Academic writing refers to a style of expression that researchers use to
define the intellectual boundaries of their disciplines and their specific areas
of expertise. Characteristics of academic writing include a formal tone, use
of the third-person rather than first-person perspective (usually), a clear
focus on the research problem under investigation, and precise word choice.
Like specialist languages adopted in other professions, such as, law or
medicine, academic writing is designed to convey agreed meaning about
complex ideas or concepts for a group of scholarly experts.
Importance of Good Academic Writing
Although the accepted form of academic writing in the social sciences can
vary considerable depending on the methodological framework and the
intended audience. However, most college-level research papers require
careful attention to the following stylistic elements:
The Big Picture
Unlike fiction or journalistic writing, the overall structure of academic writing
is formal and logical. It must be cohesive and possess a logically organized
flow of ideas; this means that the various parts are connected to form a
unified whole. There should be narrative links between sentences and
paragraphs so the reader is able to follow your argument and all sources are
properly cited. The introduction should include a description of how the rest
of the paper is organized.
The Tone
The overall tone refers to the attitude conveyed in a piece of writing.
Throughout your paper, it is important that you present the arguments of
others fairly and with an appropriate narrative tone. When presenting a
position or argument that you disagree with, describe this argument
accurately and without loaded or biased language. In academic writing, the
author is expected to investigate the research problem from an authoritative
point of view. You should, therefore, state the strengths of your arguments
confidently, using language that is neutral, not confrontational or dismissive.
Diction
Diction refers to the choice of words you use. Awareness of the words you
use is important because words that have almost the same denotation
[dictionary definition] can have very different connotations [implied
meanings]. This is particularly true in academic writing because words and
terminology can evolve a nuanced meaning that describes a particular idea,
concept, or phenomenon derived from the epistemological culture of that
discipline. Therefore, use concrete words [not general] that convey a specific
meaning. If this cannot be done without confusing the reader, then you need
to explain what you mean within the context of how that word is used within
a discipline.
The Language
The investigation of research problems in the social sciences is often
complex and multi-dimensional. Therefore, it is important that you use
unambiguous language. Well-structured paragraphs and clear topic
sentences enable a reader to follow your line of thinking without difficulty.
Your language should be concise, formal, and express precisely what you
want it to mean. Avoid vague expressions that are not specific or precise
enough for the reader to derive exact meaning ["they," "we," "people," "the
organization," etc.], abbreviations like 'i.e.' ["in other words"] or 'e.g.' ["for
example"], and the use of unspecific determinate words ["super "very"
"incredible"].
Punctuation
Scholars rely on precise words and language to establish the narrative tone
of their work and, therefore, punctuation marks are used very deliberately.
For example, exclamation points are rarely used to express a heightened tone
because it can come across as unsophisticated or over-excited. Avoid using
dashes and hyphens because they give the impression of writing that is too
informal. Dashes should be limited to the insertion of an explanatory
comment in a sentence while hyphens should be limited to connecting
prefixes to words [e.g., multi-disciplinary] or when forming compound
phrases [e.g., commander-in-chief]. Finally, understand that semi-colons
represent a pause that is longer than a comma, but shorter than a period in a
sentence. In general, there are four grammatical uses of semi-colons: when a
second clause expands or explains the first clause; to describe a sequence
of actions or different aspects of the same topic; placed before clauses
which begin with "nevertheless", "therefore", "even so," and "for instance”;
and, to mark off a series of phrases or clauses which contain commas. If you
are not confident about when to use semi-colons [and most of the time, they
are not required for proper punctuation], rewrite using shorter sentences or
revise the paragraph.
Academic Conventions
Citing sources in the body of your paper and providing a list of references as
either footnotes or endnotes is a very important aspect of academic writing.
It is essential to always acknowledge the source of any ideas, research
findings, data, or quoted text that you have used in your paper as a defense
against allegations of plagiarism. The scholarly convention of citing sources
is also important because it allows the reader to identify the sources you
used and to independently verify your findings and conclusions. Examples of
other academic conventions to follow include the appropriate use of
headings and subheadings, properly identifying acronyms, avoiding slang or
colloquial language, avoiding emotive language, avoiding contractions, and
using first person and second person pronouns only when necessary.
Evidence-Based Arguments
Assignments often ask you to express your own point of view about the
research problem. However, what is valued in academic writing is that
opinions are based on a sound understanding of the pertinent body of
knowledge and academic debates that exist within, and often external to,
your discipline. You need to support your opinion with evidence from
scholarly sources. It should be an objective stance presented as a logical
argument. The quality of your evidence will determine the strength of your
argument. The challenge is to convince the reader of the validity of your
opinion through a well-documented, coherent, and logically structured piece
of writing. This is particularly important when proposing solutions to
problems or recommended courses of action.
Thesis-Driven
Academic writing is “thesis-driven,” meaning that the starting point is a
particular perspective, idea, or position applied to the chosen research
problem, such as, establishing, proving, or disproving solutions to the
questions posed for the topic; Note that a problem statement without the
research questions does not qualify as academic writing because simply
identifying the research problem does not establish for the reader how you
will contribute to solving the problem, what aspects you believe are most
critical, or suggest a method for gathering data to better understand the
problem.
Complexity and Higher-Order Thinking
Academic writing addresses complex issues that require high-order thinking
skills to comprehend [e.g., critical, reflective, logical, and creative thinking].
Think of your writing this way: One of the most important attributes of a good
teacher is the ability to explain complex ideas in a way that is
understandable and relatable to the topic being presented. This is also one of
the main functions of academic writing--describing and explaining the
significance of complex ideas as clearly as possible. Often referred to as
higher-order thinking skills, these include cognitive processes that are used
to comprehend, solve problems, and express concepts or that describe
abstract ideas that cannot be easily acted out, pointed to, or shown with
images. As a writer, you must take on the role of a good teacher by
summarizing a lot of complex information into a well-organized synthesis of
ideas, concepts, and recommendations that contribute to a better
understanding of the research problem.
Use a Consistent Tone and Style, and Make Sure Your Writing Is Mechanically Competent
Mar 21, 2011 by Caroline Eisner
This blog continues the discussion from the previous week by asking you to match the tone and style of
your discipline and field as you write for an advanced academic audience. One of the best ways to
understand the tone and style of your discipline is to read articles from a top journal in your discipline.
You might even ask your advisor to recommend articles to read that are well written and prove good
points. Again, this work needs to happen after you have finished the real and hard work of formulating
your ideas into a logical and meaningful argument.
The tone and style of academic writing might at first seem intimidating. Readers want their writers to
write clearly and intelligently on matters that they care about. What professors do not want is imitation
scholarship—that is, any kind of high language such as using the word, “heretofore,” or steeping your
writing in language that mimics the most difficult critics, such as Derrida, Lacan, or Spivak, all of whom
are known for extremely overt and complicated use of cultural, psychoanalytic, and critical theories.
Whereas their writing is very difficult to understand, the tone of an academic paper must be inviting to
your readers. Remember, you are writing to a person who wants you to make your points clearly,
concisely, and persuasively. Understand, too, that your readers are not impressed when you have inflated
your prose, pumped up your page count, or used terms that you don’t completely understand.
In short, then, good academic writing follows these rules of tone and style:
Keep the personal in check. Some writing tasks will invite you to make a personal response to a text. For
example, a professor might want you to describe your experience of a text, or to talk about personal
experiences that are relevant to the topic at hand. But if you haven’t been invited to make a personal
response, then do not digress to write about how you feel.
Watch your personal pronouns. Writers often wonder if it is okay to write in the first person, using “I” and
“you.” Different disciplines have different rules. Some allow the first person in the first chapter only,
maybe in the conclusion, but many do not allow it at all. This is likely because first person point of view,
“I,” may make the paper seem too subjective. Likewise, using the pronoun, “you,” directs your writing to
a specific reader and invites the reader to read subjectively. Your task is to produce an objective analysis
and proof of your argument’s worth. Remember, certain academic disciplines (the sciences, for example)
would frown on the use of these pronouns. When in doubt, ask your lead reader.
Consider your use of gendered pronouns. When you write, you’ll want to make sure that you don’t do
anything to make your readers feel excluded. If you use “he” and “him” all the time, you are excluding
women as readers, or writing in a less contemporary style, but generally, and again I recommend asking
your most important reader whether to use “he, him, his” or “he/she, him/her, his/hers” or to avoid this set
of pronouns as much as possible. Some writers advocate always using “she” instead of “he” as a way to
acknowledge a long-standing exclusion of women from texts. Whatever decision you make in the end, be
sensitive to its effect on your readers. I recommend asking for guidance.
Be aware of discipline-specific differences. Each academic discipline has its own conventions with tone
and style. If you need more information about discipline-specific matters, check out a style manual, such
as the MLA or APA style sheets, and check out the disciplinary guidelines for what style you should use.
Avoid mechanical errors. No matter who your audience is, you must do your absolute best to write an
error-free text. Errors in grammar and style slow your reader down and at the worst, may cause your
reader to turn your paper back to you unread. Some errors obscure the meaning. Always proofread your
text before passing it on to your readers.
The following tips will help you in the final stages of your project, before you hand it off to be
assessed:
Does the format follow the rules as outlined?
Does your paper look as if it has been carefully prepared?
Are the paragraphs clear?
Is the line spacing appropriate?
Do subjects and verbs agree?
Have the appropriate verb tenses been used?
Check for misspelled words, even if you have spell checked your work through a spell check. Print out
your final copy. Read your paper in its entirety out loud to yourself, with a pen in hand, and I bet that you
will find errors that your computer did not.
Take the time to make sure all your references are correctly formatted according to the correct style
manual of your field, college, or university. This includes your footnotes or endnotes, as well as your
Works Cited or Bibliography pages.
The advice here is crucial because some readers will get stuck on mechanical and grammatical errors and
remember only those when they read, considering your work too sloppy or disorganized, and they will not
pay attention to your good ideas. Remember, you don’t want anything to get in the way of holding your
readers’ hand as they read, and a misplaced adjective or dangling participle, or a period where there
should be a comma, may cause your reader to become exasperated and stop reading. But polish at the end,
not as you put your great ideas to work. Don’t let anything stop you from transferring your great ideas
onto the page or computer screen.
Many factors are involved in creating a piece of academic
writing. The degree to which academic words, academic
structures and academic conventions are used will
strongly influence the academic tone achieved in a text.
Academic writing is often described as dense, complex
and abstract writing. The use of academic words, such
as formal, technical and impersonal language as well as
the use of academic structures such
as nominalisation, extended nominal groups and
the passive voice help to create this style of writing.
Academic writing is used to express arguments and
opinions. Academic conventions govern how this
achieved: opinion is presented in an objective and
impersonal style and must be supported by reputable
evidence that is integrated expertly into the structure of
your overall argument. Moreover, this supporting
evidence must be properly referenced.
It is important to realise that it is the interplay between
the words, structures and conventions of academic
writing, rather than the use of any one element, that will
allow you to develop an effective piece of academic
writing.
Part II: Conventions in academic writing
1. Style conventions: numbers and dates; capitals; print enhancements; abbreviations; typing and
spelling 2. Tone conventions: formal, jargon and cliché-free, impersonal writing 3. Forming
arguments: how to turn your information into a well-written essay or report
1. Style conventions
1.1 Numbers and dates
Numbers below one hundred are usually written in full:
Ten students came to the lecture.
Numbers above one hundred may be presented by digits:
There are 400 databases available.
Dates are usually given in the conventional combinations of numbered day, named month and
numbered year. Punctuation is not required:
The service was set up on 11 April 2012.
References to centuries are spelt out, without capitals:
During the twentieth century many communication technologies were developed.
Decades may be referred to by name or number. The numbered form is not followed by an
apostrophe:
In the 1990s the term "Internet" became a media buzz word.
1.2 Capitals
Capital letters are used for:
proper nouns: Hazel Hall, Professor, Edinburgh Napier University.
names of civic holidays: Christmas Day
geographical names: Central Belt
public thoroughfares: Princes Street
important events: Graduation Day
trade names: Windows, Java
journal titles: International Journal of Information Management
the first letter (only) of book titles: Navigating business information sources: a practical guide for
information managers
1.3 Print enhancements
Print enhancements should be used sparingly. If you over-use them in an essay your work can end up
looking like a ransom note. Bear in mind that you should follow the conventions of the referencing
system that you are using if you quote book or journal titles in your work. For example, APA
referencing requires you to denote book and journal titles by using italics.
1.4 Abbreviations
Abbreviations are not used in formal English. They give the impression of a style that is chatty and
too informal. So, for instance, when you want to introduce an example into your work you should
use, in full, the phrase "for example".
When you are taking notes in class you may like to use the abbreviation for "for example". The
abbreviation is for the Latin term "exempli gratia" and is written as "e.g."
Do not confuse "e.g." with "i.e."
"i.e." is an abbreviation for the Latin phrase "id est" and means "that is to say" or "in other words".
1.5 Typing and spelling
Even if you are good at spelling you can make typing errors. All work for submission should be spell
checked before it is printed out. (Make sure that the spell checker you use is set to UK English.) All
print-outs should then be proof read. If there are still mistakes in your work you should correct, spell
check and proof read again until you are satisfied that all mistakes are eradicated. Don't be lazy about
proof-reading. Your lecturers expect you to hand in your best work. If you hand in work that is below
the standard of what you could achieve with more care and attention, you are doing yourself a big
disfavour. This may be perpetuated when lecturers are asked to comment on your progress in formal
situations, for example when writing references.
There are some words that students regularly misspell. It is worth learning the spelling of these,
bearing in mind the hints on how to remember the correct spelling:
• accommodation (think - plenty of room for 2 x C and 2 x M)
• apparent (think - parent)
• definite (think - infinity)
• liaise (think - 2 x i, liaising with one another)
• necessary (think - it's necessary to wear 1 collar, 2 socks)
• occasionally (think - it would be rare to wear 2 collars, 1 sock)
2. Tone conventions
2.1 Write formally
A report or essay is a formal piece of work. The tone of your work should be formal, and not chatty.
For example, rather than beginning sentences with the work "Also" or “Besides”, which gives the
impression that what you are about to write is an after-thought, use an alternative such as "In
addition". Similarly the word "However" is more appropriate to start a sentence in a formal piece of
work than the word "But".
The use of brackets should be kept to a minimum. They are used to indicate a supplementary remark,
an authorial aside, or a qualification of some sort. Use them too frequently and you end up with a
choppy effect.
Square brackets are used to indicate additions or changes that the author has made to the text. For
example, if you want to illustrate a point with a quotation it may be necessary to add a couple of
words by way of explanation:
The new legislation means that they [software companies] may be liable for mistakes.
2.2 Avoid clichés
A cliché is an expression that has been so overused that it has lost its force of meaning. Phrases such
as "at the touch of a button" and "at their fingertips" should not appear in your work. (To use a cliché,
they should be "avoided like the plague"!) If you feel tempted to write with a cliché, you are
probably about to state the obvious, which is not worthwhile given the word limits on your work.
2.3 Avoid "journalese"
Make sure that you have not written work in an exaggerated or sensational style: you are not a
journalist! Your work should read as a measured set of rational arguments. If you say anything bold,
this should be backed up with a reference from the literature you have consulted in preparing your
work, or by an example that proves your point.
2.4 Avoid jargon
Use the jargon of your subject area with precision, accuracy and constraint. Take special care with
terms that have specialised meanings in your subject area. For example the terms "tacit" and
"explicit" have specific meanings in the context of knowledge management.
2.5 The impersonal writer
It is rare that you would be expected to write in the first person singular (using the word "I") when
preparing essays and reports in the subject area of Computing. Some people get round this by using
the third person singular, but this can be very clumsy. You should aim to write impersonally. The idea
is that you remove any personal bias from the argument when you write impersonally. Check the
three sentences below to see how this is achieved:
1. I conducted a survey on the use of social media in schools. [First person singular]
2. The author conducted a survey on the use of social media in schools. [Third person singular]
3. A survey was conducted on the use of social media in schools. [Impersonal writing]
Note that some grammar checkers will question the use of the passive voice (i.e. how the verb is used
in the last example given in the list above). It is argued that the use of the passive makes the text
"heavy". This can be the case, and in many cases it is appropriate to use the "active" voice, for
example in writing out an instruction leaflet or creating an exciting narrative in a work of fiction.
However, in academic work the use of the passive voice is wholly appropriate when the goal is to
present a set of arguments in an unbiased way. It also permits the construction of short, neat
sentences. Consider the examples below:
1. The researchers administered the questionnaires over a period of three days. [Active voice]
2. It took three days to administer the questionnaires. [Passive voice]
3. Forming arguments
3.1 Sensible use of paragraphs
Assignment specifications give you few words to write up your essay or report. You must make the
most of them. As you structure your work ensure that each section offers a different (yet related
within the context of the assignment specification) perspective of the issue under discussion, and that
you present a logical development of a clear line of thought.
A paragraph deals with just one topic or major point of an argument relevant to the essay or report.
That topic or argument should normally be announced in the opening sentence. This is sometimes
called the topic sentence. The sentences which immediately follow the topic sentence should expand
and develop the statement, explaining its significance to the question in general. This opening
statement and amplification should then be followed by evidence to support the argument being
made. You should provide illustrative examples which are discussed as an explanation of the central
idea. Alternatively you can quote a source that supports your argument. The last sentence of a
paragraph should round off the consideration of the topic in some way. It may also contain some
statement which links it to the one which follows.
Paragraphs should normally be between 50 words minimum and 200 words maximum in length.
However, they might be longer if you were explaining a topic in considerable detail in an extended
essay. Paragraphs should be long enough to develop a point, not just state it.
Consecutive paragraphs may be linked with terms such as "However" so as to provide a sense of
continuity in your argument. However, if you are in any doubt, let them stand separately and speak
for themselves.
.
The recommended organisation of a typical paragraph is:
1. opening topic sentence, i.e. main point given
2. explanation of topic sentence
3. supporting sentences that explain its significance
4. discussion of examples or evidence (citing authorities; drawing on empirical evidence, i.e. research
carried out by others or, in the case of a dissertation, you; drawing on your own experience, for
example from placement)
5. concluding sentence
Sometimes, even though you have a set of arguments crafted into good paragraphs, it is difficult to
work out how to order them in the written up version of the report or essay. It is possible to play
around with the structure by:
1. writing the main point of each paragraph on to separate pieces of card
2. experimenting with ordering the cards so that eventually associated cards end up next to each other
in a logical sequence
3. writing on a separate sheet of paper the order of topics
4. numbering the topics on the sheet of paper to show a hierarchy which reflects the logic of the new
order of paragraphs
You now have the order of the components of your assignment. You then have to consider how to
link from one paragraph to the next in the text so that there is adequate signposting and guidance for
the reader. You can check that the links work by:
1. underlining linking words and phrases
2. asking someone else to read through your work and asking that person to explain how the
paragraphs relate to one another
A well-structured assignment typically has the following format:
It begins with an introduction which provides the reader with the indication of the direction the
report or essay will take before conclusions can be drawn
Paragraph 1 that makes claims relevant to the question set and central to the overall argument of
the work, presents evidence to back up claims made and ends with a linking statement to paragraph 2
Paragraph 2, that makes claims relevant to the question set and central to the overall argument of
the work, presents evidence to back up claims made and ends with a linking statement to paragraph 3
Paragraph 3, that makes claims relevant to the question set and central to the overall argument of
the work, presents evidence to back up claims made and ends with a linking statement to paragraph 4
and so on until all the main points are made
It ends with a conclusion which relates back to the introduction where what the report set out to do
was been noted. It concludes on the evidence presented in the main text of the report itself. It adds
value to the work presented by making sense of the report's/essay's main points, showing the
implications of the arguments made. No new material appears in a conclusion. It is a genuine
conclusion and not a simple summary of the rest of the work.
Throughout the work the sequence of the argument is well sign-posted. This is achieved through
sensible use of language (for example, "As the next example shows...", "It can therefore be
concluded that..."), conciseness, reminders to the reader, as appropriate, of what the main arguments
are, how this is amplified through the work and where they are heading. If your work requires you to
use the report format you can sign-post your work through the use of clear headings with section
numbering. It is much easier to do this if you compose your work at a keyboard, rather than hand-
write your work and then type it up. It is also useful to be able to print work out regularly to get an
overview of how the work is developing.
3.2 Repetition and waffle
Repetition (or waffle) will not win marks. If you are tempted to use a phrase such as "As already
mentioned", "As explained above" or (the dreadful) "aforementioned", check that you are only
providing a link back to earlier arguments, rather than simply repeating them. If you are using
repetition and waffle as a strategy to make your essay or report meet the recommended word length,
you need to think carefully about how well you have prepared to write up your assignment. It is
likely that you have not gathered enough information or read adequately for the assignment if this is
the case.
3.3 Answer and analyse
No matter how well presented your work is, to pass your assignments you must answer the questions
set. The work that you present should be relevant to the discussion.
There is always some description in essays or reports for assignments, but it is the degree of analysis
of what is described that is valued by those marking the work. This might be described as the "So
what?" factor of your work. You will be rewarded for linking ideas together to draw conclusions, or
discussing the implications of what you have described. You will be rewarded for questioning the
material that you have researched for preparing your assignment. You will not be rewarded for
simply listing everything that you have discovered on a topic. As you progress through
undergraduate studies the degree of analytical ability assumes greater importance.
A Short Guide to Academic Writing Style
1) Avoid colloquial language. Unless a writing assignment explicitly states that a conversational
tone is appropriate, write using more formal language.
Original: It was so noisy, I couldn’t hear myself think.
Revised: The noise made concentrating difficult.
Original: Group work can be problematic because a chain is only as strong as its weakest link.
Revised: Group work can be problematic when not everyone contributes equally, causing the
project’s quality to suffer.
Original: I worked hard on the assignment because I didn’t want to screw up.
Revised: I worked diligently on the assignment because I wanted to succeed.
2) Omit contractions. Spell the words out completely (for example, do not versus don’t).
3) Use passive voice judiciously. Writing in the active voice almost always improves the clarity
of writing.
4) Minimize the use of split infinitives because many writers think splitting infinitives violates
a rule of grammar. Although we may more commonly say “to quickly run,” the preferred use in
academic writing is to write “to run quickly.” Split infinitives are actually grammatically correct,
but the general academic convention is to avoid them.
5) Use the first person effectively. If you choose to use the first person, carefully consider when
and how you can use it to strengthen your writing.
6) Do not end sentences with prepositions. Like the use of split infinitives, there is no historical
or grammatical reason to avoid ending a sentence with a preposition. Nevertheless, many
professors and publishers avoid doing so because of a pervasive belief that ending sentences with
prepositions is incorrect.
7) Provide page numbers so your readers can easily navigate through your paper, should they
desire.
Numbering pages also enables a grader to determine quickly whether the paper is the proper
length if the assignment contained a page requirement.
8) Provide your essay with a title that gives the reader a clear idea of your paper’s topic.
9) Use the citation style your professor prefers if your paper requires citations.
10) Proofread carefully, paying careful attention to common mistakes, such as using correct
homonyms (led vs. lead) and apostrophes for possessives (it’s vs. its).
11) Incorporate time for revision because revising is a key part of the writing process.
12) Read your paper aloud. This strategy will help you catch awkward phrases and even
missing or extra words.
Many first-year students face challenges adjusting to the academic writing that university
professors expect. Writing assignments are often unfamiliar, both longer and more complicated
than high school projects. Standards at the university level are also quite different than in high
school. Adhering to these recommendations will help avoid distractions for your readers. Rather
than wondering, for example, what page number they are reading or being confused because of
an excessive amount of passive voice, your readers will be able to focus on the paper’s content.
