Elsewhere, similar variations were apparent. In south Yorkshire, sandstone slates are laid at comparatively shallow
pitches, as their size and laps are adequate to deal with the climate, but similar stone in Northumberland further
north is pitched steeper because of the higher rainfall. Low pitches were only possible where the joints were protected
from water ingress. Thus, pantiles had a particular advantage of being single-lapped and therefore imposed less
loading, and only required a comparatively modest roof structure. True flat roofs (in practice, roofs with a very slight
fall) were only possible with amorphous materials or continuously supported decking and a jointing system which sits
above the area of water runoff.

TRADITIONAL ROOF FORMS

HIPPED MANSARD OR GAMBREL GABLED HALF-HIPPED HIPPED WITH GABLET

M-SHAPED 'CATSLIDE' DOUBLE-HIPPED DOUBLE-GABLED

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 15
ROOF TERMINOLOGY

common rafters

truss
laths or battens
purlin

valley gutter parapet

gutter

wall plate
ridge
valley board tie beam

dormer window
hip rafter
raised gable or
gable parapet

eaves gutter valley

dormer
cheek

timber boarding
fascia board

soffit board
(under)
closed eaves wall plate
(rafter feet
concealed)
side abutment

flat roof

lean-to roof barge

board

open eaves
(rafter feet
exposed)

flying rafter

OVERSAILING VERGE
close verge

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GENERAL INTRODUCTION

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 88 Stone slates were used wherever suitably fissile stone could be found. In England the
few counties where there was no suitable rock are those roughly east of a line from
PRACTICAL BUILDING CONSERVATION

Southampton to Scarborough, but excluding Sussex where Horsham stone is used. The
table below lists the more important historical stone-slate sources. Some of the stones
listed supplied a small and very local market compared to metamorphic slate. Shales
and schists were used on a very limited scale, and there are none produced today.
Present-day sources of stone slates are small operations, which tend to come and go as
the rock becomes worked out. The list of Further Reading at the end of this chapter
gives details of where to find information on current producers.

SOURCE S OF STONE SL ATE S USED IN ENGL AND

R EGION OF USE GEOLOGIC AL SOU RCE S

Dorset and Somerset Purbeck Limestone, Forest Marble, Upper & Lower Lias Limestone

Wiltshire, Gloucestershire, Oxfordshire Purbeck, Corallian, Forest Marble, Hampen Marly Beds, Taynton and
Trougham tilestones, Stonesfield Slate, Chipping Norton Limestone,
Lower Fullers Earth Rock, Inferior Oolite, Marlstone

Northamptonshire, Rutland, Lincolnshire Blisworth Limestone, Rutland Formation, Collyweston Slate,

Duston stone (Northampton Sand Formation)

Surrey, Sussex, Kent Horsham Stone, Charlwood Stone

Gloucestershire, Bristol region, Pennant Sandstone, Tilestones (Murchison), Old Red Sandstone,
South Wales Lower Lias Limestone

Welsh Marches including Gloucestershire, Old Red Sandstone, Tilestones (Murchison), Cheney Longville Flags,
Herefordshire, Worcestershire, Shropshire alternata limestone, Chatwall Sandstone, Harnage slates (Hoar Edge
Grit), Grinshill Flagstones, Hope Shale (Corndon Hill)

Staffordshire, Cheshire, Derbyshire, Carboniferous Millstone Grit and Coal Measures sandstones
Lancashire, Yorkshire, County Durham,
Northumberland

East Derbyshire, Nottinghamshire Magnesian Limestone

North Yorkshire Carboniferous Millstone Grit and Coal Measures sandstones,

Jurassic limestones, Brandsby & Boltby slates

Cumbria Carboniferous Millstone Grit and Coal Measures sandstones,

Permian (New Red) Sandstone

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 Geological formations important
STONE SLATE REGIONAL GEOLOGY IN ENGLAND & WALES
89
for stone slates in England and
Wales, and some historic locations
of production and use.

Slaley
Barnard Castle
Eden Valley Brandsby
Yorkshire Dales

Elland Edge
Rossendale

Upholland flags Whitwell

Cracken Edge and Glossop Low
Reeve Edge Freebirch

Collyweston

Corndon Hill
Harnage

Shropshire sandstones
Duston
Tilestones from
Stonesfield
Llandeilo to Ludlow
Hereford Sandstones Cotswold Limestones
Forest Marble from
Pennant Sandstone around Dorset to Oxfordshire
Bristol, the Forest of Dean and
Horsham
north of the South Wales Coalfield
Ham Hill
Sherborne
Portland and Purbeck

Cretaceous: Wealden Carboniferous: Westphalian

Permian: New Red Sandstone Carboniferous: Namurian

Jurassic: Purbeck and Oolite Devonian: Old Red Sandstone

Jurassic: Lias Silurian and Ordovician

Magnesian Limestone Ordovician: Hope Shale Formation

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 150
PRACTICAL BUILDING CONSERVATION

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 REPAIR 151

GUIDANCE
The main source of technical advice for slating is BS 5534:2003 Code of practice for
slating and tiling. This deals thoroughly with tally-slate roofing, but random slating is
not covered in any detail, and there is no advice specifically for stone roofing. As with
all British Standards, the guidance is conservative and consequently may be at variance
with the construction of an existing historic roof. In most cases this will be obvious: for
example, there may be an absence of an underlay. Where there are differences, the first
question to ask is whether changing existing details to conform to modern practice
would confer significant technical advantage. If the answer to that is ‘no’, then any
change that significantly alters the historic integrity or the character of the roof is
unlikely to be justified.

The latest edition of BS 5534 should always be checked in relation to head/side laps, to
confirm that slate manufacturers' and importers' guidance is accurate, up-to-date and
appropriate for the specific roof and its environment.

In the case of stone slate or random slate roofs, it will usually be wise to seek the advice
of an expert to decide whether adopting modern practices would provide significant
benefits. On the whole, if traditional techniques have performed well, then these should
be replicated in repair.

LOCALISED REPAIR
Slate and stone-slate roofs can be maintained for a long time by regularly inspecting
them and carrying out minor works such as replacing slipped slates. Top-fixed slates can
be swung to one side (although torching may make this difficult) to allow access for
re-fixing slipped slates, and any displaced torching renewed if it is accessible.

If the slates are tightly head-nailed there is a risk that the heads will break as the slates
are swung aside, so a slate ripper should be used to pull out or cut the nail. Replacement
slates can then be fixed with tingles or hidden fixings. Tingles are often made of lead
strips nailed to the batten and folded up over the tail of the slate, but they are liable to
become unrolled by heating and cooling or by the weight of snow. Allowing an extra
length of lead and folding it back down onto the slate below can help, but it is better to
use a substantial copper strip – about 1 or 2 mm-thick – which is not so prone to this
problem. A variety of hidden fixings are available.

Re-fixing with lead tingles is not suitable for large or heavy slates. Substantial copper
Collyweston slates being re-laid to strip is better, but the best option may be a strong non-corroding wire hooked under the
form a laced valley, at Apethorpe tail of the slate. If the underside is accessible, similar wire can also be used to re-fix
Hall, Northamptonshire. individual slates by tying them to the battens.

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 214
Moulding a Tile by Hand
PRACTICAL BUILDING CONSERVATION

These pictures were taken at

the Bulmer Brick & Tile Co on the
Essex-Suffolk border. The processes 1. 2.
and their names vary from region
to region.
1. The tile-maker works at a bench,
with prepared clay in a heap to one
side, and the mould in front. The
mould comprises a wooden base or
stock, which is fixed to the bench,
and a loose wooden frame placed
over it. The frame is slightly larger
than the required size of the tile,
to allow for shrinkage. Fine sand
is lightly sprinkled into the mould
to help release the finished tile and
provide a textured appearance (the
face of the tile is on the underside).
A handful of stiff clay is taken from 3. 4.
the pile and rolled into a ‘warp’ (also
known as a wedge, clod or clop).
2. The clay is thrown into the mould.
3. The clay is compressed into the
corners of the frame. Although this
work looks straightforward, it has
resulted in many tilers suffering from
repetitive strain injury, which is a
principal reason why many of these
operations are now mechanised.
4, 5. Excess clay is cut or struck with
a bow and the surplus lifted off.
6. A steel or wet timber strike is used
to give the underside of the tile a
5. 6.
smooth finish.

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 7. Sand is evenly thrown across the
215
tile to ensure that the tiles do not
stick together when stacked.
8. The frame is lifted away from
the stock.
9. For peg tiles, a stick or a metal
spike is used to make the holes.
Historically, pegs were usually
tapered, but they varied in shape
and size from square to round,
and were anything from 6-mm to
16-mm wide. Behind the tiler is
the bearing-off barrow, which is
used to wheel the wet tiles to
the drying sheds. 7. 8.
10. The soft tiles are transferred
to a wooden pallet to dry to a
‘green’ state so that they can then
be stacked. Stacking the green
tiles must be done with great
care. Nibbed tiles must be placed
alternately so as not to damage the
nib. The top tile in the stack dries
first, and as shrinkage takes place
the tile will try to bend, giving it a
natural camber. It is then taken off
to expose the next tile, so that too
developed a camber.
11. Some clays shrink on drying by
up to 12 %. When they are leather- 9. 10.
hard they are placed on a curved
board and beaten to give each tile
the correct camber, so that on the
roof they fit edge-to-edge to avoid
capillary draw. Other tile-makers
place their ‘leather hard’ tiles onto
long, slatted cambered-shaped
racks so that they adopt that shape.
Patting to shape is then normally
confined to hips and ridges placed
over a wooden horse. Gault clays
only shrink by 10 % and are not
normally beaten.
12. The tiles are stacked on their
ends to continue drying. When dry,
they are fired in a kiln to vitrify the
clay, and permanently fix their shape
and size.
11. 12.

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 408 JOINTS
PRACTICAL BUILDING CONSERVATION

A variety of different systems have been used at joints on lead roofs. Laps were traditional,
although drips are much more common today. For most vertical joints, hollow rolls were used
exclusively on gentle pitches until the beginning of the 20th century and standing seams were
used on very steep pitches. Both have performed well. Wood-cored rolls were introduced in the
late 19th century for a number of reasons, including the suggestion that they allowed the
non-specialist plumber to lay lead roofs.

Roofs with hollow rolls may have survived so well because of the fixing methods used. Widely
spaced copper clips within hollow-roll joints on both sides of the sheet ensure an even distribution
of stresses, and no holes are made through the lead. By contrast, the undercloak to a wood-cored
roll was traditionally nailed along its length before being covered by the overcloak, which would
have been simply dressed down on the other side. This type of over-fixing could restrict thermal
movement, and result in fatigue cracks or thermal ripples in the lead sheet across the roofing bays.

Another factor that affects the life of wood-cored roll joints is the amount of bossing used to
form the joints. If done excessively particularly at roll ends (nosings), it can thin the lead sheet,
resulting in premature fatigue cracking. However, hollow rolls on some roofs have also been
known to crack at the point where they were turned down at the roof edge, both along and
across the roll, which may be due to the size of the hollow roll that was formed.

TYPES OF LEAD JOINTS

WOOD-CORED ROLL HOLLOW ROLL STANDING SEAM

40

WELT LAP WITH CLIPS ON FREE EDGE LAP WITH CONTINUOUS WELDED CLIP

For vertical joints in lead

sheets, hollow or wood-
cored rolls, standing seams
or welts can be used. For
joints across the fall, laps or
drips are used. Cross welts
are not used for horizontal
joints in lead.

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 Medieval oak boards on the north 409
nave triforium roof, Salisbury
Cathedral, Wiltshire.
At Salisbury Cathedral, the
north nave triforium is 200-m
long, and extends from the west
front to the tower crossing.
Beneath the lead are oak boards
measuring 12–20-mm thick and
100–150-mm wide. Most of the
roofs of the cathedral were rebuilt
during the mid-18th century, and
although the north nave triforium
roof was only subject to minor
repairs, it was assumed that most
of the boards had been replaced at
that time. However, when re-leading
was being undertaken in 2003–5,
tree-ring dating (dendrochronology)
confirmed that the oak for the
boards was felled in 1251–52,
and therefore they dated
from the original construction in
the mid-13th century. Their survival
for over 750 years suggests that
boarding on other buildings may DECKING
be considerably older than the lead
they support. In the case of medieval Hardwoods, especially oak, were used on older or more important buildings, or those
buildings that were re-roofed in the where the decking forms the ceiling of the room below. The most popular deck for lead
18th or 19th century, it should not roofs has been softwood boarding, especially since the 16th century when it was
be assumed that original boards increasingly imported from the Baltic and Scandinavia. This timber was often very
were replaced at the same time. slow-grown Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris), which has proved to be remarkably effective
The medieval boards at Salisbury under the lead and contributed to its longevity. The boarding readily absorbs moisture
were over-boarded with new which then evaporates in warmer conditions, effectively buffering the lead from
softwood boarding, laid diagonally, possible outbreaks of underside corrosion caused by leaks from on top, or excessive
to support the lead, during the
moisture coming from below.
repairs of 2003–5.

UNDERLAYS
Underlays were rare before the late Victorian period. Inodorous felts and reinforced
papers were introduced on flatter pitches to provide a slip-layer, allowing the sheets to
expand and contract freely, and overcome problems caused by uneven decking or
projecting fixings.

A variety of materials have been used throughout the 20th century, including
impermeable underlays with bituminous surfaces, vapour-control layers, geotextiles
and fleeces, all of which were designed to deal with particular conditions.

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 462 MECHANICAL DAMAGE
PRACTICAL BUILDING CONSERVATION

Wind damage is a major cause of failure. Strong winds can produce highly variable air
pressure across a roof. Where turbulence creates negative pressure above part of a copper
roof, the internal pressure may force a copper sheet off the roof. This exposes adjacent
sheets to the wind which may lift them from beneath, so once one sheet is removed,
adjacent sheets frequently follow. Wind can also initiate vibration of the copper on the
substrate, which causes a loud drumming noise within the building.

Copper can also suffer damage as a result of flexing due to wind loading or thermal
movement. When copper sheet is deformed it undergoes changes to its crystal structure,
known as ‘work hardening’. Repeated movement makes it very brittle and can
eventually lead to cracking. ‘Star cracking’ is a characteristic failing in copper sheet,
caused by repeated flexing of a sheet due to wind or thermal movement, and is normally
confined to localised areas, usually the verge, ridge or eaves. Failure to repair star cracks
results in their enlargement, and the risk of water ingress into the roof and wind
damage. Long sheets of copper may buckle due to thermal movement if they are too
long, and this can also eventually lead to cracking.

Work hardening of copper also occurs due to folding the sheet to form seams and joints.
Work-hardened joints are more susceptible to cracking due to thermal or wind
movement, especially as the copper ages. Cracking of welts and seams due to age
hardening, especially when three or more sheets are folded together, is also a major
cause of failure. Annealing (heating) copper relieves this inherent stress, and is usually
required to avoid cracking when seams or joints are opened up.

Copper roofs are also susceptible to mechanical damage caused by tools or scaffolding being
dropped on them, or by people walking across them and squashing the standing seams.

WIND LIFT OF PANELS WITH

NO CROSS CLIPS

Wind damage to standing-seam

copper panels
Wind lift can cause drumming of
the sheet on the substrate, and can
create stress in the copper that may
lead to the formation of cracks.

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 463
STAR CRACKS IN A COPPER BAY

DEVELOPMENT OF CRACKS
IN STANDING SEAMS

crack

Top: Wind loading or thermal stress can cause a rectangular copper sheet, which is securely fixed at the edge
to flex along the lines of folds which tend to be diagonal. Where the lines cross, additional stresses result in
the star crack.
Bottom: Cracks in a standing seam. Where a number of copper sheets have been folded over to form a seam,
the area is subject to work hardening. The sheets are restrained by copper clips fixed to the decking and may
not have room to expand laterally when subject to solar heating. This can create stress in the joint, eventually
resulting in cracking. It is fairly normal to find this sort of problem on roofs over about 70 years old.

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 484 FIXINGS
PRACTICAL BUILDING CONSERVATION

For fixing copper sheet direct to the substrate, the traditional method of copper nails is
still recommended. Stainless-steel nails and brass screws are also used today, as neither suffers
from galvanic corrosion with the copper sheet. Stainless-steel clips are also used between
copper roofing details and the substrate to enable expansion and contraction to freely occur.

DETAILING
On most historic buildings, traditional sheet sizes, joints and detailing should be
replicated. Unless there was an inherent fault in the design that contributed to deterioration,
traditional copper roofing should not be replaced with the long-strip system.
Left: Traditionally, copper sheet was
dressed by hand to form the seams,
but nowadays the edges of the
sheets are often pre-formed in the
workshop using a profiling machine.
However, for complicated shapes
the seams must be hand-formed
on site.
Right: For traditional copper roofing,
the seams must be finished by
hand, as, in most cases, they need
to accommodate the cross welts.
For long-strip copper roofing, which
does not have cross welts, an on-site
seaming machine can complete
the joint.

Standards & Advice

MODERN COPPER ROOFS

Modern strip and sheet has a copper content of 99.9 %, but in past centuries it may have been much less pure. The oxygen-
free C106 modern roofing metal gives typical lifetimes of 80 to 120 years. For traditional roofs, the softer (quarter-hard) fully
annealed C104-106 (with a hardness of 45-60 VPN) is used, and for modern long-strip roofs a harder (half-hard) C101 or
C102 grade (with a hardness of 95 to 105 VPN) is used. It is difficult to form quarter-hard copper in a machine. Copper for
roofing is governed by BS EN 1172:2011. Copper and copper alloys. Sheet and strip for building purposes.

FITTINGS & FIXINGS

Existing copper clips and continuous fixing strips should not be re-used as they will have been subject to age-hardening.
Replacement fittings should be made to the sizes recommended by the British Standard, and all nails and screws should also
be new and to the approved type. Fittings and fixings are governed by CP 143-12:1970 Code of practice for sheet roof and
wall coverings. Copper.

ROOFING 6 SEP 2013.indd 484 12/09/2013 14:29

 485
TRADITIONAL JOINT SYSTEMS FOR COPPER

12 mm
JOINTS ACROSS FALL
Single-lock
cross welt

COMMON ROLL

15 mm

Double-lock
cross welt

44 mm

38 mm

STANDING SEAM
25 mm
(approx)
CONICAL ROLL WITH A
SADDLE PIECE AT DRIP

38 mm

65 mm

50 mm

felt
underlay dog ear under
saddle piece

sheet folded
to fit into the
corner
44 mm

ROOFING
ROOF COVERINGS: COPPER

ROOFING 6 SEP 2013.indd 485 12/09/2013 14:29

 542
ASSESSMENT

PRACTICAL BUILDING CONSERVATION

Before beginning any treatment or repair, it is important to inspect and evaluate the current condition of the corrugated
cover and the supporting structure, and to assess how effectively the roof has performed to date. Particular attention
needs to be given to individual components, especially those in vulnerable areas such as connections, bolts, rivets and so
on. There are some useful extra steps that should be followed to look for corrosion.

Since good records of corrugated-iron and steel roofs are comparatively rare, it is very useful to identify all the
components and their condition, and the sequence of the original assembly.

MATERIAL IDENTIFICATION
As previously described, the generic term ‘corrugated iron’ includes both wrought iron and mild (carbon) steel, together
with many different types of metallic or polymer-coated steel roofs. If identification is needed, then sampling should take
place in an area where it will not damage the function of the roof; for example, in the undercloak of a corrugation or in
an area of already damaged sheet. Samples should then be sent to an appropriate laboratory (a metals laboratory for the
substrate or a polymer laboratory for the coating). The nature of the coating will also be extremely important.

WHAT TO LOOK FOR WHEN INSPEC TING IRON & STEEL ROOFS

DE SCR IP TION & C AUSE LIK ELY OU TCOME

DISCOLOURATION OF COATING Coating will eventually fail, allowing

Exposure to ultraviolet light and/or corrosion to start
poor-quality coating

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 WHAT TO LOOK FOR WHEN INSPEC TING IRON & STEEL ROOFS
543

DE SCR IP TION & C AUSE LIK ELY OU TCOME

RED COLOURATION ON SHEET Need to clean up and repair coating or

SURFACES replace sheets, depending
Deterioration of polymer or zinc upon availability
coating, and corrosion of
ferrous substrate

HOLES PENETRATING THE If damage is localised, patch repair

SHEETS may be possible
Widespread corrosion due to total If damage is more extensive,
failure of the coating replacement of sheets may be the
only option

ROOFING

ROOF COVERINGS: IRON & STEEL

ROOFING 6 SEP 2013.indd 543 12/09/2013 21:27

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